DOCSLIB.ORG

The Structure of Quarks and Leptons

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Structure of Quarks and Leptons The Structure of Quarks and Leptons They have been , considered the elementary particles ofmatter, but instead they may consist of still smaller entities confjned within a volume less than a thousandth the size of a proton by Haim Harari n the past 100 years the search for the the quark model that brought relief. In imagination: they suggest a way of I ultimate constituents of matter has the initial formulation of the model all building a complex world out of a few penetrated four layers of structure. hadrons could be explained as combina­ simple parts. All matter has been shown to consist of tions of just three kinds of quarks. atoms. The atom itself has been found Now it is the quarks and leptons Any theory of the elementary particles to have a dense nucleus surrounded by a themselves whose proliferation is begin­ fl. of matter must also take into ac­ cloud of electrons. The nucleus in turn ning to stir interest in the possibility of a count the forces that act between them has been broken down into its compo­ simpler-scheme. Whereas the original and the laws of nature that govern the nent protons and neutrons. More recent­ model had three quarks, there are now forces. Little would be gained in simpli­ ly it has become apparent that the pro­ thought to be at least 18, as well as six fying the spectrum of particles if the ton and the neutron are also composite leptons and a dozen other particles that number of forces and laws were thereby particles; they are made up of the small­ act as carriers of forces. Three dozen increased. As it happens, there has been er entities called quarks. What comes basic units of matter are too many for a subtle interplay between the list of par­ next? It is entirely possible that the pro­ the taste of some physicists, and there is ticles and the list of forces throughout gression of orbs within orbs has at last no assurance that more quarks and'lep­ the history of physics. reached an end and that quarks cannot tons will not be discovered. Postulating In about 1800 four forces were be more finely divided. The leptons, the a still deeper level of organization is per­ thought to be fundamental: gravitation, class of particles that includes the elec­ haps the most straightforward way to electricity, magnetism and the short­ tron, could also be elementary and indi­ reduce the roster. All the quarks and range force between molecules that is visible. Some physicists, however, are leptons would then be composite ob­ responsible for the cohesion of matter. not at all sure the innermost kernel of jects, just as atoms and hadrons are, and A series of remarkable experimental matter has been exposed. They have be­ would owe their variety to the number and theoretical discoveries then led to gun to wonder whether the quarks and of ways a few smaller constituents can the recognition that electricity and mag­ leptons too might .not have some inter­ be brought together. The currently ob­ netism are actually two manifestations nal composition. served diversity of nature would be not of the same basic force, which was soon The main impetus for considering still intrinsic but combinatorial. given the name electromagnetism. The another layer of structure is the convic­ It should be emphasized that as yet discovery of atomic structure brought tion (or perhaps prej udice) that there there is no evidence q uar ks and leptons a further revision. Although an atom is should be only a few fundamental build­ have an internal structure of any kind. ing blocks of matter. Economy of means In the case of the leptons, experiments ATOM has long been a guiding. principle of have probed to within 10-16 centimeter physics, and it has served well up to and found nothing to contradict the as­ /' now. The list of the basic constituents sumption that leptons are pointlike and /' / of matter first grew implausibly long structureless. As ·for the quarks, it has /' /' toward the end of the 19th century, not been possible to examine a quark in ,.. ,.. when the number of chemical elements, isolation, much less to discern any possi­ ,.. and hence the number of species of at­ ble internal features. Even as a strictly • oms, was approaching 100. The resolu­ theoretical conception, the subparticle NUCLEUS tion of atomic structure solved the prob­ idea has run into difficulty: no one has lem, and in about 1935 the number of been able to devise a consistent descrip­ " elementary particles stood at four: the tion of how the subparticles might move " proton, the' neutron, the electron and inside a quark or a lepton and how they x 10,000 the neutrino. This parsimonious view of might interact with one another. They the world was spoiled iruthe 1950's and _' would have, to_ be. almost unimaginably 1960's;, it turned out that tBe proton and small: if an atom were magnified to the the neutron are representatives ofa very size of the earth, its innermost constitu­ 10-8 CENTIMETER large family of particles, the family now ents could be no larger than a grapefruit. called hadrons. By the mid-1960's the Nevertheless, models of quark and lep­ HIERARCHY OF PARTICLES in the struc­ number of fundamental forms of matter ton substructure make a powerful ap­ ture of matter currently has four levels. All was again roughly 100. This time it was peal to the aesthetic sense and to the matter is made up of atoms; the atom con- 56 © 1983 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC electrically neutral overall, its constitu­ near, the colored quarks in one proton particles, and it is not understood in ents are charged, and the short-range "see" the color charges in the other pro­ terms of microscopic events. For the molecular force came to be understood ton. The short-range attractions and re­ other three forces successful theories as a complicated residual effect of elec­ pulsions that result have been identified have been developed and are now wide­ tromagnetic interactions of positive nu­ with the effects of the strong force. In ly accepted. The three theories are dis­ clei and negative electrons. When two other words, just as the short-range mo­ tinct, but they are consistent with one neutral atoms are far apart, there are lecular force became a residue of the another; taken together they constitute practically no electromagnetic forces long-range electromagnetic force, so the a comprehensive model of elementary between them. When they are near each short-range strong force has become a particles and their interactions, which I other, however, the charged constitu­ residue of the long-range color force. shall refer to as the standard model. ents of one atom are able to "see" and One more chapter can be added to this In the standard model the indivisible influence the inner charges of the other, abbreviated history of the forces of na­ constituents of matter are the quarks leading to various short-range attrac­ ture. A deep and beautiful connection and the leptons. It is convenient to dis­ tions and repulsions. has been found between electromagnet­ cuss the leptons first. There are six of As a result of these developments ism and the weak force, bringing them them: the electron and its companion physics was left with only two basic almost to the point of full unification. the electron-type neutrino, the muon forces. The unification of electricity and They are clearly related, but the connec­ and the muon-type neutrino and the magnetism had reduced the number by tion is not quite as close as it is in the tau and the tau-type neutrino. The elec­ one, and the molecular interaction had case of electricity and magnetism, and tron, the muon and the tau have an been demoted from the rank of a funda­ so they must still be counted as sepa­ electric charge of -1; the three neu­ mental force to that of a derivative one. rate forces. Therefore the current list trinos are electrically ne u tral. The two remaining fundamental for­ of fundamental forces still has four en­ There are also six basic kinds of ces, gravitation and electromagnetism, tries: the long-range gravitational, elec­ quark, which have been given the names were both long-range. The exploration tromagnetic and color forces and the up, down, charmed, strange, top and of nuclear structure, however, soon in­ short-range weak force. Within the lim­ bottom, or u, d, C, s, t and b. (The top trod uced two new short-range forces. its of present knowledge all natural quark has not yet been detected experi­ The strong force binds protons and neu­ phenomena can be understood through mentally, and neither has the tau-type trons together in the nucleus, and the these forces and their resid ual effects. neutrino, but few theorists doubt their weak force mediates certain transfor­ The evolution of ideas about particles existence.) The u, C and t quarks have an mations of one particle into another, as and that of ideas about forces are clearly electric charge of +2/3, the d, sand b in the beta decay of a radioactive nucle­ interdependent. As new basic particles quarks a charge of -1/3. In addition us. Thus there were again four forces. are found, old ones turn out to be com­ each quark type has three possible col­ The development of the quark model posite objects. As new forces are discov­ ors, which I shall designate red, yellow and the accompanying theory of quark ered, old ones are unified or red uced to and blue.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • B2.IV Nuclear and Particle Physics
    B2.IV Nuclear and Particle Physics A.J. Barr February 13, 2014 ii Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Nuclear 3 2.1 Structure of matter and energy scales . 3 2.2 Binding Energy . 4 2.2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula . 4 2.3 Decays and reactions . 8 2.3.1 Alpha Decays . 10 2.3.2 Beta decays . 13 2.4 Nuclear Scattering . 18 2.4.1 Cross sections . 18 2.4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula . 19 2.4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors . 22 2.5 Key points . 24 Appendices 25 2.A Natural units . 25 2.B Tools . 26 2.B.1 Decays and the Fermi Golden Rule . 26 2.B.2 Density of states . 26 2.B.3 Fermi G.R. example . 27 2.B.4 Lifetimes and decays . 27 2.B.5 The flux factor . 28 2.B.6 Luminosity . 28 2.C Shell Model § ............................. 29 2.D Gamma decays § ............................ 29 3 Hadrons 33 3.1 Introduction . 33 3.1.1 Pions . 33 3.1.2 Baryon number conservation . 34 3.1.3 Delta baryons . 35 3.2 Linear Accelerators . 36 iii CONTENTS CONTENTS 3.3 Symmetries . 36 3.3.1 Baryons . 37 3.3.2 Mesons . 37 3.3.3 Quark flow diagrams . 38 3.3.4 Strangeness . 39 3.3.5 Pseudoscalar octet . 40 3.3.6 Baryon octet . 40 3.4 Colour . 41 3.5 Heavier quarks . 43 3.6 Charmonium . 45 3.7 Hadron decays . 47 Appendices 48 3.A Isospin § ................................ 49 3.B Discovery of the Omega § ......................
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to the Quark Model
    An Introduction to the Quark Model Garth Huber Prairie Universities Physics Seminar Series, November, 2009. Particles in Atomic Physics • View of the particle world as of early 20th Century. • Particles found in atoms: –Electron – Nucleons: •Proton(nucleus of hydrogen) •Neutron(e.g. nucleus of helium – α-particle - has two protons and two neutrons) • Related particle mediating electromagnetic interactions between electrons and protons: Particle Electric charge Mass – Photon (light!) (x 1.6 10-19 C) (GeV=x 1.86 10-27 kg) e −1 0.0005 p +1 0.938 n 0 0.940 γ 0 0 Dr. Garth Huber, Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Regina, Regina, SK S4S0A2, Canada. 2 Early Evidence for Nucleon Internal Structure • Apply the Correspondence Principle to the Classical relation for q magnetic moment: µ = L 2m • Obtain for a point-like spin-½ particle of mass mp: qqeq⎛⎞⎛⎞ µ == =µ ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ N 2222memepp⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ 2 Experimental values: µp=2.79 µN (p) µn= -1.91 µN (n) • Experimental values inconsistent with point-like assumption. • In particular, the neutron’s magnetic moment does not vanish, as expected for a point-like electrically neutral particle. This is unequivocal evidence that the neutron (and proton) has an internal structure involving a distribution of charges. Dr. Garth Huber, Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Regina, Regina, SK S4S0A2, Canada. 3 The Particle Zoo • Circa 1950, the first particle accelerators began to uncover many new particles. • Most of these particles are unstable and decay very quickly, and hence had not been seen in cosmic ray experiments. • Could all these particles be fundamental? Dr. Garth Huber, Dept.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Quark Model of Hadrons
    1 QUARK MODEL OF HADRONS 1 Quark model of hadrons 1.1 Symmetries and evidence for quarks 1 Hadrons as bound states of quarks – point-like spin- 2 objects, charged (‘coloured’) under the strong force. Baryons as qqq combinations. Mesons as qq¯ combinations. 1 Baryon number = 3 (N(q) − N(¯q)) and its conservation. You are not expected to know all of the names of the particles in the baryon and meson multiplets, but you are expected to know that such multiplets exist, and to be able to interpret them if presented with them. You should also know the quark contents of the simple light baryons and mesons (and their anti-particles): p = (uud) n = (udd) π0 = (mixture of uu¯ and dd¯) π+ = (ud¯) K0 = (ds¯) K+ = (us¯). and be able to work out others with some hints. P 1 + Lowest-lying baryons as L = 0 and J = 2 states of qqq. P 3 + Excited versions have L = 0 and J = 2 . Pauli exclusion and non existence of uuu, ddd, sss states in lowest lying multiplet. Lowest-lying mesons as qq¯0 states with L = 0 and J P = 0−. First excited levels (particles) with same quark content have L = 0 and J P = 1−. Ability to explain contents of these multiplets in terms of quarks. J/Ψ as a bound state of cc¯ Υ (upsilon) as a bound state of b¯b. Realization that these are hydrogenic-like states with suitable reduced mass (c.f. positronium), and subject to the strong force, so with energy levels paramaterized by αs rather than αEM Top is very heavy and decays before it can form hadrons, so no top hadrons exist.
    [Show full text]
  • New Physics of Strong Interaction and Dark Universe
    universe Review New Physics of Strong Interaction and Dark Universe Vitaly Beylin 1 , Maxim Khlopov 1,2,3,* , Vladimir Kuksa 1 and Nikolay Volchanskiy 1,4 1 Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University, Stachki 194, 344090 Rostov on Don, Russia; [email protected] (V.B.); [email protected] (V.K.); [email protected] (N.V.) 2 CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, Université de Paris, F-75013 Paris, France 3 National Research Nuclear University “MEPHI” (Moscow State Engineering Physics Institute), 31 Kashirskoe Chaussee, 115409 Moscow, Russia 4 Bogoliubov Laboratory of Theoretical Physics, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Joliot-Curie 6, 141980 Dubna, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.:+33-676380567 Received: 18 September 2020; Accepted: 21 October 2020; Published: 26 October 2020 Abstract: The history of dark universe physics can be traced from processes in the very early universe to the modern dominance of dark matter and energy. Here, we review the possible nontrivial role of strong interactions in cosmological effects of new physics. In the case of ordinary QCD interaction, the existence of new stable colored particles such as new stable quarks leads to new exotic forms of matter, some of which can be candidates for dark matter. New QCD-like strong interactions lead to new stable composite candidates bound by QCD-like confinement. We put special emphasis on the effects of interaction between new stable hadrons and ordinary matter, formation of anomalous forms of cosmic rays and exotic forms of matter, like stable fractionally charged particles. The possible correlation of these effects with high energy neutrino and cosmic ray signatures opens the way to study new physics of strong interactions by its indirect multi-messenger astrophysical probes.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 2 - Energy and Momentum
    Lecture 2 - Energy and Momentum E. Daw February 16, 2012 1 Energy In discussing energy in a relativistic course, we start by consid- ering the behaviour of energy in the three regimes we worked with last time. In the first regime, the particle velocity v is much less than c, or more precisely β < 0:3. In this regime, the rest energy ER that the particle has by virtue of its non{zero rest mass is much greater than the kinetic energy T which it has by virtue of its kinetic energy. The rest energy is given by Einstein's famous equation, 2 ER = m0c (1) So, here is an example. An electron has a rest mass of 0:511 MeV=c2. What is it's rest energy?. The important thing here is to realise that there is no need to insert a factor of (3×108)2 to convert from rest mass in MeV=c2 to rest energy in MeV. The units are such that 0.511 is already an energy in MeV, and to get to a mass you would need to divide by c2, so the rest mass is (0:511 MeV)=c2, and all that is left to do is remove the brackets. If you divide by 9 × 1016 the answer is indeed a mass, but the units are eV m−2s2, and I'm sure you will appreciate why these units are horrible. Enough said about that. Now, what about kinetic energy? In the non{relativistic regime β < 0:3, the kinetic energy is significantly smaller than the rest 1 energy.
    [Show full text]
  • Properties of Baryons in the Chiral Quark Model
    Properties of Baryons in the Chiral Quark Model Tommy Ohlsson Teknologie licentiatavhandling Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan¨ Stockholm 1997 Properties of Baryons in the Chiral Quark Model Tommy Ohlsson Licentiate Dissertation Theoretical Physics Department of Physics Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden 1997 Typeset in LATEX Akademisk avhandling f¨or teknologie licentiatexamen (TeknL) inom ¨amnesomr˚adet teoretisk fysik. Scientific thesis for the degree of Licentiate of Engineering (Lic Eng) in the subject area of Theoretical Physics. TRITA-FYS-8026 ISSN 0280-316X ISRN KTH/FYS/TEO/R--97/9--SE ISBN 91-7170-211-3 c Tommy Ohlsson 1997 Printed in Sweden by KTH H¨ogskoletryckeriet, Stockholm 1997 Properties of Baryons in the Chiral Quark Model Tommy Ohlsson Teoretisk fysik, Institutionen f¨or fysik, Kungliga Tekniska H¨ogskolan SE-100 44 Stockholm SWEDEN E-mail: [email protected] Abstract In this thesis, several properties of baryons are studied using the chiral quark model. The chiral quark model is a theory which can be used to describe low energy phenomena of baryons. In Paper 1, the chiral quark model is studied using wave functions with configuration mixing. This study is motivated by the fact that the chiral quark model cannot otherwise break the Coleman–Glashow sum-rule for the magnetic moments of the octet baryons, which is experimentally broken by about ten standard deviations. Configuration mixing with quark-diquark components is also able to reproduce the octet baryon magnetic moments very accurately. In Paper 2, the chiral quark model is used to calculate the decuplet baryon ++ magnetic moments. The values for the magnetic moments of the ∆ and Ω− are in good agreement with the experimental results.
    [Show full text]
  • The Standard Model and Beyond Maxim Perelstein, LEPP/Cornell U
    The Standard Model and Beyond Maxim Perelstein, LEPP/Cornell U. NYSS APS/AAPT Conference, April 19, 2008 The basic question of particle physics: What is the world made of? What is the smallest indivisible building block of matter? Is there such a thing? In the 20th century, we made tremendous progress in observing smaller and smaller objects Today’s accelerators allow us to study matter on length scales as short as 10^(-18) m The world’s largest particle accelerator/collider: the Tevatron (located at Fermilab in suburban Chicago) 4 miles long, accelerates protons and antiprotons to 99.9999% of speed of light and collides them head-on, 2 The CDF million collisions/sec. detector The control room Particle Collider is a Giant Microscope! • Optics: diffraction limit, ∆min ≈ λ • Quantum mechanics: particles waves, λ ≈ h¯/p • Higher energies shorter distances: ∆ ∼ 10−13 cm M c2 ∼ 1 GeV • Nucleus: proton mass p • Colliders today: E ∼ 100 GeV ∆ ∼ 10−16 cm • Colliders in near future: E ∼ 1000 GeV ∼ 1 TeV ∆ ∼ 10−17 cm Particle Colliders Can Create New Particles! • All naturally occuring matter consists of particles of just a few types: protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, neutrinos • Most other known particles are highly unstable (lifetimes << 1 sec) do not occur naturally In Special Relativity, energy and momentum are conserved, • 2 but mass is not: energy-mass transfer is possible! E = mc • So, a collision of 2 protons moving relativistically can result in production of particles that are much heavier than the protons, “made out of” their kinetic
    [Show full text]
  • 3/2/15 -3/4/15 Week, Ken Intriligator's Phys 4D Lecture Outline • the Principle of Special Relativity Is That All of Physics
    3/2/15 -3/4/15 week, Ken Intriligator’s Phys 4D Lecture outline The principle of special relativity is that all of physics must transform between • different inertial frames such that all are equally valid. No experiment can tell Alice or Bob which one is moving, as long as both are in inertial frames (so vrel = constant). As we discussed, if aµ = (a0,~a) and bµ = (b0,~b) are any 4-vectors, they transform • with the usual Lorentz transformation between the lab and rocket frames, and a b · ≡ a0b0 ~a ~b is a Lorentz invariant quantity, called a 4-scalar. We’ve so far met two examples − · of 4-vectors: xµ (or dxµ) and kµ. Some other examples of 4-scalars, besides ∆s2: mass m, electric charge q. All inertial • observers can agree on the values of these quantities. Also proper time, dτ ds2/c2. ≡ Next example: 4-velocity uµ = dxµ/dτ = (γ, γ~v). Note d = γ d . Thep addition of • dτ dt velocities formula becomes the usual Lorentz transformation for 4-velocity. In a particle’s own rest frame, uµ = (1,~0). Note that u u = 1, in any frame of reference. uµ can · be physically interpreted as the unit tangent vector to a particle’s world-line. All ~v’s in physics should be replaced with uµ. In particular, ~p = m~v should be replaced with pµ = muµ. Argue pµ = (E/c, ~p) • from their relation to xµ. So E = γmc2 and ~p = γm~v. For non-relativistic case, E ≈ 2 1 2 mc + 2 m~v , so rest-mass energy and kinetic energy.
    [Show full text]
  • Supersymmetry in the Quark-Diquark and the Baryon-Meson Systems
    Acta Polytechnica Vol. 51 No. 1/2011 Supersymmetry in the Quark-Diquark and the Baryon-Meson Systems S. Catto, Y. Choun Abstract A superalgebra extracted from the Jordan algebra of the 27 and 27¯ dim. representations of the group E6 is shown to be relevant to the description of the quark-antidiquark system. A bilocal baryon-meson field is constructed from two quark-antiquark fields. In the local approximation the hadron field is shown to exhibit supersymmetry which is then extended to hadronic mother trajectories and inclusion of multiquark states. Solving the spin-free Hamiltonian with light quark masses we develop a new kind of special function theory generalizing all existing mathematical theories of confluent hypergeometric type. The solution produces extra “hidden” quantum numbers relevant for description of supersymmetry and for generating new mass formulas. Keywords: supersymmetry, relativistic quark model. A colored supersymmetry scheme based on SU(3)c × SU(6/1) Algebraic realization of supersymmetry and its experimental consequences based on supergroups of type SU(6/21) and color algebras based on split octonionic units ui (i =0,...,3) was considered in our earlier papers[1,2,3,4,5].Here,weaddtothemthelocalcolorgroupSU(3)c. We could go to a smaller supergroup having SU(6) as a subgroup. With the addition of color, such a supergroup is SU(3)c × SU(6/1). The fun- damental representation of SU(6/1) is 7-dimensional which decomposes into a sextet and a singlet under the spin-flavor group. There is also a 28-dimensional representation of SU(7). Under the SU(6) subgroup it has the decomposition 28 = 21 + 6 + 1 (1) Hence, this supermultiplet can accommodate the bosonic antidiquark and fermionic quark in it, provided we are willing to add another scalar.
    [Show full text]
  • Hadronic and Hadron-Like Physics of Dark Matter
    Hadronic and Hadron-Like Physics of Dark Matter Vitaly Beylin∗ Research Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University, Prospekt Stachki, 194, 344090 Rostov-na-Donu, Russia Maxim Yu. Khlopov† Research Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University, Prospekt Stachki, 194, 344090 Rostov-na-Donu, Russia APC Laboratory 10, rue Alice Domon et L´eonie Duquet, CEDEX 13, 75205 Paris, France and National Research Nuclear University “MEPHI” (Moscow State Engineering Physics Institute), 31 Kashirskoe Chaussee, Moscow 115409, Russia Vladimir Kuksa‡ Research Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University, Prospekt Stachki, 194, 344090 Rostov-na-Donu, Russia Nikolay Volchanskiy§ Research Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University, Prospekt Stachki, 194, 344090 Rostov-na-Donu, Russia and Bogoliubov Laboratory of Theoretical Physics, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Joliot-Curie 6, Dubna 141980, Russia The problems of simple elementary weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) appeal to ex- tend the physical basis for nonbaryonic dark matter. Such extension involves more sophisticated dark matter candidates from physics beyond the Standard Model (BSM) of elementary particles. We discuss several models of dark matter, predicting new colored, hyper-colored or techni-colored particles and their accelerator and non-accelerator probes. The nontrivial properties of the proposed dark matter candidates can shed new light on the dark matter physics. They provide interesting solutions for the puzzles of direct and indirect dark matter search. arXiv:1904.12013v1 [hep-ph] 26 Apr 2019 ∗ [email protected] † [email protected] ‡ [email protected] § [email protected] 2 I. INTRODUCTION The nature of dark matter is inevitably linked to beyond the Standard Model (BSM) physics of elementary particles.
    [Show full text]
  • INTELLIGENCE, the FOUNDATION of MATTER Albert Hoffmann
    INTELLIGENCE, THE FOUNDATION OF MATTER Albert Hoffmann To cite this version: Albert Hoffmann. INTELLIGENCE, THE FOUNDATION OF MATTER. 2020. halshs-02458460 HAL Id: halshs-02458460 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02458460 Submitted on 28 Jan 2020 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. INTELLIGENCE, THE FOUNDATION OF MATTER (by Albert Hoffmann – 2019) [01] All the ideas presented in this article are based on the writings of Jakob Lorber who between 1840 until his death in 1864 wrote 25 volumes under divine inspiration. This monumental work is referred to as the New Revelation (NR) and the books can be read for free online at the Internet Archive at https://archive.org/details/BeyondTheThreshold. It contains the most extraordinary deepest of wisdom ever brought to paper and touches on every conceivable subject of life. Internationally renowned statistician, economist and philosopher E.F. Schumacher who became famous for his best-seller “Small is Beautiful”, commented about the NR in his book “A Guide for the Perplexed” as follows: "They (the books of the NR) contain many strange things which are unacceptable to modern mentality, but at the same time contain such plethora of high wisdom and insight that it would be difficult to find anything more impressive in the whole of world literature." (1977).
    [Show full text]
  • The Quark Model for Leptons a Theoretical Basis for a Hadronic Structure of Leptons According to Quantum Chromodynamics Criteria
    DOI: 10.36178/inv.phys.1103020 “INVESTIGATIONS” in Physics The Quark Model for Leptons A Theoretical Basis for a Hadronic Structure of Leptons According to Quantum Chromodynamics Criteria Mauro Santosuosso∗ Study Center for the Physical Investigation of Reality, V.le F. Cecconi, 17 - 00015 Monterotondo (RM), Italy April 3, 2021 Abstract Unlike preon models, in which it is hypothesized that the existence of con- stituents is more elementary than those we already know, a substantially different model is proposed here: The proposed model does not foresee new particles, but instead, focuses on a rather unconventional combination of the well-known quarks inside leptons. The idea arises from the observation of some “vacancies” in the baryon octet: All the triplets of quarks of the same flavor with total angular mo- mentum J P = 1/2+ are denied by the Pauli exclusion principle. However, bypassing this prohibition because of the real possibility of introducing a form of “conditioned” symmetry, we arrive at a result – for down-type quark triplets only – in which two of the three quarks are strongly joined together in a di-quark, a two-color boson with an integer spin, which binds very closely to the third quark, together forming a charged colorless lepton. The neutral partners are given by the combination of the di-quark with the up-type quark, and with the related charged lepton, they form an isospin doublet. Thus, the di-quark boson becomes the carrier of the lepton number, which discriminates the three families. Studying the color forces according to the principles of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) shows how the quark – di-quark cou- pling is considerably higher than the quark – quark or quark – antiquark coupling, explaining why leptons today seem to be devoid of structure and unexpectedly justifying the smallness of their masses compared with those of the corresponding hadrons.
    [Show full text]