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LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE

A Field Guide to the Geomorphology and Paleoenvironmental Record of Southwestern Saskatchewan

Originally produced for: Canadian Association of Geographers 1996 Annual Meeting, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan1 date of this pdf publication: 1999

edited by Donald S. Lemmen Terrain Sciences Division, Geological Survey of Canada (Palliser Triangle Global Change Contribution No. 31)

Guidebook Contributors (* field stop leader):

I. A. Campbell– University of Alberta J. Cosford– University of Regina P. P. David– University de Montrèal *W. M. Last– University of Manitoba *D. A. Leckie– Geological Survey of Canada *D. S. Lemmen– Geological Survey of Canada *R. W. Klassen– Geological Survey of Canada D. J. Pennock– University of Saskatchewan *D. J. Sauchyn– University of Regina *Y. Shang– University of Manitoba *R. E. Vance– Natural Resources Canada *W. J. Vreeken– Queen’s University *S. A. Wolfe– Geological Survey of Canada *C. H. Yansa– University of Wisconsin, Madison

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2 Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

CONTENTS

5 Abstract/Resumè 21 Stop 18: Belanger Canal, Cypress Hills 5 Introduction 22 Stop 19: Bald Butte, Cypress Hills Provincial Park 5 Overview 22 Stop 20: Fort Walsh and Battle Creek Valley 5 Acknowledgements 23 Stop 21: Benson Creek Landslide 23 Stop 22: Police Point Landslide 5 The Palliser Triangle Global Change Project 24 Stop 23: Gap Creek - Friday Site 7 Geologic Setting 24 Stop 24: Blowout dunes, Bigstick Sand Hills 7 Bedrock Geology 24 Stop 25: Active parabolic dune, Bigstick Sand Hills 7 Physiography 24 Stop 26: Ingebright Lake 7 Surficial Materials 25 Stop 26B: Freefight Lake 8 Climate 26 Stop 27: NW Great Sand Hills 8 Historic 26 Stop 28: Lancer ice-thrust moraine 9 Holocene Climate Change 26 Stop 29: Lancer paleosol 26 Stop 30: Lower Swift Current Creek 9 Vegetation 26 Stop 31: Clearwater Lake 27 Stop 32: Missouri Coteau 10 Soils 28 References 10 Geomorphic Systems 10 Eolian Environments 34 Field Guide Contributors 11 Fluvial System 12 Mass Wasting Processes TABLES 12 Soil Redistribution 36 1. Willow Bunch Lake vital statistics 13 Salt Lakes 37 2. Willow Bunch Lake hydrochemistry STOP LOG 38 3. Antelope Lake hydrochemistry 14 Day 1–Road Guide 39 4. Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the 14 Day 2–Road Guide Belanger area 15 Day 3–Road Guide 40 5 Freefight Lake vital statistics 15 Day 4–Road Guide 41 6 Freefight Lake hydrochemistry 42 7 Clearwater Lake hydrochemistry STOP DESCRIPTIONS 16 Stop 1: Dirt and Cactus Hills from Avonlea Creek FIGURES 16 Stop 2: Deformed bedrock near Claybank 16 Stop 3: Skyeta Lake Spillway 43 1. The Palliser Triangle and Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone 16 Stop 4: Oro Lake 44 2. Regional stratigraphic nomenclature 17 Stop 5: Willow Bunch Lake 45 3. Physiographic subdivisions 17 Stop 6: St. Victor Petroglyphs 46 4. Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential 17 Stop 7: Table Butte, Wood Mountain Upland evapotranspiration 18 Stop 8: Killdeer Badlands / Grasslands National Park 47 5. Major soil units 18 Stop 9: Wood Mountain Upland 48 6. Sand dune occurrences 18 Stop 10: Seward Sand Hills 49 7. Types of landslide movement 19 Stop 11: Antelope Lake Esker 50 8. Model of soil redistribution 19 Stop 12: Antelope Lake 51 9. Salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan 20 Stop 13: Soil Erosion - Gull Lake Rural Municipality 52 10. Salt lake morphology versus sediment type 20 Stop 14 Swift Current Plateau and Bidaux drumlin 53 11. Surficial materials and field stop locations 20 Stop 15: Frenchman River Valley, Eastend 54 12. Geomorphology and structure of the Dirt and Cactus 21 Stop 16: Jones Peak hills 21 Stop 17: Cypress Hills Formation 55 13. Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills

3 Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

56 14. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy, Oro 84 42. Topographic and bedrock cross-sections of Benson Lake Creek Landslide 57 15. Endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake short core 85 43. Battle Creek Valley between Police Point and Benson 58 16. Chronology and endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake core Creek landslides OR1 86 44. Airphoto of Police Point Landslide 59 17. Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake 87 45. Ground photos of Police Point Landslide 60 18. Petroglyphs from St. Victor Park 88 46. Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin 61 19. Surficial materials of the Table Butte area 89 47. Buried soils in postglacial loess, Friday site 62 20. Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area 90 48. Morphometry and sediment redistribution for GSC 63 21. Killdeer Badlands, Grasslands National Park monitored blowout dunes 64 22. Surficial materials of the Wood Mountain Upland 91 49. Morphological features of an active parabolic dune escarpment 92 50. Airphoto of Ingebright Lake 65 23. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills 93 51. Modern sediment facies, North Ingebright Lake 66 24. Airphoto of area NE of Antelope Lake 94 52. Interpreted relative humidity, North Ingebright Lake 67 25. Vertical air photographs of Antelope Lake contrasting region 1961 and 1991 water levels 95 53. Freefight Lake; water levels, sedimentary facies and 68 26. Sediment characteristics, Antelope Lake gravity core x-radiography 69 27. Redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion 96 54. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great 70 28. Soil loss by parent material, Gull Lake and Webb rural Sand Hills municipalities 97 55. Aerial photograph of Lancer ice–thrust moraine 71 29. Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges in 98 56. Proximal slope of Lancer ice–thrust moraine from paleosol the Dollard area site 72 30. Fractured clasts, Bidaux Drumlin 99 57. Rotational landsliding along lower Swift Current Creek 73 31. Surficial materials, Frenchman Valley near Eastend Valley 74 32. Cross-section of fill in Frenchman Valley 100 58. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of 75 33. View across Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak Clearwater Lake 76 34. Origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation 101 59. Sediment characteristics of gravity core, Clearwater Lake 77 35. Depositional environment of the Cypress Hills Formation 102 60. Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis, 78 36. Surficial materials of the East Block of the Cypress Hills Clearwater Lake core CW2 79 37. Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks, 103 61. Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, Missouri Coteau Cypress Hills 104 62. Plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site 80 38. Meltwater channels on the East Block upland 81 39. View from Bald Butte 82 40. Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh 83 41. Fort Walsh National Historic Site

4 Abstract

The Palliser Triangle, extending from southwestern Manitoba to southern Alberta, includes some of the oldest geo- morphic surfaces in Canada (the unglaciated parts of Wood Mountain Upland and the Cypress Hills) as well as some of the most dynamic modern environments (e.g. the Great Sand Hills and Dinosaur Badlands). Paleoenvironmental records from a number of sites document the sensitivity of this subhumid to semiarid landscape to climatic variabil- ity, and provide valuable information about the possible impacts of future climate changes. This guide describes thirty-two sites in southwestern Saskatchewan and one in southeastern Alberta. Placed in context by a general introduction to the geologic, climatic and geomorphic setting, these sites reflect the landscape diversity of the region and its sensitivity to past environmental change. Building upon existing work, sixteen of the stops describe recent research associated with the Palliser Triangle IRMA (Integrated Research and Monitoring Area), a multidisciplinary project studying the record of past environmental change to better prepare for the possible impacts of future climate change. Road directions are provided to each site, and stops are organized as a 3–day trip beginning in Regina and finishing near Beechy on the north side of Lake Diefenbaker.

Introduction reminded of this twice). - Be careful crossing roads. There may be few vehicles on the This field guide was originally compiled to assist participants of the roads, but they often travel quickly and are not expecting pedes ‘Landscapes’ and ‘Eolian Environments of the Palliser Triangle’ field trians. trips, sponsored by the Canadian Geomorphology Research Group - Respect private property. Do not bother cattle. (CGRG) and held in conjunction with the Canadian Association of - It is ILLEGAL to remove an specimens from Grasslands National Geographers (CAG) 1996 Annual Meeting in Saskatoon, 1 Park, Cypress Hills Provincial Park, or any National Historic Site. Saskatchewan. This 3 ⁄2 day journey across southwestern Saskatchewan focussed on Tertiary and Pleistocene geomorphology, FOR THOSE WHO WISH TO FOLLOW THIS GUIDE BOOK AT A LATER Holocene climate change and associated landscape response. The DATE: two field trips followed the same route, with participants in the - UTM coordinates are provided for each site as well as road direc ‘Eolian Environments’ trip spending extra time at stops of interest to tions. Do not head out without good topographic maps. eolian researchers while skipping some of the stops on the main - Believe the signs that say “Impassable When Wet” ‘Landscapes’ trip. - DO NOT enter private property without first obtaining permission These field trips and associated special sessions at the CAG meet- of the land owner. ing showcased, in part, research conducted over the past 4 years as - DO NOT drive off of established trails in the Cypress Hills and part of the Palliser Triangle Global Change Project. Coordinated by Great Sand Hills. Even these trails are restricted to vehicles with the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), this multidisciplinary project high ground clearance, four wheel drive is recommended. involves more than 30 affiliated researchers, many of whom have contributed to this guide. The first part of this guide contains information on the regional Citations / Acknowledgements geologic and geomorphic settings as background for the stop descriptions. Much of this material has been abstracted from an “in Each stop description has been prepared by the individual stop lead- press” GSC Bulletin: ‘An Evaluation of the Potential Impacts of ers and should be referenced accordingly. Likewise, reference to the Climate Change on Landscapes of the Palliser Triangle’, edited by background information presented in this guide should cite the D.S. Lemmen and R.E. Vance. authors of individual sections. Affiliations and contact addresses for A companion volume to this guide is the book “Quaternary and Late each contributor are provided on the last page of this guide. Dave Tertiary Landscapes of Southwestern Saskatchewan and Adjacent Sauchyn (University of Regina) was co-organizer of the trip, with Alec Areas”, edited by D.J. Sauchyn (1993, Great Plains Research Centre, Aitken (University of Saskatchewan) and his students providing University of Regina). That volume contains five papers describing invaluable assistance in the actual running of the trip. different aspects of the regional landscape, and an excursion guide compiled for the INQUA Commission on Formation and Properties of The Palliser Triangle Global Change Project Glacial Deposits Field Conference. Several stops are common to both The Palliser Triangle IRMA (Integrated Research and Monitoring Area) the present guide and the 1993 field trip. is aimed at improving our understanding of how global change Given the theme of the trips, this guide is largely restricted to affects water resources and landscape processes in the southern descriptions of the physical environment. Excellent sources are avail- reaches of the Prairie Provinces (Fig. 1; Lemmen et al., 1993). The able for information concerning the flora and fauna of grassland region accounts for over half of Canada's agricultural production, ecosystems, as well as the archeological and historic record of human despite severe periodic droughts that exert significant economic and activities in the region. social impacts. The future of sustainable agricultural activity may be threatened in some areas by future climate change, given general cir- Overview culation model (GCM) predictions that much of the region will Most of the stops on this trip are reached by all-season roads (paved become warmer and drier as atmospheric greenhouse gas concen- or gravel), from which short hikes (<1 km) may be necessary to trations increase. Preparation for global change requires an improved obtain a better perspective on the setting. However, there are sever- understanding of landscape and vegetation responses to past climat- al sites (particularly in the Cypress Hills and Great Sand Hills) that are ic changes that were similar to GCM predictions of 21st century con- inaccessible when the roads are wet. There are always hazards ditions. involved when visiting field sites, and care should be taken. The fol- Paleoenvironmental research brings two vital insights to the devel- lowing precautions are recommended: opment of a sustainable activity management plan. First, it is the only - Always have suitable clothing, with intense rain, wind and sun all means of outlining the range of variability inherent to the ‘natural’ common; climate system. This provides a realistic context within which the sig- - Check the ground before you sit down. Cow patties and cactus nificance of historic trends may be evaluated. Second, paleoenviron- will be encountered at many stops (people never have to be mental reconstructions outline the nature of landscape responses

5 (including hydrology, geomorphology, and ecology) associated with a water quality that have occurred over the past 10,000 years. full range of possible climatic conditions, including those predicted by GCMs. The importance of this perspective cannot be overempha- 2 Relationships between climate and landscape processes. By sized, because no historic analogues exist for the predicted climatic studying deposits related to wind, water and slope erosion, earth impacts of the 'greenhouse effect'. scientists are correlating periods of past landscape instability with changes in climate. This work is supplemented by detailed moni- Purpose toring of modern landscape processes.

To enhance understanding of regional landscape processes and past 3 Analysis of landscape sensitivity. The Palliser Triangle landscape is environmental change, and to prepare for geologic hazards associat- diverse, and will not display a homogenous response to climatic ed with future global changes. change. Computer (GIS) analysis of a wide variety of data, includ- ing human activity, will identify areas most severely impacted by How it Works climatic change, as well as landscapes that will be minimally The project is an interdisciplinary, cooperative research initiative impacted. involving earth scientists from government institutions and universi- ties across Canada. There are three main research components: These three components lead to a common goal: mapping land- scape response to climatic variability. Since the geologic record doc- 1.Records of past climatic and hydrologic changes. Utilizing the uments landscape response to a wide range of past climatic regimes, fossil record preserved in the abundant prairie potholes and lakes, this project provides information on the impacts associated with a researchers are reconstructing changes in climate, hydrology and variety of global change scenarios.

6 GEOLOGIC SETTING tion was the disruption of pre-existing drainage patterns, as the Laurentide Ice Sheet diverted rivers and filled preglacial valleys D.S. Lemmen (Klassen, 1989). Today large areas of the Palliser Triangle still lack integrated drainage systems; approximately 45% of the region is not Bedrock Geology(Fig. 2) connected by surface flow to through-flowing rivers (Last, 1984). Most integrated drainages in the region today originated as part of The Palliser Triangle lies within the southern reaches of the Western deglacial meltwater systems. During deglaciation, the Laurentide Ice Canada Sedimentary Basin, a thick wedge of Phanerozoic strata Sheet blocked regional drainage to the northeast, forming a series of overlying Precambrian basement rock. The geological evolution of proglacial lakes that often drained catastrophically as continued ice the basin has recently been summarized by Leckie and Smith (1993, retreat opened new drainage outlets. Rapid shifting of drainage see Mossop and Shetsen, 1994). The region encompassed by this channels, combined with the enormous volumes of water stored in guide is underlain by generally poorly-consolidated clastic sedimen- short-lived glacial lakes, produced deeply incised (30–100 m), steep- tary rocks (marine and terrestrial) of upper Cretaceous to Miocene walled meltwater channels that in many cases form the only signifi- age. These sediments were deposited during a series of transgres- cant relief over large areas of the plains (e.g. Kehew and Teller, 1994). sive/regressive cycles within the marine basin associated with uplift in the Rocky Mountains to the west (Laramide Orogeny) as well as with Surficial Materials post-tectonic isostatic adjustments during the Tertiary. The bedrock unit with the greatest areal extent (subcrop) is the The location of each field trip stop is shown on a generalized map of Upper Cretaceous Bearpaw Formation (marine shales, siltstone and surficial materials (Fig. 11). The majority of surficial materials and lesser sandstone). Minor concretionary ironstones and bentonitic much of the local topography were produced by glaciation. beds (primarily highly expansive montmorillonite) within this forma- Christiansen (1979) and Klassen (1989) present regional overviews of tion have considerable local geomorphic significance, particularly in ice retreat from the last glacial maximum, which are necessary to badland regions. Upper Cretaceous strata (Whitemud and Battle for- explain the distribution of these materials. The following section mations) underlying Tertiary sandstone and conglomerates in the serves as an extended legend for that map, and highlights the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain Upland greatly influence modern nature, rather than the distribution, of these materials. geomorphic processes by promoting deep-seated landsliding. Regional degradation removed more than 900 m of sediment in Bedrock: Extensive areas of bedrock outcrop are restricted to some areas of the Interior Plains (Leckie and Smith, 1993) forming unglaciated portions of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain much of the modern large-scale physiography. The Oligocene Upland, as well as adjacent glaciated slopes that are mantled by Cypress Hills Formation was deposited during a period of renewed reworked bedrock and rare erratic boulders (Klassen, 1992a). All of fluvial aggradation in response to Eocene igneous intrusions that these areas are underlain by Tertiary sand and gravel of the formed the Sweetgrass Hills, Bearpaw and Highwood mountains of Ravenscrag, Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain formations. Surface northern Montana (Leckie and Cheel, 1989). Fluvial reworking of features, including well developed pediments, reflect millions of sediments continued throughout the Late Tertiary, depositing the rel- years of subaerial erosion under a dry climate (e.g. Klassen, 1992a), atively minor Wood Mountain Formation (Miocene) as well as and stand in marked contrast to the surrounding, comparatively preglacial sand and gravel (Pliocene to Pleistocene Empress young, glaciated landscape. Bedrock outcrops are common in incised Formation) in valleys that are now commonly buried by glacigenic valleys, and where significant areas of weak, Upper Cretaceous rocks deposits. have been exposed by postglacial erosion. Holocene fluvial and slope processes commonly produce spectacular badlands (e.g. Dinosaur, Physiography Onefour, Big Muddy and Killdeer badlands).

The Palliser Triangle lies within the Alberta Division of the Interior Till: Till mantles more than 55% of the Palliser Triangle. On the Plains Region (Bostock 1970), and ranges in elevation from 557 m asl accompanying map, tills have been divided into two classes based on (Lake Diefenbaker) to 1465 m asl (West Block of the Cypress Hills). It surface morphology: i) till plains - relatively flat to gently rolling ter- includes part of the continental drainage divide, with runoff from the rain that commonly mirrors the underlying bedrock surface; and ii) extreme southern part of the region flowing to the Gulf of Mexico hummocky moraine -irregular surfaces with greater local relief (ca. via the Milk River and its tributaries (Fig. 3). The remaining through- 5–30 m) that are not bedrock-controlled. Hummocky moraine is gen- flowing rivers drain northeast to Hudson Bay, although large parts of erally associated with areas of ice stagnation (stagnation moraine of the region drain internally. Shetsen, 1987), although it also includes widespread ice-thrust fea- Major physiographic features of the Palliser Triangle are bedrock tures (Aber, 1993). controlled, reflecting Tertiary degradation (Alden, 1932; Klassen, Data on surface till composition suggests a striking homogeneity, 1989). The eastern boundary of the region is delimited in large part with the matrix composed of roughly equal proportions of clay, silt by the Missouri Coteau, a bedrock escarpment overlain by extensive and sand, andcarbonate content ranging from 5–15% (Klassen, ice-thrust features and hummocky moraine that rises 50 to more 1989, 1993). This uniformity, in turn, reflects the relatively homoge- than 250 m above the plains to the east, forming the 'second prairie neous nature of the Bearpaw Formation that underlies most glaciat- step' (Klassen, 1989). Another marked topographic step occurs ed portions of the study area. Montmorillonite imparts a low perme- along the margins of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain Upland, ability and high plasticity to the tills, which tend to become extreme- corresponding to the edge of Tertiary beds overlying weak ly sticky when wet (Scott, 1989). Gravel clasts are mainly Shield Cretaceous bedrock (Klassen, 1989). Less prominent plateaus and lithologies and Paleozoic carbonates, derived far to the northeast, as uplands within the plains commonly represent interfluves related to well as rounded carbonate and quartzite gravel clasts that were Tertiary drainages. entrained by the ice sheet as it advanced across uplands and Superimposed upon bedrock-controlled physiographic elements preglacial valleys (Klassen, 1989). Local till characteristics may relate are smaller scale features related to Pleistocene glaciation. With the to different facies of the same depositional event (e.g. Klassen and exception of the highest parts of the Cypress Hills and Wood Vreeken, 1987) or the irregular entrainment of locally derived mate- Mountain Upland, all of the region has been glaciated (Klassen, rials (David, 1964; Shetsen, 1984). 1989). Drift is generally thin (<30 m), although locally may exceed 150 m, with the greatest thicknesses found in buried valleys and Glaciofluvial deposits: Glaciofluvial deposits occur sporadically belts of stagnation moraine (Fenton et al., 1994). Numerous relative- across most of the Palliser Triangle, but individual occurrences tend ly flat plains, many formerly covered by glacial lakes, are the most to be of limited areal extent and are not well represented at the scale extensive features of the region. One of the major impacts of glacia-

7 of the accompanying map. Glaciofluvial deposits are typically com- Pleistocene sediments (primarily till) and bedrock, may be more than posed of moderately to well sorted, stratified sand and gravel, in the 30 m thick. Clast lithologies are dominated local rock types (Klassen, form of outwash plains, fans, deltas and eskers. They are commonly 1991). Colluvial deposits are also ubiquitous along steep walls of associated with extensive meltwater channel systems which are also meltwater channels in the Palliser Triangle. Factors that promote underlain by glaciofluvial sediment. Gravel lithologies tend to be slope failure include over steepening by glacial or meltwater erosion, dominantly Shield clasts and quartzites, but also commonly include the poorly consolidated nature of the bedrock, and the occurrence of significant quantities of shale. The finer facies of these deposits (par- swelling clays in bedrock, till, and glaciolacustrine sediments. ticularly deltaic sediments) have commonly been reworked by eolian processes. Valley complex:This unit is used to denote complex assemblages of sediment found in most incised river valleys. It is mainly composed of Lacustrine and glaciolacustrine sediments: During retreat of the alluvium, colluvium and glaciofluvial deposits, but may also include Laurentide Ice Sheet, regional drainage to the northwest was blocked bedrock and glaciolacustrine sediments. The majority of incised val- creating a series of ice-dammed glacial lakes (Kehew and Teller, leys in the Palliser Triangle originated as glacial meltwater channels. 1994). As a result, approximately 25% of the region's surficial mate- As a result, modern streams are commonly highly underfit. Recent rials are lacustrine and glaciolacustrine sediment. Most of these gla- alluvium (dominantly silt and sand) occurs as floodplain and terrace cial lakes were small (relative to other regions of the Interior Plains) deposits adjacent to modern stream courses. Thick deposits (locally and short lived, rapidly decanting into an adjacent basin once ice >50 m) of colluvium, derived from both bedrock and drift, are ubiq- retreat established a new lake outlet. Some basins retained lakes long uitous along the walls of steeper valleys. For example, Christiansen after glacial influences had been removed, and as a result contain and Sauer (1988) documented 80 m of fill in the Frenchman River lacustrine sediments of non-glacial origin (e.g. David, 1964). Valley (21 m of glaciofluvial deposits, 7 m of landslide debris and 52 Lake deposits may exceed 40 m in thickness (Shetsen, 1987). m of undifferentiated alluvium and colluvium). Although such strati- Although they occur most commonly on relatively featureless plains, graphic information is rare in the region, similar sequences of varying lake sediments that were deposited on top of stagnant icenow occur thickness likely occur in most other meltwater channel systems. in areas of hummocky terrain with up to 10 m local relief (e.g. Klassen, 1991). A suite of facies, ranging from deep water clays to CLIMATE littoral sands and deltaic sands and gravels have been described, although they have generally not been the subject of detailed sedi- R.E. Vance and S.A. Wolfe mentological investigations. Glaciolacustrine deposits are commonly laminated, although extensive varved records have not been report- Historic ed. Lacustrine sands are fine to medium-grained, well sorted, and generally <5 m thick, in contrast to deltaic sand and gravel deposits The continental, subhumid climate of the southern Canadian prairies that may exceed 30 m in thickness (David, 1964). Outcrops of silt and is characterized by a low precipitation regime, very cold winters, and sand dominated lacustrine facies have typically been reworked by short but warm summers. Convergence of Pacific and Arctic air eolian processes, producing loess, sand sheets and dunes. masses commonly occurs east of the Rocky Mountains, and shifts in dominance of these distinctly different air masses produces great Eolian deposits:Eolian dunes and loess deposits are extensive in the variability - one of the defining characteristics of Canadian prairie cli- central Palliser Triangle, with the Great Sand Hills comprising the mate. This dynamism is primarily driven by seasonal variation in the largest contiguous occurrence of dunes in southern Canada (David, position of the core of westerly atmospheric circulation, the ‘subarc- 1977). All sand dunes in the Palliser Triangle are part of the parabol- tic’ jet stream, and the geographic barrier of the Rocky Mountain ic dune association (David, 1977) and are oriented with the prevail- which impede the eastward movement of moist, mild Pacific air ing westerly winds. They are derived mainly from glaciofluvial and (Gullet and Skinner, 1992). In summer, when the jet stream moves to glaciolacustrine deposits (David, 1964), and dominantly composed of its most northerly point, Pacific air is usually delivered to the fine sand (David, 1977; Wolfe et al., 1995). Downwind (eastward) Canadian prairies, although much moisture may be lost during fining often produces blankets of very fine sand and loess to the east ascent up the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The southerly of major dune occurrences (David, 1993). Although generally <5 m shift in winter jet stream position reduces the vigour with which thick, eolian sands may reach 30 m in thickness not including the Pacific air is pushed east. This, combined with the limited relief of the height of individual dunes (that may be up to 15 m high; David, Interior Plains, encourages frequent incursions of cold and dry Arctic 1964). air into the Palliser Triangle during winter months. In addition to this Loess is widespread across the Palliser Triangle, but tends to be thin seasonal dynamism, less predictable variations in the strength and position of the jet stream can produce a great range of conditions and has not commonly been mapped in surficial geological surveys o (Vreeken, 1993). The most extensive loess cover occurs on the within any one season. Canadian record highs of 45 C have been reported in southern Saskatchewan (Gullet and Skinner, 1992), while Cypress Hills (Catto, 1983) and Swift Current Creek Plateau o (Christiansen, 1959). Deposits in the Cypress Hills span a wide age winter temperatures as low as -50 C are not unknown. Such dynam- range, from Miocene to Holocene, and locally may exceed 6 m in ics produce the greatest annual temperature range in Canada (Hare thickness (Vreeken, 1993). Loess on the Swift Current Creek Plateau and Thomas, 1979). is very thin, ranging from about 1.4 m adjacent to source sediments Most precipitation in the Palliser Triangle falls in spring and early (David, 1964) to 0.3 m at the eastern limit of its mapped distribution summer. June is typically the wettest month and may account for (Christiansen, 1959). Loess composition is highly variable, reflecting more than 25% of the mean annual precipitation (Environment different source materials. Although dominantly silt-sized, sand and Canada, 1993). Summer rainfall is highly variable, as it is mainly the clay content as high as 33% and 32%, respectively, have been product of showers, or localized, short duration high intensity reported in loess (David, 1964; Vreeken, 1993). Localized occur- storms. Prairie winter precipitation is typically low, due to the domi- rences of fine-grained eolian deposits also occur as cliff-top loam nance of dry Arctic air masses, with snowfall accounting for only (e.g. David, 1972) and leeward-slope deposits (Vreeken, 1993). 30% of total annual precipitation. Orographic influences account for the approximately 100 mm greater precipitation on the Cypress Hills Colluvium:On the accompanying map colluvium is only shown than the adjacent prairies. mantling the glacially oversteepened north flank of the Cypress Hills Warm summer temperatures, strong winds and extended daylight / Swift Current Creek Plateau and on heavily dissected pediments of create highly evaporative conditions (Fig. 4). With the exception of the Wood Mountain Upland. These slope deposits, derived from both the Cypress Hills, potential evapotranspiration across the Palliser Triangle (>540 mm) far exceeds mean annual precipitation (300-450

8 mm). In drought years, such as 1987 and 1988, evapotranspiration records from central Alberta (Vance, 1986) and southwestern exceeded precipitation by 60% in the central part of the Palliser Manitoba (Ritchie, 1983) into estimates of Holocene temperature Triangle. Widespread drought has occurred within the Palliser and precipitation dynamics. The relative proximity of these sites to Triangle nearly every decade this century, with considerable spatial the Palliser Triangle provides a reasonable starting point to assess the variation in severity (Chakravarti, 1976). Droughts of the last 50 years magnitude of Holocene climate changes experienced in the southern on the southern prairies have been linked to the development of sta- prairies. Despite limitations with both reconstructions, a reasonable ble high pressure ridges that displace cyclonic tracks, moist air mass- estimate of the increase in growing season temperature would be es, and fronts northward (Dey, 1982; Dey and Chakravarti, 1976). approximately 1.5 to 3oC between 9000 and 3000 BP (Vance et al., This pattern produced little or no runoff in the spring of 1988. When 1995). An estimated growing season precipitation deficit of 50 mm the critical spring rains failed to materialize, the ensuing drought was at Lofty Lake between 8000 and 6000 BP suggests that extreme arid- one of the worst this century, rivalling 1937-1938 as the driest peri- ity registered at both Chappice and Harris Lake were the result of od on record (Wheaton et al., 1990). June 1988 was the warmest in longstanding above normal temperatures coupled with a Holocene the instrument record of the prairies, with mean temperature 4 to low in growing season precipitation. Zoltai and Vitt (1990) produced 7˚C above 30 year means (Wheaton et al., 1990). comparable estimates based on changes in the distribution of peat- Underlying the climatic variability apparent in the historic period is lands in the Canadian western interior, suggesting mean July tem- a statistically significant warming of 0.9oC in the southern prairie perature was about 0.5oC warmer than today and mean annual pre- region since the late 1800s, culminating with the 1980s, the cipitation was 65 mm lower than present prior to 6000 BP. warmest decade on record (Gullet and Skinner, 1992). Prairie stations also show an increase in the frost free period and in the number of VEGETATION growing degree days over the last century; most noticeably in the last 30 years (Bootsma, 1994). Although these trends cannot unequivo- R.E.Vance cally be attributed to global warming, they are consistent with many climate model simulations (Karl and Heim, 1991; Karl et al., 1991). The Palliser Triangle occupies the northernmost tip of the Great Unlike temperature, there is no apparent trend in precipitation Plains; the expansive interior grassland region of central North records (Bootsma, 1994). Wet periods in the early 1900s and 1950s, America that lies in the rainshadow of the Rocky Mountains. A pauci- however, do coincide with periods of below normal temperature. In ty of available moisture throughout most of the region limits tree and addition, during the recent warming from 1959 to 1990, there were shrub growth to lake and stream margins, north facing slopes of fewer years than in any previous 30 year period with above average coulees, and uplands like the Cypress Hills. As a result, a northern precipitation. variant of mixed prairie grassland is the native vegetation on gently rolling terrain throughout much of the Chernozemic Brown and Dark Holocene Climate Change Brown soil zones of the Palliser Triangle. This native vegetation cover, commonly referred to as the 'north- Developing a Holocene record of climate change in the Palliser ern mixed-grass prairie' (Risser et al., 1981) or simply 'mixed prairie' Triangle has lagged behind paleoclimatic research in adjacent regions (Coupland, 1950; 1961) is bound to the north and west by fescue for a number of reasons, including difficulties in sampling the few prairie, the characteristic cover of drier portions of the black soil zone suitable wetland study sites and establishing accurate radiocarbon (Coupland, 1961; Moss 1944). Although elements of the mixed chronologies (Barnosky et al., 1987). However, recent advances in prairie may be traced to the Oligocene (Risser et al., 1981), little is accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating, coupled known about the evolutionary history of its major constituents. with the application of new coring techniques and the use of plant However, the introduction of cattle and European agricultural prac- macrofossil and lithostratigraphic sequences to chronicle past envi- tices, coinciding with a sharp reduction in fire frequency and elimi- ronmental changes, have produced a new understanding of the nation of large buffalo herds in the late 1800s, were likely as signifi- long-term dynamics of Holocene climate change in the southern cant as any preceding events in the history of this ecozone. Today, prairies. most mixed-grass prairie vegetation has either been supplanted by A composite paleoclimatic record from Chappice Lake, near cereal crops or modified by grazing and introduced species. Medicine Hat, and Harris Lake, on the north flank of the Cypress Coupland (1950, 1961) conducted extensive vegetation surveys of Hills, indicates that extremely arid conditions prevailed through the the area in the 1940s. His surveys show that although considerable mid-Holocene (7700-6000 BP), followed by less severe conditions compositional variability is inherent to the northern mixed-grass (but still more arid than present) from 6000 to 4500 BP. At Harris prairie (due mainly to the impacts of relief and aspect on moisture Lake, the effects of increasing effective moisture are registered by ca. availability), most associations are dominated by spear grass (Stipa 5000 BP, and are followed by the onset of cool andmoist conditions comata), porcupine grass (S. spartea), June grass (Koeleria typical of recent climate by 3200 BP. Additional details concerning marcantha), western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), northern late Holocene events are recorded in Chappice Lake, since it is situ- wheatgrass (A. dasystachum), plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata) ated on the prairie floor below the Cypress Hills, an environment sen- and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). Although numerous other sitive to relatively minor changes in the water balance. Here, declin- species form important subdominants or less abundant members in ing mid-Holocene aridity (beginning at 4500 BP) was followed by a a variety of mixed prairie assemblages, it is the variation of these period of peak effective moisture between 2700 and 1000 BP. A seven major species that Coupland chose todefine all northern short-lived return to more arid conditions, at about the time of the mixed-grass communities he recognized. Medieval Warm Period (ca. 900-1200 AD; Hughes and Diaz, 1994), Although moisture variations impact community composition, the was followed by a return to generally cool and moist conditions mixed prairie grassland is well adapted for surviving in a region that through the Little Ice Age (ca. 1450-1850 AD; Luckman et al., 1993). suffers from chronic, periodic shortages of moisture. In addition to The historic period (beginning ca. 1880) has been more arid, in gen- adjustments in community composition mentioned above, the yearly eral reflecting historically recorded drought events of the 1880s, growth cycle is interwoven with seasonal moisture variations. Almost 1920s, 1930s and 1980s. These patterns are consistent with other 95% of the species are perennial, some with life spans greater than records from the Palliser Triangle IRMA and elsewhere in the north- 20 years, many are cool season forms that begin growth in early ern Great Plains. Evidently the mid-Holocene water deficit was severe spring, flower by June, and are dormant by July (Risser et al., 1981). enough to impact surface waters over a wide area (Vance et al., As a result, most growth is completed by the time summer heat 1995). places great stress on prairie water reserves and prairie fires are most Quantitative estimates of the magnitude of past climate changes likely to occur. A series of drought years will not only promote wide- from fossil assemblages are not yet available for the Palliser Triangle. spread development of xeric northern mixed-grass prairie assem- However, transfer functions have been used to convert two pollen blages, but also will reduce overall cover, as it did in the 1930s

9 (Coupland, 1958, 1959; Tomanek, 1959). In this setting, the effects for pedogenesis and horizonation to occur. Regosolic soils are char- of fire and grazing are potentially more serious. Very little is known acterized by the lack of a B horizon, and, in extreme cases, the lack about the impacts more severe and prolonged drought intervals exert of an A horizon as well. They are associated with three distinct envi- on vegetation, such as those that prevailed through the mid- ronments: unstable sandy soils on the sand hills of Alberta and Holocene. This gap in understanding is mainly due to the insensitivi- Saskatchewan; valley slopes of the major river systems in the area; ty of pollen records in grassland environments, since most of the and with the areas of exposed Tertiary bedrock in the Frenchman major mixed prairie species cannot be distinguished on the basis of River valley and the Wood Mountain area of Saskatchewan. pollen alone (Barnosky et al., 1987; Vance and Mathewes, 1994). On uplands like the Cypress Hills, orographic influences create GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS conditions more conducive to the establishment of woody vegeta- tion. Here, north facing slopes, seepage areas and stream banks sup- Eolian Environments port populations of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) balsam poplar (P. balsamifera), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and white P.P. David spruce (Picea glauca), which extend downslope in protected areas onto the prairie floor, whereas fescue prairie dominates drier sites on The eolian landscape is a palimpsest of forms and features that can the upland (Looman and Best, 1979). Other uplands in southern be interpreted through detailed study of modern morphological and Saskatchewan also support forest cover, with Moose Mountain dis- structural elements. Eolian deposits and associated features are wide- tinguished by its extensive paper birch (Betula papyrifera) population. spread in the Palliser Triangle, where sand dunes alone cover over Woody vegetation is also found in the Palliser Triangle in coulees 3400 km2 (Fig. 6; David, 1977). Wind-blown sediments of varying (Coxson and Looney, 1986), interdune areas and in deeply incised grain-sizes produce characteristic landforms including sand dunes, river valleys, where groves of cottonwood (Populus acuminata, P. silty to fine-grained sand sheets and loess, and loamy sediments angustifolia, and P. deltoides) colonize alluvial flats. forming cliff-top deposits (David, 1970, 1972; Vreeken, 1993)

SOILS Wind erosion: Wind erosion is widespread within the Palliser Triangle, as there are few natural obstructions to wind flow. D.J. Pennock Although vegetation forms an efficient barrier to wind abrasion, most slopes and elevated surfaces were periodically exposed to wind The major soils of the Palliser Triangle strongly reflect the subhumid erosion as a result of prairie fires, a common occurrence prior to climate and grassland vegetation which dominate the area European settlement. (Anderson, 1987). The soil orders result from differences in the type and intensity of soil forming processes; these differences are, in turn, Loess: Loess is formed by suspension settling of fine-grained, wind- largely due to differences in surficial sediments and the stability of transported particles. Although dominantly silt, coarser particles may the surfaces during the Holocene. occur as individual layers within proximal loess deposits (e.g. David, The region is dominated by soils of the Chernozemic Order (Fig. 5). 1964). In the Palliser Triangle, sources are dominantly glacial, fluvial The Chernozemic A horizon has high levels of organic matter in the and, to a lesser degree, lacustrine deposits, with the extent of the upper 10- to 50-cm of the soils due to above-ground and rooting loess cover generally much greater than is shown on the most zone inputs of biomass from the original grassland communities. detailed soil maps. The age of these loess deposits ranges from High organic matter inputs are accompanied by minimal weathering Miocene (Vreeken, 1993) to Holocene, with most extensive deposi- of the B horizon to form a Bm horizon, and the deposition of calci- tion during Late Pleistocene deglaciation. um carbonate at the base of the B horizon to form a Cca horizon. The different variants of the Chernozemic Order present within the Eolian cliff-top loam: These wind-blown sediments overlying steep region, which are represented as Great Groups in the Canadian slopes have a poorly sorted loamy composition containing pebbles System of Soil Classification (Agriculture Canada Expert Committee that could not have been transported in suspension (David, 1972). on Soil Survey, 1987), differ in terms of the amount of organic mat- The sediments were presumably transported by storm winds almost ter present, as reflected in the colour of the A horizon. Chernozemic vertically up steep slopes (David,1995). Brown soils cover the largest area of the Palliser Triangle. These soils have organic matter contents of about 3% in loamy to clay loam par- Paleosols: Paleosols, former soil horizons that developed on the land ent materials and as little as 1 to 2% in sandy variants (Rostad et al., surface and were subsequently buried by renewed sedimentation, 1993). The higher elevations of the Cypress Hills Plateau and the are common in many eolian deposits. In addition to their importance Swift Current Plateau are occupied by Chernozemic Dark Brown soils as stratigraphic markers, pedomorphological attributes provide with organic matter contents of 4%; the highest portions of the important paleoenvironmental information (e.g. Vreeken, 1993). Cypress Hills have Chernozemic Black soils with organic matter con- tents of 4 to 5% (Rostad et al., 1993). Sand dunes:All sand dunes in the Palliser Triangle are of the para- Several large areas of Solonetzic soils also occur in the Palliser bolic type, an assemblage that includes a variety of associated fea- Triangle (Fig. 5). The diagnostic horizon of soils of the Solonetzic tures besides the basic parabola form (David, 1977). The fact that order is the Bnt horizon (or hardpan layer) which is characterized by parabolic dunes are absent or rare in deserts, but widespread in more high sodium contents relative to other exchangeable bases. High temperate regions does not imply a causal relationship between veg- sodium contents initially facilitate the translocation of clay from the etation and dune morphology, but rather draws attention to the sig- A horizon to the B horizon, leading to the formation of the clay-rich nificance of moisture content. David (1979) separates dunes into two Bnt horizon. The Bnt horizon commonly overlies a salt-rich C horizon distinct categories: "dry-sand" and "wet-sand". All parabolic dunes (Csa or Cksa horizon). Solonetzic soils reflect a local or regional con- are "wet-sand" dunes, with miosture contents typically between 4 centration of sodium in the soil profile. The concentration of sodium and 8%. can occur due to either high initial levels in the source glacial sedi- Today most dune areas in the Palliser Triangle are stable, contain- ments (the lithogenic model of Pawluk, 1982) or from past or current ing only a few active dunes (<0.5% by area). Aerial photographs discharge of sodium-rich groundwater (paleohydrological and hydro- show that eolian activity declined from the 1940s to the 1980s as a logical models of Pawluk, 1982). Solonetzic soils which arise from the result of relatively humid climatic conditions. In some areas, active latter two sources are closely related to areas of saline soils. sand surfaces expanded markedly in rapid response to the drought The final soil order of regional significance is the Regosolic Order years of the 1980s (cf. Wolfe et al, 1995). The rate and style of dune (Fig. 5). Regosolic soils reflect the lack of sufficient surface stability stabilization depends on prevailing climate and the ability of the

10 dune sand and underlying sediments to absorb and retain moisture. topographic divides, excavated and reoccupied preglacial valleys and Once vegetation is established over parts of a dune through a sub- cut entirely new channels (e.g. Klassen, 1994). The postglacial evolu- surface system of rhizomes (Psoralea lanceolata and Rumex venosus), tion of the Palliser Triangle drainage system has been affected by and through seed germination (various grasses), it hinders sand both climatic change and changes in base level caused by glacioiso- movement by increasing surface roughness. Deeply buried roots static adjustments. remain protected for a long time and, unless exposed and destroyed by deflation, can rapidly regenerate the vegetation cover if dune Climate: Climate is the main forcing function for most fluvial moisture is adequate. The three conditions necessary for eolian activ- processes. The severe annual moisture deficit of the Palliser Triangle ity; sediment supply, sufficiently strong winds and a locally sparse to results in little runoff generation except where sporadic, high inten- absent vegetation cover, existed on a regional scale in the Palliser sity summer rainstorms occur in areas where topography and geolo- Triangle during Late Wisconsinan deglaciation. At this time, the first gy favour low infiltration losses. Over much of the Palliser Triangle dunes may have been formed by dry adiabatic winds emanating from mean annual surface runoff is less than 100 mm, and large areas may the retreating Laurentide Ice Sheet (David, 1981, 1988). These form- produce less than 10 mm of runoff per annum (Ashmore, 1986). ative winds strongly contrasted the modern westerly prevailing Snowfall generates about 80% of prairie stream runoff (Gray, 1970) winds, and as a result, dunes formed at this time would have had dif- and is often the only major runoff source for small streams (Day, ferent orientations from those of today (David, 1981). 1989). Following deglaciation, dunes were active and sheet sand and Climatic variations have major affects on runoff generation. The loess began forming as soon as source deposits were exposed. This boundaries of areas contributing runoff in prairie drainage basins dis- activity may have been briefly interrupted by a humid period just play great interannual variability in response to precipitation and before 10 ka (David, 1972), promoting development of soil horizons antecedent moisture conditions. Stichling and Blackwell’s (1958) on most eolian deposits (though many of the larger dunes may have analysis of a small tributary basin determined that the actual runoff remained active). In the early Holocene climate became quite dry and contributing area between 1916 and 1955 ranged from 18 to 69% eolian activity was extensive. This period of activity may have contin- of the total basin (gross area), with runoff volumes varying by almost ued unabated until only a few thousand years ago (cf. David, 1971). 800%. Late Holocene dune stabilization was a gradual event, beginning with smaller dunes and culminating with larger ones that remained Human influences: Large scale European agricultural settlement in active for a considerably longer time (cf. David, 1971). Under present the Palliser Triangle, beginning in the late nineteenth century, has climatic conditions, relatively minor changes in yearly weather condi- markedly impacted the region's landscape and drainage system. All tions can affect dune activity in the region (Wolfe et al., 1995). main drainage systems in the Palliser Triangle, and most minor chan- Changes in the extent of activity, and in dune morphology, may occur nels, have been dammed or flow-regulated to some extent and large within a few years in response to short-term climatic fluctuations storage areas have been built. There are more than 440 000 ha of (David, 1981). irrigated land in the Palliser Triangle, over 90% of which lies in Alberta (Statistics Canada, 1981). Thousands of kilometres of canals, Fluvial System ditches, and diversions have created a complex, wholly synthetic pat- tern of water flow and sediment transport about which little is I.A. Campbell known (Carson and Hudson, 1992). Many of these channels inte- grate extensive areas of what were once internally drained networks The pattern, nature, and products of fluvial erosion in the Palliser into the through-flowing fluvial system. Intra- and interbasin transfer Triangle reflect the interaction of four major controls: the organiza- of water is practised on a wide scale. tion of the drainage network; climate; geology and topography; and, to an increasing degree, the effects of human activities. These con- Fluvial processes, sediment yields and erosion rates: The disas- trols and their associated landscape components have produced sociation of runoff and sediment source areas (mountains / foothills great variability in the regional landscape which reflects, in part, the and plains, respectively) has a profound influence on how fluvial relative efficacy of fluvial processes. Some of Canada's most dramat- processes are expressed in the Palliser Triangle. ically water-eroded landforms (Campbell, 1987) and highest sedi- Suspended sediment data for the region generally show a down- ment-carrying drainage basins (Stichling, 1973), are adjacent to vast stream increase in sediment load. The largest increase in sediment areas where there is little or no evidence of contemporary fluvial load (1.43 x 106 t -1) occurs along the Red Deer River between activity and in which the threat of water erosion on agricultural land Drumheller and Bindloss, with a very large increase (0.256 x106 ta -1) is regarded as moderate (Coote et al., 1981) to negligible (Tajek et also occurring along the Milk River, downstream of the town of Milk al., 1985). River. Both of these pronounced increases in sediment load relate to extremely high sediment yields from localized badlands areas. Drainage Systems: The South Saskatchewan River and its three Campbell (1992) shows that potential yields in the Red Deer bad- main tributaries, the Red Deer, Bow and Oldman rivers, form the lands (ca. 800 km2) averaged 2500 t km-2a-1 . These badland areas largest through-flowing drainage system in the Palliser. These rivers exemplify of the role of partial area sediment contributions derive about 70% of their mean annual discharge from snowmelt in (Campbell, 1985), in which highly localized source areas exert a dis- the Rocky Mountains. The Milk River, a tributary to the Missouri, is proportionately large influence on the river's sediment load charac- the only other through-flowing river system and drains only extreme teristics. Recent analysis indicates the vast majority of sediment in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. Most major trib- Palliser Triangle rivers is derived from the riparian and valley side utaries of the Milk River outside Alberta head in the Cypress Hills areas, in immediate proximity to river channels, and that the majori- while numerous smaller tributaries tend to be intermittent. No major ty of the land surface contributes essentially no sediment to the rivers have their source areas within the Palliser Triangle. Swift through-flowing rivers (Campbell, in press). Current Creek, which heads in the eastern Cypress Hills, is the only major stream that joins the South Saskatchewan system outside Adjustments to Holocene climatic change: The potential effects Alberta. More than 45% the Palliser Triangle is internally drained of climatic change on river systems is a widely debated and con- (Last, 1984), and contributes neither water nor sediment to the tentious issue (Bull, 1991), with little agreement about how streams through-flowing drainage system. respond to variations in discharge and accompanying sediment load. The main drainage system of the Palliser Triangle has developed This complex system response is further exacerbated in the Palliser from a network of Late Pleistocene meltwater channels that crossed

11 Triangle where the subhumid to semiarid regional climate produces Specific geologic and geomorphic factors contributing to slope fail- narrow threshold conditions between aggradation and degradation ure are: i) over-consolidation of the Cretaceousclay; ii) local deforma- (Graf, 1988). tion from ice thrusting and rebound of strata under incising valleys; Establishing correlations between past variations in fluvial process- iii) rapid downcutting of deep channels by glacial meltwater and es and paleoclimatic regimes in the Palliser Triangle are restricted by post-glacial streams; iv) regional fracturing of bedrock and the scattered locations of dated fluvial deposits (O'Hara and Quaternary sediments; v) distribution of groundwater; and vi) lateral Campbell, 1993; Rains et al., 1994) and the lack of high resolution shifting of stream channels (Mollard, 1977; Thomson and proxy climate records. Interpretation of sediment sequences and ter- Morgenstern, 1977, 1978). Lithologically, the unstable units are races as records of fluvial responses to climatic variations may be marine, argillaceous and bentonitic. The factors that actually trigger both highly plausible and grossly misleading. Rains et al. (1994) con- landslides are active geomorphic and hydroclimatic conditions. Slope clude that terrace sequences in this region show overlapping aggra- instability is associated with high or perched water tables, nonho- dational and degradational phases, with few indications that terrace mogeneous groundwater pressure, and increased pressure gradients formation in different stream systems are synchronous. Considerable from rapid drawdown of groundwater during recession of flood additional research is required in the Palliser Triangle to demonstrate water or rapid valley incision. if there has been a coherent, synchronous regional response of flu- vial systems to past climatic variability. Post-glacial landsliding: Even though landslides are ubiquitous in the Palliser Triangle, ages are known for only a few. A major episode Mass Wasting Processes of immediate post-glacial landsliding is assumed from the depth and rapidity of valley incision by glacial meltwater. Evidence of late D.J. Sauchyn Holocene landsliding is available, particularly from the Cypress Hills (Goulden and Sauchyn, 1986; Sauchyn, 1993; Sauchyn and Mass wasting generally is not associated with landscapes of low relief Lemmen, 1996). Absolute and/or relative ages have been determined and gentle slopes. Thus the perception of the prairie landscape as for 21 landslides in this region and all are less than ca. 5100 BP. Since geomorphologically inert contrasts with the significance of mass landslide movement is progressive, with multiple phases of activity, wasting as a process of Holocene landscape modification. Landslides these ages simply document the most recent period of slope move- are "ubiquitous" in the major river valleys (Thomson and ment. Nonetheless, the data demonstrate most landslides in the Morgenstern, 1978: 516), along deeply incised tributaries and on the western Cypress Hills have been active during the late Holocene. flanks of plateau uplands, notably the Cypress Hills. De Lugt and Analysis of relative age data suggests clustering of landsliding Campbell (1992) concluded that landslides are of major formative events, rather than random occurrences (Goulden and Sauchyn, importance in the evolution of southern Alberta’s landscape. 1986). Climate, as a control of the regional groundwater table, has The geology and geomorphic history of the Palliser Triangle strong- been suggested as one factor that influences landslide activity in the ly favours mass wasting. Most slopes have developed since regional Cypress Hills region (Goulden and Sauchyn, 1986; Sauchyn, 1993; deglaciation in poorly-consolidated surficial materials. Incision of Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). A change from the generally warm meltwater channels commonly exposed up to 100 m of Quaternary and dry mid-Holocene (Vance et al., 1995) to wetter and cooler cli- and Cretaceous sediments (Kehew and Lord, 1986). In general, this mate after ca. 4 ka BP raised regional water tables, prompting a peri- is a young landscape which continues to adjust to late Pleistocene od of slope readjustment (Sauchyn, 1990). With rising water tables, geologic events. clay-rich strata at progressively higher elevations are subject to excess Low-magnitude quasi-continuous processes (e.g. soil creep) have porewater and lowered resistance to shear. This increases the poten- little impact on human activities and thus are scarcely documented. tial for sliding at multiple depths, with the most probable triggering Landslides, on the other hand, seriously constrain the construction events being stream channel shifts and extreme hydroclimatic events. and maintenance of dams and valley crossings, and have been the subject of considerable geotechnical study. Soil Redistribution

Landsliding processes and morphology: Failure of Cretaceous D.J. Pennock clay shales in this region has been described as massive retrogressive gravity creep (Terzaghi, 1955). Slow progressive slip occurs along Human activity has resulted in an accelerated rates of erosion planes of weakness at various elevations, causing bedrock and drift throughout the agricultural region of the Canadian Prairies. to move towards the valley floor at rates ranging from centimeters to Modeling of wind and water erosion processes has been a major meters (in exceptional cases) per year. Many apparently inactive land- focus of researchers both in geomorphology and in the agricultural slides are easily reactivated by any process or event that increases the sciences. In water erosion the principal agents of detachment are prevailing stress or decreases the frictional resistance to shear. raindrop splash and flowing water, either singly or in interaction. In Strongly-differentiated horizontal strata and prior deformation of wind erosion the initial detachment occurs due to the shear stress weak beds favour translational failure (Fig. 7A). With large gradients imposed by the wind itself, but subsequent detachment is caused by in hydraulic conductivity and variations in shear strength, sliding is the bombardment of the surface by soil particles in transport. In addi- confined to distinct horizontal beds and slide mass morphology is tion to wind and water, a third source of soil erosion (or more appro- dominated by graben structures (Mollard, 1977; Thomson and priately, redistribution) in agricultural landscapes is tillage (Lobb et al., Morgenstern, 1978). Commonly, landslides in the Cretaceous shales 1995; Govers et al., 1994). arecomplex mass movements. Individual landslides typically extend The use of the radioactive tracer Cesium-137 over the last decade for several kilometers along valley sides and can cover tens of square in sediment redistribution studies has greatly expanded our under- kilometers, commonly recording several periods of activity. standing of the patterns of soil redeposition. Applications of this A second major class of landslides (the first being those in marine technique in Saskatchewan indicates that the great majority of sedi- shales) are those associated with plateaus. With Pleistocene deposits ment is normally redeposited within the confines of the study land- thin or absent, meltwater and rain seeps through loess and coarse scape itself, rather than being exported. Hence researchers now Tertiary sediments, eventually saturating the underlying Cretaceous commonly focus on soil redistribution within a landscape, rather than clays and promoting deep-seated rotational landsliding (Fig. 7B; on soil erosion alone. Sauchyn, 1993). Controls: Both wind and water erosion processes are closely related Causes:Most landslides in the Palliser Triangle are caused by a few to extreme climatic events. Drought conditions are the necessary pre- common factors. The overriding cause is the inherently low shear cursor to wide-spread wind erosion. Analysis of drought incidence strength of the Upper Cretaceous shales (Scott and Brooker, 1968). and severity is complicated by the high spatial and temporal variabil-

12 ity associated with climatic events on the Prairies (Jones, 1991). drainage, saline waters dominate these lakes (Fig. 9). Indeed, Water erosion events are closely associated with two types of hydro- throughout much of the Palliser Triangle, saline and hypersaline logical events: snowmelt in the spring and high intensity rainfall brines are the only surface waters present. events throughout the snow-free period. In both cases the infiltration As a group, the lakes of this region are unique: no other area in the capacity of the soil is exceeded and sufficient runoff to detach and world can match the concentration and diversity of saline lake envi- transport soil is generated. ronments exhibited in the western interior region of Canada. The impact of climatic events on soil erosion cannot be separated Estimates vary from about 1.5 million to greater than 10 million indi- from the role of vegetation. Fully vegetated surfaces are not suscep- vidual salt lakes and saline wetlands in this region of North America, tible to wind or interill water erosion processes; only the most with densities in some areas being as high as 120 lakes km-2. While extreme forms of rill and gully erosion can operate under these con- the vast majority of these lakes are small, shallow, and ephemeral (i.e. ditions. Estimates of wind and water erosion rates from fully vege- playas), the region also contains several of North America’s largest tated pasture or native grassland areasare between .001 to 1% of inland saltwater bodies. the rates from bare soil (e.g. Evans, 1980; Coote, 1983). Only in the last two decades have researchers begun to appreciate Soil cultivation disrupts the natural protection afforded by vegeta- the wide spectrum of basin types, water chemistries, and geolimno- tion. Exposure of the soil surface is greatly exacerbated in the Palliser logical processes that are operating in the modern settings. Triangle by use of tillage summerfallow techniques; a two-year rota- Hydrochemical data are available for about 500 lake brines in the tion whereby crops are grown in year one and then in the second region. Mineralogical, textural, and geochemical information on the year the soil is not seeded to allow recharge of soil moisture stores, modern bottom sediments have been collected for just over 100 of as well as mineralization and nutrient release from crop residues. In these lakes. The Holocene stratigraphic records of only about 20 of the second year weeds are suppressed by successive tillage opera- the basins in the entire northern Great Plains of both Canada and tions which leaves the soil surface in a finely-divided, dry state – the USA have been examined in detail. optimum conditions for wind and, to a lesser degree, water erosion. The lake waters show a great range in salinity and ionic composi- Protection of the soil is greatly increased if the crop residue (stubble) tion. Early investigators, concentrating on the most saline brines, -2 from the previous crop is left standing on the field, and recently emphasized a strong predominance of Na+ and SO4 in the lakes developed approaches involving minimal tillage or herbicide suppres- (Cole, 1926; Sahinen, 1948; Govett, 1958). It is now realized, how- sion of weeds in the fallow year have greatly increased the residue ever, that not only is there a complete spectrum of salinities from <1 cover on fields. ppt to >400 ppt, but also virtually every water chemistry type is rep- + -2 The major wind erosion events in the Palliser Triangle are associat- resented. Lake brines with the highest proportions of Na and SO4 ed with prolonged dry conditions which reduce the amount of veg- ions generally occur in east central Alberta and west central +2 etation on the soil surface from both growing crops and crop Saskatchewan, whereas Ca and HCO3--rich brines dominate in the residues from previous years. Moss (1935) noted that severe wind north and east part of the region. Brines with relatively high Cl-and erosion was possible in all soil and landform types in the Brown soil Mg+2 contents occur in western and central Manitoba. Significant zone wherever a succession of crop failures had decreased the short-term temporal variations in brine composition, which can have residue cover on the soil surface. Crop failures caused by both important effects on modern sediment composition, have been well drought conditions and an assortment of disease and pest problems documented in several individual playa basins. resulted in massive amounts of wind erosion in the driest years of the From a sedimentological perspective, the wide range of water 1930's (Hopkins et al., 1946). A major snowmelt or precipitation chemistries results in an unusually large diversity of modern sediment event following a dry year also has high potential to cause large compositions. Over 40 species of endogenic precipitates and authi- amounts of soil redistribution. genic minerals have been identified in the lacustrine sediments (Last and Slezak, 1987; Last, 1989a). The most common non-detrital com- Current Rates of Soil Redistribution Measured with Cesium-137: ponents include: calcium and calcium-magnesium carbonates (mag- A Saskatchewan-wide study by Pennock and de Jong (1991) indicat- nesian calcite,aragonite, dolomite), and sodium, magnesium, and ed that a consistent landscape pattern existed in both the Dark Brown sodium-magnesium sulfates (mirabilite, thenardite, bloedite, and Brown soil zones. Even on level sites, the majority of sampling epsomite). Many of the basins whose brines have very high Mg/Ca points were losing soil, with loss at 100% of the sampling stations in ratios also have hydromagnesite, magnesite, and nesquehonite. extreme cases (Sutherland et al., 1991). In hummocky landscapes the Unlike salt lakes in many other areas of the world, halite, gypsum, proportion of the landscape experiencing soil loss is even higher and and calcite are relatively rare endogenic precipitates in Great Plains more consistent, with mean soil losses in steeper landscapes general- lakes today. ly exceed 20 t ha-1 yr-1 (i.e. >1.50 mm yr-1). Net soil redistribution was Sediment accumulation in these salt lakes is controlled and modi- close to zero even in catchments occupied by small, ephemeral fied by a wide variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes stream systems, with significant deposition being concentrated at a (Fig. 10). Although the details of the many modern sedimentary very few sites (Martz and de Jong, 1987, 1991). processes can be exceedingly complex and difficult to discuss in iso- Several major insights have emerged from the 137Cs studies in lation, in broad terms, the processes operating in the salt lakes of the Saskatchewan. Most importantly, the on-site impact of soil redistrib- Great Plains are ultimately controlled by 3 factors: (a) basin morphol- ution greatly exceeds the off-site impact, insofar as the net soil export ogy; (b) basin hydrology; and (c) water salinity and composition. from the study sites is, for the most part, quite low. Although the Combinations of these parameters give rise to four 'end member' majority of stations at each site experience mean soil losses in excess types of modern saline lacustrine settings in the region: (i) shallow of 10 t ha-1 yr-1, most of this sediment is deposited within the con- lakes (playas) dominated by clastic sediment; (ii) shallow lakes (playas) fines of the study sites and net export from the sites is low (Fig. 8). dominated by chemically precipitated sediment; (iii) deep water This suggests that landscape-scale models of soil redistribution must (perennial) lakes dominated by clastic sediment; and (iv) deep water take into account deposition within the field if a realistic sediment (perennial) lakes dominated by chemically precipitated sediment. budget for a given landscape is to be developed.

Salt Lakes

W.M. Last North America’s northern Great Plains form a unique setting for mil- lions of lakes. Because of the relatively high evaporation / precipita- tion ratios in this region and the presence of extensive areas of closed

13 STOP LOG

DAY ONE - ROAD GUIDE Stop 9:Backtrack 3.8 km to turnoff into Grasslands National Park. Then drive 13 km north on gravel road, turning west just past the Stop 1:Depart Regina from the interchange of highways 1 & 6. former village of Macworth. Proceed 15 km west and then 13 km Drive 39 km south on highway 6 to intersection with secondary high- north. Park at entrance to gravel pit on east side of the road. way 334. Turn right and follow 334 west (with a 3 km jog to the south) for 30 km. Stop before bridge over Avonlea Creek for best End of Day 1. Day 2 starts from Swift Current. exposures of bedrock, rise out of valley for view of Dirt and Cactus Hills. DAY TWO - ROAD GUIDE Stop 2:Continue west on highway 334 for 4.5 km to the 5-way Stop 10:Head west from Swift Current on highway 1, and continue stop sign on the NE edge of Avonlea. Continue straight west on 23 km past the interchange of highways 1 & 32. At turn off to the highway 339. After 8 km road jogs north for 3.3 km, and then con- town of Webb (which lies south of the highway), turn north onto tinues west for another 3 km. Turn south on gravel road following gravel road. Drive north for 3.25 km and turn left onto smaller road. signs to the Claybank Brick Yard (1.8 km south of highway), which Follow this road, which turns to a sand base, for 3.9 km past sever- has been converted into an outstanding museum (small admission al stabilized and one active dune. Stop just prior to second active charge). Clay pits lie to south behind the brick yard. dune (monitored site on airphoto of stop); a dugout should be pres- ent on the east side of the road. Stop 3:Return to highway 339 and proceed west past the town of Claybank. After about 3 km highway 339 turns north, but you con- Stop 11:Continue north and west along sand road for about 2.5 tinue due west on gravel grid road for 1.8 km. Follow the main grid km, and then turn north and drive 6.5 km on gravel road. Then turn road as it swings south past the former town of Bayard Station, and west on grid road and drive 4.1 km, stopping at the crest of the follow signs to Spring Valley (7.8 km west and 8 km south of Bayard esker. Station). Drive 1.1 km west of Spring Valley and turn left (south) on the grid road. Driving south for about 8.7 km, stop along road in Stop 12:Continue west along grid road for 7.4 km. Turn south and upper spillway. drive 3.25 km to intersection with paved road (in rather poor shape). Turn east for 1.4 km to gate to Antelope Regional Park. Follow roads Stop 4:Continue southeast and south down the spillway to an in Park (keeping to the right) down to picnic area and boat launch. intersection about 3.5 km past stop 3. Continue straight south through the intersection for another 6.4 km. Turn left (east ) and Stop 13:From entrance gate to Antelope Regional Park, drive west drive for 2.9 km to Oro Lake Regional Park. Follow road to the north for 4.2 km to intersection with highway 37. Drive south for 3.25 km to parking area at beach and concession area. and turn west on grid road. Drive 6.2 km, site lies on north side of road. Stop 5:Retrace route to grid road 3 km east of Oro Lake. Turn south and drive for 9.5 km (past the town of Ormiston) and then Stop 14:Turn around and return the 6.2 km to highway 37. Turn west for 10 km to highway 36. Head south for 19.5 km to a ‘T’ inter- south and drive about 72 km through the town of Gull Lake to section, then west for 10 km on highways 13/36, and finally south Shaunavon. At Shaunavon turn right onto highway 13 and travel for 6.5 km, stopping where convenient. southwest about 28 km. Gravel pit in drumlin lies on the right side of the highway. Stop 6:Continue south on highway 36 for about 7.5 km and make very sharp turn to the right, heading NW up a meltwater channel. Stop 15:Continue southwest down highway 13 for another 3.7 km, Travel about 18 km to the town of St. Victor. Look for signs to the park as you begin descent into valley. Petroglyphs and Regional Park near the western edge of the town. Historic site lies 2.7 km south of St. Victor on the east side of road, Stop 16:Continue 3 km further down highway 13 to the town of park in parking lot and follow walking trail. Eastend. At the west end of the town turn right and take small bridge across Frenchman River. Follow this road about 4.3 km to the Stop 7:From Historic Site parking lot proceed 3.8 km south, 2.5 km north rim of the Frenchman River Valley. Turn left (west) and proceed west, 3.2 km south and 6.5 km west along gravel roads to intersec- 5.5 km, then turn south (small sign marking Jones Peak) on a road tion with highway 2. Turn south on highway and travel approxi- that climbs for about 3 km to a communications tower. mately 21 km to the town of Rockglen. Continue south and then west from Rockglen for about 35 km. Park on south side of highway Stop 17:Return the 3 km to previous turnoff. Turn left and continue near gate. Table Butte lies on private land and is accessed by walking driving west for about 11.5 km. Just prior to reaching the town of up the steep trail. Ravenscrag, turn north on better quality gravel road and drive for 5.9 km. Gravel pit is on west side of the road, obtain permission from RM Stop 8:Continue southwest along highway 2 for 5.7 km, passing before entering. the settlement of Killdeer, before turning west onto a gravel road (look for signs to Grasslands National Park). Travel west for 8.5 km Stop 18:Continue north for about 0.5 km and turn west (road not and then south for 3.3 km. For public access to Grasslands National on 1:50 000 topographic map published in 1976). Follow this road Park, turn at park sign and travel about 3.8 km W and NW to a park- mainly west for 20 km, crossing Fairwell Creek after about 7 km. Park ing area and information display. Access via private land only with just before bridge over Belanger Canal. Walk north along canal for permission. about 250 m, good exposures along the east bank extend for about 1 km.

End of Day 2. Day 3 starts at from Cypress Hills Provincial Park.

14 DAY THREE - ROAD GUIDE for about 26 km to junction with highway 21. Travel north on paved highway for 10 km, and then turn east on SaskMinerals Road. Drive Stop 19:Start from miniature golf course on main road through about 10 km to Ingebright Lake. Cypress Hills Provincial Park (at turnoff to Four Seasons Resort). Continue SW along main road for 0.8 km, then turn right on scenic Stop 26B: Continue east on SaskMinerals Road. After crossing rail- road. Follow this road approximately 5 km to Bald Butte (marked by way tracks, turn north for 3 km and then east for about 14 km. Provincial Park sign). Freefight Lake is visible to just north of the road and accessed by a short walk. Stop 20:Continue west and then south along scenic road for about 4.5 km to ‘T’ junction with the Gap Road. If dry (IMPASSABLE WHEN Stop 27:Retrace route from Freefight Lake to Ingebright Lake and WET), travel west about 20 km to the intersection with highway 271 continue west back to highway 21. From junction of highway 21 and and turn south. After 1.6 km turnoff to Fort Walsh. About 5.5 km SaskMinerals Road, travel north past the town of Fox Valley for 35 along turn south to visitor centre at Fort Walsh National Historic Park. km to the town of Leibenthal. Turn east and follow grid road for 18 km, then north (straight leads into a ranch) for about 4.5 km on a Stop 21:Retrace route to turnoff about 4.5 km north of the visitor road that turns to sand and leads through the dunes. Two large centre, then turn west (ROAD IMPASSABLE WHEN WET). After about dunes (Picnic and Big dunes of David, 1993) lie to west of road. 3.2 km the road turns SW and descends into the Battle Creek Valley. A further 3.5 km down the road crosses Battle Creek for the first time End of Day 3. Day 4 starts in Leader. and turns NW up the valley. After another 5.5 km the road climbs onto Benson Creek landslide. Stop just before the road descends DAY FOUR - ROAD GUIDE onto a wide flat section of the valley floor. From Leader, travel 20 km east on highway 32 to the town of Stop 22:Continue NW along Battle Creek Road. About 2.5 km past Sceptre. If time permits, visit the Great Sand Hills Museum on the the provincial border turn left (south) onto Graburn Road. After north side of the highway, and enjoy the murals that adorn many of crossing Battle Creek take the right fork up a very steep (and often the buildings in Sceptre. very poor) road to plateau surface. Continue across the plateau for about 2 km; scarp of Police Point landslide lies about 200 m north of Stop 28:Continue east and SE on highway 32 for about 41 km to the road (alternative access from highway 48). the town of Abbey. At Abbey, make a very sharp left turn and head due north on a gravel road for 4.6 km and turn east. Stop about Stop 23:Retrace route back to Battle Creek Road. Turn left and head another 2.5 km as you begin to descend the Lancer ice thrust northwest for about 1 km. Where the road forks, keep right and fol- moraine. low main road north for about 15 km to junction with secondary highway 515. Turn right (east) and follow gravel road (724 in Stop 29:Continue down road through the moraine for about 1.5 Saskatchewan) to ‘T’ junction with highway 271. Turn south and km. Exposure lies near the base of moraine on the south side of the drive 5.8 km, turning right into private drive (OBTAIN PERMISSION). road, beside pulloff lot. Exposure lies about 1 km north of drive along east bank of valley. Stop 30:From paleosol site continue 5.8 km east and then 9.5 km Stop 24:Return to highway 271 and drive north and east to the south to junction with highway 32 at the town of Shackleton. Turn junction with highway 21 at the town of Maple Creek. Turn north left and travel 15.3 km SE to town of Cabri. At Cabri turn left onto and follow highway through town to junction with highway 1. Turn secondary highway 738 (gravel) and head generally east for 39 km east and drive along highway 1 for 17 km, turning north on first to junction with highway 4. Continue due east on highway 4 for 7 gravel road after passing the microwave tower. Drive north for 5.2 km, and then continue east on gravel road that skirts the north edge km, east for 1.5 km and north for 9.8 km, at which point the road of Stewart Valley (highway swings south). Continue along this road swings NE and eventually becomes a private drive. After about for 5.5 km where road begins descent into Swift Current Creek val- another 2 km (before entering ranch yard), turn north onto trail ley. crossing cattle guard. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP AND AIR PHOTOS HIGH- LY RECOMMENDED IN SAND HILLS. With permission from Bowie Stop 31:Retrace route back to highway 4 north of Stewart Valley. ranch, proceed generally north for about 4.5 km. The two monitored Turn right and follow the highway for about 40 km, crossing the blowout dunes lie about 200 m west of the trail. South Saskatchewan River at Saskatchewan Landing Provincial Park. Turn east onto highway 342 (paved) just north of the town of Kyle. Stop 25:Continue along same trail. At first junction veer left, at all Continue east for 7.8 km to Clearwater Lake Regional Park immedi- others keep to the right (heading NW). Travel approximately 3.5 km, ately north of the highway. with the large active parabolic dune visible to the northwest much of the time. Stop at dune, which in 1995 was just beginning to advance Stop 32:Return to highway 342 and drive generally east across the over the trail. Missouri Coteau for about 36 km heading toward town of Beechy. As this stop describes three sites on the Missouri Coteau, none of Stop 26:Continue north about 0.5 km and then east about 3.3 km which are accessible by road, there is no specific place to stop and on trail, keeping to the right at forks. Turn left at ‘T’ junction just past view. large sign (facing opposite direction, dog kennels are to your right). Follow trail north and east for 4 km, and again turn left (north) at End of Day 4. End of formal field trip. For additional information, next ‘T’ intersection before cattle guard. Remember to close gates if including other sites, look for future GSC publications of the Palliser they have to be opened. Drive north for about 1.5 km to junction Triangle Global Change Project, including a multimedia CD-Rom with grid road. Continue north and then generally west on grid road presently in preparation.

15 STOP DESCRIPTIONS

STOP 1: DIRT AND CACTUS HILLS FROM STOP 4: ORO LAKE AVONLEA CREEK R. E. Vanceand W. M. Last D. J. Sauchynand D. S. Lemmen NTS 72H/14 UTM 746150 NTS 72I/2 UTM 007404 Oro Lake is a small, topographically closed-basin saline lake located This stop, just east of the town of Avonlea (Fig. 12), lies near the immediately south of the Dirt Hills on the Missouri Coteau. Like many western margin of the glacial Lake Regina basin, an almost feature- prairie lakes, Oro Lake experienced a marked reduction in lake-level less plain of glaciolacustrine sediments (Avonlea is <25 m higher ele- in the last 20 years, and by the early 1990s had reached levels as low vation than Regina). At this site, a thin veneer of Quaternary sedi- as those of the 1930s. Once a popular recreational site, declining ment overlies bedrock. Small sections and badland topography along lake levels and deteriorating water quality have restricted use. Its Avonlea Creek expose horizontally bedded Upper Cretaceous sedi- combined attributes of relatively deep water and high salinity pro- ments (primarily Eastend Formation). To the west of Avonlea lies the duce finely laminated sediments in the deepest portion of the basin, Missouri Coteau and the Dirt and Cactus Hills; outstanding examples and vibracores collected in 1994 are laminated for most of their of glaciotectonic landforms (Fig. 3; see Aber, 1993). The northern length (Fig. 14). Although there has been no neolimnological or Dirt Hills rise about 280 m above the lake plain to an elevation of 880 modern sedimentological research yet done on the basin, the water m. The hills were produced by a readvance of three tongues of the column was chemically stratified in 1994, with 30‰ salinity surface Weyburn ice lobe during late Wisconsinan deglaciation (ca. 13 ka water and about 45‰ TDS at 5 m depth. Unlike many other salt BP). Blocks of poorly consolidated, and largely unfrozen, Upper lakes in the vicinity, Oro Lake brine is dominated by Mg2+ rather than Cretaceous bedrock (Eastend, Whitemud and lower Ravenscrag for- Na+. Oro Lake has the highest meq% magnesium of any salt lake yet mations) were upthrust as much as 250 m at the margin, or imme- studied in the Great Plains. The entire water column is strongly super- diately in front, of the ice tongues. Deformed glacial sediments indi- saturated with respect to many magnesium and magnesium+calcium cate that the Cactus Hills and much of the Dirt Hills were subse- carbonates and, during winter, is also saturated to supersaturated quently overridden by ice. The highest southern part of the Dirt Hills with respect to a variety of Mg-bearing sulfate salts. The surficial off- stood as a nunatak between active ice to the north and stagnant ice shore bottom sediments consist of a complex mixture of hydrated to the south. magnesium sulfates (epsomite and hexahydrite), magnesium+sodium sulfates (konyaite and bloedite), calcium sulfate (gypsum), magnesium STOP 2: DEFORMED BEDROCK NEAR CLAYBANK carbonate (magnesite), and detrital components (quartz, feldspars, clay minerals, carbonate minerals). The stratigraphic variation of these from Aber, 1993 endogenic components in an undated short core (Fig. 15) clearly sug- gests that the basin has experienced considerable hydrochemical NTS 72I/3 UTM 844418 changes in the past several decades, consistent with observations by At the northeastern end of the Cactus Hills, clay pits expose a gentle long-term residents of the area. anticline in the Upper Cretaceous Whitemud and Lower Ravenscrag Holocene stratigraphic sequences recovered from Oro Lake, with formations that trends east-west and plunges very slightly to the the exception of basal colluvium and peat in OR1 and OR2, consist west (Fig. 13). The anticline is partially truncated at its crest and dis- mainly of well bedded, highly calcareous and gypsiferous clayey silts. cordantly overlain by till. Thrust and normal faults strike northeast A 9500 year record of sedimentation was obtained from central and dip northwest. They cut obliquely across the anticline, suggest- basin area (OR1; Fig. 16). The basal sediment is a very dry, compact, ing a later phase of deformation than the folding. These structures silty diamicton composed mainly of detrital quartz, feldspars, and demonstrate that the lower, ice-pushed ridges of the northern Dirt clay minerals. Overlying the diamict is a 10 cm thick peat, containing Hills were overridden by thick active ice. a rich macrofossil assemblage dominated by sedge and chenopod seeds, and Charaoogonia. The peat is sharply overlain by 1.8 m of laminated gypsite, that in turn is sharply overlain by 3.2 m thick unit STOP 3: SKYETA LAKE SPILLWAY of finer-grained, aragonite-rich silty clay. This thick aragonite unit is from Aber, 1993 also well laminated, with a wide variety of bedding types ranging from very thin to thin (<1 mm to 3 mm) monomineralic laminae, NTS 72H/14 UTM 707238 graded beds, and distorted and convoluted bedding. Another sharp contact separates this unit from an upper gypsum-rich laminated A prominent spillway descends to Skyeta Lake (Fig. 12) across the sequence which comprises the top 3 m of section. The upper 70 cm east-west trending bedrock ridges of the southern Dirt Hills (Fig. 13). of this youngest stratigraphic unit is non-bedded, with gradually A kame of poorly sorted bouldery gravel marks the head of the spill- increasing levels of hydrated sodium and magnesium sulfate salts way and margin of the Spring Valley ice tongue. Interbedded fine and decreased gypsum upward in the section. Compared to the basal sands, silts and clays of the Eastend Formation are exposed in road- peat layer, macrofossil concentration is low throughout all upper cuts adjacent to the spillway. These sediments lie about 200 m above units. Variations in major components, including Chara, Ruppia, their normal stratigraphic position in this area, with a near vertical Scirpusand chenopods, suggest changes in water level and water fault contact against glacial sediments to the south. At the southern quality have occurred, although none appear as significant as early end of the spillway a terrace, underlain by well-sorted, bouldery grav- Holocene events. el, grades southward to a higher elevation than the surrounding With its long, apparently uninterrupted record of laminated sedi- landscape. This suggests that stagnant ice occupied the region south ment, Oro Lake is one of the more important lacustrine sequences of the Dirt Hills when the spillway was active. A gravel pit at the yet retrieved from the Great Plains region of western Canada. mouth of the spillway contains coarse gravel, extremely well-round- Preliminary interpretation of the stratigraphic changes in chemical ed boulders and a great variety of rock types, including petrified precipitates in this section suggests that although the overall salinity wood, representing distal outwash deposits associated with the spill- and depth of the lake probably did not change dramatically after way. deposition of the basal clastic-dominated unit, ion ratios of the brine

16 did undergo significant variation. The lower gypsite unit was deposit- by calcareous lacustrine clays with abundant mollusc shells, and fine, ed in an early Holocene Ca–SO4 dominated saline lake. Water depths irregularly-spaced lamination. Most of the laminae in the lower part were sufficiently great (> ~3 m) to preserve lamination or the lake of this unit are dominated by normal (low–Mg) calcite, suggesting a was chemically stratified. A relatively abrupt change in water chem- Mg/Ca ratio of less than 1 in the lake. The upper 50 cm of the unit istry occurred at about 6900 BP with the lake becoming considerably contains laminae composed of magnesian calcite with 4-10 mol% more alkaline and having a Mg/Ca ratio of not less than 10 to over MgCO3 content, indicating a Mg/Ca ratio of 2:5. Grading upward, 100. Another sharp change occurred in the chemistry of the lake at the carbonate content decreases whereas gypsum and other evapor- about 3500 BP The previous 3400 year long episode of stable but ites dominate the endogenic component of the sediment. This high Mg/Ca ratios and high alkalinities was replaced by 2500 years change from carbonate-rich to sulfate-rich laminated sediment prob- of rapidly fluctuating but still saline water compositions. Beginning ably reflects a gradually increasing brine concentration. The occur- about 1000 years ago, periodic hypersaline conditions became more rence of pedogenic horizons and microbial-laminated zones indicate common in the basin, coincident with significantly decreased con- the lake experiences shallow water to completely dry conditions. centrations of Ca2+ and complimentary increased proportions of Na+ Overlying the gypsum-rich laminated unit is a thin, structureless, and Mg2+ ions. Continued mineralogical (W. M. Last) and plant black, highly reducing sulfide-rich mud which passes sharply up into macrofossil (R.E. Vance) analyses in all three cores, combined with well indurated salt. Although sediment recovery from this salt unit stable isotope stratigraphy of core OR1 (M. C. Padden), will allow was poor, the detailed evaporite mineralogy indicates that the pre- + -2 development of a detailed record of Holocene climate change and cipitating brine was initially high in Na and SO4 but became impacts on water resources. increasingly Mg+2–rich. Finally, the upper 1.5 m of sediment consist of structureless, clayey silt and silty clay with relatively high endo- STOP 5: WILLOW BUNCH LAKE genic aragonite contents. W. M. Last STOP 6: ST. VICTOR PETROGLYPHS

NTS 72H/5 UTM 530799 D. J. Sauchyn- from SERM, no date 2 Willow Bunch Lake is a large (30 km ) but very shallow (Zmean < 1m) NTS 72H/5 UTM 371734 salt lake occupying a long, topographically–closed riverine basin (Table 1). Willow Bunch, Twelve Mile and Big Muddy lakes, as well The St. Victor Petroglyph Park is the only horizontal petroglyph site as Lake of the Rivers, lie within a major glacial meltwater spillway sys- on the Canadian plains and one of only five in Canada east of the BC tem that drained lakes impounded along the retreating margin of the coast. The age and origin of these rock carvings is unknown, but they Late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet southward into the Missouri most likely predate 1750 when the horse arrived on the northern River (Parizek, 1964; Christiansen, 1979). Although the present-day plains. Some glyphs are superimposed on others. Thus they may have drainage basin of Willow Bunch Lake is large (>1000 km2), its hydro- been carved over a number of years by various carvers, possibly logic budget today appears to be dominated by groundwater influx shaman (medicine men) of the early Sioux and Assiniboine. The and diffuse overland inflow rather than stream inflow. Typical of most glyphs were outlined with quartzite chisel and hammer stone, and of the shallow, playa basins in the region, the lake undergoes dra- refined using wood implements, water and sand. They were carved matic water level fluctuations on a seasonal as well as longer-term in late Cretaceous–early Tertiary sandstone (Ravenscrag formation) temporal basis, however, the basin has not completely dried during exposed about 500 m above the adjacent valleys. From this vantage the period 1983 to present. Similarly, brine concentration and ionic point, the native people had a panoramic view of the surrounding composition also vary greatly on a seasonal and spatial basis. Willow landscape. They carved turtles, human heads and hand prints, and Bunch Lake water is saline (average salinity over the past decade is the tracks of grizzly bear, bison, deer, elk and antelope (Fig. 18). about 50‰), alkaline (pH = 9.8), and usually dominated by Na+ and Other glyphs are not understood or have been weathered and erod- 2- - 2+ SO4 (Cl ) (Table 2). The concentration of Ca is anomalously low ed beyond recognition. relative to the inflowing groundwater and surface streams. Seasonal variations in brine chemistry result from dilute inflow during spring, STOP 7: TABLE BUTTE, WOOD MOUNTAIN UPLAND evaporative concentration during the ice free season, and precipita- tion of salts due to freeze-out concentration. Spatial variations are R. W. Klassen most likely caused by subaqueous spring discharge of Ca2+ and - HCO3 –enriched groundwater. NTS 72G/1 UTM 044415 Modern sediments in the lake are a mixture of fine to coarse detri- tal clastics (mainly quartz, feldspars and clay minerals), and endogenic Wood Mountain Upland consists of extensive tracts of flat to gently carbonate and sulfate minerals. The ratio of detrital to endogenic irregular unglaciated bedrock terrain as well as smaller areas of sediments shows a gradation from relatively high at the western end strongly dissected bedrock terrain which feature a thin drift cover. of the basin to low at the eastern end. The organic matter content is Table Butte (elevation 1000 m) is a residual of the unglaciated terrain low and dominated by detrital rather than endogenic organics. The (Rp, Fig. 19), surrounded by dissected terrain with residual drift (dRd, dominate endogenic carbonate mineral present in the modern sedi- Fig. 19; Klassen, 1992b). Both terrain types are underlain by sand ment is aragonite, although both magnesian calcite (with 10-14 and gravel of the Miocene Wood Mountain Formation, and are dom- mol% MgCO3) and protodolomite both occur in minor proportions. inantly the product of Late Tertiary and the Quaternary fluvial The small amount of protodolomite is unusual because it contains processes. excess MgCO3 rather than being Ca–enriched. The lake water is at all The unglaciated bedrock terrain forms the northern terminus of times of the year undersaturated with respect to gypsum and this the Flaxville Plain (Alden, 1924), which consists of similar terrain cov- evaporite mineral does not occur in the modern sediments despite its ering over 2500 km2 in Montana. The genetic term “unglaciated” is common occurrence in soils and drift surrounding the lake. applied to these surfaces because they are devoid of glacial land- The Holocene lacustrine stratigraphy from Willow Bunch Lake is forms or erratics. Earlier workers applied the descriptive term "drift- known from just one 7 m long core taken at the eastern end of the less" to these surfaces, presumably because they didn't rule out the basin (Fig. 17). With only two conventional 14C ages (on bulk organ- possibility that they had been glaciated. ic matter and endogenic carbonate material), the chronostratigraphy The adjacent strongly dissected bedrock terrain with residual drift is highly suspect. The lithostratigraphic units identified in this core commonly features local relief up to 30 m, primarily a product of flu- consist of a basal coarse clastic (alluvial?) unit that is sharply overlain vial erosion. The mature, integrated drainage network developed in

17 this terrain suggests that the main geomorphic elements predate the It identified about 900 km2 of proposed park in two blocks: the West Quaternary, with the role of Quaternary glaciation (recorded by the Block southeast of Val Marie and the smaller, more remote East Block residual drift) in shaping these landscapes remaining uncertain. If the west of Killdeer. The agreement also gave the province five years to erratics scattered across these surfaces are residuals of ancient glacia- explore for oil and gas, before the park would be formally estab- tion, then virtually all other evidence of that glaciation has been lished. The most contentious issue however was not oil and gas but removed. An alternative origin for the erratics is ice rafting by melt- water. The park was formally created in 1988 after Parks Canada water from an ice margin along the northern edge of the Wood agreed to exclude the streams from their jurisdiction. Other depar- Mountain Upland. However, the elevation (980 m) of erratics embed- tures from conventional Parks Canada policy included the acquisition ded in the outer rim of Table Butte stand well above the surrounding of land "in the open market" rather than by expropriation. terrain, making an ice rafted origin unlikely. The surface of Table Initially the local ranchers and farmers were opposed to the park, Butte inside the outer rim is devoid of glacial erratics and similar to but most eventually saw it as inevitable and then became anxious to the unglaciated terrain immediately to the east. take advantage of a proposed purchase and relocation package. Parks Canada advertised their interest in land, but the acquisition of History (from SERM, no date):A short distance north of this stop properties was postponed until the 1988 agreement and then further lies Wood Mountain Post Provincial Historic Park, best known as the delayed by the reorganization of Parks Canada. Land owners have temporary home of up to 4000 American Sioux and their leader become frustrated. The properties can be inherited. For these rea- Sitting Bull from 1876-1881. The Wood Mountain Post was estab- sons, land acquisition is proceeding slowly and may require many lished by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP), by purchasing an years. existing Boundary Commission depot, during their inaugural march The park office is in Val Marie. Facilities within the park are primi- westward in 1874. The Post was closed in 1874 when Fort Walsh tive, and likely always will be. The dominant feature of the West was built in the Cypress Hills, but its proximity to the US border Block is the Frenchman River valley, a broad meltwater channel (see proved to be strategic. Stop 15 of this guide). Canada's only prairie dog colonies are also As a result of events in the US plains, culminating in the Battle of found in the West Block of the Park. Little Bighorn in 1876, the Wood Mountain Post was reopened. The NWMP were waiting when Sitting Bull and his people arrived in STOP 9: WOOD MOUNTAIN UPLAND 1877. The Canadian government declared the Sioux political refugees, but took no responsibility for their welfare. Despite the R. W. Klassen generosity of the police and a local trader, Jean Louis Legare, the Sioux were unable to survive in Canada. When the Buffalo herds NTS 72G/7 UTM 780608 moved south across the border, the Sioux could not follow. In 1881, sick and near starvation, they returned to the US where Sitting Bull This site is located near the northern rim of the Wood Mountain surrendered at Fort Buford, Montana. The Post closed again in 1883 Upland and provides a superb panoramic view of the ground but soon reopened with the Riel Rebellion in 1885. It continued to moraine and lake plains north of the Upland. It also marks the operate as a police post until 1918, through the ranching and early boundary between patchy ground moraine (Mv, Fig 22) on the homestead periods. At the site of the 1887 post, two log buildings Upland surface (ca.1000 m asl) and a colluvial complex (rCx, Fig. 22) have been reconstructed. over the bedrock escarpment that drops about 100 m to the ground moraine plain to the north (Klassen, 1992b). The Upland surface con- STOP 8: KILLDEER BADLANDS / GRASSLANDS sists mostly of sand and gravel of the Wood Mountain Formation as NATIONAL PARK well as scattered glacial erratics and a patchy veneer of till. The grav- el pits at the site have been excavated along the margin of a "hang- R. W. Klassenand D .J. Sauchyn ing" meltwater channel, and expose an iron stained, fine quartzite gravel more than 6 m thick overlain by discontinuous patches of sand. A well-developed soil profile in these sediments suggests they NTS 72G/2 UTM 893356 are primarily in situWood Mountain Formation, although some were The Killdeer Badlands consist of isolated buttes with intervening flats likely reworked by the meltwater that formed the channel. and gullied surfaces having a local relief of up to 50 m (dRh, Fig. 20; On the basis of detailed regional mapping, it has been proposed Klassen, 1992b). They lie along the western margin of the nearly flat that the mass wasting and gullying evident on the patchy ground surface of bedrock terrain with residual drift (dRp, Fig. 20). moraine surface (Mv, Fig. 22) over the southern slopes of Wood Distinctive hues of richly coloured Upper Cretaceous clays, silts and Mountain Upland may reflect a considerably greater age (Early sands of the Whitemud, Eastend and Frenchman formations mark Wisconsinan or older?) than the less eroded surfaces on similar the succession of beds exposed along the slopes of the buttes. The slopes north of the Upland (Klassen, 1992a). Nonetheless, scattered flat tops of the buttes (Fig. 21) are plateau remnants and commonly occurrences of till on the Upland, less the 2 m thick, are similar in tex- underlain by a veneer of in situor re-worked sand and quartzite grav- ture and composition to the regional till to the north ( till exposed in el of the Wood Mountain Formation, that in turn overlies sand of the an outcrop about 6 km south of this site is olive grey (5Y 4/3 moist Early Tertiary (Paleocene – Eocene) Ravenscrag Formation. Glacial Munsell chart), roughly equal proportions of sand, silt and clay, with erratics are scattered over the highest surfaces and occur within the about 10% carbonate in the silt fraction). These similarities may mix of colluvium and alluvium that forms a veneer over bedrock in question whether there is a significant age differences among the till the bottom of these valleys. Again, the main landscape elements like- surfaces in this region, or if in fact all these tills are of Late ly predate the Quaternary, although erratics do provide evidence of Wisconsinan age. glaciation. Mass wasting processes continue to shape the bedrock surfaces and ephemeral streams periodically flush accumulations of STOP 10: SEWARD SAND HILLS colluvium out of local drainage basins and into large valleys down- S. A. Wolfe stream of the badlands. UTM 72K/1 UTM 958686 Grasslands National Park:This stop overlooks the East Block of Grasslands National Park. The concept of a grasslands preserve in All dunes of the Seward Sand Hills (and the entire Palliser Triangle), southern Saskatchewan was first proposed by the Saskatchewan are either blowout or parabolic. In contrast to barchans, parabolic Natural History Society in 1957. After years of task forces and public dunes have slipfaces that are convex in plan view and wings, where hearings, Canada and Saskatchewan signed an agreement in 1981. developed, pointing upwind (see schematic diagram, Fig. 49). At this

18 site dune orientation reflects dominant transporting winds from the you cross onto an extensive glaciolacustrine plain (dominantly fine southwest (Fig. 23). The source sediments were glaciolacustrine sand and silt) on which lies Antelope Lake. Land use strongly reflects sand, with some dunes having migrated out of the basin and across the nature of the surficial materials, with crop production largely till-mantled slopes. Most of the dunes in this area are presently sta- restricted to the glaciolacustrine plain. bilized, however, several partially active blowouts occur on otherwise stabilized dunes (Fig. 23). Locally there has been a net decrease in STOP 12: ANTELOPE LAKE area of active sand over the last 50 years. W. M. Lastand R. E. Vance Closed parabolic dunes and track ridges:Most sand dunes in the NTS 72K/8 UTM 845721 area have a prominent, stabilized distal (back) ridge connecting the upwind wing tips, forming closed parabolic dunes (Fig. 23). In addi- Antelope Lake (Fig. 25) is a relatively large, closed-basin saline lake tion, several feature a series of 4 to 5 low (about 0.5 high) parallel on the eastern margin of the Great Sand Hills. Like many other basins "dune–track" ridges between the back ridge and the head of the in the northern Great Plains, there has been a dramatic decrease in dune. All ridges are the result of sand being deposited along the mar- lake level over the past two decades. High water levels during the gin of the formerly-active deflation area, and are well delineated by 1960s and 70s prompted the construction of regional park facilities, tree and high shrub cover that contrasts the grass cover of the sur- and with routine fish stocking, the lake became a popular recreation rounding low ground. The back ridge marks the former up-wind site. Since the mid-1970s however, water levels have steadily position of each dune, whereas the track ridges record progressive declined (Fig. 25), and salinity has increased from less than 10‰ to downwind migration. Well-developed track ridges occur exclusively over 30‰ (Table 3). During the summer of 1994, chemical stratifi- on poorly-drained soils where there is only a relatively thin veneer of cation of the lake was recorded for the first time. Presently, lake underlying sand. water is strongly supersaturated with respect to aragonite and Optical dating of sand in these ridges suggests the entire sequence protodolomite, but slightly undersaturated with respect to gypsum. of deposition occurred between 130 and 200 years ago, with a mean A 210Pb chronology (Turner 1994) was developed for a gravity core migration rate of roughly 2 m a-1. Dating of other stabilized sand collected in the offshore area of the basin (Fig. 26). These data, com- dunes in the core region of the Palliser Triangle reveal that many of bined with the historical hydrochemical and hydrologic information the stabilized dunes were active within the last 200 years. and detailed sediment composition, emphasize the complex interre- lationships that exist between water level, salinity, endogenic miner- GSC Monitored Dune(Fig. 23):This site is a large, active blowout al saturation and precipitation in even a relatively simple saline lake. dune which has formed in the head of a stabilized parabolic dune. The deposition of aragonite throughout the past 100 years in Migration of the slipface and the active sand front have been moni- Antelope Lake confirms that the brine has maintained a relatively tored since October 1993. By September 1995 (last reading before high Mg/Ca ratio. The sporadic occurrence of a disordered species of production of this guide) the prominent slipface had advanced dolomite (protodolomite) further indicates occasional excursions approximately 6 m, while the low sand front had migrated between toward very high Mg/Ca and probably also very high carbonate alka- 17 and 22 m. The rapid migration of the sand front was the result of linities. The distribution of gypsum, a soluble evaporitic mineral, slipface lowering and deflation of sand away from the dune proper. shows the influence of (i) generally elevated salinities, particularly Although vegetation has begun to colonize the slipface and active from 1965 on, and (ii) lowered carbonate alkalinities and correspon- sand front, the eroding area remains active and unvegetated. Local ding increased sulfate concentrations. Continuing plant macrofossil attempts at controlling the blowout have failed thoroughly, and the (Vance) and mineralogical analyses (Last) on these cores, combined fence around the perimeter of the blowout is now almost complete- with plant pigment studies, will allow documentation of recent lake ly covered by sand. The active blowout has exposed the stratigraphy response to land-use and climate change. of the parabolic dune, revealing stacked topset beds related to Vibracores were collected from near- and offshore positions to migrating bedforms on the former dune surface. High–angled ava- extend the record of lake-level and salinity oscillations. Offshore cores lanche strata are conspicuously absent in the dune stratigraphy. The (AL1,2) are composed of massive to faintly bedded silty clay. base of the dune is composed of low-angled bottomsets or toe Macrofossils are sparse in these two cores (4.5 and 5.4 m long, deposits, underlain by fine-grained lacustrine sediments. An optical respectively) but an AMS age on seeds from 1.6-1.65 m in AL2 dated age of 114±9 years ago from sands 7 m above the base indicates to 1260 BP, suggesting that AL2 may extend to the mid-Holocene. that the stabilized parabolic dune was fully active in the past two Near shore core AL3 (collected 100 m from the current eastern shore- centuries. line), consisting of 6.5 m of silty clay interbedded with sand, has pro- duced macrofossil assemblages AMS dated to 1960 and 3180 BP STOP 11: ANTELOPE LAKE ESKER (60-75 cm and 5.15-5.20 m, respectively). Deposition rates are evi- dently much higher in the littoral zone. D. J. Sauchynand D. S. Lemmen In addition to providing a record of lake-level variation, the close NTS 72K/8 UTM 901763 proximity of Antelope Lake to the Great Sand Hills suggests that this basin holds considerable promise for recording variations in eolian The Antelope Lake esker is the largest esker in the Prelate map sheet activity. Core AL3 displays considerable fluctuations in various grain (72K), over 15 km long and rising more than 40 m above the sur- size parameters and in the proportions of fine grained siliciclastic rounding terrain at its highest point (Fig, 24, dashed line). Its promi- components. The presence of both gypsum and aragonite combined nence makes it an ideal site for the telecommunications tower north with the absence of laminations throughout the upper 3 m suggests of the grid road. The stop provides an excellent view of the sur- that the lake was a relatively shallow, nonstratified body of water rounding terrain, that includes crop and pasture lands as well as that probably varied on a seasonal basis from a modestly saline Antelope Lake. (hyposaline?), bicarbonate-rich solution with Mg/Ca ratios of 2-10 to David (1964) mapped the esker as ice-contact stratified drift, with a somewhat more saline (TDS >~30‰), sulfate-dominated lake. paleo-water flow towards the south. Given the small population and Preliminary plant macrofossil analyses support this reconstruction, limited development of the region, there are no commercial gravel especially in the upper 75 cm of the record, where a steady rain of pits. Thus there are no stratigraphic data for this site. Approaching shoreline constituents indicates shoreline proximity. Sediments in the the esker from the east you travel across a glaciofluvial outwash plain lower 3 m of core are much better laminated and have a much more (GF, Fig. 24), dominantly composed of sand and fine gravel. In places irregular distribution of endogenic precipitates implying that lower- these sands have been extensively reworked by eolian processes, salinity conditions were more common. Shoreline plant macrofossil forming the Seward Sand Hills (Stop 10) and Antelope Sand Hills (Er input also suggests generally higher lake levels during this period, as on photo, Fig. 24). Descending the steep western side of the esker few macrofossils were recovered throughout much of the basal 3.5

19 m (with the exception of the 3.6 to 4.0 m section), especially from hanging channels, ascend the northern regional slope and converge 4.5 to 5.5 m. Particularly noteworthy in this lower half of the section on the southern slope into the Frenchman Valley. Low-relief hum- is the occurrence of a nonbedded, 50 cm thick quartz-rich unit. This mocky topography on interfluves extends across the floors of cross- unit is also characterized by very low organic matter content, and low linking valleys, but terminates at the edges of the master valleys. endogenic and clay mineral components and may represent an Hummocks are underlain by loamy diamictons with sandy and grav- extended period of increased eolian input to the basin. elly interbeds and large (5 m) cut-and-fill structures. Formation of the channel system is attributable to subglacial waterflow and it follows STOP 13: SOIL EROSION - GULL LAKE RM that the connecting part of Frenchman Valley should have the same origin. D. S. Lemmen Shaunavon Plateau (955–1020 m asl) forms a 6 km wide arcuate swale cut below, and parallel to, the scabland limit. The hummocky NTS 72K/7 UTM 734695 surface of the plateau includes parallel ridges oriented transverse to The field on the north side of the road (T15, R19, SW15, west of the the edges of the scablands. Individual hummocks are composed of third meridian) is one of 25 sites sampled by Pennock et al. (1995) in diamictons with sand and pebble interbeds and soft-sediment defor- a study of the influence of parent material on rates of soil erosion in mation structures that conform to the land surface. This suggests the rural municipalities of Gull Lake and Webb. This site lies within a that rapid subaqueous sedimentation was followed by moulding at belt of hummocky moraine. Far greater information on the nature of the base of the ice sheet. If correct, the transverse ridges may reflect surficial material can be derived from the regional soil maps, at a ripples on the glacier sole, similar to ice ripples on the base of mod- scale of 1:100,000, than the available surficial geology maps (at ern river ice (Ashton and Kennedy, 1972). 1:250,000 scale). The textural detail of the soil maps is particularly Dollard Plain (938 to 955 m asl), 13 km wide, has ridged terrain, useful, although geomorphologists should treat the genetic interpre- crescentic troughs, and drumlins, most of them grouped into a 32- tations of some parent material with caution. The soil unit at this site km long SW-oriented train that rises from 915 to 953 m asl (Fig. 29). is Haverhill-Valor 4; brown soils formed in a mixture of slightly stony, Troughs, 0.1 to 2.0 km wide, have SW-pointing horns that extend loamy glacial till (Haverhill) and shallow lacustrine materials (Valor) into broad, shallow flutes on the flanks of low shield-shaped emi- with loam to silt loam surface textures (Saskatchewan Institute of nences (including drumlins). These morphological elements resemble Pedology, 1988). Soil mapping places this site in slope class 4–5, sichelwannen, produced through erosion by high-energy waterflow moderately to strongly sloping (5–15%), and the surface form as H (Allen, 1971; Kor et al., 1991). If the troughs are of similar origin, (hummocky) and D (dissected). they would reflect a broad paleoflow over the divide. Trough sedi- Five parent material groups were examined in the study; till, fine ments at the Shaunavon Golf Course (UTM 72F/9 817008) included glaciolacustrine sand, glaciolacustrine silt, coarse glaciofluvial sand, a basal boulder bed overlain by massive clay (5 m), indicating scour- and silty loess. Ten soil samples from each site were analysed for ing followed by still-water sedimentation. 137Cs concentration (Fig. 28; see Introductory paper by D.J. Pennock) Along the trough edge, sorted gravels (1.0 m) on the clay are over- as well as organic and inorganic carbon and grain size. Five sample lain by cross-bedded and cross-laminated sands (0.5 m), indicating sites (4 cultivated and one control site) were selected in each parent abrupt resumption and waning of southwestward flow. Diamicton material group. This methodology does not allow reconstruction of (1.5 m thick) extends from the edge of the trough across the adja- the sediment budget for the field, but rather serves to provide a rel- cent drumlin. Thus, the sediments accumulated subglacially and the ative measure of erosion susceptibility between sites. All samples paleo-water flow was up the regional slope. were taken on divergent landform elements, shown by Pennock and DeJong (1991) to consistently show the highest rate of soil loss. The Bidaux Drumlin:The drumlins of the Dollard Plain, noted by 137Cs redistribution technique (Fig. 27) has limitations for geomor- McConnell (1885) and described by Kupsch (1955), are 5m high phic analysis, as it provides only a signal of net erosion since a base- shields to 30m high conical hills with steep stoss slopes that descend line date of 1963. It is not able to differentiate erosion by water ver- into crescentic frontal troughs. The composition of the Bidaux drum- sus that by wind or tillage, nor does it provide information on possi- lin is representative of several drumlins examined. The main sand pit ble high impact, single events. Two adjacent fields with identical reveals four tilted sediment units with anticlinal architecture. Unit I characteristics might, in theory, show very different average erosion (ca. 18 m thick) is composed of fine gravelly sand, with SW-climbing rates if one lay fallow during a severe erosion season while the other gravel dunes and silty interbeds of climbing ripples. Unit II (ca. 0.5 m had a protective crop cover. Thus sample strategy is particularly thick) is a bed of rounded cobbles with a sand matrix. Many of the important in this type of study. cobbles that are clast-supported have vertical fractures (Fig. 30). Unit Results of the study showed the highest median soil losses III (ca 0.5 m thick) is clay with rare sand laminae and dropstones. It (30 t ha-1 a-1) associated with hummocky till landscapes, with the grades into unit IV (ca 0.5 m thick) composed of loamy diamicton. lowest values found for the silty and fine sand glaciolacustrine and Very large boulders initially present on the drumlin surface have been eolian parent materials (Fig. 28). This particular site was one of the mechanically removed. most severely eroded of those sampled in the study, with a median A crescentic depression separates this drumlin from its nearest 137Cs of 880 Bq m-2 (study range 611 to 2373 Bq m-2). These neighbour to the NE , which was described by Kupsch (1955). It con- observed rates of soil loss can be used to calibrate geomorphic mod- tains similar tilted sediments, but its crest was found to be pierced by els of soil loss in the region. a slab of bedrock with a planimetric exposure of 10 x 60 metres, dip- ping 75o in the stoss direction. The sediments from both drumlins are STOP 14: SWIFT CURRENT PLATEAU AND attributable to cavity flow, followed by loading and bedrock failure. BIDAUX DRUMLIN STOP 15: FRENCHMAN RIVER VALLEY, EASTEND W. J. Vreeken R. W. Klassenand D. J. Sauchyn NTS F/10 UTM 630893 NTS 72F/10 UTM 609869 The Swift Current Plateau can be divided into three geomorphic sub- divisions, Grassy Creek Scabland, Shaunavon Plateau, and Dollard The Frenchman valley is a Late Wisconsinan meltwater trench, occu- Plain, zoned from east to west across the continental divide (Vreeken, pied by the Frenchman River downstream of Cypress Lake and fur- 1991). Grassy Creek Scabland, on the highest part of the plateau ther west by Lodge, Battle and Middle Creeks. It extends about 300 (1020-1045 m asl), features an anastomosed channel system cut into km, much in side-hill position, from the western and southern mar- bedrock (Ravenscrag Formation). Master channels, cross-linked by gins of the Cypress Hills, across the southern boundary of the Swift

20 Current Creek Plateau, along the southwestern slopes of Wood part of the Frenchman Valley. The Whitemud Formation is a particu- Mountain Upland, and into Montana. From this site, along the east larly conspicuous white kaolinized sandstone. It appears at various side of Eastend Coulee, you are looking at the confluence of the elevations along the valley sides because it has been faulted and dis- Frenchman and Swift Current meltwater channels (Fig. 31). Looking placed downslope in large rotational landslides. Aspect control of west into the Cypress Hills, the Frenchman Valley is about 5 km wide vegetation is apparent in the dramatic contrast between coniferous and 120 m deep, while downstream (southeast) it is only about 2 km trees on the north-facing valley side and sparse vegetation on the wide and 30 m deep. The Swift Current meltwater channel (north, south-facing slopes. Eastend Coulee), is about 3 km wide and 40 m deep. The side-hill positions of the Swift Current meltwater chan- STOP 17: CYPRESS HILLS FORMATION nel and its major tributary valleys (Jones and Bone creeks), as well as the confluence with Frenchman Valley all reflect an origin as ice mar- D. A. Leckieand R. W. Klassen ginal spillways flowing mainly south from proglacial lakes along the northern slopes of Cypress Hills nunatak. However, the northern seg- NTS 72F/11 UTM 374898 ment of the Swift Current meltwater channel (presently occupied by Swift Current Creek) appears to have formed by meltwater flowing The west wall of this gravel pit exposes gravel and sand of the northeast, with the present drainage divide lying 5 km north of this Tertiary Cypress Hills Formation. The sediments of this formation are site. Although post glacial infilling of up to 80 m in Swift Current and multicyclic; originally derived from the western ranges of the Rocky Frenchman valleys (Fig. 32) may account for the present drainage Mountains (Fig. 34) during the Late Cretaceous Laramide Orogeny, direction, the position of the northern segment of Swift Current they were shed further into the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin Valley is best explained as a result of northeast flowing meltwater as a result of rebound and associated thrusting due to regional ero- during deglaciation (Klassen, 1994). The relatively smaller size of sion, and retransported yet again as a result of intrusive uplift of the Frenchman Valley to the east of the confluence may reflect its origin Sweetgrass Hills, Bearpaw and Highwood mountains in northern as a supraglacial channel across an ice lobe between the Cypress Montana during the Late Eocene and Oligocene (Leckie and Cheel, Upland and the ice-free Wood Mountain Upland to the east. The 1989). Transport during this final phase was largely restricted to val- lowest unit of the valley fills was likely deposited during deglaciation ley confined rivers with braidplains beginning beyond the valley ter- (beginning ca. 15 ka BP), with the upper unit (about 40 m thick) mini (Fig. 35), with the regional paleoslope dipping to the northeast. being deposited between ca. 11.5 and 4 ka BP and the late Holocene The Cypress Plain, which forms the highest surfaces of the Cypress characterized by incision of the modern channels, as indicated by Hills, is the largest preserved occurrence of these extensive braid- radiocarbon and tephra dates (Christiansen and Sauer, 1988; plains and the oldest geomorphic surface in the northern Great Klassen, 1992a, 1994). The origin for these valleys as postulated Plains. Sedimentology, faunal assemblages, silcretes and palynology above is restricted to the Late Wisconsinan glaciation, however, it is all indicate deposition of these sediments occurred under a semi–arid distinctly possible that major segments of these valley predate the climate with seasonal rainfall. last glaciation - for example , the Frenchman Valley along the south- The gravel pit site is situated on the southern margin of a pediment west slopes of the Wood Mountain Upland. surface at 1140 m asl, about 50 m below the highest part of the East Block of the Cypress Hills. The bedrock terrain here has a gently irreg- History / Local Interest:The settlement of Eastend is on the Red ular surface with a residual drift cover (dRp, Fig. 36), and is marked Coat Trail, the route taken by the NWMP during their historic march by shallow gullies forming a dendritic pattern extending northward of 1874. The local area has considerable historical and paleontologi- from the Frenchman Valley. Most of the gravel is comprised of well- cal significance. It has become a tourist destination and heavily pro- rounded, cobble to pebble size quartzites, with minor chert, petrified moted by the local chamber of commerce. The first settlers were wood, volcanics and argillites also present. Distinctive periglacial Metis who arrived in the 1860s well before the homestead period. A structures are common in the upper part of the exposure. The sedi- Hudson Bay Company Post in Chimney Coulee, 6 km north of ments exposed in the north wall of the pit are re-worked from the Eastend, operated in 1871 under the command of trapper/trader Cypress Hills Formation, having been deposited within a southwest Isaac Cowie. Later the NWMP used the same site, naming it Eastend trending abandoned channel. Boulder to pebble size glacial erratics after its location in the Cypress Hills. In 1887 the post was moved to (granite, igneous metamorphic and carbonate rock types) are scat- a more accessible location in the Frenchman Valley. tered on the adjacent pediment surface. Rich upper Cretaceous fauna beds are exposed in the Frenchman valley and it tributaries. In 1994 a complete Tyrannosaurus Rexskele- STOP 18: BELANGER CANAL, CYPRESS HILLS ton was discovered. "Scotty" is now housed in a new paleontologi- cal centre in Eastend. A 3000 acre PFRA irrigation project, surround- W .J. Vreeken ing the town, produces thousands of tons of forage annually. Eastend was the childhood home of Pulitzer Price winning author NTS 72F/11 UTM 177916 Wallace Stegner. His book Wolf Willowdescribes the Cypress Hills Geomorphic Surfaces: Geomorphic surfaces of widely differing age of his youth. Each summer a writer in residence lives in the original and origin are seen along a N–S transect across the east and centre Stegner house. blocks of the Cypress Hills (Table 4, Fig. 37). The five oldest surfaces record the Late Tertiary evolution of the continental divide. The STOP 16: JONES PEAK Cypress surface (Alden, 1932) which forms the divide, is a paleo- D. J. Sauchyn braidplain on gravels of the Cypress Hills Formation, deposited by NNE-flowing streams issuing from higher land in northern Montana NTS 72F/10 UTM 482850 (Leckie and Cheel, 1989). Four erosion surfaces cut into bedrock are stepped below the Cypress Plain. They each rise with concave profiles This promontory on the north rim of the Frenchman Valley is known along interfluvial axes and descend with convex transverse profiles to as Jones Peak. It provides a spectacular panoramic view of the melt- the nearest valley (Vreeken and Westgate, 1992). They are attributa- water channel (Fig. 33), which formed here in a side-hill position as ble to surface-runoff erosion (cyclic channel incision and network Late Wisconsinan ice advanced around the Cypress Hills. The valley is rejuvenation; Ruhe, 1975) caused by regional base level lowering. incised through thin Quaternary sediments (till veneer), as well as The Late Miocene Davis Creek silt (Vreeken et al., 1989; Vreeken and Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous bedrock strata. The type sections of Westgate, 1992) is present on all five of these surfaces. Tephras and the Ravenscrag, Frenchman and Eastend formation are located in this paleomagnetism suggest this silt accumulated between 9.3 and 8.2

21 Ma. The Cypress surface dates to at least 16.3 Ma, whereas the STOP 20: FORT WALSH AND BATTLE CREEK VALLEY Murraydale surface began forming before 10 Ma, and the Fairwell, Moirvale, and Sucker surfaces were completed between 10 and 8.3 D. J. Sauchyn Ma BP (Barendregt et al., unpublished). NTS 72F/12 UTM 813916 Late Wisconsinan proglacial meltwater overtopped the continental divide, eroded the Cypress surface, carved meltwater channels at the This stop provides views of the east end of the West Block of the heads of the Davis, Caton, and Fairwell Creeks, and carved the Cypress Hills and Battle Creek valley. Evolution of the Cypress Hills by Belanger Gap between the East and Centre Blocks. This erosion pro- fluvial erosion of gently dipping bedrock strata, as well as landsliding duced the Caton meltwater surface complex (Fig. 38). Laurentide ice of valley sides, has produced a landscape characterized by plateaus, to the north flowed through the gap, stopping just south of Blacker deeply incised valleys, benches, mesas, buttes and pediments. The Lake. The deposits of this ice advance define the Blacker lake geo- benches and pediments are cut in the Upper Cretaceous strata and morphic surface. Laurentide ice from the southwest overrode the overlain by loess, colluvium and reworked sands and gravels from the Sucker, Moirvale, and Fairwell surfaces and much of the Caton com- Cypress Hills Formation. plex, but stopped south of the Blacker Lake surface. The glacial and Battle Creek occupies a preglacial valley up to 6 km wide and 250 glaciolacustrine sediments and landforms associated with this m deep that bisects the West Block in Saskatchewan. Although this advance define Belanger geomorphic surface. part of the Cypress Hills is unglaciated, meltwater emanating from the Late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet against the northern slope Belanger Canal Section:This 1 km long section extends north of the hills was dispersed across the hills in a network of channels, across the Belanger and buried Moirvale surfaces, ending at a tribu- many of them utilizing pre-existing valleys such as Battle Creek. Less tary of Belanger Creek. Stratigraphic units exposed are the than 20% of the depth of Battle Valley is attributable to meltwater Ravenscrag (Paleocene) substrate, transported gravels of the erosion (Fig. 40). Moirvale surface (Late Miocene), Davis Creek silt (Late Miocene), gla- The Holocene geomorphic evolution of Battle Creek valley has cial diamictons and glaciolacustrine rhythmites (Late Wisconsinan), been dominated by landsliding. Poorly indurated, uncemented Upper colluvium and loess (Holocene), and a Mazama tephra bed (6.8 ka Cretaceous sediments lacking in shear strength (Thomson and BP). Morgenstern, 1977), are exposed on relatively steep valley slopes and Ravenscrag beds include cemented imbricated gravels and cross- underlie permeable sediments that readily conduct water from the bedded sands indicating northward paleoflow. At 0.25 km, these broad plateaus. As a result, high pore water pressure and low shear sediments are overlain by pale brown interbedded fine sands and silt strength develop in the clay beds. While clay beds are numerous in loams of the Davis Creek silt, with large secondary lime nodules. This the strata underlying the Cypress Hills Formation, failure of bentonitic is erosionally overlain by diamicton and colluvium. Along the next 70 clay is the likely cause of most of the landsliding (Mollard, 1977). m, the silt unit thins away while fine-sand and clay interbeds in the Shearing of these beds causes overlying strata to move out and down drift complex become more frequent. At 0.32 km, loose basal grav- from the plateaus as rotational and translational landslides, which are els in an oxidized sandy matrix are overlain by thin Davis Creek silt. ubiquitous on the walls of the meltwater channels and tributary val- The overlying lag of transported broken lime nodules is separated by leys. Typically, the Cypress Hills formation remains more or less intact thin black clay from thick diamicton. From here to 1.04 km (beyond to form a series of slump blocks in the upper parts of the landslides. the fence at 0.81 km) there is considerable sedimentary variability Valley side morphology is characteristic of landsliding: steep arcuate and deformation visible in the drift complex. The loose basal gravels scarps, parallel ridges and depressions, and reverse slopes on slump show periglacially reoriented clasts. Holocene sandy-loam colluvium blocks. and loess with a Mazama tephra bed are present at the end of the The physiography, hydrogeology and climate of the West Block section. This final viewpoint provides a good perspective of the NE- favour groundwater as a dominant geomorphic agent and source of rising slopes carved by meltwater into weathered Ravenscrag sand- surface water (Sauchyn, 1993). On the broad plateaus, rain and stone. snowmelt water readily permeate the loess and subjacent sands and gravels. Variable hydraulic conductivity in the underlying beds of STOP 19: BALD BUTTE, CYPRESS HILLS sand, silt and clay induces lateral flow, and thus seeps and springs are common on valley sides and on the floors of tributary channels. The PROVINCIAL PARK morphology and hydrology of stream heads suggests that seepage erosion is the dominant mechanism of valley head erosion. During D. J. Sauchyn storms and snowmelt events, first-order streams emanate where groundwater seeps and flows from scarps and slumps at channel NTS 72F/12 UTM 038040 heads (Spence, 1993). Bald Butte, on the Centre Block of the Cypress Hills, provides a spec- tacular panoramic view of the plains to the north (Fig. 39) as well Fort Walsh:Fort Walsh, near the mouth of the Battle Creek Valley, westward across “The Gap” to the West Block the Cypress Hills. was built by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1875, and Rising more than 300 m above the glaciated plains, the highest sur- became the national headquarters for the force in 1878. The village faces of the Cypress Hills have never been glaciated, and formed next to the fort included a hotel, dance hall and saloon, billiard par- nunataks during the maximum extent of Late Wisconsinan glacia- lour, race track, cricket pitch and tennis court. In 1883, the head- tion. When the Laurentide Ice Sheet was wrapped around the hills, quarters of the NWMP were moved to Regina, and Fort Walsh was meltwater channels formed along the ice margin and many incised demolished. across the unglaciated plateau surfaces. Despite its short life span, Fort Walsh played a vital role in the In the absence of any significant Quaternary drift cover, rain and peaceful settlement of the Canadian West. In recognition of its his- snowmelt water readily permeate the coarse sediments of the torical significance, Fort Walsh was declared a site of national impor- caprock of the Cypress Hills. The hills are a critical regional ground- tance in 1924. Reconstruction of the fort by the RCMP began in water recharge area that strongly influence surface water resources 1943, and transferred to Parks Canada in 1968 when the National on the surrounding subhumid to semiarid plains. Therefore natural Historic Site was established (Fig. 41). Since that time there has been events in this region, as well as soil and water management, influ- considerable restoration of the fort and two fur trading posts that ence water quantity and quality over a very large area. existed before the original fort.

22 Climate / Vegetation:The mean annual temperature of the Cypress STOP 22: POLICE POINT LANDSLIDE Hills is about 3oC less than on the surrounding plains. Annual pre- D. J. Sauchyn cipitation is about 100 mm greater than the plains, with approxi- mately 70% occurring in May and June. The forest canopy is striking NTS 72E/9 UTM 675999 for its lack of diversity. The only coniferous trees are Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine) and Picea glauca(white spruce). The understory is In May, 1967 an estimated 1.5 M m3 of bedrock moved away from relatively diverse and includes several species with distributions that the south side of Battle Creek valley near Police Point (Fig. 43). More are disjunct with Cordilleran montane populations. Populus tremu- than 1.5 m of snow had fallen in two late April storms (Janz and loides(trembling aspen) woodland is found near streams, as a belt Treffry, 1968), and snow fell again in early May. Temperatures along the northern escarpment just below the Pinus contortaforest, remained low until May 14, when dramatic warming and rapid melt and in stands scattered throughout the grassland on the plateaus. triggered both Police Point landslide and the flooding of nearby The mixed prairie of the plains landscape occupies the drier parts of Graburn Creek. McPherson and Rannie (1969) estimated that the the Cypress Hills, whereas fescue prairie occurs at higher elevations flood discharge had a return period of more than 50 years and where annual precipitation exceeds 450 mm. removed 46,723 tons of sediment from the Graburn Creek water- shed. STOP 21: BENSON CREEK LANDSLIDE The Police Point landslide remains largely unvegetated 28 years after the original failure (Fig. 44), and is a major source of suspend- D. J. Sauchyn ed sediment to Battle Creek (Fig. 45). Monitoring of the lower slopes of the landslide was initiated in 1994 to attempt to quantify present NTS 72F/12 UTM 737978 slope activity and sediment influx to the creek. The sediment limits Benson Creek landslide occupies about 2 km of the north side of fish productivity and reproduction in Battle Creek by inundating food Battle Creek Valley, 3 km east of the provincial boundary. Unlike most supplies, eggs and spawning beds, creating local ecological and eco- of the 21 dated landslides from the area, the age of the Battle Creek nomic impacts. Previous studies evaluating fish habitat in the water- slide is well constrained with both maximum and minimum radiocar- shed have displayed an incomplete understanding of the geomorphic bon ages. Basal sediment from a 1.5 m core extracted from a pond setting and processes. For example, grass seeding on the Police Point on the landslide dated 1445 BP, providing the minimum age esti- landslide soon after its occurrence was predictably futile since the mate. The maximum age is 1745 BP, the age obtained on bison landslide remains active, moving at depth and subject to gully erosion bones collected from alluvial deposits underlying the landslide and and subsurface piping. Likewise attempts to stabilize stream banks exposed in a stream cut (Fig. 42A). Stream incision of the landslide have occurred without an appreciation of the geomorphology of the dam involved significant local adjustments of hydraulic geometry. creek. The impacts of the Police Point landslide in fact typify condi- Battle Creek has a relatively steep gradient and low sinuosity where tions that have characterized the valley for at least 4000 years. it has deeply incised the toe of the landslide (Fig. 42B). Immediately Observations of erosion at 125 metal pins document the unstable upvalley, a meandering Battle Creek is incised in a broad flat plain, nature of the landslide surface and the futility of conventional reme- interpreted as the bottom of a temporary landslide-dammed lake. dial practices in limiting downstream impacts. Net erosion has Measurements of channel bankfull width and meander wavelength occurred at 78% of the pins, net deposition at 16%. The maximum indicate that the hydraulic geometry is uncharacteristic of a third erosion at one pin in response to a single storm event was 49 cm, order stream with a mean annual discharge of 0.364 m3 s-1 maximum deposition was 12 cm. Thirteen lost pins have been either (1975–91). After almost two millennia of disequilibrium, Battle Creek buried by debris flows or undermined by more than 1 m of erosion. is apparently still responding to Benson Creek landslide. Only one pin was found to be on a stable surface, with neither ero- All dates available for 21 landslides in the region fall within the late sion or deposition observed at any time. These observations also indi- Holocene (see Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). As landslide movement cate that gully erosion is the dominant process of sediment loss on is progressive, showing multiple phases of activity, these ages likely the landslide. document only the most recent period of slope movement. During Channelized runoff from the landslide into Battle Creek during the early and middle Holocene, climate was generally both warmer storm events is extremely turbid, with peak suspended sediment con- and drier than present and regional water tables were lowered centrations exceeding 1900 mg L-1 on June 4, 1995. Three km markedly (Vance et al., 1995). A change to wetter and cooler climate downstream in Battle Creek, maximum sediment concentration on after ca. 4 ka BP raised regional water tables, providing conditions June 4 was 438 mg L-1. In general, suspended sediment concentra- conducive to increased slope instability in response to short-term trig- tions downstream of the landslide are 1–2 orders of magnitude ger events (e.g. heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt). This change to a wet- greater than above the landslide (near Reesor Lake). Peak values ter climate resulted in a major readjustment of hillslopes. Once large occur immediately downstream of the landslide, but these are still sections of the valley side failed and approached a new equilibrium, three orders of magnitude less than occur in the landslide runoff due subsequent failures were smaller and less frequent. Today rotational to rapid dilution. These data substantiate the significance of Police landsliding is confined to the upper sections of existing landslides. Point landslide as the overwhelming source of suspended sediments There appears to have been a climatically-controlled shift in the in the upper Battle Creek watershed. In contrast to suspended sedi- dominant geomorphic processes in this area, from fluvial and eolian ments, dissolved sediment concentrations show little variability with during the phytoinstability of the Hypsithermal (7700-5100 yrs BP) to either downstream position or discharge, confirming the significance late Holocene landsliding that corresponds with the forestation of of groundwater in the geomorphology and hydrology of the Cypress the Cypress Hills (Sauchyn and Sauchyn, 1991). At Harris Lake, on the Hills (Spence, 1993). north slope of the West Block just north of this site, this transition is The landslide is a modern analogue of events that have dominat- marked by a dramatic change in the lake sediment regime (Last and ed the Holocene evolution of Battle Creek valley. It illustrates the per- Sauchyn, 1993). Landsliding would account for the periodic avail- sistent impacts of single, high magnitude events. The low residual ability of siliclastic sediment and, where slope failures extended to strength and fine texture of the Cretaceous bedrock results in pro- valley bottoms, the restriction of regular inputs of fluvial sediments. longed erosion and instability of landslides, inhibiting colonization of A substantial increase in the number of beaver dams with expansion plants for years or decades. At Police Point there is no indication that of forest habitat also would have caused reduced suspended sedi- rates of erosion and suspended sediment production have begun to ment transport, and favoured the more episodic delivery of clastic decrease even after 28 years. Revegetation has been minimal, and sediment to the lake during major floods. plants which did manage to colonization the more stable parts of the landslide in dry years have been largely uprooted by sliding and head- ward gully erosion during the past three wet summers (1993-95).

23 Therefore landslide scarps and deposits are extremely significant dunes. Erosion and deposition has been monitored on a quarterly sources of sediment input to the fluvial system, strongly contrasting basis since May 1994 using an array of more than 400 marker pins. the minimal input from the adjacent, dominantly well-vegetated, The size of the blowouts differ by half an order of magnitude, with slopes. the Baby Dune approximately 2.5 m deep and the South Dune near- ly 13 m deep (Fig. 48, left). South Dune is active on the 1956 air- STOP 23: GAP CREEK - FRIDAY SITE photos, while the Baby Dune is not visible on any airphotos up to 1991 and may be less than 5 years old. Despite the differences in size W. J. Vreeken and age, they are remarkably similar in morphology. Each blowout has a very steep (30o to 90o) actively eroding south slope, and a gen- NTS 72F/13 UTM 031227 tler, although still steep (<30o), north slope covered with loose sand. The head of Gap Creek lies in the topographic saddle between the Near the surface, both the north and south slopes are near-vertical, Centre and West blocks of the Cypress Hills. It is tributary to Maple owing to the binding effect of plant roots. Erosion on the south Creek, which terminates in Bigstick Lake 30 km north of the conflu- slopes commonly provides good stratigraphic exposures in the other- ence. The valley partly coincides with a preglacial valley (Klassen, wise stabilized parabolic dunes. 1991). Postglacial evolution of the creek has been strongly influenced Erosion and deposition of the blowouts has been monitored for 2 by Late Wisconsinan sediments and landforms (Fig. 46). Glacial Lake years, with recordings taken 3-5 times a year. The net change in ele- Downie (Glacial Lake Carmichael 1; Klassen, 1994) drained ca. 13.5 vation in each blowout between May 26, 1994 and Sept 24, 1995 is ka BP (Vreeken, 1989), leaving a vast hummocky lake plain underlain shown in Fig. 48(right). The patterns of erosion and deposition are by up to 53 m of weak sediments, to be incised by the lower Gap similar for each of the dunes, with greatest erosion on the south and Creek. Postglacial delivery of sediment to the Bigstick Lake basin was east slopes of the blowouts and deposition occurring east, northeast well underway by 9.5 ka BP. and west of the blowouts. The centre of the blowouts show little net Gap Creek had cut through the entire Downie Lake sediment com- change over the 16 month period. plex by 7.2 ka BP. Until ca. 6 ka BP baselevel for the creek was Sand is typically transported out of the blowouts across the north moraine-dammed Junction Lake, which lay at the confluence with and northeast slopes by winds blowing from the west and south- the Maple Creek. Following drainage of Junction Lake, stream inci- west. Winds also blow out of the east in late summer, depositing sion of the lacustrine sediments produced the Weir fluvial surface. sand around the northern and western rims of the blowouts. Erosion Lateral accretion deposits beneath this surface have been dated at of the south slopes typically occurs through collapse failures in late 3.6 and 2.9 ka BP. Until ca. 2 ka BP, baselevel was controlled by fall or spring, as the actively eroding slopes over-steepen and blocks Clown Lake, dammed by a second moraine 8 km farther north. of sand and vegetation move downslope towards the centre of the Stream incision following the demise of Clown Lake left the Weir sur- blowout. The centre erodes slowly, since it is an end point of deposi- face as a prominent fluvial terrace (Fig. 46). tion for sand eroding from the south slope as well as an initiation Alluvial fans along the sides of Gap Creek valley began to form point for the erosion of sand blowing out across the northeast slope. between 8 and 6 ka BP. These fans were truncated during the for- The steep-sided south slopes appear to be primarily a product of mation of the Weir fluvial surface, indicating that they had formed the sand moisture content. The south slopes (north-facing) are shad- during the Hypsithermal climate interval (ca 9-4 ka BP). ed throughout the year, with moist sand present at the surface. In contrast, the north slopes (south-facing) are directly exposed to the Friday Site:This cliff site along the eastern wall of the Gap Creek drying sun. In late fall, the south slope is the first to freeze, while dry valley provides exceptional stratigraphic exposures as well as an sand continues to be transported across the north slope. overview of the Gap Creek valley and surrounding terrain. The view to the SSW includes a preglacial surface remnant at the top of a STOP 25: BIGSTICK SAND HILLS glacially eroded bedrock slope. The gently sloping hummocky surface S. A. Wolfe at the foot of this slope extends to uplands along the Gap Creek, and represents the plain of Glacial Lake Downie. The view west into the valley reveals rotational slumps, alluvial fans, and the modern flood- NTS 72K/3 UTM 290632 plain with its meandering channel, benches and pointbars. Above Active Parabolic Dune:At this site, the road runs near the front and the floodplain is the Weir terrace, and above the terrace lies a trun- northern flank of an active parabolic dune, featuring a slipface, crest, cated alluvial fan. The fan sediments include a Mazama tephra bed head, backslope and deflation area as below. The morphology con- (6.8 ka BP), and overlie dated stream sediments that document about trasts sharply with the more simple blowout dunes observed previ- 40 m of incision below the Downie lakeplain by ca. 7.2 ka. ously. The wing ridges rise towards the head, while the depression The bluff exposure reveals a 10.2 m thick sediment package infill- area between the wings is deflated (Fig. 49). Sand derived from the ing a depression on the Downie lakeplain. Basal sands and silts depression area and the back-slope moves across the head onto the include a Glacier Peak tephra bed (ca. 11.2 ka BP, Foit et al., 1993). slipface, resulting in dune migration. Vegetation colonizes the defla- The overlying clay cap reflects an internally drained pond environ- tion area, stabilizing the upwind portion of the dune. Stabilized wing ment with accumulation of shell-rich loams. The 9.2-m overburden is ridges and poorly developed track ridges are present upwind (west, dominated by eolian loams, alternating with about 40 weakly devel- Fig. 49) of the active dune, indicating former upwind positions of the oped buried soils (Fig. 47). A Mazama tephra bed occurs 2 m below deflation area. the top of the exposure. The lowermost buried soil is underlain by deoxidized sediments, marking the end of aquatic conditions associ- STOP 26: INGEBRIGHT LAKE ated with a high groundwater table at this site. The overlying oxi- dized sediments record a xeric environment. A radiocarbon age on W. M. Lastand Y. Shang charcoal collected from this lowermost buried soil suggests that Gap Creek had incised below the elevation of the soil by 10.5 ka BP. NTS 72K/6 UTM 186819 The Ingebright Lake complex (Ingebright and North Ingebright lakes) STOP 24: BIGSTICK SAND HILLS is Canada’s largest sodium sulfate deposit and contains the thickest S. A. Wolfe sequence of Holocene lacustrine evaporites in North America. A few kilometres east of Ingebright is Freefight Lake, Canada’s deepest NTS 72K/3 UTM 286602 saline lake and also the country’s most saline permanent lacustrine water body. The northern Great Plains have been an important Blowout Dunes (Morphology and Change):Baby Dune and source of commercial sodium sulfate for over 75 years, with some of South Dune are both blowout dunes residing on stabilized parabolic

24 the earliest industrial efforts centred on salt extraction from the alka- into some 31 individual “compositional zones”. The specific major line sloughs and saline lakes in southern Saskatchewan. Total com- and ancillary evaporite minerals (and mineral ratios) in these individ- posite reserves of both sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate for the ual compositional zones form the basis of the chemical reconstruc- region are among the largest in the world. Presently about 400,000 tion of the precipitating brine. These detailed mineral assemblages tonnes of sodium sulfate are produced annually from the lakes, with were also used to back-calculate various thermodynamic activity an annual value of the product normally exceeding $20 million. parameters and, from these activities, to estimate relative humidity in Commercial exploitation of the salts began in 1918 with the the Ingebright basin (Fig. 52). Obtaining a detailed, reliable chronol- extraction of MgSO4, Na2SO4, and NaHCO3 from Muskiki Lake near ogy remains a problem, with thus far only bulk dates available from Saskatoon. Production of anhydrous sodium sulfate (salt cake) from blocks of sediment. some 20 different lake basins in Saskatchewan and Alberta reached a peak in the early 1980's (Slezak and Last, 1985). Historically, the STOP 26B: FREEFIGHT LAKE two largest uses of sodium sulfate have been in producing kraft paper and allied products, and in the manufacture of detergents. W. M. Last Although demand for salt cake has decreased significantly over the NTS 72K/6 UTM 340845 past decade, the lakes of the northern Great Plains still supply about 55% of North America’s total demand. Freefight Lake is a meromictic, hypersaline lake with a distinctive The salts are extracted from the lakes using a variety of open pit morphology: a large expanse of seasonally flooded mudflats and and solution mining techniques. Here at Ingebright, a combination of sandflats surround a deep, flat-bottomed basin (Table 5). Its remote dredging, “brining” (allowing the lake water to precipitate Na2SO4 location and limited accessibility accounts for the fact that there are minerals in evaporation ponds), and direct excavation (Fig. 50). The no scientific references to the site prior to Last & Slezak (1987), even extracted salts (referred to as “Glauber’s salt”) are dehydrated and though the basin is well known among local land owners and ranch- concentrated to form relatively pure, finely crystalline thenardite ers. During the 1960's and 70's it was a popular recreation site, (Na2SO4) which is shipped to markets in eastern Canada by rail. however, drought during the 1980s lowered water levels and the high salt content decreased its recreational attractiveness. Ingebright and North Ingebright Lakes:Ingebright Lake (Fig.50), Nonetheless, Freefight Lake is a sedimentologists wonderland where a 290 hectare hypersaline playa on the western flanks of the Great a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological processes operate Sand Hills region, contains an extraordinary thickness of Holocene to form six major modern sedimentary facies (colluvium, mud flat evaporites with nearly 45 m of mainly sodium and magnesium sul- and sand flat, delta, algal flat, slope and debris apron, deep basin; fates overlying gravelly clay (till?). This salt has been mined since Fig. 53). Inorganic and biomediated chemical processes dominate in 1967, but unfortunately no detailed mineralogy or sedimentology most facies. study was conducted on this unusual deposit before the stratigraph- From 1984-90, groundwater sources contributed about the 35% ic record was disturbed. However, bulk chemical data presented by of the total inflow to the lake, while the two inflowing ephemeral Cole (1926) clearly demonstrates that there are (were) major strati- streams contributed only about 3%. The basin is topographically graphic changes in the ionic composition of the salts in Ingebright. closed and most likely also hydrologically closed. The inflowing An even smaller hypersaline playa, North Ingebright Lake (Fig. 51), groundwater is dilute (average: 1000 mg L-1 TDS), alkaline (pH 8), occupies a narrow (0.5 km wide) riverine channel to the northeast of and dominated by Mg2+ and Na+, with subequal proportions of Cl-, - - the main Ingebright basin. North Ingebright Lake also contains large SO42 , and HCO3 . The mixolimnion, with an average salinity of + 2+ thicknesses of evaporites but has not yet been mined and has been ~110‰, is dominated by Mg 2 , Na+, and SO4 (Table 6). A stable the site of detailed stratigraphic investigations as part of the ongoing chemocline occurs at about 6 m depth separating a monimolimnion Palliser Triangle Project. of ~200‰ from the overlying water column. The chemical stability of The extraordinary thicknesses of relatively pure evaporites in the this stratification is among the highest calculated for any meromictic Ingebright and North Ingebright basins present some interesting lake (0.9 J cm-2). The chemocline also features dense populations of dilemmas for sedimentologists, geochemists, and limnologists. purple phototrophic bacteria. Several strikingly different depositional scenarios have been put for- ward to account for these types of saline giants. The “shallow water, Geolimnology:The lake water at all depths and at all times of the build-up” hypothesis is probably the most sedimentologically and year is at or near to saturation with respect to gypsum. The geochemically reasonable explanation, although there are no well mixolimnion is supersaturated with respect to many Ca, Mg, and documented modern analogues in the Great Plains today. Similarly, Ca–Mg carbonates including calcite, aragonite, dolomite, huntite, the hydrodynamics of groundwater flow in and around such a verti- hydromagnesite, and magnesite. The monimolimnion is also highly cally accreting playa system are difficult to imagine. Conversely, the super-saturated with respect to many of these carbonates, and “deep water, fill–up” hypothesis, originally proposed by Rueffel strongly supersaturated with respect to most metal sulfides and (1968), was, until recently, discounted because of the lack of any many clay minerals. Over 40 endogenic and authigenic minerals have known modern deep water evaporite mineral formation. been identified in the sediments of Freefight Lake (Slezak, 1989; Last, Nonetheless, the discovery of several modern lakes in the Great 1993); many of these have been reported from no other lacustrine or Plains (e.g. Freefight Lake, Deadmoose Lake) in which high rates of continental setting in the Great Plains. Several facies are of particular evaporite mineral precipitation and deposition are occurring has interest because they are not commonly found in other lakes of the restored some scientific credibility to this hypothesis (Last, 1994). region. The mudflat facies is the site of penecontemporaneous dolomizitation, while the algal flat facies, with its living pustular Holocene Stratigraphy and Geochemical Evolution:Sediment microbial mat, appears to be unique among the salt lakes of the cores recovered from these lakes consist mainly of well-indurated salt Great Plains. Modern sediment accumulation rates in the deep basin with only minor amounts of mud and organic debris. Indeed, the sec- facies are remarkably high, averaging approximately 30 kg m-2 a-1 tions are remarkable in their lack of obvious bedding, colour varia- over the past decade, with a range from 10 to over 60 kg m-2 yr-1. tions, detrital material, and other visible sedimentary features. The The mid to late Holocene stratigraphy in the basin is known from mineral suite of the North Ingebright deposit consists mainly of over 40 metres of core taken from 25 locations. Although the mud- hydrated Na, Ca, and Mg+Na sulfates, carbonates, chlorides. Based flat and sandflat facies stratigraphies are difficult to interpret because on the bulk mineral composition of these salts, 7 lithostratigraphic of the large amount of post-depositional and penecontemporaneous units have been identified. Closely spaced (2 cm) detailed evaporite mineral diagenesis, the laminated microbialite sediments of the near and carbonate mineralogy was used to further subdivide these units shore and shallow water areas provide a good record of water level

25 fluctuations and mixolimnion hydrochemistry changes. In the off- paleosol. A radiocarbon age of 31 300±1400 BP (J. Campbell, shore deep basin facies, lack of suitable material for 14C dating is a unpublished) places the paleosol in the Middle Wisconsin interstade, serious problem hindering the interpretation of an otherwise out- possibly correlative with the Prelate Ferry Paleosol in the South standing late Holocene record of water chemistry changes. Saskatchewan River valley (David, 1987). During Late Wisconsinan, . the Lancer paleosol was thrust with the underlying sediments from STOP 27: NW GREAT SAND HILLS the source area immediately to the north. It was a solodized Solonetz developed under semiarid conditions, indicated by a thin layer of sol- S. A. Wolfe uble salts (gypsum/anhydrite) at a depth of 25 cm and by the domi- nance of silica–rich clay minerals (illite and montmorillonite), which NTS 72K/11 UTM 215173 tend to leach out in wetter environments. The presence of fossil char- The Great Sand Hills of Saskatchewan are located near the centre of coal suggests that there were frequent fires. At this site there appears the Palliser Triangle. Covering over 1000 km2, the sand hills comprise to be two paleosols exposed, about four metres apart, both steeply the largest continuous sand dune area in southern Canada (David, dipping but with profiles having opposite orientations. This suggests 1977). Several smaller sand hills occur to the south and east, and that the paleosol was sharply folded and is now exposed on the limbs along the South Saskatchewan River to the north and west. Only a of anticline that has been truncated anthropogenically. few dunes in the Great Sand Hills are presently active, and these occur primarily in the area of this stop and also to the southeast. The STOP 30: LOWER SWIFT CURRENT CREEK remaining dunes are stabilized by vegetation, although local blowout D. J. Sauchyn dunes do occur. A variety of parabolic dunes are present in the local area (Fig. 54). NTS 72J/12 UTM 070093 The central area (A) is comprised of compound parabolic dunes. These dunes represent several merged parabolic dunes which were Near its mouth, Swift Current Creek is deeply incised through active simultaneously in an area of high sediment supply. Around the Quaternary sediments and into the underlying Upper Cretaceous perimeter of the merged dunes (B) are individual parabolic dunes, Bearpaw formation. Slopes in the drift are stable, as evidenced by the many with well developed back ridges (e.g. closed parabolic dunes). fluvial morphology of the tributary valleys (Fig. 57). In the shale, These individual dunes have formed in areas of slightly lower sedi- however, massive rotational landslides have occurred with the reduc- ment supply and stabilized soon after formation. An area of chaotic tion in confining pressure. Similar massive retrogressive slope failure terrain occurs to the west (C), and is comprised of blowouts and par- characterizes the nearby South Saskatchewan River valley. tial wing remnants. The area has undergone multiple periods of activ- More than 300 m of this marine shale underlie surficial deposits ity resulting in superimposed and reworked dunes. It is likely that throughout much of southern Saskatchewan. Its geotechnical prop- much of the sand in area A was initially derived from area C. The erties are understood largely from the construction of the Gardiner remaining area (D) is primarily composed of deflation surfaces, most Dam (Lake Diefenbaker), the first major engineering structure in the with glaciolacustrine sediments near the surface. Interior Plains constructed in Bearpaw shale. An upper zone, dis- turbed and softened by weathering and swelling, has high natural STOP 28: LANCER ICE-THRUST MORAINE moisture contents and low shear strength. Plasticity indices and liq- uid limits average 40-80% and 65-100%, respectively (Scott and D. J. Sauchyn Brooker, 1968). At the Gardiner Dam site, they are 92% and 115% (From Kupsch, 1962; David, 1964; St. Onge, 1972; and Aber, 1993) respectively, with a maximum liquid limit of 265% for bentonitic clay (Mollard, 1977). Slopes as low as 4o failed during construction of the NTS 72 K/15 UTM 618272 dam. This prompted a re-evaluation of laboratory shear strength o The Lancer ice-thrust moraine extends about 36 km from near parameters: cohesion of 40 kN/m2 and a 20 angle of shearing resist- Shackleton to about 13 km northwest of Lancer. Poorly consolidated ance. Field measurements on the failed clay revealed zero cohesion bedrock and Quaternary sediments were shoved by a Late and 9 degrees of frictional resistance (Mollard, 1977). Wisconsinan ice lobe in the South Saskatchewan River valley as flow The landslides visited at previous stops along Battle Creek in the was compressed against the Shackleton bedrock escarpment to the Cypress Hills occurred in younger bedrock, including coarse Tertiary south Fig. 55). The resulting landscape contains "possibly the best terrestrial sediments. Battle Creek is also a highly underfit stream, developed sharp-crested ridges in western Canada" (Kupsch, 1962: largely confined to a wide floodplain. Even though Swift Current 585). The maximum elevation of the moraine, 720 m asl north of Creek has a similar channel size and discharge to Battle Creek, at this Abbey, lies about 120 m above the source depression to the north location it occupies a relatively narrow valley. Therefore fluvial erosion and about 45 m above the upland to the south. of the basal valley walls is likely the dominant trigger of landslides. The moraine is composed mostly of Quaternary sediments, 75-150 This contrasts the broad meltwater valleys, including the upper m thick. Some ridges are cored with Belly River sandstone, in places reaches of Swift Current Creek, where landsliding is more related to up to 130 m above its undisturbed stratigraphic position. More than water table elevation as controlled by groundwater hydrology and 90 m of lacustrine sediment underlies the lowland north of the climatic. moraine. The lacustrine sediments likely played a significant role in the ice-thrusting, although it is uncertain whether they were frozen STOP 31: CLEARWATER LAKE or thawed at the time. The original deformation morphology has R. E. Vanceand W. M. Last been modified by the deposition of stratified sand and gravel between ridges, the draping of glaciolacustrine sediment (glacial NTS 72J/13 UTM 956397 Lake Stewart Valley), and postglacial gully erosion in a trellis pattern. Clearwater Lake occupies a small, groundwater-fed basin in south- STOP 29: LANCER PALEOSOL western Saskatchewan (Fig. 58). Although topographically closed, the modern lake has maintained relatively low salinity (~1‰ TDS) from Cosford, 1996 throughout the last several decades (Table 7) despite experiencing some fluctuations in lake-level, presumably due to the presence of an NTS 72K/15 UTM 626270 open hydrologic system, in which the basin acts as both a discharge This cut into the Lancer ice-thrust moraine (Fig.56) exposes beds of and recharge site for shallow groundwater. The area immediately sur- steeply dipping loamy till, glaciolacustrine clays, and a well preserved rounding the lake was established as a regional park in the 1920s,

26 and remains a popular recreation site, although declining oxygen lev- mate, and hydrology from 10.2 to 5.8 ka BP. Exquisitely preserved els have sharply reduced fish populations in the last 5 years. plant remains indicate vegetational assemblages representative of To document past changes in lake extent and lake water chemistry, mesic and wetland environments throughout this interval (Yansa, both short (<1 m) gravity cores and long vibracores were collected 1995), and floristic patterns similar to those reconstructed for other from Clearwater Lake. Gravity cores recovered in the vicinity of CW1 sites within the southern Alberta Plain (i.e. Beaudoin, 1992; Klassen, (Fig. 58), sectioned in 1 cm increments, are currently being analysed 1994). for sedimentological (Last), plant pigment (Vinebrooke), diatom This stop lies near two sites that are not accessible by road, Kyle (Wilson) and plant macrofossil (Vance) content. 210Pb dating indi- (50o 53'N, 107o 50'W; 823 m asl) and Beechy (50o 55'N, 107o 40'W; cates that these cores span the last few centuries (Fig. 59). A 7.7 m 808 m asl), where preliminary investigations have been conducted. long vibracore (CW2) collected at a shallow water, near shore loca- Detailed analysis of the Andrews site (50o 20'N, 105o 52'W; 720 m tion provides detailed insight into early Holocene history, with AMS asl), which lies approximately 150 km SE of this stop near Moose Jaw, 14C ages ranging from 9980 BP at the base to 7320 BP at 1.075 m forms the basis of this discussion. Species diversity data from the depth (Fig.60). Evidently lake level declined to the point that CW2 Beechy and Kyle sites are comparable to those obtained between 5.8 was above water after 7300 BP, although an unconformity marking and 3.1 m at the Andrews site. Analysis of 67 samples from this 2.7 this event in CW2 has yet to be identified. m interval at the Andrews site allowed recognition of 5 botanically The basal metre of CW2 consists of massive, relatively coarse distinct zones representing periods of environmental change grained, siliciclastic-rich sediment with low moisture and organic between 10.2 and 5.8 ka BP (Fig.61; Yansa, 1995). matter contents. It contains an abundance of chenopod seeds as well Zone I at the Andrews site consists of sparse, allochthonous plant as Picea glaucaneedles and Rubuscf idaeusseeds, indicating a macrofossils within till (Fig. 62). The lowermost sediments of Zone II shoreline setting with nearshore environments occupied by boreal contain fossil evidence that postglacial vegetation at all three sites elements. Sharply overlying this basal clastic material is a 45 cm thick, consisted of an open white spruce woodland, including Picea glauca faintly bedded, organic-rich, gypsite (Fig. 60) with an abundance of (white spruce), Rubus ideaus(wild red raspberry), Shepherdia Chara oogonia. Both aragonite and Na2SO4 salts also occur in this canadensis(Canada buffaloberry), and a few woodland forb species. thin evaporitic unit. From about 625-400 cm (ca. 9500-8900 BP), These deposits are overlain by the Zone III lacustrine sediments which Charaoogonia content remains high in a considerably finer grained, contain trunks of Picea glauca. Radiocarbon ages from wood collect- faintly laminated, aragonite-rich unit (Fig. 60). Within this calcareous ed from all three sites demonstrate this white spruce woodland was sediment is a relative abundance of a variety of sedge seeds, indicat- established by 10.3-10.2 ka BP. ing shoreline proximity. Aragonite content increases gradually to At the Andrews site, a transition from a spruce-dominated wood- about 5 m depth and then decreases further upward in the unit. land to a pond/deciduous parkland environment occurred at about Similarly, nonstoichiometric dolomite also increases upward to about 10 ka BP. A 1 m thick sequence of laminated deposits (Zone III) is 5 m, whereas both organic matter and gypsum contents show a interpreted as recording deep water sedimentation. These lacustrine gradual but sporadic decrease upward. The δ18O and δ13C of the conditions existed at this site from ca. 10.0 ka BP until at least 8.8 ka. aragonite both in this unit and in the underlying gypsite show a A rise in relative water level, probably related to melting of buried strong positive correlation and are high relative to the endogenic car- glacier ice, may have asphyxiated the mature white spruce trees at bonates above and below, suggesting closed basin, evaporitic condi- the Andrews site, and possibly at other kettle-fill sites on the Missouri tions. Coteau. The lower 55 cm of sediment of this zone at the Andrews The metre of sediment overlying this aragonitic unit (400-300 cm) site contain an assortment of pond and woodland species, whereas is unusual. It is a well bedded, siliciclastic unit composed largely of the uppermost 45 cm (10.0 to 8.79±0.14 ka BP) indicate a vegeta- detrital quartz and feldspars with very low clay mineral contents. tion dominated by river birches, poplars and shoreline forbs sur- There is a very sharp contact at the top of this unit. The sediment at rounding a permanent wetland containing abundant aquatic and 303 to 310 cm depth in the core exhibits a distinctive pedogenic-like emergent taxa. Comparable species have been identified at the Kyle structure and has a considerably lower moisture content relative to and Beechy sites. sediment above 303 cm depth, and may represent a sharp reduction Brackish and alkaline conditions developed at the Andrews site as in water level at ca. 8400 BP, although no upland plant macrofossils water levels began to drop at the end of Zone III, and are reflected were recovered in this unit. Immediately overlying this marker hori- by the presence of numerous fruits of Zannichellia palustris(horned zon at 3 m depth is a relatively coarse grained, faintly bedded, arag- pondweed), Potamogeton pectinatus(sago pondweed), and Scirpus onite-rich unit (Fig 60) that contains an abundance of Charaoogo- americanus(three-square bulrush), seeds of Chenopodium salinum nia. Gypsum contents decrease upward in this unit, from as much as (saline goosefoot), and oogonium and shoots of Charasp. 40% at the base to sporadic occurrences above 150 cm depth, indi- (stonewort algae). These species were also common at the Beechy cating a gradual freshening of the lake water. Similarly, clay minerals and Kyle sites. The absence of fruits of Ruppiasp. (ditch- grass), an show a gradual decrease upward with a complimentary increase in aquatic macrophyte of saline water, at the Andrews and Beechy site both quartz and feldspar contents, likely related to greater erosion suggests that saline conditions never developed. In contrast, Ruppia and runoff from the watershed. The stable oxygen and carbon iso- sp. fruits are abundant at the Kyle site, which suggests highly saline topes of the aragonite in this upper unit are negatively correlated, water likely associated with periods of peak aridity (cf. Vance, 1991). likewise suggesting a change toward more open basin conditions The lacustrine sediments of Zone III at the Andrews site are over- after 8400 BP. Moreover, macrofossils from shoreline plant taxa lain unconformably by charcoal-rich sandy clay at a depth of 4 m. The decline in representation compared to underlying sediments, sug- deep water phase was truncated at ca. 8.8 ka BP with slopewash (at gesting increasing lake levels and upslope movement of shoreline least partly in response to prairies fires) the dominant sedimentary position. process until ca. 7.7 ka BP (Zone IV). This arid period, interpreted as the Hypsithermal, was followed by rising water levels until ca. 5.8 ka STOP 32: MISSOURI COTEAU BP, with a semi–permanent calcareous-rich slough was established in a grassland setting (Zone V). Plants common to Zone V at the C. H. Yansa Andrews site include Charasp., Potentilla norvegica(rough cinque- foil), Lycopus americanus(water horehound), Ranunculus sceleratus NTS 72J/14 UTM 267370 (celery- leaved buttercup), and Typha latifolia(common cattail). Some The Missouri Coteau is an area of extensive ice-thrust features and of these species were also identified at the Beechy and Kyle sites. hummocky moraine that marks the eastern limit of Brown After 5.8 ka BP, the Andrews site, and probably many other wetlands Chernozemic Soil zone in the Palliser Triangle. Recent investigations on the Missouri Coteau, became ephemeral and not conducive for of small kettle depressions (ca. 30-80 m diameter) from three differ- preservation of plant macrofossils. ent sites on the Coteau document changes in local vegetation, cli-

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29 Goulden, M.R. and Sauchyn, D.J. Kehew, A.E., and Teller, J.T. 1986: Age of Rotational Landsliding in the Cypress Hills, Alberta- 1994: History of late glacial runoff along the southwest margin of Saskatchewan; Géographie physique et Quaternaire, v. 40, the Laurentide Ice Sheet; Quaternary Science Reviews, v. p. 239-248. 13, p. 859-877. Govers, G., Vandaele, K., Desmet, P., Poesen, J., and Bunte, K. Klassen, R.W. 1994: The role of tillage in soil redistribution on hillslopes; 1989: Quaternary geology of the southern Canadian Interior European Journal of Soil Science, v. 45, p. 469-478. Plains; in Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland, Govett, G.J.S. ed. R.J. Fulton; Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of 1958: Sodium sulfate deposits in Alberta; Alberta Research Canada no. 1, p. 138-173. Council Preliminary Report 58-5. 1991: Surficial geology, Cypress Lake, Saskatchewan; Geological Graf, W.L. 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G. 1984: Sedimentology of playa lakes of the northern Great Plains; Wall; Department of Geography Publication Series, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 21, p. 107-125. Occasional Paper No. 12, University of Waterloo, p. 125- 1989a: Continental brines and evaporites of the northern Great 131. Plains of Canada; Sedimentary Geology, v. 64, p. 207-221. Karl, T.R. and Heim, R.R. 1989b: Sedimentology of a saline playa in the northern Great 1991: The greenhouse effect in central North America: if not now, Plains, Canada. Sedimentology, v. 36, p. 109-123. when?; in Symposium on the Impacts of Climatic Change 1993: Geolimnology of Freefight Lake: an unusual hypersaline and Variability on the Great Plains, ed. G. Wall; Department lake in the Northern Great Plains of western Canada; of Geography Publication Series, Occasional Paper No. 12, Sedimentology, v. 40, p. 431-448. University of Waterloo, p. 19-29. 1994: Deep-water evaporite mineral formation in lakes of western Karl, T.R., Heim, R.R., Jr., and Quayle, R.G. Canada; in Sedimentology and Geochemistry of Modern 1991: The greenhouse effect in central North America: if not now, and Ancient Saline Lakes, ed. R. Renaut, and W.M. Last; when?; Science, v. 251, p. 1058-1061. SEPM Special Publication No. 50, p. 52-59. Kehew, A.E. and Lord, M.L. Last, W.M. and Sauchyn, D.J. 1986: Origin and large-scale erosional features of glacial-lake spill- 1993: Mineralogy and lithostratigraphy of Harris Lake, southwest- ways in the northern Great Plains; Geological Society of ern Saskatchewan, Canada; America Bulletin, v. 97. p. 162-177. Journal of Paleolimnology, v. 9, p. 23-39.

30 Last, W.M. & Slezak, L.A. Moss, H.C. 1987: Geolimnology of an unusual saline lake in the Great Plains 1935: Some field and laboratory studies of soil drifting in of western Canada; in SLEADS Workshop 87, ed. A. R. Saskatchewan; Scientific Agriculture, v. 15, p. 665-678. Chivas and P. De Deckker; Canberra, p. 9-11. Mossop, G. and Shetsen, I. Leckie, D.A., and Cheel, R.J. 1994: Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin; 1989: The Cypress Hills Formation (Upper Eocene to Miocene): a Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists and the Alberta semi-arid braidplain deposit resulting from intrusive uplift; Research Council. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 26, p. 1918-1931. O'Hara, S.L. and Campbell, I.A. Leckie, D.A., and Smith, D.G. 1993: Holocene geomorphology and stratigraphy of the lower 1993: Regional setting, evolution and depositional cycles of the Falcon valley, Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada; Western Canadian Foreland Basin; in Foreland Basins, ed. R. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 1846-1852. Macqueen and D.A. Leckie; American Association of Parizek, R.R. Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 55, p. 9-46. 1964: Geology of the Willowbunch area (72-H) Saskatchewan; Lemmen, D.S., Dyke, L.D., and Edlund, S.A. Geology Division, Saskatchewan Research Council, Report 1993. The Geological Survey of Canada's Integrated Research and 4. Monitoring Area (IRMA) Projects: a contribution to Pawluk, S. Canadian Global Change Research; Journal of 1982: Salinization and solonetz formation; in Proccedings of the Paleolimnology, vol. 9, p. 77-83. 19th Annual Alberta Soil Science Workshop. Edmonton, Lobb, D.A., Kachanoski, R.G., and Miller, M.H. Alberta, p. 1-24. 1995: Tillage translocation and tillage erosion on shoulder slope Pennock, D.J., and de Jong, E. landscape positions measured using 137Cs as a tracer; 1987: The influence of slope curvature on soil erosion and depo- Canadian Journal of Soil Science, v. 75, p. 211-218. sition in hummock terrain. Soil Science, v. 144, p. 209-218. Looman, J. and Best, K.F. 1991: Regional and catenary variations in properties of Borolls of 1979: Budd's Flora of the Canadian Prairie Provinces; Research Southern Saskatchewan, Canada; Soil Science Society of Branch, Agriculture Canada, Publication No. 1662, Hull, America Journal, v. 54, p. 1697-1701. Quebec. Pennock, D.J., Zebarth, B.J., and de Jong, E. Luckman, B.H., Holdsworth, G., and Osborn, G.D. 1987: Landform classification and soil distribution in hummocky 1993: Neoglacial glacier fluctuations in the Canadian Rockies; terrain, Saskatchewan, Canada; Geoderma, v. 40,p. 297- Quaternary Research, v. 39, p. 144-153. 315. MacPherson, H.J., and Rannie, W.F. Pennock, D.J., Lemmen, D.S., and de Jong, E. 1969: Geomorphic effects of the May, 1967 flood in Graburn 1995: Cesium-137-measured erosion rates for soils of five parent- watershed, Cypress Hills, Alberta, Canada; Journal of material groups in southwestern Saskatchewan; Canadian Hydrology, v. 9, p. 307-321. Journal of Soil Science, v. 75, p. 205-210. Martz, L.W., and de Jong, E. Pettapiece, W.W. 1987: Using Cesium-137 to assess the variability of net soil ero- 1986: Physiographic subdivisions of Alberta; Land Resource sion and its association with topography in a Canadian Research Centre, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, Prairie Landscape; Catena, v. 14, p. 439-451. Ottawa; scale 1:750 000. 1991: Using cesium-137 and landform classification to develop a Rains, R.B., Burns, J.A., and Young, R.R. net soil erosion budget for a small Canadian prairie water- 1994: Postglacial alluvial terraces and an incorporated bison skele- shed; Catena, v. 18, p. 239-308. ton, Ghostpine Creek, southern Alberta; Canadian Journal McConnell, R.G. of Earth Sciences, v. 31, p. 1501-1509. 1885: Report on the Cypress Hills, Wood Mountain and adjacent Risser, P.G., Birney, E.C., Blocker, H.D., May, S.W., Parton, W.J. country; Geological Survey of Canada, Annual Report and Weins, J.A. 1885, v. 1, part C, 85 p. 1981: The True Prairie Ecosystem. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Misfeldt, G.A., Sauer, E.K., and Christiansen, E.A. Company, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. 1991: The Hepburn landslide: an interactive slope-stability and Ritchie, J.C. seepage analysis; Canadian Geotechnical Journal, v. 28, p. 1983: The paleoecology of the central and northern parts of the 556-573. glacial Lake Agissiz basin; in Glacial Lake Agassiz, ed. J.T. Mollard, J.D. Teller and L. Clayton, Geological Association of Canada 1977: Regional landslide types in Canada; Reviews in Engineering Special Paper 26, p. 157-169. Geology, Volume III, Geological Society of America, p. 29- Rostad, H.P.W., Bock, M.D., Krug, P.M., Stushnoff, C.T. 56. 1993: Organic matter content of Saskatchewan soils; Moss, E.H. Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology Publication No. M114, 1944: The prairie and associated vegetation of southwestern Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Alberta; Canadian Journal of Research, v. 22C, p. 11-32.

31 Rueffel, P.G. Spence, C.D. 1968: Development of the largest sodium sulphate deposit in 1993: The role of groundwater discharge in valley network devel- Canada; Canadian Mineralogy and Metallurgy Bulletin,v. opment, upper Battle Creek Basin, Alberta and 61, p. 1217-1228. Saskatchewan; M.Sc. thesis, University of Regina. Ruhe, R.V. SRC (Saskatchewan Research Council) 1975: Geomorphology; Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, USA, 1986: Surficial geology of the Rosetown area (72O) 246 p. Saskatchewan; Saskatchewan Research Council, scale Sahinen, U.M. 1:250 000. 1948: Preliminary report on sodium sulfate in Montana; Bur. 1987a: Surficial geology of the Regina area (72I) Saskatchewan; Mines and Geol. Montana School Mines Report. Saskatchewan Research Council, scale 1:250 000. Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology 1987b: Surficial geology of the Swift Current area (72J) 1988: Preliminary soil map and report, Rural Municipality of Gull Saskatchewan; Saskatchewan Research Council, scale Lake; Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. 1:250 000. Sauchyn, D.J. 1987c: Surficial geology of the Willowbunch area (72H) 1990: A reconstruction of Holocene geomorphology and climate, Saskatchewan; Saskatchewan Research Council, scale western Cypress Hills, Alberta and Saskatchewan; Canadian 1:250 000. Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 27, p. 1504-1510. St. Onge, D.A. (ed.) 1993: Quaternary and Late Tertiary landscape evolution in the 1972: Geomorphological survey and mapping commision meet- western Cypress Hills; in Quaternary and Late Tertiary ing, Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan, Canada; 22nd Landscapes of southwestern Saskatchewan and adjacent International Geographical Congress, Guidebook Ca 12. areas, ed. D.J. Sauchyn; Canadian Plains Research Center, Stalker, A. MacS. University of Regina, p. 46 - 58. 1965: Pleistocene ice surface, Cypress Hills area; in Cypress Hills Sauchyn, D.J. and Lemmen, D.S. Plateau, Alberta and Saskatchewan, ed. I. Weihmann; 1996: Impacts of landsliding in the western Cypress Hills, Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists 15th Annual Field Saskatchewan and Alberta; in Current Reseach 1996-B, Conference Guidebook, part 1, p. 116-130. Geological Survey of Canada, p. 7-14. Statistics Canada Sauchyn, M.A. and Sauchyn, D.J. 1981: Agriculture Canada, 1981, Census of Canada, Ottawa. 1991: A continuous record of Holocene pollen from Harris Lake, Stichling, W. southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada; Palaeogeography, 1973: Sediment loads in Canadian rivers; in Fluvial Processes and Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 88, p. 12-23. Sedimentation, Proceedings 9th Canadian Hydrology Scott, J.S. Symposium; National Research Council, Associate 1989: Engineering geology and land use planning in the Prairie Committee on Geodesy and Geophysics, Subcommittee on region of Canada; in Quaternary Geology of Canada and Hydrology, Inland Waters Directorate, Ottawa, Ontario, p. Greenland, ed. R.J. Fulton; Geological Survey of Canada, 39-95. Geology of Canada no. 1, p. 713-723. Stichling, W. and Blackwell, S.R. Scott, J.S. and Brooker, E.W. 1958: Drainage area as a hydrological factor on glaciated 1968: Geological and engineering aspects of Upper Cretaceous Canadian prairies; International Association of Scientific shales in western Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Hydrology Publication No. 45, p. 365-376. Paper 66-37, 75 p. Sutherland, R.A., Kowalchuk, T., and de Jong, E. SERM (Saskatchewan Environment and Resource 1991: Cesium-137 estimates of sediment redistribution by wind; Management) Soil Science, v. 151, p. 387-396. no date: St. Victor's Petroglyphs; Saskatchewan Parks and Tajek, J., Pettapiece, W.W. and Toogood, K.E. Renewable Resources; pamphlet. 1985: Water erosion potential of soils in Alberta; Research Branch, no date: Wood Mountain Post; pamphlet. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 27p. Shetsen, I. Terzaghi, K. 1984: Application of till pebble lithology to the differentiation of 1955: Influence of geological factors on the engineering proper- glacial lobes in southern Alberta; Canadian Journal of Earth ties of sediment; Harvard Soil Mechanics Series, v. 50, 61 p. Sciences, v. 21, p. 920-933. Thomson, S. and Morgenstern, N.R. 1987: Quaternary geology, southern Alberta; Alberta Research 1977: Factors affecting the distribution of landslides along rivers Council, scale 1:500 000. in southern Alberta; Canadian Geotechnical Journal, v. 14, Slezak, L.A. p. 508-523. 1989: Sedimentology of Freefight Lake, Saskatchewan; M.Sc. the- 1978: Landslides in argillaceous rock, Prairie Provinces, Canada; in sis, University of Manitoba, 120 p. Rockslides and Avalanches 2, ed. B. Voight, Developments Slezak, L.A., and Last, W.M. in Geotechnical Engineering, v. 14B; Elsevier Scientific 1985: Geology of sodium sulfate deposits of the northern Great Publishing, New York, p. 515-540. Plains; in Twentieth Forum on the Geology of Industrial Tomanek, G.W. Minerals, ed. J.D. Glaser and J. Edwards; Maryland 1959: Effects of climate and grazing on mixed prairie; in Geological Survey Special Publication no. 2, p. 105-115. Grasslands; Publication 53 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. 32 Turner, L.J. Vreeken, W.J., and Westgate, J.A. 1994: 210Pb dating of lacustrine sediments from Antelope Lake 1992: Miocene tephra beds in the Cypress Hills of Saskatchewan, (Core 063, Station ALS1), Saskatchewan; National Water Canada; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 29, p. 48- Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario; NWRI Contribution 51. 94-142, 27 p. Vreeken, W.J., Klassen, R.W., and Barendregt, R.W. Vance, R.E. 1989: Davis Creek silt, an Early Pleistocene or Late Pliocene 1986: Aspects of the postglacial climate of Alberta: Calibration of deposit in the Cypress Hills of Saskatchewan; Canadian the pollen record; Géographie physique et Quaternaire, v. Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 26, p. 192-198. 40, p. 153-160. Wheaton, E.E., Arthur, L.M., Chorney, B., Shewchuk, S., Thorpe, 1991: A paleobotanical study of Holocene drought frequency in J., Whiting, J. and Wittrock, V. southern Alberta; Ph.D. thesis, Simon Fraser University. 1990: The drought of 1988 executive summary; in In: Vance, R.E. and Mathewes, R.W. Environmental and Economic Impacts of the 1988 Drought: 1994: Deposition of modern pollen and plant macroremains in a with Emphasis on Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Executive hypersaline prairie lake basin; Canadian Journal of Botany, Summary, ed. E.E. Wheaton and L.M. Arthur; SRC v. 72, p. 539-548. Publication No. E-2330-4-E-90. Vance, R.E., Beaudoin, A.B. and Luckman, B.H. Wolfe, S.A., Huntley, D.J., and Ollerhead, J. 1995: The paleoecological record of 6 ka BP climate in the 1995: Recent and late Holocene sand dune activity in southwest- Canadian prairie provinces; Géographie physique et ern Saskatchewan; in Current Reseach 1995-B, Geological Quaternaire, v. 49, p. 81-98. Survey of Canada, p. 131-140. Vreeken, W.J. Yansa, C.H. 1989: Late Quaternary events in the Lethbridge area, Alberta; 1995: An early postglacial record of vegetation change in south- Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 26, p. 551-560. ern Saskatchewan, Canada; M.Sc. thesis, University of 1991: The southern Swift Current plateau (Saskatchewan): a sub- Saskatchewan. glacial-meltwater erosion surface; in Program with Zoltai, S.C. and Vitt, D.H. Abstracts, Geological Association of Canada, v. 16, p. 1990: Holocene climatic change and the distribution of peatlands A129. in western interior Canada; Quaternary Research, v. 33, p. 1993: Loess and associated paleosols in southwestern 231-240. Saskatchewan and southern Alberta; in Quaternary and Tertiary landscapes of southwestern Saskatchewan and adjacent areas, ed. D.J. Sauchyn; Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, p. 27-45.

33 Ian A. Campbell Donald S. Lemmen Robert E. Vance Dept. of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Geological Survey of Canada Natural Resources Canada University of Alberta 3303-33rd St. NW 588 Booth Street Edmonton, Alberta Calgary, Alberta Ottawa, Ontario T6G 2H4 T2L 2A7 K1A 0E8 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Jason Cosford Rudy W. Klassen Willem J. Vreeken Dept. of Geography Geological Survey of Canada Dept. of Geography University of Regina 3303-33rd St. NW Queen’s University Regina, Saskatchewan Calgary, Alberta Kingston, Ontario S4S 0A2 T2L 2A7 K7L 3N6 [email protected] Peter P. David Stephen A. Wolfe Dept. de Geologie Dan J. Pennock Geological Survey of Canada Université de Montréal Dept. of Soil Science P.O. Box 35 C.P. 6128 Succ. ‘Centre-ville’ University of Saskatchewan Yellowknife NT Montréal, Québec Saskatoon, Saskatchewan X1A 2N1 H3C 3J7 S7N 0W0 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Catherine H. Yansa William M. Last David J. Sauchyn Dept. of Geography Dept. of Geological Sciences Dept. of Geography University of Wisconsin - Madison University of Manitoba University of Regina 384 Science Hall, 550 North Park St. Winnipeg, Manitoba Regina, Saskatchewan Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1491 R3T 2N2 S4S 0A2 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Dale A. Leckie Yuqiang Shang Geological Survey of Canada Dept. of Geological Sciences 3303-33rd St. NW University of Manitoba Calgary, Alberta Winnipeg, Manitoba T2L 2A7 R3T 2N2 [email protected] [email protected]

34 Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

TABLES AND FIGURES

Some readers may opt to use this guidebook by first browsing through the Tables and Figures. This section makes that option possible. The blue table or figure numbers are links which take the reader to the named destination. Tables and figures that refer to specific stops have links in the caption or title which will take the reader either to the map showing the location of the stop (Fig. 11) or to the beginning of the text on that particular stop. To return to the figure simply use the link to that figure shown in the text.

TABLES 29.Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges in the Dollard area 1.Willow Bunch Lake vital statistics 30.Fractured clasts, Bidaux Drumlin 2.Willow Bunch Lake hydrochemistry 31.Surficial materials, Frenchman Valley near Eastend 3.Antelope Lake hydrochemistry 32.Cross-section of fill in Frenchman Valley 4.Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the Belanger area 33.View across Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak 5.Freefight Lake vital statistics 34.Origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation 6.Freefight Lake hydrochemistry 35.Depositional environment of the Cypress Hills Formation 7.Clearwater Lake hydrochemistry 36.Surficial materials of the East Block of the Cypress Hills 37.Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks, Cypress Hills FIGURES 38.Meltwater channels on the East Block upland 39.View from Bald Butte 1.The Palliser Triangle and Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone 40.Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh 2.Regional stratigraphic nomenclature 41.Fort Walsh National Historic Site 3.Physiographic subdivisions 42.Topographic and bedrock cross-sections of Benson Creek 4.Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential evapotranspi- Landslide ration 43.Battle Creek Valley between Police Point and Benson Creek land- 5.Major soil units slides 6.Sand dune occurrences 44.Airphoto of Police Point Landslide 7.Types of landslide movement 45.Ground photos of Police Point Landslide 8.Model of soil redistribution 46.Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin 9.Salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan 47. Buried soils in postglacial loess, Friday site 10.Salt lake morphology versus sediment type 48.Morphometry and sediment redistribution for GSC monitored 11.Surficial materials and field stop locations blowout dunes 12.Geomorphology and structure of the Dirt and Cactus hills 49.Morphological features of an active parabolic dune 13.Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills 50.Airphoto of Ingebright Lake 14.Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy, Oro Lake 51.Modern sediment facies, North Ingebright Lake 15.Endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake short core 52.Interpreted relative humidity, North Ingebright Lake region 16.Chronology and endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake core OR1 53.Freefight Lake; water levels, sedimentary facies and x-radiogra- 17.Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake phy 18.Petroglyphs from St. Victor Park 54.Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great Sand Hills 19.Surficial materials of the Table Butte area 55.Aerial photograph of Lancer ice–thrust moraine 20.Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area 56.Proximal slope of Lancer ice–thrust moraine from paleosol site 21.Killdeer Badlands, Grasslands National Park 57.Rotational landsliding along lower Swift Current Creek Valley 22.Surficial materials of the Wood Mountain Upland escarpment 58.Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of Clearwater 23.Active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills Lake 24.Airphoto of area NE of Antelope Lake 59.Sediment characteristics of gravity core, Clearwater Lake 25.Vertical air photographs of Antelope Lake contrasting 1961 and 60.Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis, Clearwater 1991 water levels Lake core CW2 26.Sediment characteristics, Antelope Lake gravity core 61.Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, Missouri Coteau 27.Redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion 62.Plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site 28.Soil loss by parent material, Gull Lake and Webb rural munici- palities

35 Table 1 Willow Bunch Vital Statistics (stop 5) (average 1983-1994)

Surface Area (A) 32.9 km2 Drainage Area 1128 km2

Maximum Length (Lmax) 34.2 km

Maximum Width (Wmax) 1.2 km

Maximum Depth (Zmax) 2.1 m

Mean Depth (Zmean) 0.4 m

Relative Depth (Zr) 0.04 Volume (V) 0.002 km3 Shoreline Length (L) 79.2 km

Shoreline Development (Dv) 3.87

36 Table 2 Willow Bunch Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 5) mg L-1 log molal Ca2+ 136.8 -2.446 Mg2+ 592.8 -1.592 Na+ 15 490 -0.150 K+ 370 -2.003 - HCO3 3847.6 -1.179 2- SO4 23 666 -0.587 Cl- 3415.4 -0.995

TDS 47.8 ppt Ionic Strendth 0.805 pH 9.8 Total Alkalinity 66.23 meq Carbonate Alkalinity 66.11 meq

37 Table 3 Antelope Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 12)

Concentration in Aug. Sept. June Sept August, 1994 January, 1995 -1 mg L 1938 1957 1971 1985 surf. 4 m surf. 4.75 m

Ca2+ 22 63 67 51 31 25.7 37.7 30.7 Mg2+ 1132 1276 642 1149 1470 2860 1970 2760 Na+ 2328 1232 1360 2543 2730 5350 4020 5600 K+ nd nd 123 220 247 443 242 334 - HCO3 717 645 662 781 977 2020 1393 2065 2- SO4 801 4450 4840 8668 10700 22100 15200 21100 Cl- 325 169 239 428 439 857 547 768 TDS (ppt) 12.4 7.3 8.4 15.1 16.4 33.9 24.6 33.9 pH 8.9 8.7 9.0 9.0 9.1 8.9 9.0 8.8

38 Table 4 Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the Belanger area (stop 18)

SURFACE DOMINANT PROCESS/ AGE ORIGIN Cypress Fluvial (channel) Middle Miocene Murraydale Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene Fairwell Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene Moirvale Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene

Sucker Fluvial Late Miocene (subaerial & channel) Caton Glaciofluvial Late Wisconsinan Blacker Lake Glacial Late Wisconsinan

Belanger Glacial & Glaciolacustrine Late Wisconsinan

39 Table 5 Freefight Lake Vital Statistics (stop 26B)

Surface Area (A) 2.94 km2 Drainage Basin Area 55.2 km2

Maximum Length (Lmax) 2.95 km

Maximum Width (Wmax) 1.25 km

Maximum Depth (Zmax) 25.60 m

Mean Depth (Zmean) 19.5 m

Relative Depth (Zr) 2.18 Volume (V) 0.02 km3 Shoreline Length (L) 9.16 km Shoreline Development 1.66

Volume Development (Dv) 3.8

40 Table 6 Freefight Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 26B) (conc in mg L-1) Mixolim. Monim. Ca2+ 89 395 Mg2+ 13 279 15 192 Na+ 20 930 48 531 K+ 3366 3734 - HCO3 4471 15 360 2- SO4 77 483 118 318 Cl- 8361 10 316 TDS (ppt) 111 189 Ionic Strength 1788 2873 pH (pE) 8.4 (3.4) 7.9 (-5.3)

H2S 0 959

41 Table 7 Clearwater Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 31)

Concentration in July Nov. Feb. June Sept. Aug. Jan. mg L-1 1938 1966 1967 1967 1967 1994 1995 Ca2+ 8.9 4.0 7.0 11.0 8.0 5.6 11.6 Mg2+ 136 126 158 115 133 163 211 Na+ 84.0 68.0 76.0 54.0 63.0 87.6 122.0 K+ nd 22.0 25.0 19.0 21.0 27.8 2.9 - HCO3 541 579 733 566 537 685 847 2- SO4 134 158 187 139 165 248 312 Cl- 20.5 24,0 29.0 19.0 23.0 32.5 40.9 TDS (ppt) 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.2 pH nd 8.75 8.55 8.40 9.00 9.25 8.98

42

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 43 o 53

Saskatchewan Manitoba

N

Alberta Saskatoon R e d D e Saskatchewan 0 50 100 e r R A kilometres o Calgary i v s 51 e s r r i Rive n i Qu'Appelle River b n o a i w n e e S h R c t o t i a n Regina v u e e t k r h S s r r a u C Moose Brandon Medicine ft k wi ee Hat S Cr Jaw S ls Frenchman R. o Cypress Hil u Lethbridge r Wood is R 49 o Milk R. Mountain . 114 o Upland o o o 100 112 o o o o 102 110 108 106 104 Fig. 1 The Palliser Triangle (dashed red line) as defined by Capt. John Palliser. The Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone (colour) is used in this guide as a working definition of the "Triangle".

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 44 Southern Southwestern PeriodStage Alberta Saskatchewan Laurentide Laurentide

sto- drift drift ei cene nary Pl Saskatchewan Quater- sand and gravel Empress Pliocene WoodMountain Miocene Cypress Hills Cypress Hills go- i

Tertiary cene Ol Swift Current Eocene Ravenscrag Porcupine Hills eocene Pal Willow Creek Frenchman

Battle Whitemud Eastend St. Mary River

Blood Reserve Bearpaw Bearpaw Gp. Upper Cretaceous Oldman Judith River River Foremost Belly Pakowki Pakowki

Milk River Milk River

Fig. 2 Regional stratigraphic nomenclature. Modified from Dawson et al., 1995.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 45 N

0 50 100 uplands kilometres Sceptre plateaus (Snipe Lake) Plain plains Neutral Saskatchewan Rivers continental Sullivan Rainy Hills Plain R Lake drainage divide e Hills Upland d Plain D Upland Lake e wan River Missouri e atche Diefenbaker r R ask Coteau iver S th Qu'Appelle u Rainy o Plains Regina Hills S Plain Upland Missouri Coteau Moose Sand Hills - Jaw Rainy Bigstick Lake Plain Hills Swift Upland Current

Medicine Swift Current Hat Creek Plateau Coulee Old Wives Lake Plain Missouri Plain Coteau Cypress Hills Sweet Grass Upland Hills Upland Old Man On His Back Milk River Plateau Milk ver Wood Mountain Ri Plain Boundary Upland Plateau Fig. 3 Physiographic subdivisions of the southern portion of the Alberta Plain. Compiled and modified from Acton et al., 1960, Pettapiece, 1986 and Klassen, 1992. Uplands shown in darkest tone. See Fig. 5 for soil units and Fig. 11 for surficial geology. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 46

53

Red Deer 0 North 0 50 100 Battleford 0.8 kilometres Saskatoon Coronation

Yorkton 0.75 Outlook 70 0.90 Dauphin 51 Calgary 0. 0.60 0.8 Moose 0 Jaw Suffield Broadview Swift Regina Current Brandon Medicine Lethbridge Hat 70 0.80 0.70 0.8 0. 0.75 0 Manyberries Coronach 49 Estevan 114 102 110 106 Fig. 4 Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (30 year means; Environment Canada, 1993). Lower values indicate greater aridity (negative moisture balance). In drought years ratios may be <0.4 in some areas.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 47 SOILS: 0 50 100 Black Chernozemic cl Dark Brown Chernozemic kilometres Brown Chernozemic N cl Brown Solonetzic lm Regosolic cl cl Water Body cl cl c TEXTURE: var c sl c lm loam sl sandy loam sl cl clay loam s sand sl lm cl s c clay var variable lm c var cl Great Sand Hills cl s lm sl cl Regina sl lm s lm s Swift Current Moose Jaw s cl Medicine Hat s sl sl lm sl lm sl cl sl lm cl lm cl cl var cl Hills Cypress lm cl cl var cl var cl cl var cl cl cl cl cl cl lm lm

Fig. 5 Major soil units in the Palliser Triangle. Polygons are generalized from the Soil Landscape Maps of Saskatchewan and Alberta (Canada Soil Inventory, 1987a&b). See Fig. 3 for physiographic subdivisions and Fig. 11 for surficial geology.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 48 N 0 50 100 Kirkpatrick Lake Sand Hills kilometres

Saskatchewan Alberta

Verger Birsay Cramersburg Elbow Westerham Lacadena Middle Sand Hills Burstall Great Sand Hills Hilda Regina Rolling Hills Antelope Lake Moose Tunstall Bigstick Retlaw d Swift Jaw Sewar Current Crane Lk Medicine Grassy Lake Hat Lethbridge

Pakowki

Fig. 6 Principal sand dune occurrences (yellow) in the Palliser Triangle. Modified from David (1977). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 49 a 600 Preslide Profile Sheared Surfaces (inferred)

500 Elevation (m)

400 Till Sand, Silt and Clay Silt and Clay Clay

0 200 400 600 800 Distance (m)

b 640 Earth Slump Earth Flow Sheared Surfaces (inferred)

610

Elevation (m) 580

Till Sand, Silt and Clay Silt and Clay Clay

550 0 200 400 600 800 Distance (m) Fig. 7 Types of landslide movement. A - Translational failure: sliding is confined to distinct horizontal beds and slide mass morphology is dominated by graben structures. Modified from Cruden et al., 1993, see also Campbell and Evans, 1990; Misfeldt et al. 1991). B - Rotational failure: characterized by reverse slopes and arcuate subparallel ridges and depressions. Modified from Scott and Brooker (1968). Most landslides in the Palliser Triangle are complex and involve several types of movement. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 50 Level: -6 Covergent Shoulder: -18 Divergent Shoulder: -26 Z(m) Covergent Backslope: -21 3 2 1 Divergent 0 Backslope: -24

150 Divergent Footslope: 4.4

100 Y(m)

50

200 250 300 350 X(m) Covergent Footslope: 17 Fig. 8 Generalized landscape-scale model of soil redistribution in the Brown Soil Zone (original data in Pennock and de Jong, 1991). Soil redistribution values are means for that landform element in t ha-1 a-1; negative values indicate net erosion. Landform elements are defined in Pennock et al. (1987).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 51 Buffalo Pound Lake Regina

Chaplin Lake (Na2SO4 mine)

Old Wives Lake

Bishopric (Na2SO4 mine)

Lake of Shoe Lake the Rivers (Na2SO4 mine)

Willow Bunch Lake Ceylon Lake Twelvemile Lake Big Muddy N Lake Fife Lake 0km 50

Fig. 9 Landsat photograph showing the major salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan. Willowbunch Lake is Stop 5 in the field excursion. The approximate location of the area shown in the photo is indicated on Fig. 11. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 52

CLAY MINERAL AUTHIGENISIS FLOCCULATION OF FINE GRAINED MATERIAL SHORELINE PROCESSES TURBIDITY FLOW DEVELOPMENT OF MEROMIXIS DEVELOPMENT OF THERMAL STRATIFICATION SUBAQUEOUS SOLUABLE SALT PRECIPITATION FREEZE-OUT SALT PRECIPITATION EVAPORATIVE CARBONATE PRECIPITATION SULFIDE PRECIPITATION SULFATE REDUCTION BIO-MEDIATED CARBONATE PRECIPITATION CARBONATE DISSOLUTION Dominant Sedimentary Processes

D CLASTIC Sediment Type CHEMICAL D e Manitou Freefight e e Redberry Deadmoose e p Waldsea p M Devils Antelope M O Basin Manitoba O R Oro R P Clearwater Little P Manitou H Lenore Oliver H O Blackstrap O Arthur L Quill L O O G G Y S Dana Harris S Y h h a Willow Bunch a l Old Wives Ceylon l l Porter Bitter Corral Chappice l o Mud Grandora Vincent Muskiki Ingebright o w w CLASTIC Sediment Type CHEMICAL

Dominant Sedimentary Processes MUD DIAPIRISM CYCLIC FLOODING/DESSICATION EVAPORATIVE PUMPING DEFLATION/AEOLIAN INFLUX WIND SETUP INTRASEDIMENTARY SALT FORMATION FORMATION OF SALT SPRING DEPOSITS SUBAQUEOUS SALT PRECIPITATION CYCLIC PRECIPITATION/DISSOLUTION FORMATION OF SALT CRUSTS SALT KARSTING Fig. 10 Salt lakes of the northern Great Plains: morphology versus sediment type.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 53 N 0 50 100 km

9 7

S ou t 32 Leader h 31 S 28 a 27 29 s er katchew an Riv 21 26B Great Sand 30 Hills 26 12 1 Regina 1 11 Moose Jaw Medicine 13 18 Hat Swift Old Current Wives 1 Lake 2 25 1 23 24 3 3 Maple Creek 4 22 21 Lethbridge 19 Hills 14 Cypress 17 20 15 5 18 9 6 21 16 Eastend

8 7

Valley Complex Colluvium Eolian Lacustrine & Glacio- Glaciofluvial (alluvium, colluvium, glacio- (colluviated drift, primarily till, Loess fluvial deposits, minor others) and bedrock Dunes lacustrine Deposits Deposits Till Plain Till, Hummocky (flat to gently rolling) (Includes stagnation moraine Bedrock & ice-thrust ridges)

Fig. 11 Surficial Materials map within the Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone of the Palliser Triangle showing Field stop locations. Map is compiled and simplified from David (1964), SRC (1986, 1987a&b), Shetson, 1987), and Klassen (1991, 1992). See Fig. 1 for map showing extent of the Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone and Fig. 3 for major physiographic divisions. Rectangle shows the approximate area shown in the landsat photo of Fig. 9 (click on any corner of rectangle to view landsat image). LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 54

Dipping Strata 0 km 20 Fold Axis showing Thrust Fault (tooth plunge Vertical Strata on upthrust side) High-angle Fault (ticks Provincial Highway 2 Horizontal Fold Axis Horizontal Strata on upth ownr side) II Older bed ockr MISSOURI ridges completly 339 overridden II I Cr estwynd Younger bed ockr ridges mostly Old Wives II overridden Lake CACTUS H. II Younger bed ockr I II Cl aybank Stop ridges not 1 III overridden I End Moraine Stop II Avonlea (after Parizek, '64) 2 2 ARDILL II II Ice Tongue position Spring Galilee I Valley Ar dill La COTEAU ke I Meltwater II o END I Spillway f

t T HILLS h I DIR

e Stop

R 3 iv e II r s

II Skyeta Lake Manitoba

MORAINE

Alberta MAXWELL

TON 36 Saskatchewan END 334 MORAINE Regina Ormiston Shoe L.

Fi g. 12 Geomorpholog y and stru cture of the Dirt and Cactus hills (Fig. 11, stops no. 1, 2 & 3). The hills are the produ ct of gla ciote ctonic deformation asso ciated with three tongues of the Weyburn ice lobe; stru ctures correspond closel y to trends of ridges and overall morpholog y of the hills (modified from Abe r, 1993).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 55

2 km N

Fig. 13 Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 2). Spillway is denoted by black arrow. Skyeta Lake is visible in lower right corner. LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 56

Oro Lake Chemistry

ALBERTA TDS 31g/l pH 8.7 SASKATCHEWAN Mg 4.5 0 SO4 22.2 Hand Hills Na 1.9 4 HCO3 0.87 K 1.9 4 Cl 0.60

MANITOBA Cypress Hills Moose Mt.

MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA

N OR1 OR2 OR3 6 As pen parkland laminated clay 970±60 & silt Bu nchgrass steppe OR1 429 0±60 706 0±60 Northern m ix ed-gras s 672 0±60 OR2 815 0±60 4 prairie 889 0±60 3.93m 4.14m 673 0±60 OR3 2 909 0±70 massive mud 942 0±230 0 km 0.5 8.09m 10-15cm peat overlying Bathy m etr y in m etres (Aug., 1993) colluvium

Fig. 14 Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of Oro Lake (Fig 11, stop no. 4). General location of lake denoted by black circle on Palliser map. LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 57 Mg & Na Ca EVAPORITES ENDOGENIC EVAPORITES & HALITE CARBONATES

0 0 Na+MgSULFATES

MgSULFATES 10 10

GYPS UM PROTODOLO M ITE

20 20 depth in cm HALITE 30 30 NaSULFATES

40 40

ARAGONITE

50 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 350 10 20 30 40 50 60 PERCENT PERCENT PE RCENT Fig. 15 Endogenic mineralogy of undated short core from Oro Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 4). LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 58 % Aragonite % Gypsum percent AMS dates 0 0

100 100 970±70 200 200

300 300 4290±60 400 Hyd romagnesite 400 & Magnesite 500 500 Depth (cm) Na2 SO4 6739±60 600 600

700 700 9090±70

800 800 Protodolomite 9420±230 900 900 0 25 50 75 25 50 75 100 25 50 75 Fig. 16 Chronology and endogenic mineralogy of Oro Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 4) core OR1. All AMS ages were obtained on seeds from upland plant species. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 59

14C yr BP DEPTH LITHOLOGY COMMENTS & INTERPRETATION in metres 0

HIGH ARAGONITE, MINOR Mg-CALCITE LOW ORGANIC MATTER, TRACE Na SULFATES THROUGHOUT 1 SALINE TO HYPERSALINE PLAYA

POOR RECOVERY NO OBSERVABLE BEDDING, HARD 2 VARIABLE DETRITAL CONTENT VERY LOW ORGANIC MATTER GRADING FROM Na SULFATES AT BASE TO Na+Mg SULFATES AT TOP SALINE TO HYPERSALINE 3 PERENNIAL LAKE

ABUNDANT FIBROUS ORGANIC 4 MATTER HIGH GYPSUM & Na SULFATES SALINE TO HYPERSALINE PLAYA 6730 (diffuse organic ABUNDANT SHELL MATERIAL matter) 5 PERENNIAL, DEEPWATER FRESH TO BRACKISH LAKE

6 NO SAMPLE 10,360 (shell material) POORLY SORTED POOR RECOVERY 7 FLUVIAL/ALLUVIAL SEDIMENT?

LAMINATED SILTY CLAY LAMINATED CALCAREOUS & CLAYEY SILT SILTY CLAY

SALT GRAVELLY SAND & SANDY, SILTY GRAVEL FIRM, DRY PEDOGENIC ZONE MICROBIALITE

Fig. 17 Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake. (Fig. 11, stop no. 5). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 60

Human Hand

Human Head

Human foot Human Foot

Grizzly Beat Track Hoof Track

Turtle

Hoof with Dew Claws

Fig. 18 Examples of petroglyphs from St. Victor Park ( Fig. 11, stop no. 6 ), modified from SERM brochure. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 611

dRb

N

Ap Highway Rp

Table Rp Butte

dRb

dRp

0 km 2

Fig. 19 Surficial materials of the Table Butte area ( Fig. 11, stop no. 7): Rp=Bedrock plateau; Rb=Bedrock benches, d=with scattered erratics; Ap=Alluvial plain. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 62

dRh

stop 8 Ap Ap dRh

dRb dRp

dRb

N

0 km 2 dRh

Fig. 20 Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area (Fig. 11, stop no. 8): Rp=Bedrock plateau; Rb=Bedrock bench; Rh=Bedrock forming badlands, d=with scattered erratics; Ap=Alluvial Plain. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 63

Fig. 21 Killdeer badlands (Fig. 11, stop no. 8), East Block, Grasslands National Park, Saskatchewan. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 64

N Ap Plains 0 km 2 Mv Mv

Cx

stop 9

Cx

Wood Mv Mountain Upland

Fig. 22 Surficial material s, Wood Moun tain Upland escarpment (Fig. 11, stop no. 9): Mv=Till veneer; Cx=Colluvial complex; Ap=Alluvial Plai n LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 65

N 0 km 0.5

GSC monitored site

stabilized parabolic dunes Stop 10

back ridge

back ridge track ridges

NAPL A21004- 63: 1969

Fig. 23 Airphoto showing active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 10). Formative winds are from the SW. Note prominent dune-track ridges behind dunes low lying terrain. In 1996, the area of active sand (white) was somewhat less than in this 1969 airphoto. Dashed line illustrates how back ridge and wings join to form a “closed” parabolic dune. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 66

GF

0km 2 Er N

Stop 11 GL

GF

Antelope Lake

Fig. 24 Vertical air photograph of area NE of Antelope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 11). Dashed line denotes most prominent reach of the Antelope Lake esker. GF - glaciofluvial outwash; Er - eolian dunes; GL - glaciolacustrine plain.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 67 1961 1991

AL1AL2AL3

N 0 km 1

Fig. 25 Verti cal air pho tographs of Antel ope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 12) sho wing dramati c drop in water level over the past three decades. White circles mark Palli ser Triangle Project coring sites. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 68

ENDOGENIC DETRITAL MEAN PARTICLE MINERALOGY TEXTURE SIZE

1990 1990

1980 1980

1970 1970 SAND 1960 1960 CLAY 1950 GYPSUM 1950

1940 1940 ARAGONITE 1930 1930 SILT 1920 1920

1910 1910

1900 1900 PROTO- DOLOMITE 1890 1890

1880 1880 Percent Percent Microns Fig. 26 Sediment characteristics of 210Pb dated gravity core, collected near Antelope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 12) core AL1 . LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 69

Prevailing Wind

Depletion fallout

transport

137Cs molecule attaches to a soil particle Enrichment

Fig. 27 Cartoon illustrating redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 70 Parent Material of Associations 40 Glacio- Eolian lacustrine Silt 20 -1 (silt) Till yr -1 0

-13 -14 -11 -20 -21 -30

-40 Glaciofluvial/ lacustrine Glacio- (coarse sand) lacustrine Soil Redistribution t ha -60 (sand)

Fig. 28 Boxplots of soil loss at cultivated sites for five parent material s in the RM's of Gull Lake and Webb (Fig. 11, stop no. 13). Numeric value is the median for that parent material type (from Penno ck et al., 1995). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 71

0 km 2 49o30'N Dollard

N

y e ll a W ' V 0 13 5 t o n 8 e 0 r W

r ' 1 u C 4 3 o

t 8

if 0 1 w S

Crescentic troughs Drumlins Eastend Transverse ridges 13 Bidaux Drumlin 49o30'N Frenchman Valley

Fig. 29 Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges of the Dolla rd Plai n (near stop no. 14, Fig. 11). Grassy Creek Scabland and the Shaunavon Pla teau lie to the ENE. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 72

Fig. 30 Fractured clasts in the Bidaux Drumlin (Fig. 11, stop no. 14). Measuring stick is 60 cm long. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 73

Swift Curr Mv Mp channel

highway

Cx ent line of stop Cx cross-section F 15 re nc Ap hm an Valley Gt Ap

Cx Mp Mp Mp 0 km 2

Fig. 31 Surficial materials in vicinity of Frenchman Valley near town of Eastend (Fig. 11, stop no. 15). Mp=Till plain, Mv=Till veneer, Cx=Colluvial complex, Gt=Glaciofluvial terrace, Ap=Alluvial plain. Note position of PFRA cross-section of valley presented in Fig. 32 LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 74 EASTEND SITE-PFRA NE SW 3500'

3400'

3300' Frenchman River 3200'

3100'

3000' Till Sand/gravel Colluvium 1 km 2900' Bedrock

Fig. 32 Cross-section of the Frenchman Valley (Fig. 11, Fig. 31) showing fill sequence west of the town of Eastend. Black bars denote boreholes drilled prior to construction of the PFRA dam at the site. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 75

Fig. 33 View southeast across the Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak (Fig. 11, stop no. 16). Note ubiquitous landsliding along valley sides. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 76

SW Late Cretaceous - Paleocene NE Sand Gravel Intrusive +++ Rocks

Eocene - Oligocene

+ + ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +++ + + +++ +++ +++

Rocky Today Mountains 2000 Sweetgrass Hills

+ + Cypress ++ ++ Hills + + +++ +++ ++ + + ++ + ++

elevation (m asl) + ?+++ ? 0 100 0 km U.S.A. Canada Fig. 34 Sequence of events to account for the origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation. Recent cross section is drawn to scale (modified from Leckie and Cheel, 1989). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 77 Sweetgrass Hills Bearpaw Mountains

N

Fig. 35 Recons tructed depos itional environment of the Cypress Hill s Formation. Quartzite clastic detritus was derived from sediments overlying the Bearpaw Moun tains and Sweetgrass Hill s. Granite intrusions, which formed the moun tains and hill s, provided detritus when expos ed by subs equent erosion. The exposu re at stop 17 (Fig. 11, stop no. 17) represents the braidplai n facies of the formation (modified from Leckie and Cheel , 1989). LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 78

N

0 km 2

dRp

Cx Stop 17 Cx

Cx Cx Mv Mnx

Cx

Fig. 36 East Block of the Cypress Hills just north of Frenchman Valley: dRp = Bedrock plateau with residual drift, Cx = Colluvial complex, Mv = Till veneer, Mnx = Till transitional to hummocky glaciolacustrine deposits. See Fig. 11, stop no. 17. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 79

CC CC

CC CC CC 21 stop 18

1 km

Sucker Floodplain Surface Dissected Slopes Moirvale Belanger Ice Surface Margin Fairwell CC Caton Channels Surface Murraydale Caton Slopes Surface Fig. 37 Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks, Cypress Hills. Stop no 18 (Fig. 11) is the Belanger Canal section.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 80

N

PC

DC

CC

Fig. 38 Meltwater channels on the East Block upland. Brown area delimits the upland; yellow area marks Cypress surface remnants; beige area marks Murraydale surface remnants. DC–Davis Creek, CC–Caton Creek, PC–Piapot Creek. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 81

Fig. 39 View north from Bald Butte (Fig. 11, stop no. 19) across the north slope of the Centre Block and subhumid plains toward the Great Sand Hills. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 82

1400 South North

Preglacial Valley

1300 ) m ( Battle Creek n

o Meltwater i 1200 t Channel a v e l E

1100

1000 0 4 Distance (km) 8 12 Fig. 40 Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh (Fig. 11, stop no. 20) (from Klassen, unpublished). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 83

Fig. 41 Fort Walsh National Historic Site (Fig. 11, stop no. 20). LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 84 A 1400

1350 CH vertical RC exaggeration = 3,2X 1300 Frenchman 1445±320 BP Battle 1250 Whitemud landslide 1745±85 BP Elevation (m) Eastend debris 1200 Battle Bearpaw Creek

1150 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Distance (km) B 1190 Benson Creek vertical 1180 land- exaggeration = 5.6X 1170 slide 1160 1150 1140 Elevation (m) 0 5 Stream Distance (km) 10 15 Fig. 42 A - Topog raphic and bedrock cross -sections of Benson Creek Landslide (Fig. 11, stop no. 21) runn ing perpendicular to main axis of the slide. CH = Cypress Hill s Formation, RC = Ravenscrag Formation. B - Long itudinal profile of Battle Creek sho wing effect of Benson Creek lands lide on hydraulic geometry (modified from Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 85 stop 22

stop 21 N

Fig. 43 Battle Creek Valley between Benson Creek (stop 21) and Police Point (stop 22) landslides (Fig. 11). Approximate outer scarp of slides is marked by dashed black lines; arrows indicate direction of movement. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 86

Fig. 44 Police Point Lands lide (Fig. 11, stop no. 22). Numbers: 1–upp er plateau surface; 2–upp er scarp expos ing Cypress Hill s Formation; 3–rotated slump blocks; 4–gully erosion within Cretaceous sediments and 5– sediment washed from lands lide into forest. Bottom of lands lide lie s abou t 140 m below plateau surface (from Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 87 A B

C D

Fig. 45 Ground photos of Police Point Landslide (Fig. 11, stop no. 22). A–Upper scarp exposing about 30 m of Cypress Hills Formation - note rotated slump blocks below scarp. B–Gully erosion and tensional failure of Cretaceous sediments. C–Sediment infilling of depression below toe. D–Highly turbid sediment plume entering Battle Creek after major rain storm. From Sauchyn and Lemmen (1996). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 88

JLP Tp 10 N The Weir k

DLP e e r C

DLP e l p

Friday Site a M 7 2

271 R DLP

DLP

0 km 2

Floodplain h ls a Weir Terrace W rt o F Fan Landslides JLP Junction Lk. Plain Tp 10 DLP Downie Lk. Plain Fig. 46 Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin (Fig. 11, stop no. 23). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 89

Fig. 47 Buried soils in postglacial loess at the Friday site (Fig. 11, stop no. 23). The lowermost soil was dated at 10.5 ka BP. Measuring stick is approximately 160 cm LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 90

N Baby Dune May 26, 1994 15

10

2m 5 10 m N 10 m 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40m contour int. 0.20 m -30 -20 -10 0 10 20cm 50 South Dune N May 26, 1994 40

30

20 10m N 10

20 m 20 m 10 30 50 70 90m contour int. 0.50 m -60 -40 -20 0 20 40cm Fig. 48 GSC monitored blowout dunes at Bigstick Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no 24). Note similar morphology (right) although South Dune (bottom) is half an order of magnitude larger than Baby Dune (left). Patterns of sediment redistribution are also similar (see corresponding shade scales), with greatest erosion during the 16 month period on the south and east sides of the blowout depression, and greatest accumulation to the east beyond the lip of the blowout. Note that there is very little change in elevation of base of blowout. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 91

dune building top of wind direction slipface

W vegetation

Br back-ridge Sf A Br D Bs H c A' Bs back-slope

c crest deflation D W depression

H head Br D Bs H c Sf Sf slipface 10m A A' W wing 0 250m

Fig. 49 Morphological features of an active parabolic dune. LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 92

0 km 1

Stop 26

43m Na2SO4 PLANT

INGEBRIGHT LAKE

29m

Fig. 50 Ingebright Lake and sodium sulfate mining operation (Fig. 11, stop no. 26). Values plotted on lake surface referred to measured thickness of Holocene evaporites. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 93 N

0.5 km

Mud flat/ Sand flat

Marshy Land

Mirabilite Salt

CORING SITE SPRING

Fig. 51 Modern sediment facies; North Ingebright Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 26). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 94 Dry Low High Very high Unit 7

5,500 yr BP Unit 6

Unit 5

Unit 4 6,720 yr BP

Unit 3

Unit 2

Unit 1

10,250 yr BP Fig. 52 Interpreted relative humidity; North Ingebright Lake region, near stop no. 26 (Fig. 11). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 95

FREEFIGHT LAKE O.5km FREEFIGHT LAKE MAY, 1981 Deep Basin Core - Laminated Facies

40 45 50 FREEFIGHT LAKE cm AUGUST, 1985 Modern facies mapping by Slezak, 1989

Mudflat Facies Deep Basin Delta Facies Facies Detritus Colluvium Slope Facies Facies O.5km Algal flat Facies 40 45 50 cm FREEFIGHT LAKE SEPTEMBER, 1991 (lake overturn)

SEDIMENT TRAPS 1990-1991 Deep Basin Facies Accumulation Rate: 63kg/m/yr O.5km

Fig. 53 Vertical air photographs of Freefight Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 26B) showing sedimentary facies (1985 photo) and variability in water levels. Inset shows finely laminated sediments evident in x-radiographs (top photo). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 96

B

C B

A

B D N

D 0 km 2

Fig. 54 Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 27). “Big Dune” and “Picnic Dune” are the two areas of active sand (white) immediately north of the letter ‘A’. See text for explanation of coding. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 97 N 0 km 2 source depression

stop 28 stop 29

Highway 32

Abbey

Fig. 55 Vertical air photo of Lancer ice-thrust moraine (Fig. 11, stops nos. 28 and 29). White arrows denote general direction of ice-thrusting. Stop 28 lies near highest point of moraine. Note smooth surface of source depression contrasted with more hummocky surface of plateau to the south of the moraine. Black arrows indicate driving route described in road guide. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 98

Fig. 56 View southeast along proximal slope of Lancer ice-thrust moraine from paleosol site (Fig. 11, stop no. 29). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 99

Lake Diefenbaker

Stop 30

N 0 km 1

Fig. 57 Lower Swift Current Creek Valley east of Stewart Valley (Fig. 11, stop no. 30). Rotational landsliding is ubiquitous along valley walls as well as along the trunk South Saskatchewan Valley. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 100

ALBERTA SASKATCHEWAN Hand Hills

MANITOBA Cypress Hills Moose Mt.

CLEARWATER LAKE MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA

CW2 organic-rich silt 7320±70 fine gray Aspen parkland 7310±60 sand & silt CW1 CW2 Bunchgrass steppe massive silt 1.0 and clay 8840±60 CW1 Northern mixed-grass 3.0 prairie 1700±70 laminated laminated silt 8930±70 sand, silt & 5.0 clay & clay 9340±70 3.2m 3430±80 N

9980±70 7.7m 0 km 1 Bathymetry in metres (Aug., 1992) Fig. 58 Limnology and stratigraphy of Clearwater Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 31). Open circle on map indicates general location of lake basin. Black circles in lake basin indicate coring sites. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 101 MEAN ENDOGENIC CALCITE PARTICLE SIZE CARBONATES COMPOSITION

1990 1990

1980 1980

1970 1970

1960 Mg- 1960 CALCITE 1950 1950

1940 1940 ORGANIC MATTER 1930 1930 ARAGONITE 1920 1920

1910 1910

1900 1900

1890 1890

1880 1880 0 25 50 75 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20

MICRONS PERCENT MOLE % MgCO3 Fig. 59 Sediment characteristics of gravity core CWS2, collected near site of CW1 (Fig. 11, stop no. 31). Vertical axis is date (in years AD) inferred from 210Pb analysis. LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 102 18 13 ARAGONITE EVAPORITES d O & d C of CaCO 3 0 0

100 7320+/-70 100

200 7310+/-60 200

300 300 8840+/-60 40 0 400 cm

500 8930+/-70 500

Na SO 600 9340+/-70 2 4 600 GYPSUM 700 700 9980+/-70 18 13 d O d C 800 800 0 25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100 -10 -5 0 PERCENT PERCENT ppt PDB Fig. 60 Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis of core CW2 at Clearwater Lake (Fig. 11, site no. 31). Unconformity in upper m has not been identified. In "Evaporites" diagram, solid black dots refer to sodium sulphate while the continuous line refers to gypsum. LANDSCAPES OF THE ALLISERP TRIANGLE p. 103

14C zone age 0 m

1 m

5.8 3.1m poplar V spruce log IV 7.7 3.9m 8.8 4.0m sandy clay IIIb charcoal-rich 10.2 sandy clay IIIa 10.2 silty clay 5.0m II 10.2 5.1m litter I till

F ig. 61 Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, near Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan (Fig. 3). LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 104

Trees & Shrubs Wet Meadow Herbs Emergents Aquatics

(bracts) (moss)

spp. sp. (drupes)sp. (testas) (leaves) B. occidentalis spp. (buds) spp. cf. spp. sp. (algae) coal Age ycopus americanus ypha latifolia Picea glauca RubusShepherdia idaeusBetula canadensis PopulusFragaria Chenopodium virginiana Rumex Mentha maritimusRanunculus arvensisL sceleratusPotentilla norvegicaCarex Scirpus T HippurisMyriophyllum vulgarisZannichelliaPotamogeton verticillatum Potamogetonpalustris Chara Depanocladuscharzone polycarpus 5,8ka

Zone V 350

7.7ka 400 Zone IV 3.8ka Zone IIIb

10.2ka 450 trunks Zone IIIa depth in cm trunks

10.2ka Zone IIIa 500 10.2ka Zone II

550 Zone I

100 400 2040 20 100 20 20 20 60 50 50 100 20 20 20 100 100 100 55 Macrofossils (#/50ml) Fig. 62 Summary plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site near Moose Jaw Saskatchewan (Fig. 3), showing 22 of the 41 species identified. Analysis by Catherine H. Yansa.

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Approximate road route for Day One stops. See STOP LOG for detailed description.

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Approximate road route for Day Two stops. See STOP LOG for details.

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Approximate road route for Day Three stops. Several route changes in the Cypress Hills area are too small to map at this scale. Also some stops are off the map. See STOP LOG.

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Approximate road route for Day Four stops. See STOP LOG for detailed description.