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(3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 Chapter 12 Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules from Organic Chemistry by Robert C. Neuman, Jr. Professor of Chemistry, emeritus University of California, Riverside [email protected] <http://web.chem.ucsb.edu/~neuman/orgchembyneuman/> Chapter Outline of the Book ************************************************************************************** I. Foundations 1. Organic Molecules and Chemical Bonding 2. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 3. Haloalkanes, Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines 4. Stereochemistry 5. Organic Spectrometry II. Reactions, Mechanisms, Multiple Bonds 6. Organic Reactions *(Not yet Posted) 7. Reactions of Haloalkanes, Alcohols, and Amines. Nucleophilic Substitution 8. Alkenes and Alkynes 9. Formation of Alkenes and Alkynes. Elimination Reactions 10. Alkenes and Alkynes. Addition Reactions 11. Free Radical Addition and Substitution Reactions III. Conjugation, Electronic Effects, Carbonyl Groups 12. Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules 13. Carbonyl Compounds. Ketones, Aldehydes, and Carboxylic Acids 14. Substituent Effects 15. Carbonyl Compounds. Esters, Amides, and Related Molecules IV. Carbonyl and Pericyclic Reactions and Mechanisms 16. Carbonyl Compounds. Addition and Substitution Reactions 17. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 18. Reactions of Enolate Ions and Enols 19. Cyclization and Pericyclic Reactions *(Not yet Posted) V. Bioorganic Compounds 20. Carbohydrates 21. Lipids 22. Peptides, Proteins, and α−Amino Acids 23. Nucleic Acids ************************************************************************************** *Note: Chapters marked with an (*) are not yet posted. 0 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 12: Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules 12.1 Conjugated Molecules 12-4 1,3-Butadiene (12.1A) 12-4 Atomic Orbital Overlap in 1,3-Butadiene Molecular Orbitals The Bonding M.O.'s Conformations Other Alternating Multiple Bonds Pentadienes (12.1B) 12-7 1,3-Pentadiene 1,4-Pentadiene 1,2-Pentadiene. Stability of Conjugated Systems (12.1C) 12-9 Heats of Hydrogenation of Pentadienes Heats of Hydrogenation of Butadienes Aromatic Molecules (12.1D) 12-11 12.2 Reactivity of Conjugated Systems 12-11 Addition of H-Cl to 1,3-Butadiene (12.2A) 12-11 Products Mechanism Delocalized Carbocation Resonance Structures (12.2B) 12-14 Carbocation Resonance Structures Meaning of Resonance Structures Meaning of The Double Headed Arrow Other Reactions with Delocalized Intermediates (12.2C) 12-16 Acid Catalyzed Hydration Electrophilic Halogenation Free Radical Addition of H-Br. 12.3 Writing Resonance Structures 12-18 A General Procedure (12.3A) 12-19 Carbocations (C+) (12.3B) 12-19 Carbanions (C-) (12.3C) 12-20 Radicals (C.) (12.3D) 12-20 12.4 More on Delocalized Systems 12-21 Localized vs. Delocalized Intermediates (12.4A) 12-21 Reactions other than Addition (12.4B) 12-21 Solvolysis of Haloalkenes Radical Halogenation Conjugated Systems with Heteroatoms (12.4C) 12-23 Resonance Forms with Heteroatoms Relative Importance of Resonance Forms (continued) 1 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 12.5 Benzenoid Aromatic Molecules 12-25 Benzene (12.5A) 12-25 Reactivity Stability 1H NMR Spectra The Real Structure of Benzene (12.5B) 12-27 Benzene Geometry Benzene Resonance Structures Benzene Molecular Orbitals Benzene MO's, Resonance, and Unusual Properties (12.5C) 12-30 Chemical Reactivity Stability 1H NMR Chemical Shifts Substituted Benzenes (12.5D) 12-32 12.6 Nomenclature of Benzenoid Aromatic Molecules 12-32 Monocyclic Arenes (12.6A) 12-33 Systematic Nomenclature Common Nomenclature ortho, meta, and para (12.6B) 12-34 The Phenyl Group The Benzyl Group Polycyclic Arenes (12.6C) 12-36 12.7 Aromatic Systems without Benzene Rings 12-37 Annulenes (12.7A) 12-37 Aromatic and Nonaromatic Annulenes Cyclobutadiene and Cyclooctatetraene. Resonance Structures Do Not Tell the Story MO Diagrams for C4H4, C6H6 and C8H8 (12.7B) 12-39 Cyclooctatetraene Cyclobutadiene. Aromatic Annulenes Besides Benzene (12.7C) 12-40 Hückel's Rule Other Annulenes Heteroaromatic Systems (12.7D) 12-41 Pyridine Pyrrole Furan and Thiophene Purine and Pyrimidine Aromatic Ions (12.7E) 12-43 Cycloheptatrienyl Cation Cyclopentadienyl Anion Cyclopropenyl Cation. Cyclooctadienyl Dianion (continued) 2 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 12.8 Making Substituted Benzenes 12-44 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Mechanism (12.8A) 12-44 Electrophiles Arenium Ion Formation Deprotonation of the Arenium Ion Reactions with Substituted Benzenes Formation of the Electrophile (12.8B) 12-47 Halogenation Sulfonation Nitration. Alkylation NH2 and OH Groups on Arenes (12.8C) 12-53 Synthesis of Aniline (Ph-NH2) Synthesis of Phenol (Ph-OH) Acidity of Arene OH Groups Basicity of Arene NH2 Groups 12.9 Spectrometry of Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules 12-57 NMR Spectral Data (12.9A) 12-57 1H Chemical Shifts 13C Chemical Shifts UV-Visible Spectral Data (12.9B) 12-58 Conjugated Polyenes The Electron Excitation Process Arenes The Use of UV-Visible Data Infrared Spectrometry (12.9C) 12-61 Supplemental Appendix to "Aromatic Ions (Section 12.7E)" 12-63 3 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 12: Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules •Conjugated Molecules •Reactivity of Conjugated Molecules •Writing Resonance Structures •More on Delocalized Systems •Benzenoid Aromatic Molecules •Nomenclature of Benzenoid Aromatic Molecules •Aromatic Systems without Benzene Rings •Making Substituted Benzenes •Spectrometry of Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules 12.1 Conjugated Molecules Conjugated molecules have π electrons that are not localized in individual double or triple bonds. Rather their π electrons are delocalized throughout an extended π system. We will see later that aromatic molecules are a special class of conjgated molecules. 1,3-Butadiene (12.1A) We show the simplest arrangement of multiple bonds that leads to π electron delocalization and conjugation in Figure 12.001 where two C=C bonds are separated by a C-C single bond. Figure 12.001 The simplest example of a molecule with that arrangement of C=C bonds is 1,3-butadiene. with the structure CH2=CH-CH=CH2. Atomic Orbital Overlap in 1,3-Butadiene. We focus on different aspects of the atomic orbitals in 1,3-butadiene in Figure 12.002 [next page] in order to show why its π electrons are delocalized. The first structure shows 1,3-butadiene as we normally write it. The two C=C bonds appear to be localized between C1 and C2 and between C3 and C4. Without further expanation that formula implies the localized π MO's that we show in the second structure. The first structure shows 1,3-butadiene as we normally write it. The two C=C bonds appear 4 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 Figure 12.002 to be localized between C1 and C2 and between C3 and C4. Without further expanation that formula implies the localized π MO's that we show in the second structure. We learned in Chapter 8 that localized π MO's of C=C bonds result from overlap of the individual 2p atomic orbitals on sp2 C's that we show in the third structure. However, this third structure reveals that not only can we overlap the 2p orbitals on C1 and C2, and on C3 and C4, but we can also overlap those on C2 and C3. This possibility for extended overlap of all four 2p orbitals leads to delocalization of π electron density across all four carbons as we represent in the fourth structure of Figure 12.002. Because all four 2p orbitals can overlap, the resultant π molecular orbitals in 1,3- butadiene are more complex than those arising from overlap of two 2p AO's on adjacent C's. Molecular Orbitals. We learned in Chapter 8 that overlap of two 2p AO's in a molecule such as CH2=CH2 gives one bonding and one antibonding π MO (Figure 12.003). Figure 12.003 5 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 The two electrons in the π bond are normally in the lowest energy bonding MO. Since the number of molecular orbitals that form as the result of atomic orbital overlap is always equal to the number of overlapping AO's, overlap of the four 2p AO's in 1,3- butadiene leads to the formation of four molecular orbitals (Figure 12.004). Figure 12.004 We show these 4 MO's here without explaining their mathematical origins. Since the two MO's of lowest energy contain the 4 π electrons, we call them bonding MO's. The two higher energy MO's without electrons are called antibonding MO's. The Bonding M.O.'s. The lowest energy π MO has two lobes that lie above and below a plane containing the carbon skeleton. This single MO with two lobes extends over all four carbon atoms of the molecule and contains two π electrons. The remaining two π electrons are in the next higher energy bonding MO that consists of four lobes as we show in Figure 12.004. Although this second bonding π MO looks like the second structure in Figure 12.002, it has a very different meaning. We drew the structure in Figure 12.002 to represent the localized bonding π MO's of the two C=C bonds. In contrast, the second bonding π MO in Figure 12.004 is a single MO that is made up of four lobes. The lowest energy π MO (Figure 12.004) includes all four C atoms of the two double bonds. As a result, the 2 electrons in that MO are delocalized over four carbons rather than just localized between two C's of a single C=C. We will see shortly that this delocalization has important effects on both the stability and chemical reactions of this conjugated molecule. 6 (3/94)(9,10/96)(3,4,5/04) Neuman Chapter 12 Conformations. Conjugated dienes such as 1,3-butadiene have two different planar conformations like those we show in Figure 12.005.
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  • Heterocycles 2 Daniel Palleros

    Heterocycles 2 Daniel Palleros

    Heterocycles 2 Daniel Palleros Heterocycles 1. Structures 2. Aromaticity and Basicity 2.1 Pyrrole 2.2 Imidazole 2.3 Pyridine 2.4 Pyrimidine 2.5 Purine 3. Π-excessive and Π-deficient Heterocycles 4. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution 5. Oxidation-Reduction 6. DNA and RNA Bases 7. Tautomers 8. H-bond Formation 9. Absorption of UV Radiation 10. Reactions and Mutations Heterocycles 3 Daniel Palleros Heterocycles Heterocycles are cyclic compounds in which one or more atoms of the ring are heteroatoms: O, N, S, P, etc. They are present in many biologically important molecules such as amino acids, nucleic acids and hormones. They are also indispensable components of pharmaceuticals and therapeutic drugs. Caffeine, sildenafil (the active ingredient in Viagra), acyclovir (an antiviral agent), clopidogrel (an antiplatelet agent) and nicotine, they all have heterocyclic systems. O CH3 N HN O O N O CH 3 N H3C N N HN N OH O S O H N N N 2 N O N N O CH3 N CH3 caffeine sildenafil acyclovir Cl S N CH3 N N H COOCH3 nicotine (S)-clopidogrel Here we will discuss the chemistry of this important group of compounds beginning with the simplest rings and continuing to more complex systems such as those present in nucleic acids. Heterocycles 4 Daniel Palleros 1. Structures Some of the most important heterocycles are shown below. Note that they have five or six-membered rings such as pyrrole and pyridine or polycyclic ring systems such as quinoline and purine. Imidazole, pyrimidine and purine play a very important role in the chemistry of nucleic acids and are highlighted.