Scalable Beaconing for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control E.M

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Scalable Beaconing for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control E.M Scalable Beaconing for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control E.M. van Eenennaam Graduation committee: Chairman: Prof. dr. ir. Ton Mouthaan Secretary: Prof. dr. ir. Ton Mouthaan Promotor: Prof. dr. ir. Boudewijn Haverkort Assistant promotor: Dr. ir. Geert Heijenk Referee: Dr. ir. Georgios Karagiannis University of Twente Members: Prof. dr. ir. Kees Slump University of Twente Prof. dr. ir. Eric van Berkum University of Twente Prof. dr. ir. Bart van Arem Delft University of Technology Dr. Alexey Vinel Halmstad University of Technology Dr. ir. Nirvana Meratnia University of Twente CTIT Ph.D.-thesis Series No. 13-277 Centre for Telematics and Information Technology University of Twente P.O. Box 217 – 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands ISSN 1381-3617 ISBN 978-90-365-3576-2 DOI 10.3990/1.9789036535762 Cover design: ➠E.M. van Eenennaam, photo by Bart Klaassen. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Non- Commercial Share-Alike 3.0 License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0 or con- tact Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, CA, 94041, USA. This work is printed on paper from responsible sources. This work is supported by the Dutch Senter Novem/HTAS (High Tech Automotive Systems) Project Connect&Drive, Project no. HTASD08002. Printed by Gildeprint Drukkerijen, Enschede, The Netherlands. SCALABLE BEACONING FOR COOPERATIVE ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Twente, op gezag van de rector magnificus, Prof. dr. H. Brinksma, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 20 november 2013 om 12:45 uur door Emiel Martijn van Eenennaam geboren op 19 februari 1982 te Nijmegen, Nederland Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door: Prof. dr. ir. Boudewijn R. Haverkort (promotor) Dr. ir. Geert Heijenk (assistent-promotor) Proofread carefully to see if you any words out. Dave Barry People are so bad at driving cars that computers don’t have to be that good to be much better. Marc Andreessen We live as we do to show the world what it could be What’s it mean to you? Is this a vision you can see? Heroes are those who don’t just accept the way things are Now, which one are you, the driver or the car? Machinae Supremacy – Overwold Caffeine catalyses the scientific process, but only to a certain optimum. After that, the process becomes saturated and efficiency plummets. It is more-or-less comparable to road- or network traffic throughput. (see also Fig. 2.3 on page 16) Martijn van Eenennaam vi Abstract Over the past two hundred years, automotive technology has evolved from mecha- nised horse carriage to high-tech systems which pack more computing power than the entire space program that put Neil Armstrong on the moon. Hand-in-hand with this evolution came a proliferation of ownership and use of cars. This enormous success causes one of modern society’s largest problems: where many vehicles accumulate, traffic congestion occurs. To a large degree, the cause of traffic congestion lies in the poor ability of the human driver to control the (longitudinal) motion of the vehicle under congested traffic circumstances. This leads to so-called string instabilities or shock waves, traveling against the flow of traffic. The traffic flow performance can be improved if the control of acceleration and deceleration is automated. Presently available solutions use radar or lidar to detect and measure the distance to the vehicle in front, and a cruise controller automatically reacts by adjusting the vehicle speed. However, the performance of these systems is not sufficient to prevent shock waves, predominantly due to the delay introduced by the sensors. The Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) is a system which circumvents this by using wireless communication to exchange information about vehicle dynam- ics using the periodic transmission of so-called beacon messages. The technology proposed for this wireless communication is IEEE 802.11p, a modified version of the IEEE 802.11a designed for Wireless LAN applications. However, the wireless medium succumbs to a congested state in a similar fashion as the traffic on the road in response to an increase of the traffic density. This dissertation focusses on the beaconing communication, used to generate a cooperative awareness in each vehicle. Given the real-time nature of the CACC system, it is important that the information in the cooperative awareness is accurate and fresh, even under an increasing number of communicating nodes in near vicinity. To this end, beaconing is evaluated through analytical modelling, discrete-event simulation and proof-of-concept implementations. The purpose is to determine the scalability limits of the IEEE 802.11p Medium Access Control mechanism when used for beaconing, and find and address bottlenecks. In this disseration, detailed analytical models of the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and the Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) are proposed, validated, and compared. Various mechanisms which impact the scalability of a beaconing system are described and evaluated using both these analytical and simu- lation models. In particular, an extensive comparison between the DCF and EDCA access mechanism variants of IEEE 802.11 is performed based on their performance viii in the face of increasing traffic density. The conclusion is that, although IEEE 802.11p defines the EDCA to be used, the DCF is a more favourable access mechanism for the broadcast transmission of beacon messages. Under both access methods, the use of the EIFS is found to be redundant because the beacon channel is broadcast-only. Furthermore, the periodic channel switching defined by IEEE 1609.4, which defines a way to use single-radio IEEE 802.11p on multiple channels in a time-division fashion, has a detrimental effect on beaconing performance. In addition, the way beacon messages are buffered and scheduled for transmission is evaluated. We conclude that it is beneficial to use a dropping policy which drops the oldest information in the queue, as opposed to the most recent arrival as is often implemented. This method is coined the Oldest Packet Drop (OPD) mechanism and is described and evaluated in detail. The outlook of a CACC application operating on beacons transmitted using IEEE 802.11p is good. However, care has to be taken that the system does not become congested. This dissertation provides a set of tools to estimate when the channel becomes congested, and to evaluate the impact of various design choices on communication performance. Samenvatting In de afgelopen tweehonderd jaar heeft de automobieltechnologie enorme sprongen voorwaarts gemaakt, van gemechaniseerde koets tot technologisch-hoogwaardige systemen welke over meer rekenkracht beschikken dan het volledige ruimtepro- gramma dat Neil Armstrong op de maan zette. Hand in hand met deze evolutie, ging een groei in zowel bezit als gebruik. Dit enorme succes veroorzaakt één van de groot- ste problemen van onze hedendaagse maatschappij: waar veel auto’s samenkomen, ontstaat inherent file. De oorzaak van file is voor een groot gedeelte te herleiden tot het slechte ver- mogen van de menselijke bestuurder om de (longitudinale) beweging van het voer- tuig te beheersen onder toenemende verkeersdrukte. Dit heeft zogenaamde keten instabiliteiten tot gevolg, ook wel bekend als schokgolven, die zich tegen de ver- keersstroom in bewegen. De verkeersdoorstroming zou verbeterd kunnen worden als controle over acceleratie en deceleratie van het voertuig wordt geautomatiseerd. Huidige systemen gebruiken radar of lidar om de afstand tot de voorligger te meten, en een cruise controller reageert automatisch door de snelheid aan te passen. Deze systemen presteren helaas niet toereikend om het ontstaan van schokgolven te voorkomen, hoofdzakelijk door de vertraging in de sensoren. De Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) is een system dat deze ver- traging omzeilt door de inzet van draadloze communicatie, om information uit te wisselen omtrent voertuigdynamica. Dit gebeurt doormiddel van periodiek verstu- urde beacon (baken) berichten. De technologie die voorgesteld is om dit te doen is IEEE 802.11p, een aanpassing op IEEE 802.11a die ontworpen is voor Wireless LAN toepassingen. Echter, als reactie op een toename van de verkeersdruk geraakt het draadloze medium in een staat van overbelasting vergelijkbaar met het ontstaan van een file op de weg. Dit proefschrift behandelt de beaconing communicatie die gebruikt wordt om een coöperatief bewustzijn te creëren in ieder voertuig. Gegeven de real-time aard van het CACC systeem is het belangrijk dat de informatie in dit bewustzijn accuraat en actueel is, zelfs onder een toenemend aantal communicerende voertuigen in de nabije omgeving. Hiertoe evalueren we het beaconing communicatie patroon door middel van analytische modellen, discrete-event simulatie, en prototype implementaties. Het doel is om de schaalbaarheidslimieten van het IEEE 802.11p Medium Access Control mechanisme in kaart te brengen, en knelpunten te vinden en aan te pakken. Dit proefschrift beschrijft gedetaileerde analytische modellen van de Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) en Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA), valideert deze en beschrijft vervolgens een vergelijking tussen de DCF en EDCA x toegangsmechanismen. Verscheidene mechanismen die invloed hebben op de schaal- baarheid van een beaconing systeem worden beschreven en geëvalueerd aan de hand van de ontwikkelde analytische- en simulatiemodellen. In het bijzonder wordt een uitvoerige vergelijking van DCF en EDCA zoals gebruikt in IEEE 802.11p beschreven, op basis van de prestaties onder toenemende verkeersdichtheid. De conclusie is dat, ook al is het gebruik van EDCA in IEEE 802.11p voorgeschreven, de DCF betere prestaties blijkt te leveren voor de broadcast transmissies van beacon berichten. Onder beide toegangsmechanismen is het gebruik van de EIFS overbodig, daar het beacon communicatiekanaal uitsluitend broadcast-berichten bevat. Verder wordt het periodiek van kanaal wisselen, zoals beschreven in IEEE 1609.4 en bedoeld om met één enkele radio toch meerdere kanalen “tegelijk” te kunnen gebruiken, geëvalueerd.
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