THE LIGHT OF ASIA By A STUDENT OF BUDDHISM

Tile r,adjustment of all values which is taking place befo'ro ou,' eyes, and the vast break-up through whioh humanity is at present paBS­ ing, have created in many millwns of people all over the world tile desire for a religious anchor in the stream of phenomena, for a moral and eternal standard of values which is not subject to the daily changes of politics and the ",ituation." Many to wllom hitherto religion was some­ thing for the uneducated masses and old-fashioned people, but not fO?' them, are today looking at the world's religions and asking: What call they give me '! Religion, are of significance not only to the individual but also to the community. Without a moral basis a satisfactory human co"ml1t?li"y life is unthinkable, for law and force alone are, in the long rUlI, ?IO guar­ antee for order. During long era, of human history, faith and ,uper,titioll in a variety of forms have been the moral basis of the community. Who can maintain that this is st-ill tile case today? We do not know whether, among the many changes taking place around us, there will also be a religious on/l; still Ius do we know wha,t form such a change would take. But the study of relig'iou. q1Ustions is among the tasks 0/ a magazine whose aim is to deal with the most "ital problems 01 the twentieth century. We begin in this number for three reasons with a contribution on Buddhism. First, because it is .urprising Ilow little -We, li"ing in the midst 01 a Buddhi8t world, generally know about Bltddhism. Secondll/, because BuddhiBm is a fa'ith common to the people8 of the Orient, from Burma to Japan; this renders it particu­ larly important todal/. And la.tly, becau8e Buddhism, in spite of its venerable age, is especially topical in yet another connecf.ion today. It is a characteristic of all people influenced by the technical and psychological development of the West that they find it very hard if not imp08sible to believe something which they have not understood with their reason. Hence they will find a 8tudy of BuddhiBm, an atheistic faith based purelll on the human instead 01 the divine, intere8ting. Buddhism offers a moral basis of life without taking for granted a divine revelation at a given ti'me, at a given place, to a giwn per80n or people. We believe we are justified in saying that the following article i8 unique in magazine literature in its clear and concise presentation of one of the most difficult Itp'iritual problems. It was written by a man who, in order to 8tudy the religions and cultures of the As'iatio nations, traveled through Ceylon, India, and Afghanistan and has been living in the East for several years where he has been engaged ma'inly in the 't"dy of Buddhillm.-K. M.

STATUES OF BUDDHA of the Buddha in temples and groves also radiate that force of serenely When they come to Peking or other smiling wisdom which is directed in­ Eastern cities, many Europeans and ward and brings the beholder under Americans buy statues of Buddha. If its spell. one is lucky, one finds genuine old bronzes and wood carvings from which While Christ is usually represented emanate the charm of fine work­ in the tortured position on the Cross, manship, the magic force of centuries the Buddha is nearly always seen in of veneration, and a great serenity. the harmonious position of meditation, It is a serenity which comes from the the most important Buddhist spiritual introspection and inner peace lacking exercise. Meditation is designed to calm in most moderns. The great images the spirit, to release it from hatred, 172 THE XXth CENTURY anger, and desire, and to lead it to what The Buddha of our period, Siddhartha is truly essential. For the highest truth is Gautama, who lived from 563 to 483 not a theory to be read in books or learnt B.C., the last of this chain of saints, from teachers. It is to be found in was an ascetic from the noble clan of man himself, and he becomes conscious the Shakyas. Hence he is called Shakya­ of it as soon as he awakens from the muni, the sage of the Shakya clan. ignorance of his entanglement with the This Shakyamuni or Gautama is to most material world of things and the Buddhists simply "the Buddha." He treacherous world of appearances and is considered by them to be the founder pleasures and endeavors to lead a life of their religion, because the wisdom void of delusions. revealed by his predecessors had fallen into oblivion so that the "path to Reading or study alone will never deathlessness" had to be discovered enable us to accomplish the goal of anew. For critical science he is the Buddhism, which is the conquest of life only historical Buddha, compared with and death. The art of swimming cannot whom all other Buddhas are submerged be acquired from books; they may give in the twilight of legend. us certain useful information on how to swim, but jf we never practise swimming PRINCE AND SAINT we shall never become swimmers. In the same way, but in a far deeper We shall not trouble the reader with sense, we shall never understand the a description of Gautama's life before teaching of the Buddha, not to say his Enlightenment. It can be found in accomplish its aim, if we do not apply any encyclopedia. Moreover almost the teaching in our daily life. everyone knows the legend of how the young Prince Siddharta Gautama, grow­ THE LONG CHAIN ing up in carefree luxury and married to OF BUDDHAS the beautiful Yasodhara, one day, when out riding, met with a beggar, a sick Buddhism is the name given to that man, a corpse, and an ascete, and how, religion which venerates "Buddhas" as deeply affected by this experience, he the revealers of the redeeming truth. decided to give up all the pleasures of The designation "Buddha" was known his princely life, his rank, and his to the Indians as early as during the family, and to set out to solve the period of the Vedic religion (1500-600 riddle of life. This riddle, for him as B.C.). It means "the Awakened One" for many thinking persons, consisted and indicates a person who after great of the question, why suffering is struggles has gained perfect knowledge inseparably bound up with life. regarding the essence of all that is, a saint who has for ever freed himself Concentrating his attention on the from passion and suffering, and who eternal problems of life amI ueaLb, Lhe has grown beyond all earthly things Prince grasped the fundamental law to set forth the truths found by him of Transitoriness to which aU forms to humanity caught in delusions. are subject. At first be turned to priests and philosophers to solve the According to Buddhist views, count­ riddle of life. They advised him to less Buddhas have preceded the historical offer sacrifices to the gods in temples Buddha in former periods of the world. and at the house altar in the traditional And there will also be future Buddhas manner, to carry out pedantically the who will continue to proclaim the "good prescribed washings and ceremonies, law" which shows the way out of and to chant magic words and for­ the wretchedness of Samsara, the mulas on the correct occasions and in wandering (the eternal wheel of birth the correct order. This would placate and death) to which all beings are the gods and induce them to alleviate chained until they find deliverance, to the sufferings of man. Doubtless tem­ eternal bliss, to Ni1·vana. ples, priests, and rituals are of value THE LIGHT OF ASIA 173

in continually reminding the materialis­ divine inspiration but the fruit of our tically inclined people of higher realms. own meditation. Buddhism, therefore, However, such paraphernalia cannot is an atheistic doctrine and knows no tear out evil at its root. For this, god in the sense of the Bible or the something much more essential must Koran. All knowledge and all illusion happen in man himself, something that originate in man. Man creates his goes far beyond prayers, sacrifices, and own destiny. Hence there is in Bud­ rituals. Gautama realized this. dhism neither a belief in God, Provi­ dence, and Grace nor are there any AN ATHEISTIC FAITH prayers. For six years Gautama wandered The Doctrine which Gautama now through India's burning plains, under­ taught for fifty years as Buddha grew going hardships and castigations. on Indian soil from the Vedanta Finally he had to admit that, in spite philosophy. From it he took over the of his extreme asceticism and his conceptions of Samsara, Ka1'ma(more wiII absorption of all the knowledge then be said about these), and Maya, as well as existing in India, he had not reached certain Yoga methods. The practice of the ultimate solution to the riddle of Yoga leads on the one hand to the life. It was not until he sank into control of all physical functions, on the deep meditation under a tree near other to the concentration of mind and Gaya that Enlightenment came to him. will-power, as well as to the development Here, assisted by the experiences of of psychic powers unknown to the hio previoul3 cffortl3) hi3 ascetic life, rational, techniea.lJy-minded We5\t or and the knowledge acquired from his contemptuously disposed of as "occult­ teaChers, he made the final plunge il5m" by "enlightened" I5cience. (More into the depths of life's mysteries, about the Hindu teaching can be found which he now understood and solved. in Deussen'g "60 Upanishads" and Havlng accomplished this he hence­ "General History of Philosophy.") forth spoke of himself as an Awakened Being. a Buddha, awaJumed from the IS BUnDH1SM PESS1MTSTIC? illusions of life to the highest Reality. Buddhism is erroneously known in the Illusion, Maya, in Buddhist teaching, Occident a3 the "philo30phy of pea­ does not mean that the things to simism." It is characteristic of our whIch the term is applieu uo not age that the Buddha shOUld be called exist, but simply that they are not a pessimist. he who set out to free what they seem. To give an illustra­ mankind from all suffering-physical, tion from everyday life: when we mental, moral, or spiritual-amI he who, see an electric fan in motion, we know according to the Buddhists, alone of all that there are four broad, heavy metal beings accomplished this end. blades revolving at high speed, although we cannot see them. To the II un­ The BUddha, by virtue of his pene­ awakened" mind of the child, what we trating insight and wisdom, recognized know to be solid blades is either no­ that, since all is transitory, all, in the thing at all or at most a transparent end, can only bring us suffering. He disk. The Buddha continually admon­ did not, however, subscribe to the idea ished his disciples not to look upon that it is only life here and now which things and objects of sensation or brings us suffering and that there is a thought as they appear to be, but heaven where existence is eternal bliss. .. according to reality." By this he All existence, according to him, because d~sired to wean them away from only possible in ever changing and ever delusive thinking and to lead them, decomposing matter, is of necessity step by step, to Awakening, to Reality. impermanent and, therefore, suffering. .. Enlightenment," according to the Even if existence were restricted to Buddhist conception, does not mean one life only, its suffering, owing to the 174 THE XXth CENTURY transitoriness of that life, would be discharge of our thirst for sentient very real. But we have lived since existence. Just as lightning strikes beginninglessness and shall continue to where it is attracted, so will we, live in infinity, unless we learn how to having lost our body in death, blindly step out of the vicious circle of life. strike a womb to which we are at­ And since existence, according to the tracted. Since in death we lose our Buddhist teaching, is by no means sensory and perceptive apparatus and restricted to the human realm but can can no longer think or chose, we will effectuate itself in five spheres-those blindly follow our urge to live. of hell, animals, shadows, humans, In this life it is our inclinations gods-we must ask: Is there a condi­ which lead and drive us. Some people tion which is free of suffering? go to horse races, others not; some This is precisely the problem the frequent opium dens, others never go Buddha set himself to solve: He there; some are to be found in librar­ discovered a way of stepping out of ies or bent over their books, others all life and reaching Nirvana. Here is never read or study. The determining a short summary of his teaching. factor in every case is attraction. Having throughout our lives followed REINCARNATION certain inclinations, death cannot sim­ AND MAN'S CRAVING TO LIVE ply extinguish them. On the contrary: a narcotic addict, as long as he knows Life is not the gift of a creator but that he can get his drug wherever he simply the result of ignorance concern­ wants it, is satisfied; but deprive him ing its real nature. To all creatures, of his daily dose and you will see a life seems the highest possible good. raving maniac. So it is with us. As For no matter how much or how often long as we can satisfy our inclinations we suffer, no matter how little happiness in life, be they vulgar or noble, we we may know, we still want to live. are satisfied. But when in death Why? Look at a stray dog on the we lose our bodies and are thus de­ street: it has no master, no home, no prived of this satisfaction, we become shelter, scarcely any food, yet it too an elemental force. We will strike at wants to live and will fight to the last a seed that attracts us, in any sphere to preserve this life. Why 1 of existence, be it among the gods or among the animals. And we shall be Because of our Ignorance we crave quite satisfied to live the life of a dog, life; and because of our Ignorance we if only we can live. This is the thirst cannot cope with it. Or can we 1· for life begotten by Ignorance. Thus Our Ignorance has the further detri­ we wander endlessly in Samsara, in mental result that we continually in­ the circle of rebirths, continually fringe upon the moral foundation of ascending and descending and never life. Being ignorant of life's why and finding satisfaction- unless we under­ wherefore, our chief purpose is to stand and accept the message of the maintain and assert ourselves, even if Buddha. we have to do wrong. Our desire to This doctrine of reincarnation may live is so strong that when we die, sound strange, but need it be less true that is, when our present body has for all that1 As Voltaire said: "It been consumed by fruitless efforts and is no more surprising to be born twice passions, we shall be born again ac­ than once," and we may add, many cording to our Karma. Our Karma or times. our affinities are the quintessence of our habits of thought and deed. Just MAN AND HIS KARMA as lightning is not, as was formerly thought, the message of an angry god It is we ourselves who are respon­ but the accumulated discharge of elec­ sible for the life into which we are tric energy, so is our life process the born, there to reap what we have THE LIGHT OF ASIA 175 sown. This is the doctrine of Karma. with holy endeavor in deeds and in words, Karma simply means the relation of he lives pure, perfect in the virtues, cause and effect in the moral sphere. guards the doors of the senses, is Be we farmer, manufacturer, navi­ equipped with clear consciousness, and gator, or architect, we always plan is content.... Without cudgel, sword­ and work according to the Isw of less, he is benevolent, full of tender­ cause and effect. We think and speak ness and cherishes kindness and compas­ according to this law. How can we sion to all living beings. . .. Since suppose that our deeds remain without covetousness and discontent, evil and consequences? To be sure, not all our pernicious thoughts quickly overpower deeds show their results at the same those who leave unguarded their seeing, time. Some of our actions produce hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, results immediately, some later, some thinking, he is assiduous in this not at all, at least in this life. But surveillance, he guards his sight and it is not possible for some actions to mind.... He seeks out an isolated produce no result whatever. It may and peaceful resting place: a grove, only appear to be so in this life. But the foot of a tree, a grotto in the as, after this life, we will live again rocks, a cave in the mountains, a and again. the result of every action cemetery, the depth of a forest, a is bound to descend upon us sooner or litter of straw in the open plain.... later. He sits down crosslegged, and practices Hence according to Hindu and Bud­ mindfulness [meditation, as it is com­ dhist ideas tJ1ere are no "innocent monly called in the West]. Worldly children," and no child starts life with desires he has rejected.... Deeply a clean slate. Its fate, for instance calmed in mind, he purifies his mind of if it is crippled or suffers an early death proud discontent.... Recognizing thus through illness or accident, is deter­ the Five Hindrances as overcome in him· mined by the Karma of its former self, he is animated with joy. Animated existence. Thus it can happen that with joy, he becomes serene. Being some people have success while others serene, his body becomes stilled. The with more ability and diligence have body being stilled, he experiences hap­ none. Some are born rich, some poor, piness. Being happy, he attains unity some clever, some stupid, and so on. of mind and concentration. Thus, far removed from desires, from all evil LIBERATION things, a monk, in blissful serenity, born of peaceful calm and thoughtful To escape from this endless circle contemplation, attains ... With a pro­ of life and death is the purpose of found. purified, clear, lucid mind, free the Buddha's teaching. How can it from impurities, flexible. alert, im­ be accomplished? Let the words of movable and intact, he bends down the Buddha himself speak. They are and directs his mental activities to the taken from his Second Discourse in domain of clear knowledge, to producing the Digha Nikaya where he explains a body made of mind - matter, to what a man will do under the in­ generating power, to developing a fluence of the Doctrine: supernormal hearing, to penetrating the II After a while he abandons a small minds of others, to remembering and property, or a great property, leaves recalling former existences, to the behind a small circle of parents and knowledge of the disappearance and friends, or a large circle, he leaves reappearance of beings (death here and home to lead the homeless life. Be­ rebirth here or elsewhere), to the come an ascete, he disciplines himself comprehension and knowledge of all in the pure discipline and remains illusion. ... Through such enlighten­ blameless in his conduct. Guarding ment, through such insight, his mind himself against the least deflection, he frees itself from the delusion of desire, struggles, step by step, perseveringly; from the delusion of life. from the 176 THE XXth CENTURY delusion of ignorance 'In the freed one, draw from every form of existence there is liberation' - this knowledge does not mean self-annihilation. Those arises in him. At an end is rebirth, who liberate themselves from all life fulfilled the holy life, accomplished the in every conceivable form have only task, this world is no more, he now destroyed suffering and not themselves. comprehends." But they no longer exist. To exist means to suffer for existence is only MEDITATION possible in matter. All existence ceases It is not easy to explain the mean­ in Nirvana, and for this reason we ing of .. meditation." Our personality cannot suffer there. is in reality an apparatus composed of Nevertheless life can be recognized six senses: seeing, hearing, smelling, here and now as anatta, as painful, as tasting, touching, and thinking. But "not-myself," without in any way deny­ as soon as we think, we think ing one's ego. One only denies some­ according to illusions. For our organ thing that has never been the real of thought is dependent on our self. Then one becomes free. For this senses for all data. Our senses, very reason the Buddha always speaks however, communicate not reality to of liberation and never of annihilation. us but only appearances. In order to reach the realm of pure and real THE TEN RULES knowledge, of highest knowledge, we FOR THE DISCIPLES must learn to acquire complete mas­ When he was eighty years old the tery, first over our bodies, then over Buddha died, still on his wanderings, our minds. This is the chief purpose after having said farewell to his of certain exercises commonly known disciples. Meanwhile his Doctrine had as meditation. They begin, after a spread throughout India. Communities long period of preparatory training, of monks had sprung up everywhere. with certain breathing exercises, of They lived according to the following which there are sixteen, and which ten rules which are observed by lead to a complete suspension of all Buddhist monks to this day: vegetative and somatic functions of the body. Those who reach this point (1) To endeavor not to harm claim that they can leave the body at any living creature, that is, above all wiJl and enter various realms, as, for not to kill or cause pain to any instance, the realm of unlimited con­ creature. (This is the basis for the sciousness. Higher and higher they go vegetarianism of all serious Buddhists till they reach the dissolution of all and their characteri15tic love of ani­ perceptibility, a point at which they mals.) adlieve absolute knowledge. They are (2) Not Lo lake what has not cured of all desire for desires or been given to one. sentient ex-istence, of all ignorance. (3) To avoid unchastity. (4) To neither lie nor calumniate. NIRVANA (5) To refrain from all intox- The meaning of Nirvana, the goal icants. (This also includes mental of the Buddhist, has been very much intoxicants, such as erotic or exciting misunderstood in the Occident. In or­ art: according to Buddhist doctrine, der to grasp it, we must first under­ even the fine arts are a medium of stand something else. delusion, as they serve only temporarily The Buddha called his teaching the to hide reality from man and cannot Anatta Vada, the Not-Self.Doctrine. offer him genuine release from suffer­ Everything we sense, perceive, or think, ing.) as well as our sensory and perceptive (6) Not to eat at unsuitable apparatus, is impermanent by the very times. (Monks are not allowed to take nature of things. Hence to with- any food after the midday meal.) THE LIGHT OF ASIA 177

(7) Not to be present at dances, SCRIPTURES AND THE STUDY theatricals, and musical performances, OF BUDDHISM etc. (According to Buddhist teaching, therefore, even so-called sacred music, During the life of the Buddha nothing such as chorales or fugues by Bach. of what he taught and said was writ­ should be rejected as a medium of ten down but, according to Indian cus­ delusion.) tom, it was all committed to memory. (8) Not to adorn oneself with Even today there are Buddhist monks in flowers or cosmetic ointments. Cey Ion and Burma who know by heart all the discourses of the Buddha in (9) Not to use soft and luxurious the Pali language, in which they have beds. been preserved on palm leaves for more than two thousand years. Four (10) Not to accept gold and silver. years after the Buddha's death his (The first five regulations, the five disciples assembled and, in order to Silas, also apply to laymen.) prevent false teaching from creeping in, put his discourses into writing. A monk may possess eight objects Two further councils of monks, in 369 only: three articles of clothing, a beg­ and 246 B.C., definitely fixed the texts ging bowl, a belt, a razor, needle and of the discourses and the rules of the thread, and a water filter. monastic order. Later still, meta­ In the flood of enthusiasm which the physical dissertations and commentaries new doctrine caused, a wave of active were added. Thus we have the "Three ethical feeling seized especially the Baskets" (Tripitaka) of the Buddhist religiously minded youth of the country. canon of scriptures. There was no Tired of the thousands of gods and Pali writing system, so that all Bud­ the empty formulas of the Hindu dhist discourses and texts were written priests and, like all youth, thrilled by in the Sanskrit alphabet although in something new, it took up the Doctrine the Pali language. Valuable works of the Buddha with ardor. The climax of Buddhism are the "Collection of of Indian Buddhism was reached in Middle Discourses," the .. Dhamma­ the reign of the Emperor Asoka (269­ padam" (a collection of sayings), and 237 B.C.) who was led in his private the II Hymns of the Monks and Nuns." life and in his policy by Buddhist principles and who ended his life as a As early as two centuries after monk. the Buddha's death, Buddhism began to split up into many schools and sects. The most important and for India In the course of the centuries, that the most revolutionary fact was that which the Buddha had wanted to the Buddhists did not recognize any prevent more than anything else, took castes. The Buddha had taught that place: the path of liberation became a it is not the privileges of caste but subject for argumentation, a source of one's own character and one's own dogmatic hair-splitting, wrong inter­ actions that determine the value or pretation, and a labyrinth of truth and non-value, the high or low position of legend, superstition and ritual. It is owing each individual. Of course the Brah­ to this degeneration that Buddhism is manic priests, who saw themselves rejected by many people in Asia or threatened in their power, did every­ smiled at condescendingly as "anti­ thing to destroy Buddhism. Aided by quated," a fate also suffered by other the later degeneration of Buddhism in religions in the world. In doing this, India and by the expansion of Islam people go too far, for they extend to and its culture, the Brahmans finally, eternal, universal truths and their re­ in the course of centuries, succeeded vealers a rejection which should only in achieving their goal, so that Bud­ apply to the dogmatic and superstitious dhism is almost extinct in India today. distortions of these truths. 178 THE XXth CENTURY

Among the modern Occidental na­ postulated a personal ego (the eterna­ tions Germany has shown the greatest lists). The first are to be found among comprehension and appreciation of the the followers of Hinayana, the second teachings of the Buddha. The philoso­ among those of Mahayana. This is the pher Schopenhauer was one of the essential difference between the two first to direct attention to them al­ schools of Buddhism. But it should be though he knew them only imperfectly, pointed outthat all Buddhist sects accept very few texts having been stUdied or the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, the translated in his time. The great Ger­ Noble Eightfold Path, and the Twelve man savant and orientalist Max Mueller Nidanas, which cannot be discussed in was the pioneer. He was followed by this brief article. a whole array of brilliant scholars all The ideal figure of Mahayana over Europe, but principally in Ger­ Buddhism is the Boddhisatva, who many. Special mention must be made renounces his own liberation to of Dr. Georg Grimmy of Munich, whose Nirvana in order to help all deluded classical work "The Doctrine of the creatures toward knowledge and free­ Buddha" and other books are unrivaled. dom. The saint of the Hinayana Dr. K. E. Neumann devoted his whole school, the Arhat (Chinese: Lohan) is life to the translation, from Pali into mainly interested in his own libera­ German, of the most important Buddhist tion. Hinayana Buddhists claim that scriptures. Excellent works were written they represent the pure Doctrine, by Oldenberg and H. von Glasenapp. while the supporters of the Mahayana There are other good translations, school maintain that they have develop­ notably those of a scholar known under ed the teaching and kept it from his Buddhist name Nyanatiloka, a stagnation. German who has been living in Ceylon for a great number of years and who THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM is now interned there. Incidentally the adoption by national-socialist Germany In 246 B.C. Emperor Asoka sent his of a symbol sacred to Buddhism, the son Mahinda to Ceylon. This was the swastika, did not fail to make a strong beginning of Buddhist mission activity. impression on many Buddhists through­ During the course of the next few cen­ out Asia. turies Buddhism was introduced into Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Indo­ China, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, THE TWO VESSELS and Japan. As was also the case with The various sects of Buddhism can Christianity, it was influenced and be grouped into two main divisions: altered in every country according to the Hinayana (literally: the small vesse}), the nature of its people and the exist­ prevalent in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, ing religious traditions bound up with Cambodia, India; and the Mahayana landscape, climate, and history. (the great "esse]), found in Tibet, The spread of Buddhism took place China, Korea, Japan, and Mongolia. everywhere without force or bloodshed. The great division split on the Not­ No sacred trees were cut down and no Self, the Anatta doctrine of the Buddha. images or other sacred symbols burnt. This is not surprising, for in the whole To this day tolerance is a principal realm of thought there is hardly a characteristicof the Buddhist spirit. At tenet more difficult to understand. present the original Hinayana Buddhism Even during the lifetime of the Buddha continues to exist only in Burma, Thai­ some of his disciples could not rightly land, Cambodia, Ceylon, and Chittagong understand it; but the Buddha was (India), while the Mahayana doctrine there to help them. After his passing and methods prevail in all other Buddhist and that of his close disciples, there countries. were some who completely denied an Shorn, yellow-robed mendicant monks ego (the annihilationists), while others spread the teaching of the "Four Noble THE LIGHT OF ASIA 187

Truths," and helped the people as Pure Land school. The focal point of teachers, healers, and counsellors in all this school is Buddha Amithaba (Chinese: family and business affairs.. The tem­ Omitofo, Japanese: Amida), unknown to ples, which did not at all correspond Hinayana Buddhism. He is supposed to the ideas and teachings of the to be the lord of the "Western Paradise," Buddha, did not serve only, like Chris­ and his name is called upon and con­ tian churches, for prayer and ritual, stantly repeated, usually with the aid of but were at the same time schools, a rosary. The supporters of this school shelters, and hospitals. They were the live a Puritan life and hope to be reborn meeting-places for the people to discuss in the "Western Paradise." The Pure marriage, family, harvest, cattle-raising, Land school has about fifty thousand trade, and the affairs of daily life. In large temples in China. this way monks and temples were in close contact with the life of the people. To the Chinese, with his positive On the other hand, there are Buddhist attitude toward life and the world, the buildings with only symbolic meaning, Buddhist idea of extinction, of non­ in other words they are not used as existence is incomprehensible and re­ temples in the usual sense. Such is the pulsive, especially as it opposes his temple of Boro-Budur in Java. deep-rooted ancestor-worship. So there arose the Pure Land school with its CHINA comforting idea of being born again somewhere in heavenly spheres. As it is impossible in the limited space of an article to show the present The burial rituals, too, with their position of Buddhism in its numerous burning of paper symbols Buch as money, manifestations in all Buddhist countries, houses, and figures, etc., with their we must be content to deal with the noisy, rhythmic music and the recitation country in which Buddhism has the of Sutras and magic formulas, reveal greatest number of supporters, that is, the belief in a continued existence of China. There is all the less reason to the spirit in other worlds. Masses for discuss Japan as Japanese Buddhism the dead form the main source of income has been excellently interpreted in the for monasteries and temples. There works, also published in English, of the are ceremonies lasting days and even great Japanese Zen priest and scholar, weeks which cost thousands of dollars. Dr. Daisetz Suzuki. His best-known book is Zen Buddhism And Its Influence KWAN-YIN AND MILE/FO Upon Japanese Culture. Next to Amithaba, Kwan-yin plays China became acquainted with Bud­ an important part in Chinese Buddhism. dhism during the Han dynasty, in the Kwan-yin was originally an Indo­ first century A.D. In the course of time Tibetan male god. The Chinese took Chinese Buddhism was influenced and him over as a saint and made him into greatly altered by the moral teachings a woman who has become a goddess of of Confucius, by Taoism, and by the mercy and occupies in China a position strongly marked individuality of the similar to that of the Virgin Mary in the Chinese. It gradually split up into ten West. One sees especially women kneel­ different schools. The most important ing before Kwan-yin images and shaking Buddhist teacher was the Indian monk a container filled with bamboo sticks. Bodhidarma who appeared in China in When one· of these numbered sticks 520 A.D. and founded the Ts'an (Japa­ jumps out of the container, it is nese: Zen) school. exchanged for a piece of yellow paper inscribed with an oracle, which PURE LAND SCHOOL may say. for instance: "Do not worry about the future. You will The greatest number of supporters always have food and a bed." In this among the Chinese was won by the way even superstition may have 188 THE XXth CENTURY an encouraging effect on the simple hour and a half they read Sutras to people. Buddhism tries to take into the accompaniment of percussion in­ account the dissimilarity of people and struments. Then another half hour of the diversity of life. This explains its meditation follows before they receive tolerance toward other religions and their breakfast of a bowl of rice and its ability to assume the style best water. Now the ceremonies ordered suited to every people and its tradi­ by laymen are carried out, usually tions. A truly pious person of any masses for the dead, with the bereaved religion is closer to Buddhism than an family present, who also have their irreligious person, even if he should meals in the monastery. After the be a Buddhist scholar. ceremonies there is a rest period of fifteen minutes before the midday Then there is the fat, benignly smil­ meal is taken. Then another rest ing Buddha Mileifo, also called Mi La. period lasting one and a half hours, Milei-fo, originally a god of good luck, is and then Sutras are read again. At compared to Maitreya, the coming 6 p.m. the day's duties end, and at 9 Buddha of the next period of the world. o'clock the monks go to bed, unless Among the Chinese masses he is very there is a special mass for a deceased popular, as he is supposed to be the lasting till midnight. patron of material wealth who will later "save" suffering humanity through distributing to all the good things of BUDDHISM this world. According to the teaching AND EVERYDAY LIFE of Gautama one can hardly imagine Although much that is superficial as anything less Buddhist than this fat and well as many superstitions are placed materialistic Mileifo. However, serious in the foreground in Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhists maintain that for the teaching has nevertheless not lost the spiritually unawakened masses the its vital force. It is true that Bud­ veneration even of this un-Buddhist dhism has never sought directly to Buddha with quite materialistic expecta­ influence political, economic, or cultural tions means an aid to the aproach of the life. As it regards life as a whole path of Shakyamuni. Itis true thut any wUh all its phenomena and happenings veneration of any god or saint, offered as a "delusion." it h:lS no call to in a reverent form for the achieve­ reform or improve the world. Still, ment of a good, even if materialistic, Buddhist organizations take part every· purpose may unconsciou~ly devolop in where in the care of the poor and of man a noble seed. refugees, of the vil!tims of famines and floods. In many of the temples MONKS AND NUNS TODAY one can to this day find schools, hos­ pitals, and orphanages which give their Visiting a monastery today one does services free. not gain a very favorable impression of the Chinese monks. Owing to tho The strongest spiritual influence, spread of Western science and en­ however, is exerted by individual gineering the monks have lost their teachers who travel throughout the former importance as teachers, healers, country, live in temples, and establish and counsellors. Their activities are groups of disciples in every town. In now limited to rituals and to the remote temples in Shanghai, for in­ monastery routine within the temple. stance, hundl"eds of men and women from all classes and professions can The monastery routine in China is sometimes be found being trained as inflexible and strict. The monks rise pupils of one of these teachers. They at 3 a.m., dress rapidly, and "meditate" learn Buddhist wisdom and meditation. for three quarters of an hour, summer Among them can also be seen English­ or winter, in unheated rooms. Then speaking university students in Euro. they go to the temple, where for an pean clothes. THE LIGHT OF ASIA 189

THE FUTURE in writings, for instance, does it directly This overwhelmingly technically- attack war. However, in all Buddhist _minded age, which even the Eastern countries and even in those countries peoples could not avoid, with its inva­ where there are only scattered Bud­ sion of European thought and science dhist communities, it is producing quali­ and its great political changes, has fied personalities whose clear minds brought the youth of Asia also under give knowledge and spiritual support to its spe~l. These young people, too, are mankind, which has been overwhelmed more mterested in politics, airplanes, by the storm of events, by disappoint­ and sport than in temple rites and ments and suffering. In this way it religious problems. As a reaction to represents a living power in these times. this modernization, however, and to the dependence on Europe and Ameri~ "In spite of the many changes which ca which it entails, a new spiritual its outer forms have undergone, Bud­ movement has been noticeable. It has dhism has not altered inwardly in the been realized that Western civiliza­ course of the centuries. It is true tion, admired for so long and imitat­ that it included and thus more or less ed in many spheres both good and legitimized manifold doctrines and bad, bas only a conditional value. The rites which formerly lay outside of its Orientals have begun to see that, though orbit but which nevertheless enjoyed ~n many ways it brings progress and great appreciation on the part of the unprovements, facilitates communica­ large majority of its lay supporters. tions, and aids trade and the health But there have been no changes in its of the nation, it entails at the same basic principles. Today, just as 2500 time a desolation and deadening of all years ago, in spite of all concessions spiritual life. This realization has to the instincts of the masses, it has caused many Chinese and Japanese remained a teaching of salvation, ac·· to turn back to Asia's own treas­ cessible only to a minority of highly ures of the spirit, with the result developed I?inds." (H. von Glasenapp, that they also come into contact with De?' Buddh!smus.) Buddhism again. Though Buddhism was not spared the IIenee it is quite possible that a tragedy of all religions of degenerating rej~vena~ed Budd~ism is in the making from the revelation of highest know­ which wIll move Its center of activity ledge by. a perfect being into a dogmatic from ~he monastic orders and temples system, a disputed philosophy a con­ t~ ethiCal an.d social behavior in daily ventional cult, it nevertheless possesses hfe. In thlS way a renaissance of the eternal power contained in every Buddhism may be brought about universal truth. which will he more in harmony with ~he personality, intentions, and teach­ The teaching of the Buddha belongs mgs of the Buddha than the mechanical to the indestructible spiritual treasures, routine of mediocre monks or temple to. the eternal stars in the sky of rites and the chanting of Sutras. WIsdom, stars that shine all the brighter, Buddhism has no direct influence on the darker the night of suffering weighs the present. Neither in speeches nor upon mankind.