Fishing Resources

8 Fishing Resources

Jaime Mendo (Peru), Guillermo Caille (Argentina), Enric Massutí (Spain), Antonio Punzón (Spain), Jorge Tam (Peru), Sebastián Villasante (Spain), and Dimitri Gutiérrez (Peru).

This chapter should be cited as:

Mendo, J., G. Caille, E. Massutí, A. Punzón, J. Tam, S. Villasante, and D. Gutiérrez, 2020: Fishing Resources. In: Adaptation to Climate Change Risks in Ibero-American Countries — RIOCCADAPT Report. [Moreno, J.M., C. Laguna-Deﬁ or, V. Barros, E. Cal- vo Buendía, J.A. Marengo, and U. Oswald Spring (eds.)], McGraw Hill, Madrid, Spain (pp. 275-328, ISBN: 9788448621667). Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

CONTENTS

Executive Summary...... 278 8.1. Introduction...... 278 8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter...... 278 8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or system...... 278 8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture production...... 278 8.1.2.2. Importance for food security, employment and the economy...... 279 8.1.2.3. Current status and trends in fishing resources...... 280 8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system with climate and climate change...... 281 8.1.4. Review of previous reports...... 281 8.2. Risk components in relation to the sector ...... 282 8.2.1. Hazards...... 283 8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...... 283 8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province...... 283 8.2.1.3. Magellan Province...... 283 8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province...... 283 8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic provinces...... 283 8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea...... 285 8.2.2. Exposure...... 285 8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...... 285 8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province...... 285 8.2.2.3. Magellan Province...... 286 8.2.2.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province...... 286 8.2.2.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic provinces...... 286 8.2.2.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea...... 286 8.2.3. Vulnerability...... 287 8.2.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...... 287 8.2.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province...... 287 8.2.3.3. Magellan Province...... 288 8.2.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province...... 288 8.2.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic provinces...... 288 8.2.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea...... 288 8.3. Characterization of risks and their impacts...... 289 8.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...... 289 8.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province...... 290 8.3.3. Magellan Province...... 291 8.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province...... 291 8.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic provinces...... 291 8.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea...... 292 8.4. Adaptation measures ...... 293 8.4.1. Adaptation options...... 293 8.4.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...... 293 8.4.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province...... 293 8.4.1.3. Magellan Province...... 293

276 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

8.4.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province...... 295 8.4.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic provinces ...... 296 8.4.1.6. Lusitania province and Mediterranean Sea...... 297 8.4.2. Planned adaptation activities...... 297 8.4.2.1. Supranational scale...... 297 8.4.2.2. National and sub-national scale...... 297 8.4.2.3. Local or municipal scale...... 302 8.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities...... 302 8.5. Barriers, opportunities and interactions...... 302 8.6. Measures or indicators of adaptation effectiveness...... 303 8.7. Case Studies...... 306 8.7.1. Autonomous adaptation to climate variability of fan shell (Argopecten purpuratus) extraction in Peru...... 306 8.7.1.1. Case summary...... 306 8.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem...... 306 8.7.1.3. Case description...... 307 8.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions ...... 309 8.7.1.5. Lessons learned...... 309 8.7.2. Social adaptation of women to climate change in the Galician shellfish picking industry (Northwest Spain).... 309 8.7.2.1. Case summary...... 309 8.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem...... 310 8.7.2.3. Case description...... 310 8.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions ...... 311 8.7.2.5. Lessons learned...... 311 8.7.3. Adaptation to Climate Change of the Peruvian Fishing Sector and Coastal Marine Ecosystem Project - PE-G1001/PE-T1297...... 312 8.7.3.1. Case summary...... 312 8.7.3.2. Introduction to the case problem...... 312 8.7.3.3. Case description...... 312 8.7.3.4. Limitations and interactions ...... 313 8.7.3.5. Lessons learned...... 313 8.7.4. Fishing in Samborombón Bay, Argentina: vulnerability and guidelines for adaptation to climate change...... 313 8.7.4.1. Case summary...... 313 8.7.4.2. Introduction to the case problem...... 313 8.7.4.3. Case description...... 314 8.7.4.4. Limitations and interactions ...... 314 8.7.4.5. Lessons learned ...... 314 8.7.5. From fishing to sea turtle tourism: the case of El Ñuro, Piura, Peru...... 315 8.7.5.1. Case summary...... 315 8.7.5.2. Introduction to the case problem...... 315 8.7.5.3. Case description...... 315 8.7.5.4. Limitations and interactions ...... 315 8.7.5.5. Lessons learned...... 315 8.8. Main knowledge gaps and priority lines of action...... 316 8.9. Conclusions...... 316 Frequently Asked Questions...... 317 Acknowledgements...... 318 Bibliography...... 318

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 277 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

species with greater thermal, salt and hypoxia tolerance; Executive Summary formulating new foods; adaptive and ecosystem-based management plans; spatial monitoring of marine resources and Fisheries and aquaculture are extremely attractive sectors biodiversity; reducing discards and bycatch; risk analysis in in some Ibero-American countries. The Ibero-American region management plans; adapting port infrastructure; insurance is home to unique, diverse and productive ecosystems that system for extreme weather events; promoting consumption contribute more than 10% of the world’s fishery production. In of fish species with low commercial value; friendly fishing Latin America and the Caribbean alone, this sector provides gear and equipment; protecting critical or essential habitats jobs for almost 2.4 million people. in mangroves and estuaries; improving governance systems Both fisheries and aquaculture are subject to various haz- (co-management); diversifying livelihoods. ards. Potential hazards to fisheries and aquaculture include (i) changes in local sea temperatures; (ii) ocean acidification; (iii) sea level rise; (iv) changes in ambient oxygen con- 8.1. Introduction centration; (v) increase in storm severity and frequency; (vi) changes in sea current circulation patterns; (vii) changes in rainfall patterns; (viii) changes in river flows; and (ix) changes 8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter in biogeochemical (nitrogen) flows. Since ancient times, humans have resorted to fishing a In most countries of the region, fisheries and aquaculture means to secure food. It has traditionally been carried out have not been paid as much attention as other productive as artisanal fishing at sea and in continental waters all over sectors. This is in spite of the fact that the effects of climate the planet. The industrialization and expansion of fishing in change on the sector’s productivity are already becoming the 20th century led to a rapid increase in landings, encour- apparent. Projections paint a critical landscape for some aged by the growing demand for fish products for direct and countries, and a high risk for the communities that depend indirect human consumption by the more developed econo- on the sector. mies. These markets have been increasingly supplied by fish imported from developing countries, or caught in the waters The Caribbean is one of Ibero-America’s most vulnerable of developing countries by several ocean-going fleets. regions with regard to climate change hazards, including sea level rise. High mortality and bleaching of coral reefs According to the IPCC (2014), marine and inland water can already be observed in the region, and projections for ecosystems will be impacted by climate change, affecting the end of the century show further temperature rises and fisheries and aquaculture. Marine climatic stresses, such acidification. as temperature increase, sea level rise, acidification, deoxygenation, among others, will impact biodiversity, ecosystem In Atlantic Iberian waters, changes in species composition productivity, as well as the distribution of species and their and distribution are leading to major changes in fisheries, life cycles, leading to impacts on fishing, such as variability which will impact fishing communities and consumers. or reduction of catches, as well as socio-economic impacts, Mussel production is at high risk in the face of reduced pro- such as unemployment, increase in poverty levels, etc. ductivity, an increase in toxic algal blooms and acidification. (Figure 8.1). Against this backdrop, the impacts of climate Planned adaptation actions for fisheries and aquaculture— change on fisheries and aquaculture will depend on the level especially in Latin America and the Caribbean—are scarce, of risk, which in turn depends on the degree of vulnerability, while most adaptation actions for this sector are autonomous exposure and adaptive capacity. in nature. RIOCC countries feature a large portfolio of public Meanwhile, vulnerability and adaptation measures can be policies on climate change, both in terms of adaptation and assessed in relation to the sustainability of fishery produc- mitigation; however, despite government efforts, they have tion, the condition of national economies, food or livelihood not yet been implemented effectively in the fishing sector. security; and in terms of regions, countries, communities, Overfishing, pollution, the introduction of exotic species, sectors, fishing operations, households or individuals (Daw and the misuse of aquatic bodies in the region (especially et al., 2009). in Latin America), are non-climatic stressors that aggravate the impacts of climate change. 8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or Adaptation efforts in the fisheries and aquaculture sector should be directed at increasing the adaptive capacity of system the most vulnerable communities (whether due to lack of resources, gender, or other factors), by strengthening gov- 8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture ernance, knowledge development, and reducing poverty and food insecurity. production There are adaptation options for both fisheries and aquacul- According to the FAO (2018), fisheries and aquaculture pro- ture. The main adaptation options in the sector are: growing duction worldwide (fish and shellfish) amounted to approxi-

278 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 8.1.2.2. Importance for CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHING RESOURCES food security,

Governance levels employment and the CLIMATE VARIABLITY Sector dependence economy AND CLIMATE CHANGE Production alternatives Resource status The scientific community agrees on the paramount importance of oceans and inland waters to secure food and adequate nutrition for a world population that is HAZARDS RISK LEVEL expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 Rise in sea surface temperature Vulnerability (see, for example, Selig et al., 2017), as Sea level rise Exposure Hazard well as the critical role of supporting the Acidification Hypoxia generation of ecosystem services that Floods are essential for the well-being and even Harmful algal bloom increase ADAPTATION ACTIONS survival of approximately 750 million people living in coastal and island areas (IPBES, 2019; IPCC, 2019). The trends in per capita fish consumption during 1960 DIRECT IMPACTS SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS to 2013 in some RIOCC countries such ON THE RESOURCE Fewer catches as Spain, Peru and Mexico are increas- Decreased productivity Unemployment ing, while in others, such as Cuba, the Changes in species distribution Rise in poverty levels trend is negative (Figure 8.2). On aver- Mass mortality Food insecurity age, annual per capita fish consumption Insecurity at sea Infrastructure damage in Latin America and the Caribbean increased from 7.1 kg in 1961 to 9.6 kg in Figure 8.1. Conceptual framework of the impacts of climate change and variability on 2013, and the countries that consumed fisheries and aquaculture, with regard to risks and adaptation actions. Source: prepared by the most fish in 2013 were Portugal, with the authors. about 53.8 kg, Spain, with 42.4 kg, and Mexico with 10.5 kg. 85% of the world’s population employed in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors mately 171 million tons in 2016, of which 151 million tons are in Asia, followed by Africa (10%) and Latin America and (88%) were used for direct human consumption. Production the Caribbean (4%) (FAO, 2018). Artisanal fishing is a major from marine (79.3 million) and inland fisheries (11.6 million) and often underestimated source of employment, food se- accounted for 53.2% and production from aquaculture (80 curity and income, especially in the developing world and in million) totaled 46.8% of overall production. Aquaculture pro- rural areas. It accounts for 90% of the sector’s employment, duction in 2016, including aquatic plants, was 110 million either full- or part-time (World Bank, 2012). An estimated tons (80 million fish and 30 million aquatic plants), estimated 70% to 80% of aquaculture enterprises are small-scale (Sub- at a first sale value of US$243.5 billion. Marine aquaculture asinghe et al., 2012). In Peru, Christensen et al. (2014) made up for 28.7 million tons and freshwater aquaculture show that fishing for human consumption provides most of 51.4 million tons, representing 16.8% and 30% of overall the income of the Peruvian fishing sector and accounts for production respectively. The total economic value of the first 87% of employment in the fishing sector, compared to 13% sale of fisheries and aquaculture production in 2016 was in the fishmeal industry and other related enterprises. In the estimated at around US$362 billion, of which US$232 billion Mediterranean, the importance of recreational fishing should came from aquaculture (FAO, 2018). Total world catches fell also be noted. In the Balearic Islands, one of the few areas by 2 million tons from 81.2 million tons in 2015, mainly due where this type of fishing has been studied (Morales-Nin to the decline in catches from Chile and Peru as a result of et al., 2005, 2007, 2015), it is estimated that 5-10% of the effects of El Niño (FAO, 2018). The marine areas with the archipelago’s population (73,000 people) is dedicated the highest production worldwide are in the Northwest Pa- to this activity, using a great diversity of fishing methods cific, East Central Pacific, Northeast Atlantic and Southeast and gear (e.g., hand lines, trolling, traps and jigging from Pacific, while the inland waters with the highest production boats, rods from land and underwater fishing with harpoons) are in Asia and Africa. Of the 25 leading countries in the and exploiting a high number of species (up to 60 fish and world catch ranking, 6 of them belong to the RIOCC region, in cephalopods). Catches of the recreational fishing in Mallor- the following order of importance: Peru (5th world producer), ca have been estimated between 1,200 and 2,700 t/year, Chile (12th), Mexico (16th), Spain (19th), Argentina (22nd) which makes up about 30-65% of the official commercial and Ecuador (23rd) (FAO, 2018). fishing landings (4,000 t/year).

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 279 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Portugal Spain 80 Peru Chile 8.1.2.3. Current status and Cuba Venezuela Panama Mexico trends in fishing 70 Ecuador Others (12 countries) resources 60 According to FAO (2018), the percentage of stocks exploited at biologically unsus- 50 tainable levels increased from 10% in 1974 to 33.1% in 2015, with the largest 40 increases occurring in the late 1970s and 1980s. This translates into nega- 30 tive trends in global fishing production, which become even more pronounced 20 when looking at reconstructed global catches that include discards and illegal, 10 unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing,

Per capita consumption (kg/person/year) as reported by Pauly and Zeller (2014). 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Capture reconstruction studies paint an even bleaker picture. For example, for Year Galicia (Spain) Villasante et al., (2016) reported that, in a conservative scenar- Figure 8.2. Per capita fish consumption (kg/year) in RIOCC countries. Source: compiled by io, the total volume of rebuilt catches is the authors with data from FAOSTAT (2019). 1.5 times higher than official catches; while for Argentina the authors reported that rebuilt catches can be even twice as large as official catches. Official FAO In economic terms, fisheries and aquaculture contribute statistics show negative trends in total catches for South to the GDP of the RIOCC countries in many ways. In Cen- America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal, as opposed to tral America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hondu- Mexico, Brazil and Central America (Figure 8.3). Fish stocks ras, Nicaragua, and Panama), fisheries and aquaculture within biologically sustainable levels have shown a declining produced an average of 422,210 tons per year between trend from 90% in 1974 to 66.9% (with 59.9% fully exploited 2000 and 2010, valued at US$2.039 billion per year (FAO, and 7% under-exploited) by 2015. This situation is worrying 2014). These countries contributed 24.5% to the primary because maintaining stocks at levels below maximum sus- sector GDP and 2.6% to the national economy. Exports tainable yield (MSY) not only has negative ecological conse- from Latin America and the Caribbean accounted for about quences, but also reduces fish production in the long term, 25% of world exports in 2016 and were focused on shrimp, which subsequently carries negative social and economic tuna, salmon and fishmeal from Ecuador, Chile and Peru, consequences. Overfishing generally reduces income and respectively. In 2016 and 2017, exports increased due to economic efficiency, as well as increased variability and de- higher production and rising prices of tuna (FAO, 2018). creased resilience of fish stocks or other fishing resources With regard to the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain, the fishing (Hsieh et al., 2006). This is particularly relevant as over-ex- sector contributes 1% of GDP, and is particularly relevant ploited populations are often much more susceptible to the in regions such as Galicia, the Basque Country, Anda- impacts of climate change. Aquatic ecosystems have been lusia and the Canary Islands. Fishing in Galicia makes severely altered by fishing and there has been a widespread up about 40% of the Spanish fleet, 50% of its catches tendency to fish at increasingly lower levels of the food web and 60% of direct and indirect employment in the fishing as the number of fish at higher levels dwindles. This has sector (Villasante et al., 2016), contributing to more than brought about diminishing harvests at lower trophic levels 10% of the region’s GDP (compared to 0.1% of the fishing (Pauly et al., 1998; Allan et al., 2005). Some species known sector’s GDP in the European Union), which demonstrates for their high reproductive activity and high renewal rate may its strategic value for its development. In Portugal, the become extinct (Sadovy and Cheung, 2003), and species at fisheries and aquaculture sectors represent less than 1% low trophic levels and with high biomasses exhibit historical of GDP. However, these sectors may be crucial in many lows, which results in decreased annual catches (Da Rocha coastal areas (Sines, Leixões, Setúbal and Aveiro, among et al., 2014). Bycatch and habitat degradation also lead others). In 2016, Spain and Portugal’s fishing fleets had to losses in marine biodiversity (Worm et al., 2006, 2009; 9,459 and 8,100 vessels, with a fish landing volume of Allan, 2005), which can impact certain ecological processes 895,000 tons and 173,000 tons and an economic value such as predation (Myers et al., 2007), bio-erosion (Bellwood of more than 2,086 and 390 million euros, respectively et al., 2003), availability of food for sea birds (Jahncke et (STECF, 2018). al., 2004) and the transport of nutrients (Allan et al., 2005).

280 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

14 to changes in the growth, body size, dis- Peru tribution, productivity and abundance of Chile marine species, including those exploited 12 Spain Mexico by fisheries (Perry et al., 2005; Behren- Brazil feld et al., 2006; Brander, 2007; Portner, 10 Argentina 2010; Simpson et al., 2011; Cheung et Ecuador al., 2010; Breitburg et al., 2013). The Others (14 countries) 8 effects of climate change on marine life extend to all its levels of organization, from individuals, populations and com- 6 munities to entire ecosystems (Rijnsdorp et al., 2009; Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno,

Millions of tons 4 2010; Walther, 2010; Poloczanska et al., 2013). It should be noted that the 2 magnitude of phenological responses to climate change varies among functional groups and trophic levels. Therefore, 0 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 decoupling of phenological events is expected to lead to changes in trophic Year interactions, food web structures and Figure 8.3. Annual catches (million tons) in RIOCC countries. Source: prepared by the ecosystem function (Edwards and Rich- authors with data sourced from FishstatJ (2019). ardson, 2004). Most aquatic animal species for human consumption are poikilotherms, and are Dominant selective pressure from fishing is also likely to therefore affected by ocean warming. Sea level rise, ocean affect the genetic makeup of stocks (Hutchings, 2000). acidification and deoxygenation, changes in ocean productivity, circulation patterns, and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (e.g., monsoons) are also major 8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system hazards facing the aquaculture industry, either through impacts on the physical and chemical properties of water or with climate and climate change damage to port and aquaculture infrastructure (De Silva and Soto, 2009). Changes in the global climate therefore present Climate processes affect the way marine ecosystems work significant challenges and opportunities for societies and at different time and spatial scales (Rouyer et al., 2008), economies. which in turn can have direct or indirect consequences for socio-ecological systems (Figure 8.4). There is a natural variability in currents, temperature, oxygen, and other factors 8.1.4. Review of previous reports that affect the feeding, growth, and migratory patterns of aquatic populations (Miller et al., 2010). Their variations are The Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel not only seasonal, but also inter-annual (e.g., El Niño South- on Climate Change (AR5; IPCC, 2014) reviews the scientific ern Oscillation, ENSO) and multi-decadal (the Pacific Decadal evidence on trends and causes of climate change, risks to Oscillation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation). These natural and human systems, and options for adaptation and modes of variability are manifested in changes in global at- mitigation. Chapter 27 of this report analyzes impacts, ad- mospheric circulation, cyclone and hurricane patterns, mon- aptation and vulnerability in South America (SA) and Central soons, and precipitation and heat patterns, accompanied by America (CA) (Magrin et al., 2014) for water resources, land related drought and flooding events (Reid, 2018) that affect and inland water systems, coastal systems, food produc- marine and freshwater systems throughout the food web, tion systems and food security, human settlements, industry beginning with phytoplankton production and species that and infrastructure, renewable energy and health. Chapter support fishing (Chavez et al., 2008; Salvatteci et al., 2018). 26 (Romero-Lankao et al., 2014) assesses the literature on In addition to this natural climate variability, to which fish- observed and projected impacts, vulnerabilities and risks, ing resources have adapted somehow, man-made climate as well as adaptation actions and options in three North change has either caused or is expected to cause biological American countries: Canada, Mexico and the United States. and ecological changes in the ocean (Brierley and Kingsford, Chapter 23 of the report (Kovats et al., 2014) reviews the 2009). Specifically, changes in the physical conditions of the scientific evidence on the observed and projected impacts ocean (e.g., temperature, ocean currents) and of its biogeo- of climate change in European countries, including those on chemical conditions (e.g., acidification, oxygen content, pri- the Iberian Peninsula. It analyzes the impacts of sea lev- mary production, structure of plankton communities) can lead el rise and extreme precipitation, extreme weather events

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 281 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

pre-industrial levels. With regard to fish- Physical-chemical Social-ecological Specific impacts ing resources, Chapter 3 of this report changes effects (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018) describes the observed impacts and projected risks Species composition on natural and human systems that in- Production and yield clude fisheries and aquaculture food Distribution Production Seasonality production systems in developing island ecology Diseases countries. Ocean currents Coral reef bleaching The IPCC has recently published a Spe- Calcification ENSO cial Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere Fishing, fish Sea level changes Security and protection in a Changing Climate (IPCC, 2019) that ffarminga (aquaculture) Rainfall Efficiency and costs assesses new insights into how climate and post-harvest Infrastructure River currents operations change is leading to alterations in the ocean and the cryosphere and how Lake levels Loss of/damage to livelihood assets they will keep changing. It talks about Thermal structure Communities Livelihood means strategies the risks and opportunities that these Heavy and frequent and livelihoods changes bring to ecosystems and peo- storms Health and safety hazards ple, as well as the mitigation, adaptation Salinity Displacements and conflicts and governance options to reduce future Acidification risks. The Report highlights the impor- Temperature Adaptation and mitigation costs tance of the world’s oceans and frozen Society and Market impact areas and the need for urgent action to economy prioritize timely, bold and coordinated Water distribution initiatives to address unprecedented ob- Floods and coastal defenses served changes. It further analyses observed changes and impacts, projected Figure 8.4. Climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. Source: adapted from changes and risks, and how responses Badjeck et al. (2010). to ocean and cryosphere changes are implemented in relation to the physical environment, ecosystems, people and ecosystem services. Finally, the report concludes that a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (cold or hot), hydropower production, sea temperature rise emissions, protecting and restoring ecosystems, and care- and climate and their implications for agriculture, fisheries, fully managing the use of natural resources would preserve forestry and bioenergy production. The report also contains the oceans and cryosphere as a source of opportunities for a chapter on the ocean, (Chapter 30; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., adapting to future changes, limiting livelihood risks and pro- 2014) which examines the extent to which regional changes viding multiple additional benefits to society at large. in the ocean can be accurately detected and attributed to anthropogenic climate change and ocean acidification, based on the marine ecological and physiological responses to climate change and ocean acidification discussed in Chapter 8.2. Risk components in relation 6 of the same report (Pörtner et al., 2014). This chapter assesses the impacts, risks and vulnerabilities associated to the sector with climate change and ocean acidification in seven ocean sub-regions, and discusses the expected consequences and According to the IPCC (2014), risk results from the interaction adaptation options for key ocean-related sectors, including between vulnerability, exposure, and danger or hazard. Under fisheries and aquaculture. this approach, hazards or dangers are actual biophysical events, such as temperature rises driven by climate change, Likewise, the IPCC has published a special report on the im- and defined by their magnitude and probability (1 or 2°C). pacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, Exposure refers to what is affected by the danger (e.g. fish- in the light of strengthening the global response to the threat ing potential) and vulnerability describes how sensitive the of climate change, sustainable development and efforts to affected system or population is to a particular hazard, given eradicate poverty (IPCC, 2018). This report assesses miti- its exposure (a resource that is overexploited or has a narrow gation pathways to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-indus- tolerance range will be more sensitive to this hazard). The trial levels, new scientific evidence of changes in the climate main hazards posed by climate change to marine fisheries system and its associated impacts on natural and human and aquaculture are rising sea temperatures, changes in systems, specifically focusing on the magnitude and pat- seasonality, rising sea levels, increased extreme and cat- terns of the risks posed by a global warming of 1.5°C above astrophic events, increased precipitation, acidification and

282 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

hypoxia, and the proliferation of toxic microalgae. FAO (2018) related to El Niño and La Niña are expected to become more considers non-climate stressors to be a more serious hazard frequent (Cai et al., 2015). However, El Niño will continue being to inland fisheries than climate-driven ones. These hazards hazardous in the Southeast Pacific region, affecting its climate lead to changes in species distribution, ecosystem productiv- (IPCC, 2013; Bertrand et al., 2018). Rising mean sea levels, ity, coastal erosion and flooding, increased mortality of fish- together with more intense ENSO causing heavy rainfall and ing/aquaculture resources and fishing-related ecosystems. unusual waves and swells (PRODUCE, 2016a), pose a hazard These in turn pose risks to food security, poverty, health, to fishery infrastructure off the coasts of Chile and Peru. unemployment, loss of human life, and income across the countries, depending on the magnitude of the impact, exposure and vulnerability. Daw et al. (2009) provide a summary 8.2.1.3. Magellan Province of the ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of climate change on fisheries along with some examples (Figure In Argentinean Patagonia, sea surface temperature (SST) has 8.5). These result from processes linked to ecosystems or changed over the last 50 years and projections suggest an to political, economic and social systems. increase of more than 3°C by the end of the century, as well as a 25% increase in precipitation (Popova et al., 2016). Rising sea levels and swells pose a serious hazard, especially for the 8.2.1. Hazards Chilean Patagonian shelf (ECLAC, 2015). They increase the risks to landing sites and marine farming systems, as well as infrastructure along the region’s coastline. Together with the 8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and proliferation of harmful microalgae, the surge in extreme and tropical NE Pacific provinces catastrophic events (storms, increased precipitation and hypoxic events) that occur along the coasts and are widespread in The temperature rise in the tropical NE Pacific region, as op- the high seas threaten fisheries and aquaculture in the region. posed to Central America, is affecting resources (Lluch-Cota et al., 2013). Deoxygenation—which manifests itself as an expansion of hypoxic areas or an increase in their intensity—is a 8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic significant hazard, since the minimum oxygen layer is notorious in this region both for its size and hypoxia levels (Fiedler and province Lavin, 2017). The hazard of acidification is also a concern in The SST along the Atlantic coast of South America has this region as projections reveal that the region has one of the warmed over the last 30 years at rates between 0.2°C and lowest levels of aragonite for coral development (Lluch-Cota et 0.4°C per decade (Lima and Wethey, 2012). In the South al., 2018). Mass deaths of species within the Gulf have been Atlantic of Brazil, Uruguay and part of the Patagonian shelf associated with harmful algal blooms, and there is evidence that in Argentina, the SST has changed most rapidly over the past the number of toxic species and the frequency and duration of 50 years and is projected to increase by more than 3°C by events are increasing (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018). 2099 (Popova et al., 2016). The increase in SST is expected to be coupled with acidification and a resulting reduction in pH from 0.3 to 0.4 between 2081 and 2100 (IPCC, 2014). 8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province This region has exhibited one of the largest increases in Unlike other regions, the South Pacific coast of South America precipitation worldwide over the last century, and this trend has experienced coastal cooling of approximately 1°C from is likely to continue. Precipitation is expected to increase by at least the 1970s to the first decade of the 2000s, extend- 5 to 20% by 2050 (Nagy et al., 2008), along with the higher ing from central Peru to south-central Chile (Gutiérrez et al., river flows brought about by El Niño-related events (Vögler 2011; Magrin et al., 2014; Gutiérrez et al., 2016; Yáñez et et al., 2015). An increase in the frequency and strength of al., 2018). This upwelling region is affected by seasonal, in- cyclonic swells has been observed in the coastal areas of ter-annual (e.g., ENSO), and decade-long fluctuations (Chavez the Río de la Plata (D’Onofrio et al., 2008), coupled with an et al., 2008). Future projections estimate an increase in the increase in the speed and frequency of southern winds on intensity and duration of winds that favor upwelling off the land that boost coastal erosion rates (Gutiérrez et al., 2016). coast of Chile, and a decrease (moderate) or non-significant changes off the coast of Peru (Belmadani et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2015; Gutiérrez et al., 2019). Furthermore, there will 8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N be an increase in stratification as well as a strong warming shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and of the surface of Peruvian waters and, to a lesser extent, of Chilean waters (Oerder et al., 2015; ECLAC, 2015). These warm-temperate NW Atlantic latter changes could favor an expansion of the subsurface provinces oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) at low pH, amplifying hypoxia and acidification in shallow areas. Although there is no con- Increasing SST in the Central West Atlantic is a highly sensus on changes in frequency or amplitude, extreme events disparate hazard influenced by the major currents in the

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 283 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Climate change Social and ecological-ﬁshing systems Temperature Green- Ecosystems house

Extreme events Ecosystem processes

R gases Biophysical effects

e Aquatic environment r

u Sea level rise

s Fish populations and production

o n

Acidiﬁcation o Direct effects n

s o Ecological effects c ie ty Politics, society Fishing activities and economy Markets Yields Migration Socio-economic effects Work Effort Consumption patterns Livelihood means Mitigation measures Management Fuel prices

Ecological repercussions Socio-economic (outlined in the ﬁrst study) Direct repercussions repercussions

Affluence of migrant fishers Changes in yields Damage to infrastructure Rise in fuel prices Changes in species distributions Damage to gear Health damages due to diseases Increase in variability of catches Increased risk at sea Relative financial performance Seasonal production variations Losses/Gains of maritime routes of other sectors Flooding of fishing communities Availability of manageable resources Less security Adaptation funds

Figure 8.5. Ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of climate change on fisheries and examples of each case. Source: Daw et al., 2009.

region (Oxenford and Monnereau, 2018). These range sonal dead zones (lacking sufficient oxygen) in the Gulf from slow warming (the Brazilian North Shelf) with a TSM of Mexico (GoM) continue to expand each summer (Hel- increase of 0.38°C between 1957 and 2012, and from leman and Rabalais, 2009). On the other hand, in the 0.15°C to 0.16°C (the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, Central West Atlantic the decrease in pH has mirrored the respectively). Regional-scale models suggest that in the global trend and occurred hand in hand with a sustained Caribbean the small annual SST range will continue to decrease in the aragonite saturation state (Ωar) (despite drop from a current average of 3.3°C to only 2.3°C by the being seasonally and spatially variable according to the end of the century, making seasonality less pronounced influence of SST and salinity) from an annual average val- (Nurse and Charlery, 2016). The tropical Atlantic (Stramma ue of 4.05 to 3.39 within a span of just 11 years (1996 et al., 2012) has seen a decrease in its minimum oxygen to 2006; Gledhill et al., 2008). Ωar values in this region

layer (suggesting a hypoxic habitat boundary for species are expected to reach 3.0-3.5, while pCO2 reaching 550 with high oxygen demand), and a decrease in upwelling μatm will reduce Ωar to <3.0, which is linked to coral reef and further stratification in the southern Caribbean. Sea- erosion (Gledhill et al., 2008).

284 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Sea level rise (SLR) is also a major hazard for the region. The surface waters of the western Mediterranean also show Over the last six decades, the sea level increased at a rate a clear and significant warming trend during the last decades of 1.8 ± 0.1 mm/year in the Caribbean (Palanisamy et al., of the 20th century, with an average rate of change around 2012) and is projected to rise between 0.35 and 0.65 m (de- 0.03°C/year-1 (Pascual et al., 1995; Salat and Pascual pending on the emissions scenario used) by the end of the 2002, 2006; Calvo et al., 2011) and 0.04°C/year-1 during century (2081 to 2100) compared to the 1986-2005 period the first decade of the 21st century (Kersting et al., 2013; (Church et al., 2013). Comparing the decades from 1950 to Marbà et al., 2015). In fact, it has recently been found that 1960 and from 1998 to 2008, the frequency of SLR-related the water of the Mediterranean is acidifying at a rate of extreme events has increased significantly (20 percent to ~0.0044 pH units/year-1 (Arrow et al., 2015). These values 60 percent) throughout the Caribbean, while there has been exceed the acidification average in the other oceans during little change in the platform of Northern Brazil (Church et al., the same period (-0.1 units; Raven et al., 2005). The level of 2013; Losada et al., 2013). The Mississippi delta in the Gulf the Mediterranean Sea has also increased since the 1990s of Mexico is experiencing a sea level rise three times higher between 2 and 8.7 mm/year (Easter, 2006), contrary to the than the global average and its coastal impact varies region- height of the waves, which show a significant decrease of ally according to tidal range and tidal frequency (Losada et approximately 0.08 cm year-1 during the 1958-2001 period al., 2013). This implies that the Caribbean and the Gulf of (Lionello and Sanna, 2008). Mexico, which have experienced micro tides and a rise in sea temperature, will be the most affected, while northern Brazil, with its macro tides and lower frequency of storms, will be 8.2.2. Exposure affected in the east. Finally, there is evidence that more tropical storms in the 8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and Caribbean region and the Gulf of Mexico are becoming dan- gerous category four and five hurricanes (Murakami et al., tropical NE Pacific provinces 2012; Magrin et al., 2014). The models project that most tropical areas are exposed to changes in productivity and ecosystem structure and a reduction in the catch potential of sardine, squid (Pörtner et al., 8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and 2014; Cheung et al., 2016) and shrimp (Lluch-Cota, 2018) Mediterranean Sea (see section 8.3). Also, small-scale fishing and tourism are highly exposed to these changes as they depend heavily In the Atlantic region of northern Spain, the surface water on coastal resources in coral reef, mangrove, and seagrass temperature has increased between 1982 and 2014 at a ecosystems. Livelihoods and food security are therefore at rate of 0.026 ºC-yr-1 (Costoya et al., 2015). This warming risk from the effects of climate change. is also detected in waters up to 1000 m deep (González-Po- la et al., 2012), but there is no recent evidence of it at >5000 m (Prieto et al., 2015). According to Vargas-Yáñez 8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific et al. (2010), in the Mediterranean region east of the Ibe- rian Peninsula the increase in surface water temperature province during 1948-2007 varied between 0 and 0.5ºC. Between depths of 200 and 600 m, the temperature increased be- While there is still uncertainty about how different drivers of tween 0.05ºC and 0.2ºC and the salinity between 0.03 and change will impact productivity and biodiversity in this region, 0.09. At greater depths (1000 and 2000 m), the increase they can be presumed to affect the phenology, spatial dis- in temperature and salinity was 0.03º-0.1ºC and 0.05-0.06, tribution and species composition of primary and secondary respectively. This area has also seen reduction in pH over producers. Declining productivity and rising sea temperatures recent decades. Although acidification is also present in affect anchovy (Engraulis ringens) biomass and catch levels deeper layers, its rates are lower than in surface waters (Brochier et al., 2013; Gutiérrez et al., 2019), which can (Rivers et al., 2001; Castro et al., 2009). Another hazard in greatly endanger the development of the world’s leading im- this region is sea level rise, which was estimated at around portant fish oil and fishmeal industries and the production 2 mm/year-1 for the 20th century (Marcos et al., 2005; Ca- of land and aquaculture animals. By and large, although the ballero et al., 2008; Leorri et al., 2008). However, sea level upwelling systems in the Eastern Pacific only cover a small rise levels obtained for the last decade of the 20th century area, the impacts of climate change on them will have dispro- and the first few years of the 21st century are almost 1 portionately harsh consequences for human society (IPCC, mm/year-1 higher than those published for the entire 20th 2019). Coastal communities will also be exposed to sea level century. An increase in wave height of approximately 1.5 rise, as well as abnormal heavy rainfall and waves caused cm/year-1 between 1958 and 2001 associated with cli- by more frequent and intense ENSO. Moreover, marine fish mate change has also been recorded in the Cantabrian Sea, cultures (such as salmon) and invertebrates (such as Ar- along with an increase in the number of storms (Anadón and gopecten purpuratus and Concholepas concholepas) in this Roqueñi, 2009). region will also be exposed to deoxygenation and acidifica-

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 285 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

tion, although our understanding of the interaction of these increased SST (Bruno and Selig, 2007) and to increasingly stressors with resources is still limited (Yáñez et al., 2018). intense and damaging storms that have resulted in loss of coral reef species (Newman et al., 2015), and changes in community structure (e.g. Hughes et al., 2007). Essential 8.2.2.3. Magellan Province tropical and subtropical habitats such as seagrasses, mangroves and estuarine marshes, particularly in the Caribbean Changes in the distribution of species from tropical and sub- and Gulf of Mexico basins, will also be exposed not only to tropical waters in Brazil towards higher latitudes in Uruguay the effects of climate change, but also to chronic anthropo- and Argentina (Fogarty et al., 2017), represent opportunities genic stresses such as coastal development and eutrophi- to develop new fisheries in this region. Ecosystems in the cation that affect the production of some key species such Magellan region will be exposed to temperature rises leading as seagrasses (Van Tussenbroek et al., 2014; Ward and to changes in the distribution of resources and the invasion Tunnell, 2017). Similarly, in the Western Central Atlantic, of some species such as the exotic Chinook salmon (Onco- the decline in mangroves is largely due to their exposure rhynchus tshawytscha) in the Pacific-Atlantic oceanographic to coastal development (including aquaculture) and timber connection, which may impact key forage species in the At- harvesting (Ward et al., 2016). Under future climate change, lantic ecosystems (Becker et al., 2007). On the other hand, mangroves are expected to sustain the greatest impact in salmon aquaculture production in Chile will be exposed to the Caribbean (especially in island countries). changes in water temperature and salinity, decrease in dissolved oxygen, appearance of harmful algal blooms (HABs) Estuarine systems, especially in the Gulf of Mexico, exposed and diseases (Soto et al., 2019). to rising temperatures show an increase in the size and extent of summer “dead zones” (seasonal hypoxia), exhibit low oxygen levels in the water column, and are a threat to marine 8.2.2.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic life (Phillips and Perez-Ramirez, 2017; Tunnell, 2017). Sea- sonal hypoxia is expected to worsen with increased rainfall province and warmer water. A joint increase in eutrophication and SST also results in higher pelagic (floating) algae blooms, result- The regional ecosystem structure is exposed to changes ing in more frequent “green tides” and toxic algal blooms in the distribution of species towards higher latitudes in (Smetacek and Zingone, 2013), as well as pelagic sargamum Uruguay and Argentina (Fogarty et al., 2017), which implies strandings (Franks et al., 2016), causing damage such as fewer catches. Fishing for species such as sardinella (Sardi- massive mortality of important seagrass beds and associ- nella brasiliensis), will be exposed to increased SST, which ated corals through shading, anoxia and excessive nutrient may endanger the recruitment of this species and there- loading (Van Tussenbroek et al., 2017). Therefore, coastal fore its catches (Soares et al., 2014). Similarly, shrimp habitat ecosystem services will be affected by changes in fishing in southern Brazil—an important resource for the the biological productivity of any of the coastal habitats. livelihood of fishing communities—is exposed to a project- Furthermore, the livelihoods and food security of the coastal ed increase in river discharges, which translates into fewer communities will be exposed to these changes. Island popu- shrimp catches (Gasalla et al., 2017). On the other hand, lations in the Caribbean and along the coasts of the Gulf of ecosystems are exposed to the invasion of other species, Mexico will be heavily exposed to temperature and sea level which can trigger changes in the food web (Bergamino et rise and to an increase in tropical storms and hurricanes. al., 2012). Coastal human populations will be exposed to flooding and destruction of infrastructure, and marine ecosystems to widespread loss of species and the introduction of invading species. 8.2.2.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea 8.2.2.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N The Atlantic region of northern Spain is highly exposed to temperature rise and it is likely that in the coming decades shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and the biomass and composition of plankton will be different warm-temperate NW Atlantic from the current one. There will be a larger number of species typical of warmer waters, smaller body sizes than the provinces current ones and lower biomass values in the eastern area (Cantabrian Sea) and especially off the western coasts of In this particular region, coral reefs are exposed to massive Galicia (Bode et al., 2012). Benthic invertebrates and algae SST-induced coral bleaching events (especially in 1998, meadows are exposed to mortality due to rising tempera- 2005 and 2010; Eakin et al., 2010) that will increase in tures. frequency and even become yearly occurrences in this region by mid-century (Van Hooidonk et al., 2015). Fur- Some fishing resources are exposed to changes in their dis- thermore, corals in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico tribution area or abundance (Punzón et al., 2016) due to will be exposed to an increase in coral diseases related to changes in population dynamics (e.g., recruitment) in the

286 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources face of rising temperatures (Sánchez and Gil, 2000; Santos 8.2.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific et al., 2004; Villamor et al., 2011). These changes in fishing resources have also become apparent in the Mediterranean province region to the east of the Iberian Peninsula (e.g. Lloret et al., The marine ecosystem in this region is not only vulnerable to 2001, 2004; Palomera et al., 2007; Maynou, 2008a, 2008b; the effects of climate change, but also to high natural vari- Massutí et al., 2008; Martin et al., 2016). Furthermore, in ability (ENSO), which causes dramatic changes in ecosystem this area, changes have been observed with regard to the structure and function (Bertrand et al., 2018). capturability of some of these resources (Company et al., 2008; Vargas-Yañez et al., 2009; Amores et al., 2014). Plant In the northern part of the region, on the Pacific side, the and animal wildlife of marine ecosystems in the Mediterra- habitat of many pelagic species is vulnerable to depletion of nean have become exposed to a tropicalization and south- the well-oxygenated surface layer. In contrast to anchovy (En- ernization process, as shown by the CIESM Atlas of Exotic graulis ringens), which has the physiological capacity to cope Species in the Mediterranean (CIESM, 2019). with lower oxygen concentrations, sardine and Chilean horse mackerel are much more vulnerable in areas and periods with low dissolved oxygen concentrations (Bertrand et al., 2016). 8.2.3. Vulnerability Industrial fishing has become a vulnerable sector, since it depends on a small number of species with an overall neg- 8.2.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and ative outlook in terms of stock levels (Cheung et al., 2018). tropical NE Pacific provinces The vulnerability of artisanal and small-scale fishing is related to the strong dependence on some species that expe- Catches of small pelagics such as Sardinops sagax and En- rience drastic natural fluctuations and are probably fully or graulis mordax, as well as tuna (10 species) and squid (Do- over-exploited. Furthermore, there is a lack of infrastructure, sidicus gigas) will be more vulnerable to the hazards posed little knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of by climate change than shrimp (Farfantepenaeus spp., Litope- most of the species caught, and lackluster monitoring, pol- naeus spp., Solenocera spp., Sicyonia spp) (Lluch-Cota et al., icies and regulations in the sector (Bertrand et al., 2018). 2018), which could benefit from climate change. The vulnerability of Chilean aquaculture to the effects of Small-scale fishing in this region depends on threatened eco- climate change is generally considered to be low (Soto and systems (coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds) and Quiñones, 2013), although farming of northern scallops their low capacity to diversify or adapt makes them highly (Argopecten purpuratus) is more vulnerable, especially with vulnerable to climate change. Resource overexploitation and regard to acidification. The role of the northern scallop is weak governance (FAO, 2018) in most countries in this region justified because, while its sensitivity in the economy and further contributes to the vulnerability of the sector. the State is very low, it is likely to suffer greater impacts from climate change and climate variability. The vulnerability Marine and freshwater aquaculture, such as shrimp farming related to the farming of this species is also subject to its in Ecuador, are very vulnerable to flooding, sea level rise, high production in Peru, with favorable environmental con- and increased harmful algal blooms. Long-term impacts may ditions and low production costs (Kluger et al., 2018). This include reduced availability of wild seeds, as well as reduced may cause its displacement from the international market, as precipitation leading to increased competition for fresh water. was the case in 2013. It should also be remembered that the Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Ecuador in South America, vulnerability related to the farming of this species is greater are expected to suffer the greatest impacts to freshwater in the natural environment than in controlled environments aquaculture (Barange et al., 2018). (Gutiérrez et al., 2019).

Box 8.1. Human activity increases the fishing vulnerability

Projected changes in the availability of marine resources and eco- management (EBM, an approach that takes into account everything, system services will affect the economy, human livelihood and food including human interactions within an ecosystem), or the ecosystem security. Vulnerability is higher in the national economies of tropical approach (EA, a strategy for integrated management of living resourc- coastal countries. In many RIOCC countries, especially in the devel- es that promotes conservation and sustainable use) are increasingly oping world, human activities such as overfishing, pollution, nutrient being adopted globally to address the multitude of human pressures on discharge and misuse of aquatic bodies affect the condition of water marine ecosystems. Therefore, ecosystem management under climate bodies. This condition interacts with climate effects, making it difficult change increases the resilience of ecosystems and the adaptive capac- to identify the impact of a single driver with regard to climate change or ity of management systems by reducing other human disturbances to identify the combined effects of all these factors. Ecosystem-based (e.g. overfishing).

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 287 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Artisanal fishing in Piura, Peru, which makes a significant dence on the fishing sector and the low adaptation capacity contribution to human consumption across the country, ex- of many of the countries in the region (Monnereau et al., hibits a high level of vulnerability (PRODUCE, 2016a). This 2017). The Caribbean Islands are highly vulnerable due to is also true for industrial anchovy fishing in Chimbote, one their size, susceptibility to natural disasters, concentration of the most productive anchovy areas. Aquaculture in Puno, of human populations and coastal infrastructure, high de- mainly focused on trout, exhibits a medium level of vulner- pendence on marine resources; environmental fragility and ability. excessive dependence on international trade (Nurse et al., 2014; Monnereau et al., 2017). Globally, the fishing sector in the Caribbean, and the northern shelf of Brazil are consid- 8.2.3.3. Magellan Province ered the most vulnerable areas to climate change because of their high levels of exposure and sensitivity, as well as In this region, salmon farming is extremely important and their limited capacity to adapt (Monnereau et al., 2017). The production is growing at a higher rate than in other regions; Mesoamerican coral reefs off Belize, Honduras and Guate- however, it produces the highest level of sensitivity in the mala (Eakin et al., 2010) are vulnerable to bleaching events economy and the State (Gonzales et al., 2013). This resource due to extreme temperatures in the western Caribbean. Sea is vulnerable to disease, harmful algal blooms, reduced oxy- surface temperature projections using the SRES scenarios gen and changes in environmental conditions. A disease can (A1FI, sensitivity at 3ºC and A1B with sensitivity at 2ºC and wipe out the production of entire areas and wreak havoc on 4.5ºC) suggest that the Mesoamerican coral reef is likely to employment and local development, as was the case with collapse by mid-century (between 2050 and 2070), causing salmon production in northern Patagonia in Chile in 2016 due severe economic losses (Vergara, 2009). to a rapidly spreading viral disease (León-Muñoz et al., 2016) The Argentinean side of the Magellan sector will become vulnerable to changes in the distribution of species, as men- 8.2.3.6. Lusitanian province and tioned earlier with regard to the invasion of salmon and the Mediterranean Sea migration of species from Brazil. On the one hand, the effects will be negative for the ecosystem, but on the other, In the Mediterranean, where a large percentage of catches the presence of new species could provide opportunities to are young individuals (Lleonart and Maynou 2003), fisher- develop new fisheries. ies are highly dependent on recruitment and therefore more vulnerable to climate variability. This vulnerability is even greater if we consider that most of the stocks exploited by 8.2.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean region to the east of province the Iberian Peninsula are overfished (FAO, 2018), much like in the rest of the Mediterranean (Colloca et al., 2013). Fish- SST in most of this region is changing more rapidly than in eries in the Atlantic region of northern Spain are in a similar most other regions, therefore making it more vulnerable to situation, although fishing activity on demersal stocks has changes in the distribution of fish species that will in turn fallen over the last decade, with subsequent positive effects lead to increased costs (fuel, learning, changes); disruption on the recovery of these populations (Modica et al., 2014). of fisheries support and the seafood value chain, as well as However, there are species such as the Norway lobster (Ne- displacement of existing fishing operators (Bertrand et al., phrops norvegicus), which shows no signs of recovery, and 2018). This is compounded by reduced availability, lack of the sardine (Sardina pilchardus), which has been outside its cold chain and optimal sanitary conditions in the production safe biological limits for almost a decade. of fish for food, especially in Brazil. As in other regions, The vulnerability of these fisheries to climate change should a lack of knowledge about the population status of most not only be considered in terms of species, but also at the target species and poor governance increases their level of level of the biological communities that these species belong vulnerability. to and the habitats in which they develop their life cycles. By way of example, Jordà et al. (2012) have pointed out that the increase in maximum water temperature, as a re- 8.2.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N sult of global warming, will cause greater mortality of the shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and marine phanerogam Posidonia oceanica, which will lead to the regression and even functional extinction of the meadows warm-temperate NW Atlantic formed by this endemic Mediterranean species. The loss of provinces this coastal habitat, which in the Balearic Islands can reach depths of up to 50 m, could negatively affect recreational The vulnerability of fishing in the Central West Atlantic re- fishing since, among many other services, it is a breeding gion could be considerable due to its high level of expo- and recruitment area for several fish species, which is the sure to climate change variables, the high economic depen- target of this fishery (Moranta et al., 2006).

288 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

8.3. Characterization of risks 8.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and and their impacts tropical NE Pacific provinces The strongest warming will take place in Central America, The impacts generated by climatic factors have ecological, where hypoxia constitutes a major problem for fisheries and direct and socioeconomic repercussions. They depend on aquaculture (Fiedler and Lavin, 2017). Projections reveal that the magnitude of these factors and the vulnerability present- acidification in these regions will constrain coral reef devel- ed by each country or marine province (see Figure 1.12 in opment and therefore cause great risks to the fishing and Chapter 1 of this report). Table 8.1 summarizes the most tourism industries, which constitute the livelihood of many important drivers of change, impacts and risks that climate coastal communities and private investments. change could generate for fisheries and aquaculture in the Off Baja California, Ecuador and the Gulf of California there is different marine provinces within RIOCC countries. a risk of decreased catches of smaller pelagic fish due to de- Figure 8.6 shows the projections of climate change impact clining plankton production (Poertner et al., 2014). However, on fishing potential for 2050 and 2100 and under RCP2.6 the greatest risks in the temperate NE Pacific are very closely and RCP8.5 scenarios (Cheung et al., 2010, 2018). The related to ecosystem degradation from aquaculture, tourism, greatest loss in maximum capture potential is recorded by urbanization, pollution, urban and agricultural land runoff, and Chile, followed by Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and Peru. How- poor fisheries management (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018). ever, these models are global and do not take into account Changes in the latitudinal distribution of squid will produce a the possible synergistic effects of ocean acidification and displacement of fisheries, which risks increasing operation- fishing effort.

Table 8.1. Drivers of change, impacts and risks that climate change could generate for fisheries and aquaculture in the different marine provinces within RIOCC countries. Abbreviations: Warm temperate NE Pacific (PNETC); tropical NE Pacific (PNET); warm temperate SE Pacific (PSETC); Juan Fernández and Desventuradas (JFD); Magellanic (MAG); warm temperate SW Atlantic (ASWTC); tropical SW Atlantic (ASWT); Brazilian Northern Shelf (PNBR); tropical NW Atlantic (ANWT); warm temperate NW Atlantic (ANWTC); Lusitania (LUS); Mediterranean Sea (MED). Source: prepared by the authors. Specific risks to fisheries and aquaculture Hazards General risks/impacts Scope production Changes in species composition and catch ANWT, ANWTC, MED, PNBR, MAG, Redistribution of resources volumes ASWTC, ASWT Changes in productivity and potential of Ecophysiological changes ANWT, ANWTC, MED, PNBR, PSETC Temperature rise and marine and inland fisheries and aquaculture changes in seasonality Changes in the structure and Redistribution and loss of productivity and ANWT, ANWTC, MED, PNBR, MAG, functioning of ecosystems fishing potential ASWTC, ASWT Species Mortality and Ecosystem Loss of ecosystem services (food security, ANWT, ANWTC, MED, PNBR Deterioration recreation) Loss of habitats and infrastructure for MED, ANWT, ANWTC, PNBR, Sea level rise and increase Flooding in coastal areas fisheries and aquaculture PNETC, PSETC, MAG, ASWTC, in extreme and catastrophic Decline in aquaculture production ASWT events Strong waves and swells Insecurity at sea ANWT, ANWTC, PNBR, PSETC Loss of habitats and infrastructure for Increased precipitation Flooding in coastal areas fisheries and aquaculture ANWT, ANWTC, PNET Decline in aquaculture production Loss of ecosystem services MED, ANWT, ANWTC, PNBR, Increased coral mortality Decline in aquaculture production PNETC, PSETC, ASWTC, ASWT Ocean Acidification Loss of ecosystem services MED, ANWT, ANWTC, PNBR, LUS, Mortality of calcifying species Reduction in fishing volumes PSETC, ASWTC, ASWT High species mortality and Habitat reduction and decline in fisheries ANWT, ANWTC, PNBR, PNETC, Hypoxia habitat loss for wildlife related to and aquaculture production PNET, PSETC, MAG, ASWTC, ASWT fisheries and aquaculture Toxic microalgae proliferation Increased species mortality Declining fisheries and aquaculture production ANWT, ANWTC, LUS, PNETC, PNET

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 289 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Maximum catch potential (%)

MID-CENTURY (2050) END OF CENTURY (2095)

Figure 8.6. Projected changes in maximum capture potential (%) under RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 scenarios by 2050 (A and C) and 2095 (B and D). Prepared with data from Cheung et al. (2018). The greatest loss in maximum capture potential is recorded by Chile, followed by Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and Peru. However, these models are global and do not take into account the possible synergistic effects of ocean acidification and fishing effort.

al costs. The same is projected for tuna fishing in relation to 8.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific its regional distribution and migration patterns (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018). The impacts on shrimp fishing are uncertain, province and their populations are only known to increase during El Niño events. In a warming scenario there is a risk of a decrease in fishing potential for pelagic species due to a significant reduction Artisanal fisheries are highly sensitive to changes in dis- in spawning success (Brochier et al., 2013). A moderate de- tribution because the species they catch are associated crease in fishing potential is estimated by 2050 and 2095, with coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses, which are from -1.6 to -3 % for Chile and approximately 0 to -7.6 % for vulnerable—and in some cases, threatened—ecosystems. Peru (Cheung et al., 2018). Preliminary versions of regional This will increase occupational and nutritional risk in these ecosystem models predict a strong risk of anchovy collapse countries. in Peru before the end of the century if the current levels of

290 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

fishing exploitation persist (IDB/ECLAC, 2014; Oliveros-Ra- for fishing production, although some high-latitude oceanic mos et al., 2017; Gutiérrez et al., 2019). areas in southern Chile and Argentina could see an increase in their productivity and increases in the catch potential of some In the north of this province, reducing the minimum oxygen fisheries. These include squid (Illex argentinus) and southern layer to less than 10 m depth considerably restricts the hab- hake (Merluccius australis) due to the intensification of upwell- itat volume of most pelagic species (Bertrand et al., 2018). ing processes in the Pacific and tidals in the Atlantic. This is especially true of sardines and Chilean horse mackerel, which avoid areas and periods of low dissolved oxygen Risks are heightened in coastal populations with high levels concentrations (Bertrand et al., 2016). This increases the of poverty and food insecurity and poor adaptive capacity. risk of changes in distribution of species. This could happen with species such as the giant squid (Dosidicus gigas) off the coast of Peru. A biomass reduction of Chilean hake (Merluc- 8.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic cius gayi) could also take place off the central coast of Chile. Reduced oxygen concentration in shallow waters increases province the risk of mortality for species such as Argopecten purpu- The rapid increase in SST in this region, coupled with acidifi- ratus in Peru and, to a lesser extent, in Chile. cation and more intense precipitation, creates major risks for Heavy exploitation of fish stocks and alteration of their demo- the marine ecosystem and the economy, including risks of graphics, population dynamics and life history characteristics flooding, destruction of coastal infrastructure, mass mortality (Petitgas et al., 2006; Perry et al., 2010) may reduce the of marine species and introduction of invasive species. Brazil’s ability of fish stocks to buffer changes generated by climate coral reef cover could decline severely over the next 50 years variability (Ottersen et al., 2006; Genner et al., 2010), and (Francini-Filho et al., 2008) and acidification will also have increase their variability in terms of population size. Overfish- disastrous consequences for the corals. Brazil’s mangroves, ing and coastal pollution increase the vulnerability of fishing the second largest in the world, will be impacted by climate resources, therefore increasing risks especially for highly-spe- change, but also by changes of anthropogenic origin such cialized and localized artisanal or small-scale fisheries (Ber- as land-use changes, urbanization, overexploitation of natural trand et al., 2018) that could lead to a severe decrease in resources and coastal infrastructure (Jennerjahn et al., 2017). Peru’s maximum income potential by 2050 (Lam et al., 2016). However, mangroves are spreading to northern Brazil as a result of dry conditions and saline water intrusion, so a heavy Rising sea levels in Chile will affect the infrastructure of impact of climate change is not generally expected. aquaculture production centers and therefore force them to change their location or infrastructure, including facilities and The risk of decreased catches of some resources such as farming systems. Suspended crops of Argopecten purpura- sardines in this region is foreseeable due to the impact of cli- tus, located in exposed bays in the north, could be greatly mate change on recruitment, particularly in current spawning affected by the intensity of heavy swells. In Peru, rising sea areas (Soares et al., 2014). On the other hand, increased river levels and intense rainfall events, caused by a higher fre- discharges, due to increased precipitation in southern Brazil, quency and intensity of ENSO, put the production of marine may translate into lower shrimp catches (Gasalla et al., 2017). shrimp and tilapia at risk due to sedimentation and loss of The low adaptive capacity of shellfish to warming waters both general infrastructure and mangrove areas on the coast. on some sandy beaches in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Recent harmful algal blooms along the Pacific coast of South of South America (Defeo et al., 2013) increases the risk of America, as well as in major lakes, have exhibited an unprec- mass mortalities with negative socio-economic implications edented extent and intensity, suggesting that climate change (Defeo et al., 2018). Likewise, changes in the distribution and other drivers are increasing the risk of events that impact of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) increase human health, aquatic ecosystems and economic activities the risk of invasion of this species in the waters of Patago- such as aquaculture (León-Muñoz et al., 2018). The increase nia thanks to the Pacific-Atlantic oceanographic connection, in pests or diseases due to warming also increases the risks which may affect key forage species and the ecosystems of of mass mortality and reduced growth rates in salmon farm- Atlantic Patagonia (Becker, 2007). On the other hand, stock ing (SUBPESCA 2015). The increase in diseases and harmful abundance and the potential for catching fish will increase, algal blooms, along with the rise in temperature, can also on average, in the mid and high latitudes of the region, pos- affect shrimp aquaculture production in mangrove areas in sibly due to changes in the distribution of resources. northern Peru. The impact of acidification and hypoxia on fan shell cultures (Argopecten purpuratus) causing mass mortalities in the long term cannot be ruled out. 8.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm 8.3.3. Magellan Province temperate NW Atlantic provinces

Changes in the geographical distribution of southern popula- In the Northwest Atlantic, coral reefs have already suffered tions of commercially valuable species generate certain risks deaths from high temperature bleaching, and there is a high

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 291 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

risk that the frequency of these events will increase by the with warming (Vinagre et al., 2011) reveal a southernization middle of the 21st century (Van Hooidonk et al., 2015). Coral and tropicalization phenomenon of the ecosystem. This can reef mortality results in a loss of coral reef species (Newman be seen from the fact than 50% of the demersal species, with et al., 2015), and in some cases, algae-dominated reef com- temperate biogeographical affinities and which are common munities (e.g. Hughes et al., 2007) that significantly alter in the area, have increased in abundance (Punzón et al., ecosystem services. 2016). Changes in exploited pelagic and demersal ecosystems around the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands are Also, as in other regions, there is a risk of substantial loss leading to major changes in fisheries that will impact fishing of mangroves in the Gulf of Mexico due to increased extreme communities and consumers (Payne, 2013). events. One of the most serious risks in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico is the decline in the production of commercially The risk of loss of productivity of ecosystems and therefore important species such as fish, mollusks, lobsters and crabs, of fisheries in the eastern area of the North Atlantic of Spain due to habitat degradation, eutrophication and overfishing. A (Cantabrian Sea), is due to changes in biomass and compo- reduction in the size of reef-associated populations puts small- sition of plankton where the influence of upwelling is more scale fishery production at risk, particularly in the small islands reduced and warming is more clearly manifested (Bode et of the Caribbean, with severe socio-economic impacts. al., 2012). The main fisheries, such as hake in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, will be decisively affected by oceano- There is a risk that in the future there will be a decline in fish- graphic changes, biological processes and extreme events ery production of coastal pelagic species such as anchovies (Chust et al., 2011; Kersting, 2016). This risk will be lower and sardines. This is due to localized reductions and greater on the western coasts of Galicia. Here, it will be critical to inter-annual variability in productivity in the Central West Atlan- determine the influence of upwelling across several decades. tic, which significantly affects industrial fishing in the northern shelf [of Brazil] (Bertrand et al., 2018). There is a high Spain is one of the countries in the Northeast Atlantic whose risk that there will be a significant reduction in shrimp and shellfish production is at high risk from acidification (Narita groundfish populations in these marine provinces in the short et al., 2017). The coasts of Spain and Portugal are among and medium term. This will affect the fishing production of in- the areas that have lost the most fishing potential because dustrial and artisanal fleets in the Northern Shelf of Brazil, the of climate change (Free et al., 2019), although their level of continental countries of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. governance and development makes them less vulnerable Oceanic species such as large and small tuna, dorado, and than other developing countries. mackerel will in the long term change their distribution as the On the west coast of the Mediterranean the risk of a de- temperature increases, which will affect the catch volumes crease in productivity due to sea warming will have a negative in this province, especially in the Caribbean. This creates a impact on the optimal habitat of small pelagics, and thus high risk to food security, livelihoods, economic and fisheries a decrease in their catches (Hidalgo et al., 2018). Since management, and exports in the West Central Atlantic fishing the middle of the last century up to 38 fish species that sector. Impacts on food security will be greatest in low-in- were hitherto unknown in the area have been reported in the come fishing communities where subsistence fishing is still western Mediterranean (Massutí et al., 2010), most of which important for self-consumption and income generation, and arrived through the Strait of Gibraltar from the tropical and where populations are often already vulnerable and facing subtropical regions of the Atlantic. Possible conflicts between food insecurity (Oxenford and Monnreau, 2017). fisheries in different countries caused by a redistribution of More intense and frequent extreme weather events in this species should be integrated into the management and adap- region will have negative impacts on food availability, acces- tation plans of these fisheries. The decrease in the capture sibility, stability and utilization—especially in countries with of pelagic species in Spain will produce risks in terms of high levels of poverty—as a result of loss of assets (e.g., unemployment and lower income. An effect of sea level rise fishing boats, engines and equipment), and lack of insurance and acidification in the Mediterranean cannot be ruled out coverage. Food security and health in the region will also be (Gomis et al., 2008; Lacoue-Labarthe et al., 2016), which at risk from increased ciguatera fish poisoning from dinofla- may contribute to the disappearance and modification of gellates of the Gambierdiscus toxicus genus (in humans it can fragile and long-lived species that provide important ecosys- lead to severe gastrointestinal and neurological disorders), tem services (Jordà et al., 2012). which will affect the reef fish trade and the health of local In Spain, the risks for mussel farming are related to the communities (Tester et al., 2010). decrease in the availability of phytoplankton in seawater due to temperature rises. Toxic algae blooms, increasingly frequent on the Galician coast, could mean the closure of 8.3.6. Lusitanian province and mussel farms and of other filtering mollusks in intertidal Mediterranean Sea parks, such as scallops (García and Perlado, 2014). The level of socio-economic impact on aquaculture will not be uniform In the Atlantic Iberian waters, changes in species composi- across the sector, as it will depend on the type of species, tion and therefore the increase in the area of distribution to- the stage and technology of farming, and the location of the wards the NW Atlantic (Bañon et al., 2002, 2017) associated plant and aquaculture infrastructure.

292 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Box 8.2. Impact of acidification on bivalve farming

Currently, the more acidic waters brought from the depths of the acidification affects not only species that produce calcified exoskele- oceans to the surface by wind and currents on the northwest coast tons. It affects many more organisms either directly or indirectly and of the United States are having this effect on aquaculture-grown has the potential to disrupt food webs and fisheries. Most organisms oysters. The high risk of sea acidification will cause mortality of that have been researched show greater sensitivity to temperature corals and calcifying species, especially in the Gulf of Mexico and extremes, so as ocean temperatures change, species that are forced the Caribbean, affecting associated fisheries. An effect on the pro- to exist at the edge of their thermal ranges will experience stronger duction of mollusks in Spain, Peru and Chile is also expected. Ocean effects from acidification.

Figure 8.7 shows the level of importance and urgency of the • Incorporating risk of regime changes into management main identified risks for fisheries and aquaculture. plans and long-term policy objectives. • Redirecting fishing efforts to other pelagic species in order to reduce pressure on species suffering from over- 8.4. Adaptation measures fishing. • Bolstering biological and ecological studies, improve 8.4.1. Adaptation options spatial monitoring and institutionalize participatory governance systems in small-scale fisheries. The main climate change adaptation options for fisheries and aquaculture are presented in Tables 8.2 and 8.3 (Daw et al., • Maintaining a minimum biomass reserve of forage fish 2009; Dabbadie et al., 2018). and increase the range of protected areas to increase the resilience of top predators. • Increasing the proportion of forage fish for direct human 8.4.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and consumption tropical NE Pacific provinces • Improving infrastructure (cold chain, sanitary conditions) in the value chain of small-scale fisheries. Lluch-Cota (2018) and FAO (2018) suggest the following for this region: • Promoting the consumption of the cheapest fish species, such as anchovy and sardines to benefit Andean popu- • Sustainable development of new fisheries based on lations under-exploited resources • Increasing control and reduction of small-scale fishing capa- • Full implementation of the FAO Code of Conduct for Res- city, to safeguard the long-term sustainability of this sector. ponsible Fisheries and the Voluntary Guidelines to Ensure Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries • Implementing satellite communication devices and extend fleet monitoring systems to small-scale vessels • Implementing information systems to provide early warnings on market price volatility On the other hand, Chile, in its Climate Change Adaptation Plan for Fisheries and Aquaculture (SUBPESCA 2015), proposes 29 • Developing aquaculture to contribute to the economy and adaptation actions that range from the implementation of man- food security agement plans, fisheries certification, biodiversity monitoring • Selection of farmed species, which can cope with phy- and analysis network, control and/or eradication of invasive ex- siological conditions in the future climate and the appro- otic species, vulnerability studies, climate prediction for fisher- priate use of genetically improved and robust organisms. ies and aquaculture, training and information, protected areas, regulations, adaptation of port infrastructure, insurance system, • Developing feeds that are not based on forage species and added value of artisanal fishing resources, among others. or the use of low trophic level species. 8.4.1.3. Magellan Province 8.4.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province Adaptive responses to climate change in the region’s fisher- Some of the most important adaptation options proposed ies are expected to include the following: for the Humboldt Current System by various authors (Avadí et al., 2014; Béné et al., 2015, and Bertrand et al., 2018) • Implementing management approaches and policies that can include the following: maximize the resilience of the ecosystems being exploited.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 293 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Extension Main risks identiﬁ ed Main climatic driver Importance Urgency ected regions)

Displacement of stocks. Changes in sea temperature will ecting some ﬁ sheries and ! favoring others

Decrease in catches and food security. Changes in marine productivity will result in a decrease in ﬁ sh production ect access to ﬁ sh consumption, especially for those ! communities that depend on these resources, thereby ecting food security

Increase in mortality events of species and occurrence of harmful algal blooms This risk is related to hypoxia events ("dead zones") and the proliferation of toxic microalgae, which increase with rising temperatures

Loss of habitats and areas of aquaculture crops due to sea level rises in mangroves, coastal areas lagoons, estuaries + and rivers, and ﬂ oods due to increased precipitation and overﬂ owing rivers

Mortality of corals and calcifying species, due to sea ects ﬁ shing due to the loss of essential habitats, but also the aquaculture of bivalve mollusks and crustaceans

Increased insecurity in fi shing activities. The strong winds and storms that will occur at sea will increase seaborne accidents, especially in small-scale fi shing vessels and artisanal fi shing

Main climatic drivers: Importance. One of the following levels Extent: Flooding was assigned: unimportant, important and very important; in terms of the Mexico Central America IBE and Caribbean Temperature Rise signifi cance of its impacts on natural or human Drought Iberian Peninsula systems, including the number of people MEX + ected. CAC Amazon Precipitation Increase Sea Level Rise Urgency. One of the following three levels AMZ was assigned: imminent (that may NEB Precipitation Decrease Northern N.E. Brazil Ocean Acidifi cation be occurring or occur at any time), Andean-Pacifi c NAP medium-term (that is expected to occur in the Central SSA ! CAP Southeast America Extreme Temperatures Changes in Seasonality medium term, by mid-century, or when 1.5°C Andean-Pacifi c is exceeded), long-term (that is expected PAT Intense Storms and CO2 to occur after mid-century or when 2°C of Patagonia CO Fertilization Hurricanes 2 warming is exceeded).

Figure 8.7. Main identified risks for fishing resources. Source: prepared by the authors.

294 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Table 8.2. Risks associated with the fishing sector and specific adaptation measures to address climate impacts. Modified from Daw et al. (2009). Risks associated with fishing Specific adaptation measures Reduced productivity and yield of the fishery (indirect Access to higher value markets ecological effect) Restoration of aquatic ecosystems and protection of critical habitats Livelihood portfolio diversification Insurance plans Increased yield variability (indirect ecological effect) Precautionary management of resilient ecosystems Implementing integrated and adaptive management measures Private research and development, and investment in technologies to predict migration Changing the distribution of fisheries (indirect ecological routes and availability of commercial populations effect) Migration Reduced costs to increase efficiency Reduced profitability (indirect ecological and socio- Livelihood diversification economic effect) Abandoning fishing for other livelihoods/other investments Rigid protection structures Managed withdrawal/accommodation Rehabilitation and disaster response Increased vulnerability of coastal, riverside and lowland Integrated coastal management communities and infrastructure to flooding, sea level rise and storm surges (direct impact) Provision of infrastructure (e.g. port and landing stage protection) Early warning systems and education. Disaster Recovery Assisted Migration Private insurance of capital equipment Adjustments in the insurance markets Underwriting of insurance policies Increased risks associated with fishing (direct effect) Meteorological warning system Investments to improve the stability and safety of boats Compensation for impacts suffered Trade and market disruption (indirect socio-economic Diversification of markets and products effect) Information services to anticipate price and market disruptions Population displacement and subsequent influxes of new Support from existing local management institutions fishers (indirect socio-economic effect) Miscellaneous Research and development made available by the public sector

• Adopting management and policy approaches that stren- • Changing target species and fishing operations. gthen the livelihood base. • Protecting key functional groups and establishing insu- • A better understanding of existing response mechanisms rance systems. to climate variability. • Recognizing and responding to new opportunities gene- 8.4.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province rated by climate change; • Monitoring of biophysical, social and economic indicators Adaptation options in the South West Atlantic include the linked to management and policy responses following: • Improved collection of fisheries information at local • Adopting multi-sectoral adaptation strategies. and national levels for early warning and forecasting of • Greater flexibility in the work of fishermen and operators. ecosystem changes.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 295 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Table 8.3. Risks associated with the aquacultire sector and specific adaptation measures to address climate impacts. Modified from Dabbadie et al. (2018). Specific adaptation measures Risks associated with aquaculture Crop species with higher thermal tolerance Move cultivation facilities to offshore or colder/deeper areas Adopting guidelines on proper aquaculture jobs Selective improvement for thermal tolerance Adjustments in timing/farming practices Rising temperatures Change of farmed species Climate-smart facilities (e.g., deeper ponds, etc.) Closure and relocation of production sites Risk-based location Spatial planning to determine new favorable and unfavorable areas Change in farmed species, especially of shelled organisms and corals Moving farming facilities to new offshore or inland areas Acidification Adopting guidelines on proper aquaculture jobs Closure and relocation of production sites Spatial planning of main sea current Change to more tolerant farmed species Adopting guidelines on proper aquaculture jobs Hypoxia Relocating farming facilities to new offshore or inland areas Moving farming facilities to new offshore or inland areas General spatial planning and ecosystem approach Moving farming facilities to new areas Adopting guidelines on proper aquaculture jobs Changes in distribution Switching to commercial feed formulation for carnivorous species that currently use low value fish directly as food Cultivated stocks adjusted to new production capacity Territorial planning Changing to natural or selected salt-tolerant freshwater species or varieties Sea level rise Changing to euryhaline (e.g., estuarine) or marine species Overall ecosystem approach to aquaculture

• Using less destructive fishing gear, reducing effort and 8.4.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N other stressors such as pollution. shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and • Protecting breeding areas, particularly mangroves and estuaries. warm temperate NW Atlantic • Increasing funding for research, improving governance provinces systems and capacity building for better work among scientists, managers and fishing communities. Oxenford and Monnereau (2018) outline a few of adaptation • Vulnerability studies of fishing communities to better allo- measures that are already underway or being developed in cate support efforts and capacity building. the region: • Facilitating access to loans for small-scale fishermen to • Developing innovative mobile applications, to improve diversify their livelihoods (Emdad Haque et al., 2015). early warnings and safety for small-scale fishermen.

296 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

• Improving the adaptive capacity and resilience of the Eradication”, prepared by FAO (2015) and endorsed by many fisheries sector to climate change by enhancing securi- Latin American and Caribbean countries, acknowledge the ty, income and savings, and access to asset insurance impact of climate change on small-scale fisheries and com- and social security. mit to develop policies and plans to address climate change, assist affected communities, support energy efficiency in • Increasing investment in port infrastructure and security, the sector and provide adaptation funds. to protect fishing assets and avoid disrupting the fish market chain. In 2016 and 2017, FAO, with the support of the Least De- veloped Countries Fund, the Global Environment Facility and • Mitigating locally induced stressors that degrade criti- the Special Climate Change Fund, began implementing six cal fishing habitats, and rehabilitating damaged coastal national and regional climate change adaptation projects, ecosystems to improve their resilience with the overall objective of increasing the adaptive capacity • Incorporating climate change into the policies, plans and of the fisheries and aquaculture sectors and enhancing their legislation of fisheries and coastal development. resilience (FAO 2018). Chile was the only RIOCC country to participate in this FAO initiative and is currently implementing the “Strengthening Adaptation Capacity in the Chilean 8.4.1.6. Lusitania province and Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector to Climate Change” project (2018-2020) implemented by FAO and the Chilean Under- Mediterranean Sea secretariat of fisheries and aquaculture with GEF funding Kersting (2016) analyses and summarizes the following key (FAO, 2017). In 2017, within the framework of this project, adaptation measures for the marine area of Spain: the first of the workshops in the south was held at the Puer- to Montt headquarters of the Universidad Austral de Chile • Protection and conservation of vulnerable species and (UACh), called “Assessment of the Vulnerability of Fisheries habitats. and Aquaculture to Climate Change”. Its aim was to build net- • Protecting specific areas through protected marine areas. works, share information and methodologies to assess the vulnerability of fisheries and aquaculture systems in general, • Managing fishing activities based on sustainability crite- and especially the pilot coves forming part of the project. ria, under an ecosystem approach. Peru has also developed adaptation initiatives at the suprana- • Direct actions aimed at regenerating habitats and popu- tional level such as the project “Adaptation to Climate Change lations. in the Fishing Sector and the Coastal Marine Ecosystem of • Promoting and supporting scientific monitoring, ensuring the Peru” which was signed by Peru and the IDB in 2014. This continuity of existing time series and studying the effects of project aims to reduce the vulnerability of coastal communi- climate change for better adaptive management. ties and fishing resources to the impacts of climate change (PRODUCE, 2016b). The project will be followed by another • Using tools such as vulnerability assessments and risk one (“Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change on Peru’s analysis to assist in the development of adaptation mea- Coastal Marine Ecosystem and Fisheries”), financed by the sures. Climate Change Adaptation Fund (2018-2021). • Dissemination and awareness-raising actions, to inform Table 8.4 shows some adaptation projects developed with su- society about the growing and robust evidence of climate pranational funding. Adaptation actions in Latin America and change and its effects on the marine environment. the Caribbean have been promoted and financed in the re- • Implementing effective management plans to rectify over- gion by institutions such as the Inter-American Development fishing patterns. Bank (IDB), the World Bank (WB), and the Adaptation Fund established under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations • With regard to aquaculture, adaptation actions include Framework Convention on Climate Change, among others. implementing oxygenation systems to mitigate the action of algae blooms or low oxygen levels, producing genetically improved fish that are more resistant to certain 8.4.2.2. National and sub-national scale pathogens, or using sensors to continuously monitor the environment. Adaptation plans in fisheries and aquaculture. Planned adaptation activities for fisheries and aquaculture are scarce in RIOCC countries, especially in Latin American and Caribbean 8.4.2. Planned adaptation activities countries. According to Sánchez and Reyes (2015) the most important sectors to conduct adaptation actions in Latin 8.4.2.1. Supranational scale American and Caribbean countries are those related to water, infrastructure, human settlements, agriculture, biodiversity, The “Voluntary Guidelines for the Sustainability of Small- health and energy. Figure 8.8 shows the planned adaptation scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty actions in the fishing sector within RIOCC countries.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 297 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources Funding source Adaptation Fund UNEP IDB, United Kingdom, European Union Spain Conservation International IDB GEF United Kingdom European Union BMUB, Germany CYTED, Spain IDB/ECLAC Adaptation Fund GEF IDB IDB BMUB, Germany Source : prepared Executing institution MarViva Foundation MarViva Ministry of Environment and Fisheries, UNEP ECLAC, CCAD, SIECA ECLAC INVEMAR/CORALINA Practical Solutions/UNALM FAO/SUBPESCA OSPESCA University of Hamburg MADS/TNC/Alma Foundation/IDEAM University of Santiago de Compostela IDEAM PRODUCE National Institute of Ecology and Climate Change (INECC)/Mexican Institute of (IMTA) Technology Water Foundation MarViva PRODUCE MADS Year 2016-2018 2011-2014 2008-2010 2009-2011 2010 2012-2014 2018-2020 2015-2018 2016-2020 2015-2016 2018-2020 2014 2018-2022 2011-2016 2016-2019 2014-2017 2014-2018 Country/Region Costa Rica Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua Guatemala, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama Most RIOCC countries Colombia Peru Chile Honduras Spain Colombia Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Portugal, Peru, Spain, Venezuela Mexico Panama Colombia/Ecuador Project Adaptation projects being developed or implemented in RIOCC countries with supranational funding. GEF= Global Environmental Fun d; UNEP= United Nations Environment by the authors. Table 8.4. Table Program; ECLAC= Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean; CCAD= Central American Development Environment; CIECA= Secretariat de Andreis”; CORALINA= Corporation for the Sustainable Development of Central American Economic Integration; INVEMAR= Marine and Coastal Research Institute “José Benito Vives the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina; IDEAM= Institute Hydrology, Meteorology Environmental Stu dies; UNALM= Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina; PRODUCE= Ministry of Production; SUBPESCA= Undersecretary fisheries and aquaculture; OSPESCA= Organization the Fisheries Aquaculture Sector Central American Isthmus; OLDEPESCA= Latin American Organization for Fisheries Development; MADS= Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Develo pment; TNC= The Nature Conservancy; BMUB= for Development. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety; CYTED= Ibero-American Program of Science Technology Adaptation of coastal wetlands in the Gulf Mexico to impacts of climate change Adaptation of vulnerable coastal communities to the imminent climate change hazards around Paquera, Puntarenas Integrated Coastal Management with Special Emphasis on Sustainable Management of Mangrove Forests The Economics of Climate Change in Central America Building resilience to manage the effects of climate change in the Gulf of Montijo Assessment of climate change vulnerability marine coastal areas Design and implementation of an adaptation program in the insular areas of the Colombian Caribbean. Economic Impacts of Climate Change in Colombia The Economics of Climate Change in Peru Coastal Marine Ecosystem Adaptation to Climate Change on Peru’s and Fisheries Coastal Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change on Peru’s Marine Ecosystem and Fisheries Strengthening the Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change in Chilean Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector and Climate Management and Interpretation of the Clima Pesca Tool Change Adaptation Processes (REFLOW). CERES - Climate change and European Aquatic RESources AbE Magdalena River Basin –recovery and restoration of wetlands for improvement 2015-2019 Ecosystem-based climate change adaptation strategies in Colombia and Ecuador ECOMAR – Evaluation and monitoring of marine coastal ecosystem services in Ibero-America

298 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Adaptation of vulnerable coastal communities to the imminent threats of climate change around Paquera, Puntarenas (initiative of the NGO Mar Viva with the Adaptation Fund) Costa Rica (CAC)

Geographic Scale Subnational Types of adaptation

Action Status Implemented Guidelines for adaptation to climate change in the insular area of the Cartagena de Indias district (Invemar) Colombia (CAC) MEX +

Geographic Scale Local CAC Types of adaptation

Action Status Implemented

Adaptation of coastal wetlands in the Gulf of Mexico to the impacts of climate change (implemented by Government of Mexico with funding from the Global Environment Facility through the World Bank) AMZ Mexico (MEX) NEB + NAP Geographic Scale Subnational Types of adaptation

Action Status Implemented SSA

Adaptation to the impacts of climate change CAP on Peru’s coastal marine ecosystem and its Strengthening the Adaptation Capacity of ﬁ sheries (Adaptation Fund-BID Project) the Chilean Fishing and Aquaculture Sector to Climate Change (executed by SUBPESCA Peru (NAP) and MMA; implemented by FAO; ﬁ nanced by GEF)

Chile (CAP) Geographic Scale Subnational PAT Types of adaptation

Action Status In progress Geographic Scale Subnational Types of adaptation

Action Status In progress

Main climatic drivers: Extent: Types of adaptation: Flooding Mexico Central America IBE planned, i.e. if it is the result of Temperature Rise and Caribbean deliberate political decisions; Drought Iberian Peninsula MEX autonomous, i.e. if it is carried out, + CAC Precipitation Increase Amazon usually by individuals, communities or Sea Level Rise private entities; AMZ NEB Precipitation Decrease Ocean acidifi cation Northern N.E. Brazil hard (requires changes in Andean-Pacifi c NAP infrastructure, regardless of type); ! Central SSA Southeast America soft (political, social, training actions, Extreme Temperatures Changes in seasonality Andean-Pacifi c CAP etc.);

Intense Storms and CO2 PAT CO fertilization Patagonia green (ecosystem-based actions). Hurricanes 2

Figure 8.8. Map of adaptation actions implemented for fishing resources. Source: prepared by the authors.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 299 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Chile is the only country that has a focused adaptation plan • Developing a marine and coastal weather monitoring and for fisheries and aquaculture: the National Climate Change warning system. Adaptation Plan for Fisheries and Aquaculture (SUBPESCA • Strengthening the control of by-catch and illegal fishing. 2015). Nicaragua has the “Plan of Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change in the Agricultural, Forestry and Fish- • Strengthening how Local Fishing Councils operate. ing Sector in Nicaragua” (MAGFOR 2013) and Uruguay has • Researching, developing and implementing evaluation its “National Plan of Adaptation to Climate Variability and models that involve environmental variables in order to Change for the Agricultural Sector” (PNA-Agro, 2019), both enhance the management of the fishing resource. of which address fishing as part of the agricultural sector. Spain has its own adaptation plan for the Spanish marine The Adaptation Plan of the Spanish marine aquaculture sec- aquaculture sector to deal with climate change, although it tor document (AQUADAPT 2018) proposes 4 pillars: is not a government document (AQUADAPT 2018). The rest of the countries are working on it, such as Peru, given the • Increasing scientific and business knowledge about the importance of this sector in the national economy and its impact of climate change. contribution to food security. The same is true of Argentina, • Strengthening the regulatory and administrative fra- which at the end of 2019 will publish its National Action Plan mework. for Agriculture and Climate Change (PANAyCC, 2019). • Availability and access to sources of funding for adapta- The Chilean Climate Change Adaptation Plan for Fisheries tion in the aquaculture sector. and Aquaculture (SUBPESCA 2015), sets out some guidelines to guide adaptation plans such as: • Encouraging knowledge transfer along the value chain. • Guiding public policy to reduce vulnerability and to provide Adaptation actions. Table 8.5 shows a few examples of ini- the necessary information to plan and implement actions. tiatives related to the organization of courses or workshops to strengthen capacities on adaptation, analyze vulnerability • Considering adaptation as a progressive process that and identify adaptation measures to tackle climate change involves learning from past experiences. in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors. • Implementing long-term adaptation measures. In the Iberian Peninsula, unlike the countries of Latin Amer- • Contributing to the sustainability of fisheries and aqua- ica and the Caribbean, the adaptation actions being imple- culture. mented include anticipatory and reactive measures, as well as private and public initiatives. These can be grouped into • Considering the design and implementation of measures three broad categories. Management plans are being im- such as: plemented—for example, for the Spanish fleet around the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands—to correct wide- –– Time and space scopes. spread overfishing in the Mediterranean (Colloca 2013; FAO –– Precautionary principle and ecosystem approach. 2018). There are several regional initiatives that propose a combination of measures to improve the current state of –– Programs and strategies to collect and share data and fisheries and marine ecosystems in the Northeast Atlantic information on the impacts of climate change. and the Mediterranean. Among them the following can be –– Regular monitoring and evaluation of adaptation highlighted: protection and conservation of vulnerable spe- actions. cies and habitats; protection of specific areas through marine protected areas; management of fishing activity based on The Plan of Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change in sustainability criteria; direct actions aimed at regenerating the Agricultural, Forestry and Fishing Sector of Nicaragua habitats and populations; promotion and support of scientific is geared towards the aquaculture sector and proposes the monitoring, ensuring the continuity of existing time series following adaptation actions: and promoting the study and monitoring of the effects of • Conducting training on good aquaculture practices, and climate change on the marine environment to carry out better management of aquaculture resources. adaptive management; the use of tools such as vulnerability assessments and risk analyses, which help to develop ad- • Giving continuity to forming aquaculture cooperatives. aptation measures; and dissemination and awareness-rais- • Implementing tilapia farming projects. ing actions, which are very necessary in order to convey to society the growing and robust evidence of climate change • Promoting fish farming in polyculture and agro-aquacul- and its effects on the marine environment (Kersting, 2016) ture systems. Protected Marine Areas. Adaptation requires fisheries man- • Including the aquaculture sector in the National Producti- agement efforts to increase the health of their resources, ve Bond in rural communities so as to increase resilience to climate change impacts. This The Uruguayan National Adaptation Plan to Climate Variability context includes marine protected areas (MPAs). The efforts and Change for the Agricultural Sector highlights the follow- made by RIOCC countries to meet the target of protecting ing adaptation actions: 10% of their jurisdictional waters—agreed at the 10th meet-

300 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources Organizing institution Ministry of Production UNDP/REGATTA/NAP-GSP Ministry of the Environment Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA)/GIZ Aquatic Resources Authority (ARAP) FAO Ministry of the Environment Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries OSPESCA/CODEPESCA National Institute for Fisheries Research and Development (INIDEP), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP) Country Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela Chile Mexico Panama Latin American and Caribbean Countries Peru Uruguay Honduras Argentina Source : prepared by the authors. Workshop/Course Workshops or courses related to adaptation climate change in fisheries and aquaculture. Workshops Table 8.5. Table Regional workshop on the Exchange of Experiences and Capacity Building for Development National Climate Change Adaptation Plans (PNACC for its official Spanish acronym), Bogotá, Colombia (2016) Regional expert workshop entitled “Climate Change, fisheries and aquaculture in Latin America: Potential Impacts and Adaptation Challenges” (2011); to Climate Change in fisheries aquaculture Assessment of fisheries and aquaculture (2017) (2014); Climate Change Vulnerability and Climate Change Adaptation Processes on Managing and Interpreting the Clima Pesca Tool Workshop (2018) to prepare indicators for the Climate Change and Agro-Food Production Agenda (2017) Workshop Course for facilitators in the design of local adaptation actions aquaculture and fishing sectors Clima Pesca in Panama (2017) on the effectsWorkshop of “El Niño” and national actions implemented to guarantee food nutritional security and increase resilience in Latin America the Caribbean, Panama (2015) First International Forum on Climate Change: Development and Economic Effects (2009) Climate Change, Adaptation Actions for fisheries and aquaculture in 4 Regions of Peru (2016); adapts to climate change: National Adaptation Plan (2016); International workshop on change scenarios for coastal upwelling and the Peruvian anchovy (2017) 2017) on climate change adaptation in agricultural schools Uruguay (OPYPA, Workshops to prepare the reportWorkshop on climate change effects on the Argentinean Sea and its fishery resources 2019) (INIDEP,

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 301 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

ing of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on resources through a public investment project. One of the Biological Diversity in Nagoya (CBD COP10)—are important modules in this project was the farming of pearl shell (Pte- (see Chapter 4 on marine and coastal ecosystems in this ria sterna), a species characterized by its tolerance to high report). However, there is still much that needs to be done temperatures and low salinity. This could be considered as to achieve this goal and for AMPs in the region to be man- an adaptation action in the face of rising temperatures and aged efficiently and sustainably. While there are not many salinity reduction caused by climate change. initiatives for the creation of fisheries-based MPAs in some There are other adaptation initiatives not directly aimed at RIOCC countries, the creation of Benthic Resource Manage- improving the resilience of fisheries and aquaculture, but ment and Exploitation Areas (AMERB) in Chile is a good example. Another example is the creation of the Tropical Pacific that also contribute it. These include, for example, those Reserved Zone in Peru, with an area of 116,140 hectares, mentioned by Shelton (2014) for two countries such as Mex- approved by the Congress of the Republic, and whose cre- ico and Peru. The former includes coastal restoration and ation is still underway. Both of these cases are aimed at rehabilitation and a wetland conservation management strat- protecting small-scale fishing resources. Likewise, Chile has egy, while the latter involves a project focused on coastal established 5 new MPAs (in February 2018 and by Presiden- community risk and an alternative insurance scheme within tial Decrees), meaning that 42% of its marine area is now an adaptation support project (GlobalAgRisk, 2012). under some degree of protection (UNIVISION 2018)). In the case of Argentina, the Namuncurá MPA stands out, in the sector known as Banco Burdwood above 54º South latitude, 8.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities of 3.4 million hectares. More recently (in December 2018) Fishing off the coast of Latin America has been one of the the Namuncurá-Banco Burdwood II was created, spanning primary human activities for food subsistence, economy 2.4 million hectares, together with the Yaganes MPA, whose and social cohesion. It has been developed for 5000 years area totals 6 million hectares (located in the south of Isla against a backdrop of climate variability represented by the de los Estados and Tierra del Fuego) (JGM Argentina 2017). El Niño events (Shady and Cáceda, 2008). Thus, ecosystems These three new MPAs are included in the National System and human systems have adapted without external interven- of Marine Protected Areas, covering 9% of the area. This tion and in response to a changing environment. It is likely has brought the country—a signatory to the Convention on that many autonomous adaptation initiatives in small-scale Biological Diversity—closer to the goal of protecting 10% of its oceans by 2020. Ecuador and the Dominican Republic and industrial fisheries exist across this region, yet they also have a high percentage of MPAs (see Chapter 4 of this have not been documented or are not considered as such. same report on marine and coastal ecosystems), established In recent decades some fishing communities along the Pe- as planning tools to offset the effects of overexploitation ruvian coast have opted to establish management measures and ensure biological productivity and human uses. The “Os autonomously, such as fishing quotas, fishing seasons or Miñarzos” Marine Reserve of Fishing Interest (Galicia/Spain) minimum sizes, in order to maintain the productivity of their is a good example of the role of MPAs in protecting the eco- populations. logical integrity and sustainable use of natural ecosystems An example of autonomous adaptation to climate variability (Burgos and Fernández, 2014). has been reported by Badjeck et al. (2010) and Mendo et al. (2008, 2016) with regard to fan shell fishing (Argopecten purpuratus) in Peru (Case Study 8.7.1), which exhibits strong 8.4.2.3. Local or municipal scale fluctuations caused by ENSO. Fishermen react to these fluctuations by adapting informally, quickly and flexibly, and by At local level in the region, planned climate change adap- migrating between places experiencing opposite fluctuations tation actions in the fisheries and aquaculture sector are in yields resulting from the El Niño phenomenon, unlike the almost non-existent, mainly due to insufficient knowledge public sector, which, while taking management measures on about the effects of climate change, management capacity a larger scale, has been slow and unable to learn from past and low budgets for adaptation actions. There are, howev- experiences. Another example is the fishing community of er, some examples of planned actions. One of them could Caleta El Ñuro in Peru (Case Study 8.7.5) which, faced with be an initiative in Peru within the framework of productive the scarcity of valuable fish resources, has chosen to venture diversification projects in the fisheries and aquaculture into tourism, thanks to its strong organization. sector, targeted at fishing communities in the Piura Region (DIREPRO 2015). This project is called “Strengthening of Capacities to Improve Productive Operational Conditions in Artisanal fisheries and aquaculture in the Provinces of Ta- 8.5. Barriers, opportunities lara, Paita and Sechura (Piura Region)”, and promotes the development of other productive activities for the artisanal and interactions fishing communities in the face of the deterioration of fishing resources, which are probably linked to overfishing and In addition to the effects of climate change and climate climate change. This project was entirely financed with state variability, fisheries in many RIOCC countries are subject

302 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

to stresses related to the globalization of fisheries. In the opment and credit and insurance services for the poorer case of developing countries, other stressors include the sectors. lack of public infrastructure, high rates of disease, pollution, Figure 8.9 shows the main adaptation actions and their rela- poverty, weak governance, overfishing, all of which limit their tion to mitigation measures, prevention of land degradation, adaptive capacity. This limits the implementation of adap- protection of ecosystems and biodiversity, food security, tation measures, while some argue that climate adaptation poverty reduction, water, the Sustainable Development Goals strategies should emphasize the need to eradicate poverty and the priorities of the Sendai Framework. Some adaptation and food insecurity in fisheries and aquaculture communities (Kalikoski et al., 2018). Aspects related to culture or margin- measures in fisheries and aquaculture interact with mitiga- alization may limit implementing adaptation measures in the tion to the extent that they help to reduce emissions, such as most vulnerable groups to climate change in the fisheries and those related to a shift from fossil fuel use to biogas in fish- aquaculture sector (Daw et al., 2009). ing or to reducing fishing effort, which in turn helps resources to recover. In both industrial and small-scale fisheries, it is The level of awareness about impacts (and therefore pro- possible to reduce process emissions, waste use, industrial jections on fishing resources) is still limited, as suggested carbon capture and storage. There is also a possibility to by the studies by Luch-Cota et al. (2018) for the Northeast switch to other fossil fuels (natural gas) and use low-carbon Tropical Pacific region and Bertrand et al. (2018) for the energy (e.g. electricity, solar, biogas) or biomass. The use Southwest Atlantic and Southeast Pacific. There are still gaps of microalgae as a biofuel could become an important driver in the use of models to assess the effects of climate change for medium and small-scale industries, helping to overcome on fisheries across each region. On the other hand, the great the negative effects of climate change on fisheries and aqua- adaptive capacity and shared knowledge of the local commu- culture. Adaptation actions strongly interact with ecosystem nities has not been factored into the scientific debate as a and biodiversity protection, food security and poverty reduc- means to facilitate adaptive processes. tion, while their interaction with mitigation, prevention of land Data collection from fisheries and ocean monitoring systems degradation, health and water is weak. Adaptation actions are still inadequate to significantly increase the accuracy of related to risk management, protection of critical habitats climate and ecological models in most of the RIOCC countries and governance interact with as many of the parameters and especially in countries with high levels of poverty in Latin analyzed as possible. America and the Caribbean. There is little information on the In Chile, given the importance of marine crops, developing geographical or physical limitations of fishing resources in diets for farmed fish with less inclusion of marine fish protein each country, or on the ecophysiological tolerance of these and less dependence on marine fisheries is a particularly rel- resources. Impact and vulnerability studies are lacking main- evant mitigation measure. So is using oxygenation systems ly for Central America and some tropical regions of South to mitigate the action of algae blooms or low oxygen levels, America (Magrin 2015). Existing information is translated into producing genetically improved fish that are more resistant to internal reports that are difficult to access, limiting knowl- certain pathogens, or using sensors to continuously monitor edge and generating overlap and repetition. The levels of the environment are climate change adaptation actions for environmental degradation caused by pollution and overfish- aquaculture. ing need to be known in order to prioritize climate change adaptation measures. Most Ibero-American countries do not have the human re- 8.6. Measures or indicators of sources trained in information gathering or the adoption and use of technology, as well as in organization and leadership. adaptation effectiveness Fishing is characterized by weak governance, disorganized institutions and lack of leadership, which has led to high Indicators for adaptation to climate change follow general levels of overexploitation of resources and degradation of guidelines and good practices for monitoring and evaluation. aquatic bodies. In addition, the lack of access to economic One of them is that indicators require some kind of logic resources limits the capacity to adapt, especially in the poor- model (also called logical framework, value chain, theory of est countries of Central America and the Caribbean. change, etc.), which explains how the expected outputs, out- Some adaptation actions that are either in development or comes and impacts are expected to be achieved through the being implemented through projects in places such as Peru, proposed activities, (McCarthy et al., 2012; Bucheli, 2017). Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Spain, Chile, among others, Based on this framework, the indicators show progress and bring benefits to their communities by way of productive achievement milestones for the processes and expected re- diversification, increased productivity and improved gover- sults of planned adaptation actions. As mentioned earlier, nance. Adaptation also constitutes a potential economic planned adaptation actions for fisheries and aquaculture opportunity for producers of goods and services related to in RIOCC countries are very few; however, Kalikoski et al. fisheries and aquaculture. The implementation of adaptation (2018) assess whether the climate change mitigation and actions generally goes hand in hand with improvements in adaptation measures to be implemented within the fisher- fishing resource management policy, infrastructure devel- ies and aquaculture sector within the Nationally Determined

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 303 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources ❹ ❹ ❹ ❹ ❹ ❹ ❶ ❸ ❶❷❹ Sendai [3]

Water SDG [2] (Continue in the next page). Poverty Reduction Food Security Health Protection Biodiversity Ecosystem and of Land Prevention Degradation Mitigation erent fi sheries fi erent oading forecasts under various climate change A. Interactions in the field of fishing resources between adaptation actions and other development aspects. Cultured species with higher thermal and hypoxia tolerance. Change or relocation of shell species scenarios Closure and relocation of production sites Spatial planning to determine new favorable and unfavorable areas Formulation of new foods for carnivorous species that refrain sh. Rearing of herbivorous species fi from using low value Rearing of salt-tolerant freshwater species or natural selected euryhaline or marine species Implementation of adaptive and ecosystem-based management sheries fi plans in local, regional and national Strengthening or establishing spatial monitoring programs for marine resources and biodiversity at the diff Strengthening or establishing programs to reduce discards and bycatch Strengthening offl shing and fi Inclusion of climate change risk analysis into aquaculture management plans shing and fi Local training on climate change risks through aquaculture pilot adaptation projects possible the to infrastructure port shing fi artisanal of Adaptation impacts of climate change sh farmers and artisanal Insurance system for small-scale fi shermen against extreme weather events fi Adaptation actions [1] Figure 8.9. Figure 8.9.

304 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources ❸ ❸ ❸ ❶ ❷ ❶ ❸ Sendai [3]

Water SDG [2] (Continue in the next page). Poverty Reduction Food Security Health Protection Biodiversity Ecosystem and of Land Prevention Degradation Mitigation orts to reduce the vulnerability of B. Interactions in the field of fishing resources between adaptation actions and other development aspects. Figura 8.9. Figura 8.9. Incorporate knowledge management into fi shing and aquaculture fi Incorporate knowledge management into value chains shing eff fi Reduce or target species that are already under threat sh and fi Maintain a minimum biomass reserve of forage increasing the range of protected areas for recovery top predators shing fi Develop infrastructure for optimal use of small-scale resources in the value chain shing gear to reduce fuel con- fi Improve the design of boats and sumption and improve the quality sustainability of resources shing and Develop technologies to carry out bioconversion of fi aquaculture by-products into biogas, biofertilizers and animal feed sheries data collection fi Implement or improve spatial-temporal systems at national and local levels Protect critical or essential habitats to develop commercial species, particularly mangroves and estuaries Sound and participatory governance systems in small-scale shing fi shing, based on long-term and gender-equal policies for fi and aquaculture Inclusive training programs to strengthen the co-management shing, to improve ecosystem health and food of small-scale fi security shermen to diversify fi Access to credit programs for small-scale the livelihoods, reducing pressure on overexploited stocks Encourage consumption of low commercial value fi sh species fi Encourage consumption of low commercial value such as anchovy and sardines to combat food insecurity Adaptation actions [1]

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 305 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

[1] An assessment was conduced for the different parameters [2] Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): shown in the table (mitigation; risk prevention; etc.) for each of the actions. Based on the author’s criteria these parameters were SDG-1, No Poverty; SDG-10, Reduced Inequalities; rated with green circles ( ) in the case of co-beneﬁts, with red circles ( ) in the case of antagonisms and counter-indications, or with a grey dot ( ) in the case of neutral SDG-2, Zero Hunger and Sustainable Agriculture; SDG-11, Sustainable Cities and Communities; or undetected interactions.

SDG-3, Good Health and Well-being; SDG-12, Responsible Production and In addition, each of the actions shows SDG and Sendai-related Consumption; interactions (in this case, using numbers that show the SDG-4, Quality Education; action’s contribution to speciﬁ c SDGs or priorities under the SDG-13, Climate Action; Sendai framework). SDG-5, Gender Equality; SDG-14, Life Below Water; SDG-6, Clean Water and Sanitation;

SDG-15, Life on Land; [3] Sendai Framework priorities: ❶ Understanding ordable and Clean Energy; disaster risk; ❷ Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk; ❸ Investing in disaster risk reduction SDG-8, Decent Work and Economic Growth; SDG-16, Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions; for resilience; ❹ Enhancing disaster preparedness for ective response, and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, SDG-9, Industry, Innovation Infrastructure; SDG-17, Partnerships for the Goals. rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Figura 8.9. Interactions in the field of fishing resources between adaptation actions and other development aspects. Source: prepared by the authors. (Continues).

Contributions (NDC) explicitly targeted the poor and most 8.7.1. Autonomous adaptation to climate vulnerable. As can be seen in Figure 8.10, among the RIOCC countries that submitted their NDC, 9 reported the impacts of variability of fan shell (Argopecten climate change on their fisheries and aquaculture sector, in- purpuratus) extraction in Peru cluding impacts on fishing resources and migration patterns with consequences for the sustainability of the fishing sector, livelihoods, human health and food security. Peru is planning 8.7.1.1. Case summary to incorporate the creation of a platform for monitoring ad- Coastal communities in Peru have adapted to climate vari- aptation measures within the Regulations of the Framework ability for thousands of years. This case shows an example Law on Climate Change (Cristina Rodríguez, MINAM, pers. of recent adaptation of shellfish extractors from the southern comm.), which will allow evaluating the effectiveness of ad- zone of Peru (Pisco) in the face of strong fluctuations of fan aptation actions. In the Iberian Peninsula, the development shell (Argopecten purpuratus) banks caused by El Niño. The of measures or indicators of the effectiveness of adaptation appearance and discovery of new banks in the northern zone currently comes from the development of maps of vulnera- of Peru (Sechura) forced fishermen to migrate to this area, bilities and risks of exposure to climate change. Monitoring bringing along with them the skill of diving to extract fan and evaluation of adaptation actions through effectiveness shells and the basic knowledge to establish “repopulation indicators is essential, and should be part of the formulation areas”, which were no more than farming areas sown with process of Climate Change Adaptation Plans for fisheries seeds from the natural banks to be later extracted at a com- and aquaculture in RIOCC countries. The purpose is to define mercial scale. Currently many families from the south have the scope and effectiveness of investments and to establish settled in the north, making it the country’s largest fan shell priorities (target groups, territories, themes) and resource production and export zone. allocation. 8.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem

8.7. Case Studies Peru experiences recurrent El Niño (ENSO) events, during which fan shell (Argopecten purpuratus) stock sizes vary Figure 8.11 summarizes the characteristics of the identified greatly (Figure 8.8a). On the southern coast of the country, case studies on adaptation actions in fisheries and aquacul- specifically in the area known as Pisco, the rise in sea sur- ture within RIOCC countries, as described below. face temperatures cause an increase in the size of its stocks.

306 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

However, in the northern part of the country, strong ENSO climate variability, fishermen autonomously decided to adapt events are synonymous with flooding and river discharges to these scenarios of change regarding the production of the that negatively impact fan shell biomass. During the 1983- banks that in 2013 placed Peru as the third largest producer 1985 EN period, the harvest of fan shell in Independencia of scallops worldwide (3.7%), after China (86.9%) and Japan Bay (Pisco) was the highest ever recorded, producing around (9.1%). Sechura Bay currently accounts for 80% of Peruvian 40,000 tons as opposed to approximately 1,000 tons in production (in 2013, Mendo et al., 2016) and 50% of total previous years. Something similar happened with the 1997- fan shell production in Latin America. 1998 ENSO event that found fishermen prepared to take advantage of the banks, focusing on the extraction of seeds and their transfer to shallow areas of the bays for fattening 8.7.1.3. Case description purposes—something that was wrongfully referred to as “repopulation”. Both events turned the fan shell into a target With the onset of the ENSO events of 1983/1984 and 1997- species for exports, which translated into unprecedented 1999, both artisanal fishermen and businessmen tried to economic income for Pisco fishermen, thus creating high ex- maintain fan shell production by bottom farming in shallow pectations for a new ENSO to take place. However, it took at coastal areas (Mendo et al., 2016). This misnamed “repop- least 15 years for these events to happen again, and it was ulation” technique involves collecting seeds from natural uncertain whether the effects of El Niño would be the same banks, which are then transferred to shallow coastal areas as in the past. On the other hand, the banks of the northern for the growth phase to commercial scale. After the ENSO zone (Isla Lobos de Tierra and Sechura) experienced massive events, and even when the State, pressured by local fisher- mortality caused by El Niño in 1997-1998, affecting bio- men, granted farming areas and seed supply, the banks of masses between 8,000 and 12,000 tons registered before Isla Lobos de Tierra south of Sechura showed a high seed the event, thus providing an opportunity for exploitation in production that led to the migration of fishermen from Pisco this zone during the absence of ENSO. Within this context of to the northern coast. Production in Sechura registered a

Fisheries and aquaculture included in NDCs

Fisheries and aquaculture not included in NDCs

NDCs not submitted

Not all countries are shown on this map

Figure 8.10. Fisheries and aquaculture reported in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC). Source: modified from Kalikoski et al. (2018).

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 307 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Case Study Name Countries Regions Main Climate Geographic Types of Drivers Scale adaptation Applicability

Autonomous adaptation to climate variability of the scallop (Argopecten Peru Local National purpuratus) ﬁ shery in Peru

Social adaptation to climate change of + women in shellﬁ sh farming in Galicia Spain Local National (Spain)

Project on Adaptation to Climate Change of the Fishing Sector and the Peru National National Coastal Marine Ecosystem of Peru - PE-G1001/PE-T1297

Fishing in the Bay of Samborombón, + Argentina: vulnerability and guidelines Argentina Local National for adaptation to climate change

From ﬁ shing to sea turtle tourism: the Peru Local National case of El Ñuro, Piura, Peru

Intense Storms and CO2 PAT CO fertilization Patagonia green (ecosystem-based actions). Hurricanes 2

Figure 8.11. Description of Case Studies (fishing resources). Source: prepared by the authors.

permanent increase from 2000 onwards, reaching record fig- actions are still pending for production to be sustainable. ures of 48,000 tons, i.e. 80% of national production (Mendo Developing this activity was possible thanks to the adoption et al., 2016). In 2016 production dropped to around 20,000 of a farming method pioneered by Pisco diving fishermen, t and in 2017 it dropped to almost nil due to the incidence consisting of moving and planting seeds in shallow areas of of El Niño on the coast. This strategy for adaptation to cli- Sechura Bay that are carefully cared for until the shells reach mate variability was basically started by the fishermen, who a viable commercial size and are ready for export (Figure forced the authorities to generate regulatory instruments 8.8b). On the other hand, the semi-permanent availability of to develop this activity successfully. Nevertheless, some seeds on the banks of Isla Lobos de Tierra and in the bay

308 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Figure 8.12. Peruvian scallop (Argopecten purpuratus) in Sechura Figure 8.13. Scallop fishing boat at the artisanal fishery landing Bay (Peru). Underwater photo: Tania Mendo. site in Parachique (Sechura Bay, Peru). Photo: Jaime Mendo.

of Sechura itself was crucial, as was the formation of fish- institutions involved in this activity. Co-benefits are extremely ermen’s associations who were legally assigned a sea area important throughout the production and value chain, provid- for such purposes. Currently, more than 150 associations ing employment opportunities for the country and investment of artisanal fishermen (OSPAS) are authorized to repopulate in production, transport, processing and export. This type of areas assigned by a Bay Management Plan, which currently occupation of the diving fishermen has allowed them to have leads the production of fan shell in Peru. a job with very high benefits and also in a safer environment for their health and life. 8.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions 8.7.1.5. Lessons learned One of the limitations of seeding activity in bottom farming is the availability of seed in natural banks, since bank pro- The main lesson learned is that fishermen using a form of duction is highly variable. Seeds produced in laboratories set self-management at the outset and co-management can up in the area are still not enough and cannot compete with adapt to climate variability or change. Within this context, it the natural supply under their selling price. There are signs is possible to easily move to an ecosystem-based adapta- that current seed production on the banks of Isla Lobos de tion, thus opening an opportunity to continue working with Tierra is mostly driven by larval retention and transport of the seafood farmers of Sechura Bay. larvae from Sechura Bay (Flores et al., 2019), which could underpin a formal extraction of seeds from these banks in the future. On the other hand, the transfer of seeds from 8.7.2. Social adaptation of women to one area to another has meant the transfer of other species such as the invasive macroalga Caulerpa sp from Piura to climate change in the Galician Pisco. Seeding activity in bottom farming is also vulnerable shellfish picking industry to anoxia events that often occur on the Peruvian coast, as a result of oceanographic changes and declines in the (Northwest Spain) production due to harmful algal blooms. Another limitation is the lack of compliance with sanitary protocols and monitoring 8.7.2.1. Case summary by the associations, which are necessary requirements for the export of their products. A corporate and savings culture The shellfish picking sector (mainly pullet carpet shells, has not yet been developed to deal with these management Palourde clams, Manila clams, and cockles) in Galicia instruments. Finally, the environmental impacts generated (Spain), which is mainly dominated by women, has under- by the same aquaculture activity, as a consequence of the gone substantial transformations in the last 30 years (Macho feces and pseudo-feces produced by the cultivated organ- et al., 2014). The governance system in the 1980s based isms, must be considered. The experience of adaptation of on top-down management of shellfish resources, where de- artisanal fishermen and the development of bottom cultiva- cision-making was centralized in the national government, tion has allowed the interaction of many public and private resulted in the widespread decline of most shellfish species.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 309 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of Galicia in Faced with this situation, the national government modified 1986, the transfer of jurisdiction for the management of some regulations regarding access (compulsory registration these resources and the support of the regional government of shellfishers, closing off certain areas, etc.) but open ac- of the Xunta de Galicia, the socio-ecological system of shell- cess remained “de facto” until the autonomous government fishing underwent positive changes, creating a management of Galicia modified the access rights regime and regulated system of territorial rights of use that allowed the recovery this female-led activity. These changes intensified in the of most species. 1990s, when shellfishing was regulated as a professional Against this backdrop, the sector must now face up to the activity that required a permit (“permex”) controlled by the negative effects that climate change is having on clam num- regional government. This also involved adopting an exploita- bers. The MARISCO project was developed to analyze the tion plan developed by the fishermen’s guilds, supported by social dimension of adaptation to climate change over the technical assistance under the supervision of the regional last decade by a group of women in three of the most import- administration, and for women to register with the social ant fishermen’s associations in Galicia (Cambados, Campe- security system (Macho et al., 2013; Pita et al., 2018). Reg- lo and Pontevedra), through a series of interviews with the ulation of this activity was fostered through the shellfisher’s shellfish harvesters. Shellfish pickers have developed—at organizations within the guilds. This has been considered least so far—successful social strategies. First, they have as a co-governance system for shellfishing (Frangoudes et designed an adaptation strategy, mainly economic, that pre- al., 2013). dominantly targets a species (Manila clam) that, albeit for- Nevertheless, this transformation entailed a drastic drop eign, is more resistant to the effects of climate change. This, in the number of shellfishers, most of them women, from in turn, allows them to supply markets on a regular basis. 16,335 in 1990/1991 to 3,017 in 2017. This was largely Second, female shellfishers have pioneered their participa- due to overfishing, IUU fishing, imports of foreign shellfish, tion in the co-management system for shellfish resources by being involved in the development of annual exploitation habitat degradation, and pollution, among others, which had plans since the 1990s. Third, there is greater involvement of adverse effects on coastal communities (Pita et al., 2018). female shellfishers’ organizations in training tasks, the man- At present, shellfish picking on foot provides more than agement of the shellfishers’ group, and greater monitoring 10,000 direct jobs in Galicia (>4,300 are women), exploits of the activity. All of this has led to greater internal cohesion more than 60 species (mollusks, crustaceans, gastropods, among women in the face of climate change. Fourth, better echinoderms, annelids, anemones, algae, etc.), and harvests organization led to optimized production costs, with the aim around 7,000 tons per year worth ~51 million euros (Xunta to improve shellfish bank cleanup and regeneration. Fifth, de Galicia, 2018). Shellfishing species are managed by a developing and following exploitation plans resulted in higher co-management system implemented by the regional admin- economic and social income, earning them rights under the istration (Xunta de Galicia) and the 63 fishermen’s guilds that Spanish Social Security system (unemployment benefits, exist in Galicia, generally located in small fishing villages. paid medical leave, among others) (Villasante et al., 2018). Each guild has territorial rights of use (TURFs) and shellfish However, this sector faces significant challenges such as pickers exercise their TURFs in an area of approximately habitat degradation, pollution from reservoirs and IUU fish- 80,000 ha along the Galician coast (Arnáiz et al., 2005). A ing, among others (Pita et al., 2018). usual problem is the absence of a protocol for the systematic collection of biological, economic and social information at the regional and local levels (Villasante et al., 2016). Shell- 8.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem fishing has undergone major changes due to climate change Picking of bivalve mollusks (mainly pullet carpet shells, and other anthropogenic effects that are putting the sustain- Palourde clams, Manila clams, and cockles) on the beaches ability of the activity at risk. of Galicia has historically been performed by women. This activity is deeply rooted in the socioeconomic and cultural life of the coastal communities and has contributed significantly 8.7.2.3. Case description to the intake of nutritional, high-quality marine protein. These resources were traditionally picked in an “open access” situ- One of the consequences of global change is the frequency ation that served only as a subsistence activity to meet local with which events such as increases in sea surface tem- demand (Macho et al., 2014). This situation changed when perature and torrential rainfall are modifying coastal salinity. these products began to be marketed by canning companies Projections show that the Atlantic coast of Europe will experi- in the 1960s, and later distributed chilled all over Spain. As a ence more frequent, intense and long-lasting heat waves and result of this substantial change in the consumption pattern extreme precipitation that can generate episodes of mass of fish products in Spain, the state of shellfish resources also mortality depending on the species, life cycle or spatial-tem- changed. The number of shellfish pickers increased to about poral context (Parada et al., 2012). Changes in bank salinity 60,000 in 1974-1975, leading to conflicts over the harvest- due to heavy rains in 2000-2001 (Parada et al., 2012) and ing of these resources and the subsequent collapse of most 2013-2014 (Mariño, Pereira, Pastoriza obs. pers.) caused of them in the 1980s (Macho et al., 2014) (Figure 8.14). extreme mortality events in the Galician rias.

310 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Figure 8.14. Female shellfish pickers in the Ría de Pontevedra (Galicia, Spain). Photos: Pablo Pita.

During the MARISCO project (financed by the Spanish Minis- and comprehensive monitoring can be highlighted as a major try of Economy and Competitiveness; 2015-2018), the au- constraint to ensure that transformative changes continue thors carried out field work in guilds where shellfishing is of in the future. vital importance to women and where the effects of climate The social transformation of Galician shellfish farming has change are most noticeable. 335 surveys were conducted been a success, generating socio-economic benefits not only in the guilds of Cambados (N=95), Campelo (N=155) and Redondela (N=85) between March and July 2017 (Villasante for women but also for their families and the local communi- et al., 2018). Survey results show that most women (N=287) ties that depend on this activity. Its adaptive capacity also perceive significant biological changes in the harvested spe- made it possible to maintain the carrying capacity of ma- cies, such as higher mortality (in some cases massive), low- rine ecosystems through the regeneration and cleaning up er abundance, size, and higher frequency of parasites and of shellfish stocks and increased surveillance of poachers, red tides (Villasante et al., 2018). To adapt to these negative to create cooperation processes with the regional adminis- changes in the marine environment, shellfishers (N=293) are tration and the scientific community, and to reduce female designing successful social strategies. First, they pioneered unemployment in areas that rely heavily on fishing with few their participation in the co-management system for shellfish other employment alternatives. resources by being involved in the development of annual exploitation plans since the 1990s, allowing the species to recover. Second, there is greater involvement of female shell- 8.7.2.5. Lessons learned fishers’ organizations in training tasks, the management of the shellfishers’ group, and greater monitoring of the activity. The socio-ecological transformation of the Galician shellfish All of this has led to greater internal cohesion among women. picking industry since the 1980s is a particularly relevant Third, better organization led to optimized production costs, case study around the world given the high proportion of with the aim to improve shellfish bank cleanup and regen- women involved in this activity. The positive changes expe- eration. Fourth, developing and following exploitation plans rienced by the sector through the creation of a co-manage- resulted in higher economic and social income, earning them ment system that implemented annual exploitation plans led rights under the Spanish social security system (unemploy- to greater control of the activity, an improvement in how ment benefits, paid medical leave, among others). shellfishers’ organizations operate and a recovery of most shellfish resources in recent decades. Yet this successful transformation has not been exempt from drastic changes 8.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions in the number of women, as well as in the target species. Against this backdrop and in the face of the effects of cli- Generally speaking, the lack of information on socio-eco- mate change, women have also developed social adaptation nomic variables is often an obstacle to the study of shell- strategies that help to maintain their income, especially by fish in Galicia. The existence of other anthropogenic effects selling Manila clams (invasive species) to the detriment of na- (pollution, illegal capture by tourists) is a limitation when tive species. However, targeting the exploitation of shellfish determining the effects of climate change on shellfishing. resources in a monoculture may entail a high risk of potential The lack of scientific evaluation (biological, economic, social) changes in the abundance and mortality of the species.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 311 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

8.7.3. Adaptation to Climate Change of 8.7.3.3. Case description

the Peruvian Fishing Sector and The project aims to tackle three specific challenges: Coastal Marine Ecosystem Project - a) Limited knowledge about the nature and extent of the im- PE-G1001/PE-T1297 pacts of climate change on marine resources and coastal ecosystems: this is derived from (i) lack of sufficient modeling and forecasting capabilities, which limits the un- 8.7.3.1. Case summary derstanding of oceanographic and climate dynamics, and This climate change adaptation project, developed with fi- excludes the possibility of adaptive fisheries management; nancing from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and and (ii) insufficient platforms to monitor oceanographic and executed by the Ministry of Production and with technical meteorological conditions on the required time scales. support from the Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE) (2015- b) Increased vulnerability of coastal fishing communities: 2018), has sought to increase the resilience of coastal ma- due to: (i) lower incomes from their fishing activity, related rine ecosystems and coastal artisanal fishing communities to lower productivity associated with global warming and to the impacts of climate change. Concrete adaptation ac- changes in ocean chemistry; (ii) sensitivity (degree of im- tions were carried out in Huacho, Pisco and Ilo, which consist- pact) of physical and chemical ocean variables to climate ed of training workshops for groups of artisanal fishermen on change; and (iii) uncertainty in sustainable fishing targets the following subjects: the collection and use of information due to climate impacts on fishing productivity. The vulner- on fisheries management; the design, implementation and ability of marine-coastal ecosystems can be aggravated use of sustainable fishing gear and methods aimed at the by inappropriate use of coastal areas and the subsequent capture of anchovy for direct human consumption (DHC); and pollution of the marine environment. the training of professionals and fishermen in the application of good fishing practices that lead to the inclusion of artis- c) Limited capacity to incorporate information about the vul- anal fishermen in production chains for DHC. nerability of the fisheries sector to climate change into sectoral policies, and limited organization of fishers to participate in production chains. In order to achieve the ob- 8.7.3.2. Introduction to the case problem jectives of the proposed project, all relevant actors, communities and national and regional stakeholders, need Peru has the most productive fisheries in the world, generat- access to better quality environmental information on the ing approximately 10% of the world’s fish catch. Some of the marine environment and its relation to marine productivity, main drivers of this enormous productivity are the physical and a greater awareness of the effects of climate change and chemical characteristics of the country’s coastal upwell- on the fishing sector. ing (Chávez et al., 2008). Although most of the economic impact of the sector is related to anchovy fishing for the pro- The project has strengthened the technical capacities of the duction of fishmeal and for the fish oil industry in the coun- Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE) to model, diagnose and try, artisanal fishing has an important socio-economic role forecast the response of the complex marine-coastal system as a source of both direct and indirect employment and as to climate change. This will allow reinforcing the vulnerability a source of protein for the food security of the country and analysis of the ecosystems under study against different the world. future scenarios, and of the consequences on the wellbeing of the communities that depend on these resources for Climate change is expected to have impacts on biodiversity, their livelihoods. The project has also supported the activi- habitat quality and the life cycles of marine ecosystems and ties developed by the Ministry of the Environment (MINAM) organisms, as well as on socio-economic services such as through the programs of Integrated Coastal Zone Manage- fish catch potential, fishers’ incomes and their livelihoods, ment (ICZM), and also initiatives linked to the development which in turn increase the vulnerability of coastal marine of local and national plans for ICZM. ecosystems. Communities along the Peruvian coast, including 15% of the country’s urban population, are currently Concrete adaptation actions were carried out in Huacho, Pis- very vulnerable to potential changes in fish production due co and Ilo, which consisted of training workshops for groups to variables such as exposure to climate, sensitivity or de- of artisanal fishermen on the following subjects: the col- pendence on fishing, and limited adaptive capacity (Allison, lection and use of information on fisheries management; et al., 2009). Climate change is expected to jeopardize the the design, implementation and use of sustainable fishing long-term sustainability of artisanal fisheries, due to its di- gear and methods aimed at the capture of anchovy for direct rect and/or indirect impacts on ecosystems. The reduced human consumption (DHC) (Figure8.15); and the training of productivity of artisanal fishing would significantly impact professionals and fishermen in the application of good fish- local economies and lead to deteriorating livelihoods for the ing practices that lead to the inclusion of artisanal fishermen fishing community. in production chains for DHC.

312 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

8.7.3.4. Limitations and interactions

One of the difficulties of the project has been the level of organization and management of the fishing communities involved in adaptation actions leading to a greater participation of the beneficiaries. Also, as in other projects that involve pilot adaptation experiences, the most important limitation is the state’s capacity to scale up and generate sustainability of successful experiences after the project’s end. This project will strengthen the interaction of the units of the Vice-Minis- try of Fisheries and Aquaculture (Ministry of Production-PRO- DUCE) and the Vice-Ministry of Strategic Development of Nat- ural Resources (Ministry of Environment-MINAM), which are responsible for issues related to integrated management of coastal areas and adaptation to climate change. On the other hand, it will allow involving artisanal fishing communities in the project activities and will raise awareness among all the project’s actors on climate change adaptation issues.

8.7.3.5. Lessons learned Figure 8.15. “Charquicán” traditional anchovy-based dish Since this project is one of the pioneers in marine planned (Engraulis ringens) from Caleta de Carquín (Peru). Photo: Edwin adaptation, the lessons learned from its implementation are Pinto (Lab. Costero de Huacho, IMARPE). considered to be very important for future adaptation projects or actions. In fact, in 2018 the project “Adaptation to the Im- pact of Climate Change on Peru’s Coastal Marine Ecosystem and its Fisheries” began, financed by the Adaptation Fund (PRODUCE, 2016b), executed by the Ministry of Production have remained at 10,000 t/year. The risk and vulnerability and the technical support of IMARPE, which will continue and analysis carried out on fishing communities revealed great expand the adaptation actions initiated by the project financed uncertainty and an underestimation of their capacities to con- by the IDB. Thus the project will have four components, relat- tribute to adaptation actions in the face of climate change, ed to science and technology, pilot interventions aimed at within a scenario that is expected to become warmer, more increasing the resilience of both coastal marine ecosystems unstable and with more extreme events. In the face of this, and artisanal fishing populations, governance and capacity it is important that adaptation actions for fishing in the bay building at both technical and artisanal fishing levels. The include i) Coordinated public policies among government scope of action involves a pilot area in northern Peru, associ- agencies, which take into account the vulnerability and ex- ated with the tropical marine-coastal ecosystem; and another, pected impacts on fisheries, and promote the participation of on the central coast, associated with the coastal upwelling fishers; ii) A climate and coastal erosion monitoring program; (emergence) ecosystem. In its direct interventions, it plans to iii) A fisheries resource monitoring plan, which includes the carry out aquaculture experiments with native species, change effects of climate change and adaptation strategies; and to sustainable fishing gear, bioconversion of solid waste gen- iv) An adaptation measures plan for General Lavalle, the most erated by artisanal fishing activities, among others. vulnerable location, which includes the analysis of port structures, coastal defense planning, and risk zoning for housing and roads. 8.7.4. Fishing in Samborombón Bay, Argentina: vulnerability and 8.7.4.2. Introduction to the case problem guidelines for adaptation to climate Samborombón Bay, a RAMSAR site since 1997, is the larg- change est Mixohalin (marsh) wetland in Argentina. It stretches over some 224,000 hectares, from Punta Piedras (35º27’S- 8.7.4.1. Case summary 56º47’W) to Punta Rasa (36º22’S-56º35’W), has a variable width of between 2 and 23 km, and includes a strip of shal- Spanning 2.24 km2, Samborombón Bay is the largest coastal low waters with silt and fine sand bottoms up to the 10 m iso- wetland in Argentina. Fishing landings in the bay’s ports have bath. It is an area where water and land ecosystems strongly varied over the last three decades and since 2014, landings interact, and where the waters of the Río de la Plata and the of whitemouth croaker (“corvina rubia”, the main resource) Atlantic Ocean mix; this creates unique ecological conditions

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 313 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

in the Argentinean Sea and allows it to support a great bio- (ii) on operational aspects. The impacts on resources will be diversity and a trawling fishery whose main species are the due to habitat modifications, decreasing food supplies (mainly whitemouth croaker and the common thresher. in benthic communities) and changes in currents and water bodies. These hazards, coupled with overfishing and a high The bay is one of the areas most likely to be affected by the discard rate, increase vulnerability and jeopardize the sustain- effects of climate change, such as rising sea levels, more ability of the resources. Increased freshwater input from higher intense storms and other extreme weather events, increased rainfall could decrease coastal salinity, although, since the coastal erosion and more frequent flooding due to overflows species that use the bay have a wide range of tolerance (they from the Salado and Samborombón rivers (when heavy rains are euryhalines), the effects may not be critical. Variations in occur, the channel systems built to carry these overflows to sedimentation may also affect breeding and spawning areas. the sea collapse). An analysis conducted by FVSA (2013) at the beginning of the decade points out the expected effects With regard to the activity, an increase in the frequency of on the local coastal population, on fisheries, biodiversity storms and extreme events will surely decrease the effec- and environmental services in the area; and outlines the tive fishing days. Furthermore, the rise in sea level and the adaptation strategies and possible measures to increase increase in height and frequency of storm waves will exac- the resilience of the fishing systems in the bay. erbate the risks to fishing infrastructure, mainly in General Lavalle and the access channels. 8.7.4.3. Case description 8.7.4.4. Limitations and interactions The main species caught in this bay are the whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) and the common thresher (Percophis Risk and vulnerability analysis of coastal fishing communi- brasiliensis); there is also the stripped weakfish (Cynoscion ties in Samborombón Bay is based on general considerations guatucupa), the black drum (Pogonias cromis), the Argentine rather than specific local knowledge and involvement of fish- croaker (Umbrina canosai), the Parona leatherjacket (Parona sig- ers. This implies an uncertainty in the vulnerabilities, but also nata), the king weakfish (Macrodon ancylodon), the Southern an underestimation in the capacities of fishers to contribute eagle ray (Myliobatis goodei) and the narrownose smooth-hound to the planning and implementation of local adaptation ac- (Mustelus schmitti). Landings are made at the ports of Río Sal- tions in the face of climate change, in a scenario that is ado, General Lavalle and San Clemente. Rio Salado has been expected to be warmer, more unstable and with more intense operating since 1992, when vessels from the ports of Mar del extreme events (TCN, 2015). This situation is compounded by the lack of coordination between specific national and Plata, Quilmes and Tigre moved here. While initially 60 boats provincial agencies, and by the urgent need for appropriate were in operation, since 2010 only 10 boats under 15 m in and continuous coastal surveillance services. length, fishing with trawls in pairs, have remained operational. 10 boats less than 15 m long operate from General Lavalle, using trawls in pairs. About 40 artisanal fishermen operate from San Clemente with boats of 6 to 8 m in length, using trammel 8.7.4.5. Lessons learned nets, gill nets and spinners, with catches of less than one thou- Given the high vulnerability of the Samborombón Bay eco- sand t/year (Figure 8.16). system complex—considered the most vulnerable on the Ar- The declared landings, according to the statistics of the Under- gentinean coast to the projected effects of climate change secretary of Fisheries and Aquaculture of the Nation, have varied greatly: 1990-2000, with less than 4,000 t/year vs. 2001- 2011, with an increase to 10,000 t/year in 2010, mainly in the port of General Lavalle and which accounted for 30% of the landings that year for both species in the Province of Buenos Aires (8,000 thousand t of common thresher and 27,000 t of whitemouth croaker). Since 2014, landings of whitemouth croaker have remained between 8,000 and 10,000 t/year. Since the bay is an important breeding and rearing area for many fish species, there are problems related to fish discards, since juvenile whitemouth croakers account for 90% of discards; therefore, in the short and medium term, their populations may suffer. By the end of the 2030-2040 period, the area is expected to see a 1ºC rise in surface temperature and a 10% increase in average annual precipitation compared to the climate average for the 1961-1990 period. In light of Figure 8.16. San Clemente-Samborombón Bay fishing harbor these projected scenarios, two types of climate change im- (Argentina). Photo: Carman and Gonzales (2016). pacts on fishing may be established: (i) on resources and

314 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

(TCN, 2015)—it is important for local fishing communities to gram of these turtles to learn about their numbers and travel be aware of the risks and participate in the planning and im- patterns. All the while, some people and companies that did plementation of local adaptation actions to climate change. not belong to the community started offering some tourism It is expected that the National Plan of Adaptation to Climate activities. As time went by, the community of El Ñuro showed Change and the National Action Plan for Agriculture and Cli- interest in tourism around the green turtles. The community mate Change will set out the guidelines to develop methods began controlling the dock, charging a fee to people interest- and tools for sectoral risk assessment, together with a strat- ed in watching the turtles and also training various groups of egy to coordinate the relevant local actors. young people from the community as local guides. Thus, and thanks to the advertising effort carried out by the regional government and the community, by 2014 this activity started 8.7.5. From fishing to sea turtle tourism: booming. So much so that during a summer weekend the El Ñuro pier received more than 14,000 visitors. Today, there the case of El Ñuro, Piura, Peru are 30 fiberglass boats dedicated exclusively to sea turtle watching and diving activities, although some also perform 8.7.5.1. Case summary humpback whale watching activities in the winter and spring season (Figure 8.17). Half of the income that the communi- This case of autonomous adaptation was developed by the ty obtains from tourism (entry fee, life vest and equipment community of artisanal fishermen of El Ñuro (Piura, Peru) in rental, among others) is kept in a fund that is managed by the face of a reduction in their catches of species of high the community’s tourism committee, which decides what to commercial value due to climate variability and overfishing. invest or spend it on. This fund has allowed them, on the one Based on their solid organization, they decided to look for hand, to give jobs to men and women in the community and, productive alternatives, and found that tourism could help at the same time, to increase the supply of water for human them adapt to these changes. This action, on the one hand, consumption through the acquisition of a tanker truck. has diversified employment by reducing fishing and improved financial income in the community. 8.7.5.4. Limitations and interactions

8.7.5.2. Introduction to the case problem The public sector, specifically the central government, is still in the process of enacting tourism regulations, not only with In the north of the department of Piura there is a place called regard to sea turtles, but with marine wildlife in general (e.g., Caleta El Ñuro (04ª15’S), which has existed for 64 years. marine mammals, sea birds and sea turtles). This regulation Almost all of its inhabitants work as fishers. Its inhabitants will bring about changes in the way tourism with turtles is came from the lower Piura and Sechura area and currently carried out, which could complicate things. Self-managed around 1300 people live there. The fishers, about 450 of tourism activities by fishers are limited in terms of devel- them, have 230 boats, 110 of which are exclusively sailing opment due to seasonal variations in the number of turtles boats. This fishing community has traditionally been involved and tourists, as well as the available infrastructure. Sea tur- in fishing for resources of high commercial value such as tles have benefited as fishers have changed their attitude grouper, comber, bighead tilefish, snook, tuna, swordfish, towards them—from taking advantage of them if they were etc. However, in the last decades these resources have de- caught incidentally to caring for them so that they stay close creased drastically due not only to overfishing but also to to their landings. changes in oceanographic conditions. Currently fishing has concentrated on Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi peruanus) Furthermore, the development of this activity has increased whose commercial value is low, thereby reducing fishers’ the demand for various services that benefit the commu- income from the sale of their products. This situation has nity of El Ñuro and other nearby communities or districts. forced the community to look for other alternatives to earn Transportation is one of the services that has increased sig- the income they need to support their families. nificantly, as well as restaurant services in the community. Currently, fishermen’s wives have opened small restaurants on the beach catering to tourists and that bring co-benefits 8.7.5.3. Case description to the community.

Since some years before 2009, a group of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) that naturally inhabit the area in front of 8.7.5.5. Lessons learned El Ñuro, began to approach the surroundings of the fishing landing dock as the fishers’ boats arrived to land their catch. The fishing community of El Ñuro has shown that it is pos- The turtles, very opportunistic, were scrounging for fishing sible to diversify productive activities, although this requires remains as food. This approach garnered the attention of good organization and management. Tourism can be consid- people visiting the community. In 2009, some studies began ered as an adaptation action of fishing communities in the that included censuses and a tagging and recapturing pro- face of diminishing fish resources due to overfishing, climate

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 315 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

change or climate variability. However, this and other pro- scales, there is still uncertainty about implementing climate ductive activities require proper organization and leadership. models in some regions (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018, Yañez et al., 2018; Bertrand et al., 2018). As proposed by Cochrane et al. (2012), adaptation policies and activities at the supranational, subnational and local levels should consider, 8.8. Main knowledge gaps and among other issues, expanding the knowledge base to improve projections and uncertainty management, and contrib- priority lines of action ute to better decision-making. Against this backdrop, there is a need to develop projects that record and organize this Fishing regulations conducive to good resource management knowledge as a starting point to create and develop planned in most RIOCC countries still lack a “climate approach”, as adaptation actions. suggested by ECLAC (2015). On the other hand, although it is true that there are plans or strategies that guide the de- Priority lines of action for adaptation should also include velopment of adaptation actions for fishing, in many cases strengthening governance frameworks, as well as building these do not translate into budgeted actions. Governments and developing capacities, and technical and organizational need to direct their economic resources so that communi- structures within entities responsible for fisheries and aqua- ties or actors in general can mitigate the impacts of climate culture. It is also necessary to strengthen partnerships within change within a framework of economic and ecosystem sus- the public and private sectors, civil society and non-govern- tainability. The various adaptation measures to be adopted, mental organizations; and to improve the use of existing fi- however, need to consider the specific characteristics of each nancial mechanisms with novel approaches for selecting fi- country and the magnitude of the impacts of climate change. nancial instruments and creating effective incentives and In some cases, this could even mean questioning current pro- disincentives. duction and consumption patterns and therefore the current Finally, early adaptation is recommended to increase so- style of development (Sánchez and Reyes, 2015). cio-ecological resilience. While cost is likely to be a deter- Most fish stocks are currently exploited at unsustainable lev- rent for many countries in the area, it should be borne in els, especially in poorer RIOCC countries. Climate change is mind that, in the long term, reactive adaptation costs may an additional hazard to the sustainability of the fishing sector be higher. and its contribution to the economies of these countries, and thus to the alleviation of poverty and food insecurity. The adaptive capacity of populations who depend on fishing can be limited by weak governance, weak knowledge develop- 8.9. Conclusions ment, and persistent poverty in many of the countries, which Food security and the livelihoods provided by fisheries together can increase their vulnerability (Kifani et al., 2018). and aquaculture are crucial in many coastal, riverside, is- Therefore, Kalikoski et al. (2018), argue that adaptation and land and inland regions. Meanwhile, the state of marine re- mitigation efforts should be focused on small-scale fisheries sources monitored by the FAO continues to deteriorate. The and aquaculture sectors that experience greater exposure fraction of marine fish stocks exploited within biologically and vulnerability to the effects of climate change. sustainable levels has shown a decline from 90% in 1974 Although there is evidence that climate change has affect- to 66.9% in 2015 (FAO, 2018), with the aggravating factor ed fisheries and aquaculture on different spatial and time that this situation is worse in developing countries (Ye and Gutierrez, 2017). In inland waters there is still considerable uncertainty about the state of many capture fisheries, which contribute significantly to global food demands. The impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture in RIOCC countries are complex and interconnected with different sectors and human activities. Temperature or pH can have direct or indirect impacts on any or all of the different aspects, from target or cultivated species to human health and wellbeing. Therefore, efforts to adapt to and mitigate climate change must be planned and implemented taking into account this complexity and how any new intervention will affect not only the immediate objectives of the actions but also the system as a whole (Barange et al., 2018). Effec- tive adaptation is necessary at all scales and in all fisheries and aquaculture sectors in order to strengthen and maintain Figure 8.17. Caleta El Ñuro (Piura, Peru), where tourists can watch productive and resilient aquatic ecosystems, as well as the green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas). Photo: Iván Gómez Ore. benefits derived from them. However, close attention must be paid to the most vulnerable groups so that the sector can

316 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

contribute to the overall objectives of poverty reduction and 2. Which factors increase vulnerability and make food security. adaptation to climate change more difficult for fisheries and aquaculture? Currently, several RIOCC countries are making efforts to develop plans and implement climate change adaptation ac- One of the factors that increases vulnerability to the tions for fisheries and aquaculture such as Chile, Peru, and effects of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture Nicaragua, among others. These measures offer opportuni- is the weak governance that characterizes this sector, ties that will mainly benefit small-scale fisheries and aqua- with disorganized institutions lacking proper leadership. culture. Similarly, in the countries of the Iberian Peninsula, This has resulted in high levels of resource overexploita- where fish consumption is relatively high and coastal com- tion and pollution, the introduction of alien species, and munities are highly dependent on fishing, actions to adapt the misuse of aquatic bodies throughout the region. to the effects of climate change have not only been planned, The high level of informality and illegality in fishing and but are also underway. aquaculture is a direct result of management failures and the lack of alternatives to diversify production. This Nevertheless, the fisheries and aquaculture sector is not makes poorer communities more dependent on fishing a priority in most of the RIOCC countries, and until very re- and aquaculture, and therefore more vulnerable. Small- cently it had not been valued enough as a key element for scale fishers and fish farmers in the poorest countries food security and the livelihoods of thousands of families. of Central America and the Caribbean are particularly vul- Adaptation actions for fisheries and aquaculture recorded nerable and have limited capacity to respond to climate in the Latin American and Caribbean region are scarce at change, both because of their geographical location and subnational and local levels. At the local level, it is re- their poverty situation. Climate change adaptation strat- markable that fishing communities with some aquaculture egies should therefore emphasize the need to eradicate and tourism enterprises have adapted autonomously in the poverty and food insecurity, as proposed in the Paris absence of budgets and coordination by central govern- Agreement, the United Nations Agenda 2030 for Sustain- ments. These autonomous initiatives in fishing stem from able Development and other international instruments, the dwindling numbers of fish resources and the lack of such as the voluntary guidelines to ensure sustainable productive alternatives in both marine and inland aquatic small-scale fishing within the context of food security ecosystems. and poverty eradication. Given this context of weak governance and poverty in several countries in the region, implementing adaptation Frequently Asked Questions strategies will be more complicated. It will require the involvement of actors at different levels and in different sectors of government, civil society, academia and com- 1. What are the main risks of climate variability and munity organizations, as part of an interactive process climate change for fisheries and aquaculture in through which actions and policies may be defined, pri- the region? oritized and implemented. Temperature rise is one of the main risks of climate variability and climate change for fisheries and aquaculture, 3. How does the increase in frequency of extreme as it will affect the distribution of stocks and adverse- weather and ENSO events affect fisheries and ly impact some fisheries, while favoring others. Lower aquaculture? catches due to decreased productivity of aquatic bodies Extreme weather and ENSO events in this region will be put food security at risk, especially for communities that more intense and frequent. They will adversely impact rely heavily on them. The high risk of acidification, espe- food security and result in the loss of assets (e.g., fish- cially in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, will kill ing boats, engines and equipment), especially in coun- off corals and calcifying species, and affect fisheries tries with high poverty levels. The populations of the and aquaculture for bivalve mollusks and crustaceans island countries of the Caribbean and the coasts of the in countries such as Spain. There is also a high risk Gulf of Mexico, as well as those in the high latitudes of to fisheries and aquaculture due to increased hypoxia Argentina and Uruguay, are strongly vulnerable to these events and the proliferation of toxic microalgae that kill extreme events such as increased river discharges and off species, as well as the appearance of harmful algal precipitation. The infrastructure of the suspended crops blooms. Sea level rise in mangroves, coastal lagoons, of Argopecten purpuratus and fisheries in Peru and estuaries and rias, and flooding due to increased pre- Chile will be damaged by the intensity of the swells. In cipitation and overflowing rivers will cause the loss of Peru and Ecuador, rising sea levels and intense rainfall habitats, infrastructure and areas of aquaculture crops. events, caused by a higher frequency and intensity of Strong winds and storms will increase the risk of acci- ENSO, put the production of marine shrimp and tilapia at dents at sea, especially on small-scale and artisanal risk due to sedimentation and loss of both general infra- fishing vessels. structure and mangrove areas on the coast. Similarly,

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 317 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

increased river discharges, due to higher precipitation in • Access to financing to diversify the livelihoods of southern Brazil, may translate into lower shrimp catches. small-scale fishermen, reducing pressure on overex- Extreme temperature and acidification events will affect ploited stocks. fisheries and aquaculture production in the north of the Iberian Peninsula and in the Mediterranean Sea.

4. What opportunities or benefits could climate Acknowledgements change bring to fisheries and aquaculture? We would like to express our most sincere gratitude to José Manuel Moreno and Clara Laguna-Defior for their support Many countries in the region are including climate during the development of the chapter. We would also like change within the design and implementation of public to thank the reviewers for their contributions and the main policies in fisheries and aquaculture, so as to gener- authors of the other chapters of this book, whose discussion ate initiatives, programs and projects that contribute instances during RIOCC meetings greatly helped to enrich to climate change adaptation. This will not only allow this chapter. Thank you also to Shaleyla Kelez for sharing mitigating or preventing damage, but also enable the information regarding the El Ñuro case and to Jimmy Martina use of management tools by government sectors, at for his help in preparing the maps. national, regional and local levels, based on a systemic and participatory approach to climate change and its effects. On the other hand, climate change has highlighted the shortcomings in our understanding of how it Bibliography affects the vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems, fisheries and aquaculture. It also makes it possible to identify Allan, J.D., R. Abell, Z. Hogan, C. Revenga, B.W. Taylor, R.L. Welcomme the risks that climate change poses to fisheries and & K. Winemiller. 2005, Overfishing of inland waters. BioScience, 55: aquaculture, and to assess the importance of having 1041-1051. healthy and productive ecosystems, improving manage- Allison, E.H., A.L. Perry, M.-C. Badjeck, W. Neil Adger, K. Brown, ment models for fisheries and aquaculture resources. D. Conway, A.S. Halls, 2009: Vulnerability of national economies Applying good practices in natural resource management to the impacts of climate change on fisheries. Fish and Fisheries, is a win-win strategy that creates benefits both now and 10(2): 173-196. Disponible en: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ in the future, increasing the resilience of aquatic ecosys- doi/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00310.x tems and economies and often contributing to emission Amores, A., L. Rueda, S. Monserrat, B. Guijarro, C. Pasqual & E. reductions. Communities involved in adaptation action Massutí, 2014: Influence of the hydrodynamic conditions on the projects could benefit through productive diversification, accessibility of the demersal species to the deep water trawl fishery increased productivity and improved governance. off the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean). Journal of Marine Systems, 138, 203-210. 5. What are the top priority adaptation actions to Anadón, R. & N. Roqueñi N (eds.), 2009: Evidencias y efectos potenciales reduce the risks of climate change and its impact del cambio climático en Asturias. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, on fisheries and aquaculture? Ordenación del Territorio e infraestructuras, Principado de Asturias, 30-64. • Cultivation of species with greater tolerance to salinity, temperature and hypoxia and closure and reloca- AQUADAPT, 2018: Documento Plan de Adaptación del sector acuícola tion of production sites. marino español al Cambio Climático. Proyecto: Plan de Adaptación del sector de la acuicultura marina española al cambio climático. • Formulation of new foods for carnivorous species that Universidad de Vigo (UVIGO) y Universidad de Santiago de Compostela refrain from using low value fish, and fostering the (USC), 60 pp. cultivation of herbivorous species. Arnaíz, R., 2005: La pesquería de calamar y puntilla boliche en las Rías • Sound and participatory governance systems in small- Baixas gallegas 1999-2003. Los recursos marinos de Galicia. Serie scale fishing, based on long-term and gender-equal Técnica n.º 3. Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de policies for fisheries and aquaculture Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, 108 pp. • Local training on climate change risks through fisher- Avadí, A., P. Fréon e I. Quispe, 2014: Environmental assessment of Peruvian anchoveta food products: is less refined better? International ies and aquaculture pilot adaptation projects. Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 19(6): 1276-1293. Disponible en: • Insurance system for small-scale fish farmers and https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0737-y) artisanal fishermen against extreme weather events Badjeck, M-C., E. Allison, A. Halls & N. Dulvy, 2010: Impacts of climate • Encourage the consumption of fish species of low variability and change on fishery based livelihoods. Marine Policy, commercial value, such as anchovy and sardines to 34: 375-383. combat food insecurity. Bañón, R., J.L. del Río, C. Piñeiro & M. Casas, 2002: Occurrence of tropical affinity fish in Galician waters, north-west Spain. Journal • Protect critical or essential habitats to develop com- of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 82: 877- mercial species, particularly mangroves and estuaries 880.

318 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Bañón, R., 2017: Integrative taxonomy supports the presence of two Brierley, A.S. & M.J. Kingsford, 2009: Impacts of Climate Change on species of Kyphosus (Perciformes: Kyphosidae) in Atlantic European Marine Organisms and Ecosystems. Current Biology, vol. 19, n.º 14, waters. Scientia Marina, 81(4), DOI: 10.3989/scimar.04601.08A pp. 602-614, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.046 Barange, M., T. Bahri, M.C.M. Beveridge, K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith Brochier, T., V. Echevin, J. Tam, A. Chaigneau, K. Goubanova & & F. Poulain (eds.), 2018: Impacts of climate change on fisheries A. Bertrand, 2013: Climate change scenarios experiments predict and aquaculture: synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and a future reduction in small pelagic fish recruitment in the Humboldt mitigation options. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper Current system. Global Change Biology, 19(6): 1841-1853. Disponible n.º 627. Rome, FAO. 628 pp. en: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23554213 Becker, L.A., M.A. Pascual & N.G. Basso, 2007: Colonization of the Bruno, J.F. & E.R. Selig, 2007: Regional decline of coral cover in the southern Patagonia Ocean by exotic Chinook salmon. Conservation Indo-Pacific: timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. Plos One, Biology, 21: 1347-1352. Disponible en: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. 2(8): e711 (on-line). Citado el 26 de marzo de 2018, https://journals. gov/pubmed/17883500 plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0000711 Behrenfeld, J., R.T. O’Malley, D.A. Siegel, C.R. McClain, J.L. Sarmiento, Bucheli, B., 2017: Estado del arte del monitoreo y evaluación de la G.C. Feldman et al.: 2006. Climate-driven trends in contemporary adaptación al cambio climático. MINAM/USAID/IIDS. 89 pp. ocean productivity. Nature, 444, pp. 752-755. Burgos, A. & D. Fernández, 2014: Áreas Marinas Protegidas: contexto Bellwood, D.R., A.S. Hoey & H. Choat, 2003: Limited functional español y el caso de «Os Miñarzos». Letras Verdes. Revista redundancy in high diversity systems: resilience and ecosystem Latinoamericana de Estudios Socioambientales, n.º 15, pp. 30-54. function on coral reefs. Ecology Letters, 6: 281-285. Caballero, A., A. Pascual, G. Dibarboure & M. Espino, 2008: Sea level Belmadani, A., V. Echevin, F. Codron, K. Takahashi & C. Junquas, 2014: and eddy kinetic energy variability in the Bay of Biscay, inferred What dynamics drive future wind scenarios for coastal upwelling off from satellite altimeter data. Journal of Marine Systems, 72:116-134. Peru and Chile? Climate Dynamics, 43(7-8): 1893-1914. Disponible Cai, W., A. Santoso, G. Wang, S.-W. Yeh, S.-I. An, K.M. Cobb, M. Collins en: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-2015-2) et al., 2015: ENSO and greenhouse warming. Nature Climate Change, Béné, C., M. Barange, R. Subasinghe, P. Pinstrup-Andersen, G. Merino, 5: 849-859. Disponible en: https://yonsei.pure.elsevier.com/en/ G.-I. Hemre & M. Williams, 2015: Feeding 9 billion by 2050 – Putting publications/enso-and-greenhouse-warming fish back on the menu. Food Security, 7(2): 261-274. Disponible en: Calvo, E., R. Sim., R. Coma, M. Ribes, J. Pascual, A. Sabatés, J.M. Gili https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z) & C. Pelejero, 2011: Effects of climate change on Mediterranean Bergamino, L., Szteren, D. & Lercari, D., 2012: Trophic impacts of marine ecosystems: the case of the Catalan Sea. Climate Research, marine mammals and seabirds in the Río de la Plata estuary and the 50, 1-29. nearshore oceanic ecosystem. Estuaries and Coasts, 35(6): 1571- Carman, M. & V. Gonzales, 2016: La fragilidad de las especies: 1582. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-012-9545-4 tensiones entre biólogos y pescadores artesanales en torno a la Bertrand, A., J. Habasque, T. Hattab, N. Hintzen, R. Oliveros-Ramos, conservación marina. Etnográfica, vol. 20 (2): 411-438. Disponible M. Gutiérrez, H. Demarcq & F. Gerlotto, 2016: 3-D habitat suitability en: https://journals.openedition.org/etnografica/4333 of jack mackerel Trachurus murphyi in the Southeastern Pacific, a Castro, C.G., X.A. Álvarez-Salgado, E. Nogueira, J. Gago, F. Pérez, comprehensive study. Progress in Oceanography, 146: 199-211. A. Bode et al., 2009: Evidencias bioxeoquímicas do cambio climático. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2016.07.002 En: Evidencias e Impactos do Cambio Climático en Galicia [Xunta de Bertrand, A., R. Vögler & O. Defeo, 2018: Climate change impacts, Galicia (ed.)], pp. 303-326. vulnerabilities and adaptations: Southwest Atlantic and Southeast CEPAL, 2015: Efectos del cambio climático en la costa de América Latina Pacific marine fisheries. En: Impacts of climate change on fisheries and y el Caribe. Dinámicas, tendencias y variabilidad climática. Comisión aquaculture: synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, 265 pp. options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M.C.M. Beveridge, K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Chávez, F., A. Bertrand, R. Guevara-Carrasco, P. Soler & J. Csirke, Technical Paper n.º 627. Rome, FAO. 628 pp. 2008: The northern Humboldt Current System: brief history, present status and a view towards the future. Progress in Oceanography, BID/CEPAL, 2014: La economía del cambio climático en el Perú. Banco 79(2-4): 95-105. Disponible en: https://www.researchgate.net/ Interamericano de Desarrollo, Comisión Económica para América publication/234338108_The_northern_Humboldt_Current_System_ Latina y el Caribe-Monografía del BID 222, 152 pp. Brief_history_present_status_and_a_view_towards_the_future Bode, A., A. Lavín & L. Valdés (eds.), 2012: Cambio climático y Cheung, W.W.L., V.W.Y. Lam, J.L. Sarmiento, K. Kearney, R. Watson, oceanográfico en el Atlántico del norte de España. Instituto Español D. Zeller & D. Pauly, 2010: Large-scale redistribution of maximum de Oceanografía, 280 pp. fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Brander, K., 2007: Global fish production and climate change. P. Natl. Global Change Biology, 16: 24-35. Acad. Sci., 104, 19709-19714. Cheung, W., J. Bruggeman & M. Butenschön, 2018: Projected changes Breitburg, D., L.A. Levin, A. Oschlies, M. Grégoire, F.P. Chavez, in global and national potential marine fisheries catch under D.J. Conley, V. Garçon, D. Gilbert, D. Gutiérrez, K. Isensee, climate change scenarios in the twenty-first century. En: Impacts G.S. Jacinto, K.E. Limburg, I. Montes, S.W.A. Naqvi, G.C. Pitcher, of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture: synthesis of current N.N. Rabalais, M.R. Roman, K.A. Rose, B.A. Seibel, M. Telszewski, knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M. Yasuhara & J. Zhang, 2018: Declining oxygen in the global M.C.M. Beveridge, K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. ocean and coastal waters. Science, 359, DOI: 10.1126/science. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper n.º 627. Rome, FAO, aam7240 628 pp.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 319 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Cheung, W.W., G. Reygondeau & T.L. Frölicher, 2016: Large benefits to FAO Documento Técnico de Pesca y Acuicultura n.º 530. Roma, FAO, marine fisheries of meeting the 1.5 C global warming target. Science, pp. 119-168. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 354, 1591-1594. Defeo, O., M. Castrejón, L. Ortega, A.M. Kuhn, N.L. Gutiérrez & Christensen, V., S. De la Puente, J.C. Sueiro, J. Steenbeek & P. Majluf, J.C. Castilla, 2013: Impacts of climate variability on Latin American 2014: Valuing seafood: The Peruvian fisheries sector. Marine Policy, small-scale fisheries. Ecology and Society, 18(4): art:30. Disponible vol. 44, 302-311. en: http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05971-180430 Church, J.A., P.U. Clark, A. Cazenave, J.M. Gregory, S. Jevrejeva, Defeo, O., I. Gianelli, G. Martínez, L. Ortega, E. Celentano, D. Lercari & A. Levermann, M.A. Merrifield et al., 2013: Sea level change. En: A. de la Rosa, 2018: Natural, social and governance responses of a Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of small-scale fishery to mass mortalities: the yellow clam Mesodesma Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental mactroides in Uruguay. En: Global change in marine systems: societal Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, and governing Responses, Capítulo 17 [Guillotreau, P., A. Bundy S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex & P.M. Midgley & R.I. Perry (eds.)]. New York, Routledge Studies in Environment, (eds.)], pp. 1137-216. Cambridge, UK y New York, USA, Cambridge Culture, and Society Series. University Press. Disponible en: https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/ De Silva, S.S. & D. Soto, 2009: Climate change and aquaculture: uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter13_FINAL.pdf potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. En: Climate Change Chust, G., Á. Borja, A. Caballero, X. Irigoien, J. Sáenz, R. Moncho & Implications for Fisheries and Aquaculture: Overview of Current V. Valencia, 2011: Climate change impacts on coastal and pelagic Scientific Knowledge [Cochrane, K., C. De Young, D. Soto & T. Bahri environments in the southeastern Bay of Biscay. Climate Research, (eds.)]. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 48(2-3), 307-332. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper n.º 530, FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 151-212. CIESM, 2019: CIESM Atlas of Exotic Species in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean Science Commission. Sitio web consultado el 27 de DIREPRO, 2015: Diagnóstico de la acuicultura marina en la Región Piura. octubre de 2019, http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm Informe de Consultoría. Dirección Regional de la Producción – Piura, 77 pp. Cochrane, K., C. De Young, D. Soto & T. Bahri (eds.), 2012: Consecuencias del cambio climático para la pesca y la acuicultura: visión de conjunto del Eakin, C.M., J.A. Morgan, S.F. Heron, T.B. Smith, G. Liu, L. Alvarez-Filip, estado actual de los conocimientos científicos. FAO Documento Técnico B. Baca et al., 2010: Caribbean corals in crisis: record termal stress, de Pesca y Acuicultura n.º 530. Roma, FAO, 237 pp. bleaching, and mortality in 2005. Plos One, 5(11): e13969 (on-line). Citado el 26 de marzo de 2018, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/ Colloca, F., M. Cardinale, F. Maynou, M. Giannoulaki, G. Scarcella, article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0013969 K. Jenko, J.M. Bellido & F. Fiorentino, 2013: Rebuilding Mediterranean fisheries: a new paradigm for ecological sustainability. Fish and Edwards, M. & A.J. Richardson, 2004: Impact of climate change on Fisheries, 14, 89-109. marine pelagic phenology and trophic mismatch. Nature, 430, 881- 884, DOI: 10.1038/nature02808 Company, J., P. Puig, F. Sardà, A. Palanqués, M. Latasa & R. Scharek, 2008: Climate influence on deep sea populations. Plos One, 3(1). Emdad Haque, C., C. Julián Idrobo, F. Berkes & D. Giesbrecht, 2015: Small-scale fishers adaptations to change: the role of formal Cooley, S.R. & S.C. Domey, 2009: Anticipating ocean acidification’s and informal credit in Paraty, Brazil. Marine Policy, 51: 401-407. economic consequences for commercial fisheries. Environ. Res. Lett., Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ 4: 024007, DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024007 S0308597X14002644 Costoya, X., M. de Castro, M. Gómez-Gesteira & F. Santo, 2015: FAO, 2014: Contribución de la pesca y la acuicultura a la seguridad Changes in sea surface temperature seasonality in the Bay of alimentaria y el ingreso familiar en Centroamérica. Panamá, 91 pp. Biscay over the last decades (1982-2014). Journal of Marine Systems, 150:91-101. FAO, 2015: Directrices voluntarias para lograr la sostenibilidad de la pesca en pequeña escala en el contexto de la seguridad alimentaria y D’Onofrio, E.E., M.M. Fiore & J.L. Pousa, 2008: Changes in the regime la erradicación de la pobreza. Roma, 23 pp. Disponible en: www.fao. of storm surges at Buenos Aires, Argentina. Journal of Coastal org/3/a-i4356s/index.html Research, 24(1A): 260-265. Disponible en: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/30133742?seq=1 FAO, 2017: Comienza proyecto que apoyará adaptación al cambio climático de la pesca y acuicultura en Chile. Organización de las Da Rocha, J.M., M.J. Gutiérrez & S. Villasante, 2014: Global Warming Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO). Sitio under Stock Growth Uncertainty: The European Sardine Fishery. web consultado el 18 de abril de 2019, http://www.fao.org/chile/ Regional Environmental Change, 14 (1): 195-205. noticias/detail-events/en/c/892912/ Dabbadie, L., J. Aguilar-Manjarrez, M. Beveridge, P. Bueno, L. Ross & FAO, 2018: El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2018. Cumplir D. Soto, 2018: Effects of climate change on aquaculture: drivers, los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible. Organización de las Naciones impacts and policies. En: Impacts of climate change on fisheries and Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura. Roma, 233 pp. aquaculture: synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options, Capítulo 20 [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M.C.M. Beveridge, FAOSTAT, 2019: Estadísticas sobre alimentación y agricultura. K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. FAO Fisheries Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la and Aquaculture Technical Paper n.º 627. Rome, FAO, 628 pp. Agricultura (FAO). Sitio web consultado el 5 de febrero de 2019, http://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data Daw, T., W.N. Adger, K. Brown & M.-C. Badjeck, 2009: El cambio climático y la pesca de captura: repercusiones potenciales, adaptación y FishstatJ, 2019: Estadísticas de Pesca y Acuicultura. Organización de mitigación. En: Consecuencias del cambio climático para la pesca y la las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO). Sitio acuicultura: visión de conjunto del estado actual de los conocimientos web consultado el 15 de enero de 2019, http://www.fao.org/fishery/ científicos [Cochrane, K., C. De Young, D. Soto & T. Bahri (eds.)]. statistics/software/fishstatj/en

320 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Fiedler, P.C. & M.F. Lavín, 2017: Oceanographic conditions of the Eastern Gomis, D., S. Ruiz, M.G. Sotillo, E. Álvarez-Fanjul & J. Terradas, 2008: tropical Pacific. En: Coral reefs of the eastern tropical Pacific [Glynn, Low frequency Mediterranean sea level variability: The contribution P., D. Manzello e I. Enochs (eds.)], pp. 59-83. Springer. Dordrecht, of atmospheric pressure and wind. Global and Planetary Change, Netherlands. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017- 63(2-3): 215-229. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 7499-4_3 gloplacha.2008.06.005 Flecha, S., F.F. Pérez, J. García-Lafuente, S. Sammartino, A.F. Ríos Gonzales, E., R. Norambuena, R. Molina & F. Thomas, 2013: Evaluación & E. Huertas, 2015: Trends of pH decrease in the Mediterranean de potenciales impactos y reducción de la vulnerabilidad de la Sea through high frequency observational data: indication of ocean acuicultura al cambio climático en Chile – Estudio de caso acuicultura acidification in the basin. Scientific Reports, 5:16770. Chile. En: Cambio climático, pesca y acuicultura en América Latina: Flores, J., J. Tam, T. Brochie, F. Colas, L. Pecquerie, A. Aguirre A., Potenciales impactos y desafíos para la adaptación [Soto, D. & J. Mendo & C. Lett, 2018: Larval supply of Peruvian scallop to the R. Quiñones (eds.)]. Taller FAO/Centro de Investigación Oceanográfica marine reserve of Lobos de Tierra Island: a modelling approach. en el Pacífico Sur Oriental (COPAS), Universidad de Concepción, J. Sea. Research, 142-155. Concepción, Chile. FAO Actas de Pesca y Acuicultura n.º 29. Roma, FAO, 335 pp. Fogarty, H.E., M.T. Burrows, G.T. Pecl, L.M. Robinson & E.S. Poloczanska, 2017: Are fish outside their usual ranges early indicators of climate- González-Pola, C., A. Lavín, G. Díaz del Rio, J.M. Cabanas, M. Ruiz- driven range shifts? Global Change Biology, 23(5): 2047-2057. Villarreal et al., 2012: Hidrografía y circulación. En: Cambio climático Disponible en: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28122146 y oceanográfico en el Atlántico del norte de España [Bode, A., A. Lavín y L. Valdés (eds.)]. Colección Temas de Oceanografía, Instituto Franks, J.S., D.R. Johnson & D.S. Ko, 2016: Pelagic sargassum in the Español de Oceanografía, 5, 69-98. tropical North Atlantic. Gulf and Caribbean Research, 27: SC6-SC11. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.18785/gcr.2701.08 Gutiérrez, D., I. Bouloubassi, A. Sifeddine, S. Purca, K. Goubanova, M. Graco, D. Field, L. Méjanelle, F. Velazco, A. Lorre, R. Salvatteci, Frangoudes, K., B. Marugán-Pintos & J.J. Pascual-Fernández, 2013: D. Quispe, G. Vargas, B. Dewitte & L. Ortlieb, 2011: Coastal cooling Gender in Galician Shell-Fisheries: Transforming for Governability. En: and increased productivity in the main upwelling cell off Peru since the Governability of Fisheries and Aquaculture: Theory and Applications mid-twentieth century. Geophysical Research Letters, 38, L07603-1– [Bavinck, M., R. Chuenpagdee, S. Jentoft & J. Kooiman (eds.)]. L07603-6, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010GL046324 Springer, Dordrecht, pp 241-261. Gutiérrez, D., M. Akester & L. Naranjo, 2016: Productivity and Francini-Filho, R.B., R.L. Moura, F.L. Thompson, R.M. Reis, L. Kaufman, Sustainable Management of the Humboldt Current Large Marine R.K.P. Kikuchi & Z.M.A.N. Leão, 2008: Diseases leading to Ecosystem under Climate Change. Environmental Development. accelerated decline of reef corals in the largest South Atlantic reef Environment, 17: 126-144. complex (Abrolhos Bank, eastern Brazil). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56: 1008-1014. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Gutiérrez, D., J. Tam, B.G. Reguero, J. Ramos Castillejos, R. Oliveros, marpolbul.2008.02.013 A. Chamorro, M. Gévaudan, D. Espinoza, F. Colas, V. Echevin, D. Correa, N. Domínguez, R. Zavala, N. Gonzales, J. Ramos Flores, Free, C.M., J.T. Thorson, M.L. Pinsky, K.L. Oken, J. Wiedenmann & D. Grados & C.Y. Romero, 2019: Fortalecimiento del conocimiento O.P. Jensen, 2019: Impacts of historical warming on marine fisheries actual sobre los impactos del cambio climático en la pesquería production. Science, 363, 979-983. peruana. En: Avances del Perú en la adaptación al cambio climático FVSA, 2013: Aportes para abordar la adaptación al Cambio Climático en del sector pesquero y del ecosistema marino-costero [Zavala, R. et al. la Bahía de Samborombón. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA), (eds.)]. Monografía del BID, Serie IDB-MG-679, Lima, 124 pp. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 257 pp. Helleman, S. & N. Rabalais, 2009: Gulf of Mexico: LME n.º 5. En: The García, D.C. & R. Perlado, 2014: Impactos del Cambio Climático sobre UNEP Large marine ecosystem report: A perspective on changing la Acuicultura en España. Oficina Española de Cambio Climático, conditions in LMEs of the world’s regional seas [Sherman, K. & Ministerio de Agricultura. G. Hempel (eds.)]. UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies n.º 182, Gasalla, M.A., P.R. Abdallah & D. Lemos, 2017: Potential impacts of 15 pp. Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme. climate change in Brazilian marine fisheries and aquaculture. En: Hidalgo, M., V. Mihneva, M. Vasconcellos & M. Bernal, 2018: Climate Climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture: a global analysis change impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptations: Mediterranean Sea [Phillips, B.F. & M. Pérez-Ramírez (eds.)], pp. 455-470. John Wiley and the Black Sea marine fisheries. En: Impacts of climate change on & Sons Ltd. fisheries and aquaculture: synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation Genner, M.J., D.W. Sims, A.J. Southward, G.C. Budd, P. Masterson, and mitigation options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M.C.M. Beveridge, M. McHugh, P. Rendle, E.J. Southall, V.J. Wearmouth & S.J. Hawkins, K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. FAO Fisheries 2010: Body size dependent responses of a marine fish assemblage and Aquaculture Technical Paper n.º 627. Roma, FAO, 628 pp. to climate change and fishing over a century-long scale. Global Hoegh-Guldberg, O. & J.F. Bruno, 2010: The Impact of Climate Change Change Biology, 16(2), 517-527. on the World’s Marine Ecosystems. Science, 328, 1523-1528, Gledhill, D.K., R. Wanninkhof, F.J. Millero & M. Eakin, 2008: Ocean https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189930 acidification of the Greater Caribbean Region 1996-2006. Journal Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, of Geophysical Research, 113: C10031. Disponible en: https://doi. A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante, K.L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J. Guiot, Y. Hijioka, org/10.1029/2007JC004629 S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren & GlobalAgRisk, 2013. First-Ever “Forecast Insurance” Offered for Extreme G. Zhou, 2018: Impacts of 1.5 ºC Global Warming on Natural and El Niño in Peru. Sitio Web Consultado el 04 de junio 2020. http:// Human Systems. En: Global Warming of 1.5 ºC. An IPCC Special globalagrisk.com/Pubs/2013%20Press%20Release_First_Ever%20_ Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 ºC above pre-industrial Forecast%20Insurance%20Peru.pdf levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 321 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate of 1.5 ºC above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, response to thethreat of climate change, sustainable development, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. P.an, R. Pidcock, S. and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, P.rtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, T. Maycock, M. Tignor & T. Waterfield (eds.)]. En prensa. C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor & T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., R. Cai, E.S. Poloczanska, P.G. Brewer, S. Sundby, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 32 pp. K. Hilmi, V.J. Fabry & S. Jung, 2014: The Ocean. En: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. IPCC, 2019: Summary for Policymakers. En: IPCC Special Report on Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [Pörtner, H.-O., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. Mintenbeck, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N. Weyer K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, (eds.)]. En prensa. S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge Jahncke, J., D.M. Checkley & G.L Hunt, 2004: Trends in carbon flux to University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom y New York, NY, USA, seabirds in the Peruvian upwelling system: effects of wind and fisheries pp. 1655-1731. on population regulation. Fisheries Oceanography, 13: 208-223. Hsieh, C.H., C.S. Reiss, J.R. Hunter, J.R. Beddington, R.M. May & Jennerjahn, T.C., E. Gilman, K.W. Krauss, L.D. Lacerda, I. Nordhaus & G. Sugihara, 2006: Fishing elevates variability in the abundance of E. Wolanski, 2017: Mangrove ecosystems under climate change. exploited species. Nature (London), 443: 859-862. En: Mangrove ecosystems: a global biogeographic perspective [Rivera- Hughes, T.P., M.J. Rodrigues, D.R. Bellwood, D. Ceccarelli, O. Hoegh- Monroy, V.H., S.Y. Lee, E. Kristensen & R.R. Twilley (eds)]. pp. 211- Guldberg, L. McCook, N. Moltschaniwskyj, M.S. Pratchett, R.S. Steneck 244. Cham, Springer International Publishing. Disponible en: https:// & B. Willis, 2007: Phase shifts, herbivory, and the resilience of coral link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-62206-4_7 reefs to climate change. Current Biology, 17(4): 360-365. Disponible JGM Argentina, 2017: Área Marina Protegida Namuncurá – Banco en: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17291763 Burdwood. Contribuciones para la Línea de Base y el Plan de Manejo Hutchings, J.A., 2000: Collapse and recovery of marine fishes. Nature, [Falabella, V. (ed.)]. Presidencia de la Nación-Jefatura de Gabinete de 406: 882-885. Ministros; Buenos Aires, Argentina, 76 pp. INIDEP, 2019: Avanza el informe sobre los efectos del cambio climático Jordà, G., Marbà, N. & C.M. Duarte, 2012: Mediterranean seagrass en el Mar Argentino y sus recursos pesqueros. Instituto Nacional vulnerable to regional climate warming. Nature Climate Change de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero. Sitio web consultado el 20 de Letters, DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE1533 octubre de 2019, https://www.inidep.edu.ar/component/k2/545- Kalikoski, D.C., S. Jentoft, A. Charles, D. Salazar Herrera, K. Cook, avanza-el-informe-sobre-los-efectos-del-cambio-climatico-en-el-mar- C. Béné & E.H. Allison, 2018: Understanding the impacts of climate argentino-y-sus-recursos-pesqueros.html change for fisheries and aquaculture: applying a poverty lens. En: IPBES, 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment Impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture: Synthesis of report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M., Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. T. Bahri, M. Beveridge, K. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain S. Díaz, J. Settele, E.S. Brondízio E.S., H.T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, (eds.)]. Documento técnico de pesca y acuicultura de la FAO n.º 627. A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K.A. Brauman, S.H.M. Butchart, K.M.A. Chan, Roma, FAO, 628 pp. L.A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S.M. Subramanian, G.F. Midgley, Kersting, D.K., N. Bensoussan & C. Linares, 2013: Long-Term P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, Responses of the Endemic Reef-Builder Cladocora caespitosa to J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y.J. Shin, I.J. Visseren- Mediterranean Warming. Plos One, 8: e70820. Hamakers, K.J. Willis, and C. N. Zayas (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 56 pages, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579 Kersting, D.K., 2016: Cambio climático en el medio marino español: impactos, vulnerabilidad y adaptación. Oficina Española de Cambio IPCC, 2013: Resumen para responsables de políticas. En: Cambio Climático, Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. Climático 2013: Bases físicas. Contribución del Grupo de trabajo I Madrid, 166 pp. al Quinto Informe de Evaluación del Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, Kifani, S., E. Quansah, H. Masski, R. Houssa & K. Hilmi, 2018: Climate G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, change impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptations: Eastern Central V. Bex y P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Atlantic marine fisheries. En: Impacts of climate change on fisheries Reino Unido y Nueva York, NY, USA. and aquaculture: Synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M. T. Bahri, M. Beveridge, K. Cochrane, IPCC, 2014: Cambio climático 2014: Impactos, adaptación y S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. Documento técnico de pesca y vulnerabilidad – Resumen para responsables de políticas. Contribución acuicultura de la FAO n.º 627. Roma, FAO, 628 pp. del Grupo de trabajo II al Quinto Informe de Evaluación del Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático [Field, C.B., Kluger, L., M.H. Taylor, M. Wolff, W. Stotz & J. Mendo, 2018: From V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, an open-access fishery to a regulated aquaculture business: the M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, case of the most important Latin American bay scallop (Argopecten E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White purpuratus). Reviews in Aquaculture 0, 1-17. (eds.)]. Organización Meteorológica Mundial, Ginebra, Suiza, 34 pp. Kovats, R.S., R. Valentini, L.M. Bouwer, E. Georgopoulou, D. Jacob, (en árabe, chino, español, francés, inglés y ruso). E. Martin, M. Rounsevell & J.-F. Soussana, 2014: Europe. En: IPCC, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. En: Global Warming of Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part 1.5 ºC. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth

322 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Rocha, J.A. de Santiago, A. Parma, J. Lobo Orensanz & J. Molares, [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, 2014: The times they are a-changin: the radical and successful T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, transformations of the Galician (NW Spain) artisanal shellfisheries. E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White World Fisheries Congress on Small-Scale Fisheries, Thailand, 2014. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom y MAGFOR, 2013: Plan de Adaptación a la variabilidad y el Cambio New York, NY, USA, pp. 1267-1326. Climático en el Sector Agropecuario, Forestal y Pesca en Nicaragua. Lacoue-Labarthe, T., P.A.L.D. Nunes, P. Ziveri, M. Cinar, F. Gazeau, Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal de Nicaragua, 131 pp. J.M. Hall-Spencer, N. Hilmi et al., 2016: Impacts of ocean acidification Magrin, G., 2015: Adaptación al cambio climático en América Latina y el in a warming Mediterranean Sea: an overview. Regional Studies in Caribe. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL Unión Europea, 80 pp. Marine Science, 5: 1-11. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. rsma.2015.12.005 Magrin, G.O., J.A. Marengo, J.-P. Boulanger, M.S. Buckeridge, E. Castellanos, G. Poveda, F.R. Scarano & S. Vicuña, 2014: Central Lam, V.W.Y., W.W.L. Cheung, G. Reygondeau & U.R. Sumaila, 2016: and South America. En: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Projected change in global fisheries revenues under climate change. Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II Scientific Reports, 6: art:32607 (on-line). Citado el 24 de abril de to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 2018, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32607 Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, León-Muñoz, J., M. Urbina, J. Iriarte & R. Garreaud, 2018: Hydroclimatic K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, conditions trigger record harmful algal bloom in western Patagonia B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea (verano de 2016). Scientific Reports, 8 (1330): 1-10. & L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Leorri, E., B.P. Horton & A. Cearreta, 2008: Development of a Kingdom y New York, NY, USA, pp. 1499-1566. foraminiferabased transfer function in the Basque marshes, N. Spain: Marbà, N., G. Jord., S. Agusti, C. Girard & C.M. Duarte, 2015: Footprints Implications for sea-level studies in the Bay of Biscay. Marine of climate change on Mediterranean Sea biota. Frontiers in Marine Geology, 251:60-74. Science, 2: 56, DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00056 Lima, F.P. & D.S. Wethey, 2012: Three decades of high-resolution Marcos, M., D. Gomis, S. Monserrat, E. Álvarez-Fanjul, B. Pérez & coastal sea surface temperatures reveal more than warming. Nature J. García-Lafuente, 2005: Consistency of long sea-level time series in Communications, 3: art.704 (online). Citado el 4 de marzo de 2018, the northern coast of Spain. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1713 110: C03008. Lionello, P. & A. Sanna, 2008: Mediterranean wave climate variability Martín, P., F. Maynou, L. Recasens & A. Sabatés, 2016: Cyclic and its links with NAO and Indian Monsoon. Climate Dynamics, fluctuations of blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) linked to 25:611-623. open-sea convection processes in the northwestern Mediterranean. Lleonart, J. & F. Maynou, 2003: Fish stock assessments in the Fisheries Oceanography, 25(3), 229Ocean. Mediterranean: state of the art. Scientia Marina, 67, 37-49. Massutí, E., S. Monserrat, P. Oliver, J. Moranta, J.L. López-Jurado, M. Marcos, Lloret, J., J. Lleonart, I. Sole & J.M. Fromentin, 2001: Fluctuations J.M. Hidalgo, B. Guijarro, A. Carbonell & P. Pereda, 2008: The influence of landings and environmental conditions in the northwestern of oceanographic scenarios on the population dynamics of demersal Mediterranean Sea. Fisheries and Oceanography, 10, 33-50. resources in the western Mediterranean: hypothesis for hake and red shrimp off Balearic Islands. Journal of Marine Systems, 71, 421-438. Lloret, J., I. Palomera, J. Salat e I. Sol., 2004: Impact of fresh-water input and wind on landings of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and Massutí, E., M. Valls & F. Ordines, 2010: Changes in the western sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in shelf waters surrounding the Ebro River Mediterranean ichthyofauna: signs of tropicalization and meridianization. delta (northwestern Mediterranean). Fisheries and Oceanography, 13, En: Fish Invasions of the Mediterranean Sea: Change and Renewal 102-110. [Golani, D. & B. Appelbaum-Golani (eds.)]. Sofia-Moscow: Pensoft Publishers, pp. 293-312. Lluch-Cota, S.E., M. Tripp-Valdéz, D.B. Lluch-Cota, D. Lluch-Belda, J. Verbesselt, H. Herrera-Cervantes & J. Bautista-Romero, 2013: Massut, E., M.P. Olivar, S. Monserrat, L. Rueda & P. Oliver, 2014: Recent trends in sea surface temperature off Mexico. Atmósfera, Towards understanding the influence of environmental conditions on 26(4): 537-546. Disponible en: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo. demersal resources and ecosystems in the western Mediterranean: php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-62362013000400008 Motivations, aims and methods of the IDEADOS project. Journal of Marine Systems, 138: 3-19. Lluch-Cota, S., F. Arreguín-Sánchez, C.J. Salvadeo & P. Del Monte Luna, 2018: Climate change impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptations: Maynou, F., 2008a: Environmental causes of the fluctuations of red Northeast Tropical Pacific marine fisheries. En Impacts of climate shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) landings in the Catalan Sea. Journal of change on fisheries and aquaculture: Synthesis of current knowledge, Marine Systems, 71, 294-302. adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M. Beveridge, Maynou, F., 2008b: Influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on K. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds)]. Documento técnico Mediterranean deep-sea shrimp landings. Climate Research, 36, de pesca y acuicultura de la FAO n.º 627. Roma, FAO. 628 pp. 253-257. Losada, I.J., B.G. Reguero, F.J. Méndez, S. Castanedo, A.J. Abascal McCarthy, N., P. Winters, A.M. Linares & T. Essam, 2012: Indicators & R. Mínguez, 2013: Long-term changes in sea-level components to Assess the Effectiveness of Climate Change Projects. The Inter- in Latin America and the Caribbean. Global and Planetary Change, American Development Bank Technical Notes, 37 pp. 104: 34-50. Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ Mendo, J., M. Wolff, T. Mendo & L. Ysla, 2016: Scallop fishery and culture article/pii/S0921818113000337?via%3Dihub in Peru. En: Scallops – Biology, Ecology, Aquaculture, and Fisheries Macho, G., B. Nieto, S. Villasante, I. Naya, J. Freire, E. Abella, [Shumway, S.E. & J. Parsons (eds.)], 3.ª ed., pp. 1089-1109. Elsevier J.M. Parada, A. Simón, A. Garcia-Allut, R. Arnaiz, E. Vazquez, J.M. da Science, Oxford.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 323 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Mendo, J., W. Wolff, W. Carbajal, I. Gonzales & M. Badjeck, 2008: Nurse, L.A., R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L. Briguglio, V. Duvat-Magnan, Manejo y explotación de los principales bancos naturales de concha N. Pelesikoti, E. Tompkins & A. Webb, 2014: Small islands. En: de abanico (Argopecten purpuratus) en la costa peruana. En: Estado Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part actual del cultivo y manejo de moluscos bivalvos y su proyección B: Regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth futura: factores que afectan su sustentabilidad en América Latina Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate [Lovatelli, A., A. Farias e I. Uriarte (eds.)], pp. 101-114. Taller Técnico Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, Regional de la FAO, 20-24 de agosto de 2007. Puerto Montt, Chile. K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee et ál. (eds.)]. Cambridge, UK y FAO Actas de Pesca y Acuicultura, n.º 12. Roma, FAO. New York, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1613-1654. Disponible Miller, K., A. Charles, M. Barange, K. Brander, V.F. Galluccie, en: https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5- M.A. Gasalla, A. Khan et ál., 2010: Climate change, uncertainty, and Chap29_FINAL.pdf resilient fisheries: institutional responses through integrative science. Nurse, L.A. & J.L. Charlery, 2016: Projected SST trends across the Progress in Oceanography, 87(1-4): 338-346. Disponible en: https:// Caribbean Sea based on PRECIS downscaling of ECHAM4, under doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2010.09.014 the SRES A2 and B2 scenarios. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, Modica, L., F. Velasco, I. Preciado, M. Soto & S.P. Greenstreet, 2014: 123(1): 199-215. Disponible en: https://link.springer.com/ Development of the large fish indicator and associated target for a article/10.1007%2Fs00704-014-1346-1 Northeast Atlantic fish community. ICES Journal of Marine Science, Oerder, V., F. Colas, V. Echevin, F. Codron, J. Tam & A. Belmadani, 71, 2403-2415. 2015: Peru-Chile upwelling dynamics under climate change. Journal Monnereau, I., R. Mahon, P. McConney, L. Nurse, R. Turner & H. Vallès, of Geophysical Research, 120(2): 1152-1172. Disponible en: https:// 2017: The impact of methodological choices on the outcome of doi.org/10.1002/2014JC010299 national-level climate change vulnerability assessments: An example Oliveros-Ramos, R., S. Yunne-Jai, D. Espinoza-Morriberón, P. Verley, from the global fisheries sector. Fish and Fisheries, 18(4): 717-731. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12199 V. Echevin, J. Tam & D. Gutierrez, 2017: Peruvian anchoveta bioclimatic and population projections under CMIP5 scenarios. Workshop on Morales-Nin, B., J. Moranta, C. García, M.P. Tugores, A.M. Grau, F. Riera regional climate change scenarios for Peru upwelling and anchovy. & M. Cerd, 2005: The recreational fishery off Majorca Island (western Lima, 15-17 de noviembre de 2017. Mediterranean): some implications for coastal resource management. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 62, 727-739. OPYPA, 2017: Talleres de adaptación al cambio climático en escuelas agrarias de Uruguay. Ministerio de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca. Morales-Nin, B., J. Moranta, C. García & P. Tugores, 2007: Evaluation of Sitio web consultado el 20 de octubre de 2019, https://www.gub. the Importance of Recreational Fisheries on a Mediterranean Island. uy/ministerio-ganaderia-agricultura-pesca/comunicacion/noticias/ American Fisheries Society Symposium, 49, 587-592. se-realizaron-talleres-adaptacion-cambio-climatico-escuelas-agrarias- Morales-Nin, B., F. Cardona-Pons, F. Maynou & A.M. Grau, 2015: How uruguay relevant are recreational fisheries? Motivation and activity of resident Ottersen, G., D.O. Hjermann & N.C. Stenseth. 2006: Changes in and tourist anglers in Majorca. Fisheries Research, 164, 45-49. spawning stock structure strengthen the link between climate and Moranta, J., M. Palmer, G. Morey & A. Ruiz-Fra, 2006: Multi-scale spatial recruitment in a heavily fished cod (Gadus morhua) stock. Fisheries variability in fish assemblages associated with Posidonia oceánica Oceanography, 15(3), 230-243. meadows in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 68(3-4), 579-592. Oxenford, H.A. e I. Monnereau, 2017: Impacts of climate change on fish and shellfish in the coastal and marine environments of Caribbean Murakami, H., R. Mizuta & E. Shindo, 2012: Future changes in Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Commonwealth Marine tropical cyclone activity projected by multi-physics and multi-SST Economies Programme: Caribbean marine climate change report ensemble experiments using the 60-km-mesh MRI-AGCM. Climate card: science review, 2017: 83-114. Disponible en: https://assets. Dynamics, 39: 2569-2584. Disponible en: https://link.springer.com/ publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ article/10.1007/s00382-011-1223-x attachment_data/file/605075/8._Fish_and_Shellfish.pdf Myers, R.A., J.K. Baum, T.D. Shepherd, S.P. Powers & C.H. Peterson, Oxenford, H.A. e I. Monnereau, 2018: Climate change impacts, 2007: Cascading Effects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from vulnerabilities and adaptations: Western Central Atlantic marine a Coastal Ocean. Science, vol. 315, Issue 5820, pp. 1846-1850. fisheries, Capítulo 9, pp. 147-168. En: Impacts of Climate Change DOI: 10.1126/science.1138657 on fisheries and aquaculture: Synthesis of current knowledge, Nagy, G.J., M. Bidegain, R.M. Caffera, W. Norbis, A. Ponce, V. Pshennikov adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, M. Beveridge, & D.N. Severov, 2008: Fishing strategies for managing climate K. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. FAO Fisheries variability and change in the estuarine front of the Rio de la Plata. Technical Paper 627. En: Climate change and adaptation [Leary, N., J. Adejuwon, V. Barros, I. Burton, J. Kulkarni & R. Lasco (eds.)], pp. 353-370. Sterling, Palanisamy, H., M. Becker, B. Meyssignac, O. Henry & A. Cazenave, VA, USA, Earthscan. 2012: Regional sea level change and variability in the Caribbean Sea since 1950. Journal of Geodetic Science, 2(2): 125-123. Disponible Narita, D., K. Rehdanz & R.S.J. Tol, 2012: Economic costs of ocean en: https://doi.org/10.2478/v10156-011-0029-4 acidification: a look into the impacts on global shellfish production. Clim. Change, 113, 1049-1063, DOI: 10.1007/s10584-011-0383-3 Palomera, I., M.P. Olivar, J. Salat, A. Sabatés, M. Coll, A. García & B. Morales-Nin, 2007: Small pelagic fish in the NW Mediterranean Newman, S.P., E.H. Meesters, C.S. Dryden, S.M. Williams, C. Sanchez, Sea: an ecological review. Progress in Oceanography, 74, 377-396. P.J. Mumby & N.V.C. Polunin, 2015: Reef flattening effects on total richness and species responses in the Caribbean. Journal of Animal PNA-Agro, 2019: Plan Nacional de Adaptación a la Variabilidad y el Ecology, 84(6): 1678-1689. Disponible en: https://besjournals. Cambio Climático para el Sector Agropecuario. Ministerio de Ganadería, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12429 Agricultura y Pesca. República de Uruguay, 128 pp.

324 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

PANAyCC, 2019: Plan de Acción Nacional de Agro y Cambio Climático. A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca, Argentina. Gabinete the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Nacional de Cambio Climático. Versión preliminar, 120 pp. Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, Parada, J.M., J. Molares & X. Otero, 2012: Estuaries and Coasts, 35: R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, 132-142. P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Pascual, J., J. Salat & M. Palau, 1995: Evolución de la temperatura del Cambridge, United Kingdom y New York, NY, USA, pp. 411-484. mar entre 1973 y 1994 cerca de la costa catalana. En: Proceedings Prieto, E., C. González-Pola, A. Lavín & N.P. Holliday, 2015: Interannual of the international Colloquium «The Mediterranean Sea in the 21st variability of the northwestern Iberia deep ocean: Response to century: Who for?». Montpellier. largescale North Atlantic forcing. Journal of Geophysical Research Pauly, D., V. Christensen, J. Dalsgaarrd, R. Froese & F. Torres, 1998: Oceans, 120, 832-847. Fishing down marine food webs. Science, 278: 860-863. PRODUCE, 2016a: Diagnóstico del sector pesquero y acuícola frente Pauly, D. & D. Zeller, 2014: Global Atlas of Marine Fisheries: A Critical al cambio climático y lineamientos de adaptación. Ministerio de la Appraisal of Catches and Ecosystem Impacts. Island Press, 520 pp. Producción, 21 pp. Payne, M.R., 2013. Fisheries: Climate change at the dinner table. PRODUCE, 2016b: Proyecto Adaptación al Cambio Climático del Sector Nature, 497(7449), 320. Pesquero y del Ecosistema Marino - Costero del Perú (PE-G1001/ Perry, A., P. Low, J. Ellis & J. Reynolds, 2005: Climate change and PE-T1197). Ministerio de la Producción. Dirección General de distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science, 308, 1912-1915. Sostenibilidad Pesquera. Sitio web consultado el 23 de noviembre de 2017, http://www.produce.gob.pe/documentos/pesca/dgsp/ Perry, R.I., R.E. Ommer, M. Barange & F. Werner, 2010: The challenge notas-informativas/dgsp-nota-informativa-proyecto.pdf of adapting marine social-ecological systems to the additional stress of climate change. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Punzón, A., A. Serrano, F. Sánchez, F. Velasco, I. Preciado, J.M. González- 2(5-6): 356-363. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Irusta & L. López-López, 2016: Response of a temperate demersal cosust.2010.10.004 fish community to global warming. Journal of Marine Systems, 161: 1-10. Petitgas, P., S. Magri & P. Lazure, 2006: One-dimensional biophysical modelling of fish egg vertical distributions in shelf seas. Fisheries Raven, J., K. Caldeira, H. Elderfield, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, P. Liss, U. Oceanography, 15: 413-428. Riebesell, J. Sheperd, C. Turley & A.J. Watson, 2005: Ocean Phillips, B.F. & M. Perez-Ramirez (eds.), 2017: Climate change impacts acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, vol. 12/05, on fisheries and aquaculture: a global analysis. John Wiley and Sons Policy document. The Royal Society, London. Inc., 1048 pp. Reid, K., 2018: Climate change impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptations: Poloczanska, E.S., C.J. Brown, W.J. Sydeman, W. Kiessling, Southern Ocean marine fisheries, Capítulo 17. En: Impacts of D.S. Schoeman, P.J. Moore et al., 2013: Global imprint of climate climate change on fisheries and aquaculture: synthesis of current change on marine life. Nat. Clim. Chang., 3, 919-925, DOI: 10.1038/ knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options [Barange, M., T. Bahri, nclimate1958 M.C.M. Beveridge, K.L. Cochrane, S. Funge-Smith & F. Poulain (eds.)]. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper n.º 627. Rome, FAO, Pita, P., D. Fernández-Márquez, M. Antelo, G. Macho & S. Villasante, 628 pp. 2018: Socioecological changes in data-poor S-fisheries: A hidden shellfisheries crisis in Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Policy, DOI: https:// Rijnsdorp, A.D., M.A. Peck, G.H. Engelhard, C. Möllmann & J.K. Pinnegar, doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.09.018 2009: Resolving the effect of climate change on fish populations. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 1570-1583. Popova, E., A. Yool, V. Byfield, K. Cochrane, A.C. Coward, S.S. Salim, M.A. Gasalla et al., 2016: From global to regional and back again: Ríos, A.F., F.F. Pérez & F. Fraga, 2001: Longterm (1977-1997) common climate stressors of marine ecosystems relevant for measurements of carbon dioxide in the Eastern North Atlantic evaluation adaptation across five ocean warming hotspots. Global Change of anthropogenic input. Deep-Sea Research II, 48: 2227-2239. Biology, 22(6): 2038-2053. Romero-Lankao, P., J.B. Smith, D.J. Davidson, N.S. Diffenbaugh, Porter, J.R., L. Xie, A.J. Challinor, K. Cochrane, S.M. Howden, M.M. Iqbal, P.L. Kinney, P. Kirshen, P. Kovacs & L. Villers Ruiz, 2014: North America. D.B. Lobell & M.I. Travasso, 2014: Food security and food production En: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. systems. En: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom y P.R. Mastrandrea & L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, pp. 1439-1498. Cambridge, United Kingdom y New York, NY, USA, pp. 485-533. Rouyer, T., J.-M. Fromentin, F. Menard, B. Cazelles, K. Briand, R. Pianet, Pörtner, H.O. & M.A. Peck, 2010: Climate change effects on fishes and B. Planque et al., 2008: Complex interplays among population fisheries: towards a cause-and – effect understanding. Journal of Fish dynamics, environmental forcing, and exploitation in fisheries. Biology, 77: 1745-1779. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 105, pp. 5420-5425. Pörtner, H.-O., D.M. Karl, P.W. Boyd, W.W.L. Cheung, S.E. Lluch-Cota, Y. Nojiri, D.N. Schmidt & P.O. Zavialov, 2014: Ocean systems. En: Sadovy, Y. & W.L. Cheung, 2003: Near extinction of a highly fecund fish: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part the one that nearly got away. Fish and Fisheries, 4, 86-99.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 325 Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Salat, J. & J. Pascual, 2002: The oceanographic and meteorological Stramma, L., E.D. Prince, S. Schmidtko, J. Luo, J.P. Hoolihan, M. Visbeck, station at L’Estartit (NW Mediterranean). En: CIESM, 2002, Tracking D.W.R. Wallace, P. Brandt y A. Körtzinger, 2012: Expansion of oxygen long term hydrological change in the Mediterranean Sea. CIESM minimum zone may reduce available habitat for tropical pelagic workshop series, n.º 16. fishes. Nature Climate Change, 2: 33-37. Salat, J. & J. Pascual, 2006: Principales tendencias climatológicas en el STECF, 2018: The 2018 Annual Economic Report on the EU Fishing Mediterráneo noroccidental a partir de más de 30 años de observaciones Fleet. Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries oceanográficas y meteorológicas en la costa catalana. Publicaciones de (STECF-18-07). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembour, la Asociación Española de Climatología (AEC), Serie A(5). JRC112940, ISBN: 9789279793905, DOI: 10.2760/56158 Salvatteci, R., D. Field, D. Gutiérrez, T. Baumgartner, V. Ferreira, Subasinghe, R.P., J.R. Arthur, D.M. Bartley, S.S. De Silva, M. Halwart, L. Ortlieb, A. Sifeddine, D. Grados & A. Bertrand, 2018: Multifarious N. Hishamunda, C.V. Mohan & P. Sorgeloos, 2012: Farming the anchovy and sardine regimes in the Humboldt Current System during waters for people and food. En: Global Conference on Aquaculture the last 150 years. Global Change Biology, 24(3): 1055-1068. 2010 (proceedings of the global conference on aquaculture 2010, Phuket, 22-25 de septiembre de 2010). FAO, Rome, Italy y NACA, Sánchez, F. & J. Gil, 2000: Hydrographic mesoscale structures and Bangkok, Thailand. Poleward Current as adeterminant of hake (Merlucius merlucius) recruitment in southern Bay of Biscay. ICES Journal of Marine Science, SUBPESCA, 2015: Plan de Adaptación al Cambio Climático para Pesca 57: 152-170. y Acuicultura. Ministerio de Economía, Chile, 39 pp. Sánchez, L. & O. Reyes, 2015: Medidas de adaptación y mitigación TCN, 2015: Tercera Comunicación Nacional ante la Convención Marco de frente al cambio climático en América Latina y el Caribe: Una visión las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático. Ministerio de Ambiente general. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe. Naciones y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación (Argentina). Informe País Unidas. Santiago de Chile. Disponible en https://repositorio.cepal. 2015, 264 pp. Disponible en: https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/ org/bitstream/handle/11362/39781/S1501265_es.pdf resource/Argnc3.pdf Santos, A.M.P., A. Peliz, J. Dubert, P.B. Oliveira, P.B., M.M. Angélico & Tester, P., R.L. Feldman, A.W. Nau, S.R. Kibler & R.W. Litaker, 2010: P. Ré, 2004: Impact of a winter upwelling event on the distribution Ciguatera fish poisoning and sea surface temperatures in the and transport of sardine (Sardina pilchardus) eggs and larvae off Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. Toxicon, 56(5): 698-710. western Iberia: a retention mechanism. Continental Shelf Research, Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.026 24(2), 149-165. Tunnell, J.W. Jr., 2017: Shellfish of the Gulf of Mexico. En: Habitats Selig, E., K. Kleisner, O. Ahoobim, F. Arocha, A. Cruz-Trinidad, R. Fujita, and biota of the Gulf of Mexico: before the Deepwater Horizon Oil M. Hara, L. Katz, P. McConney, B. Ratner, L. Saavedra-Díaz, Spill, Volume 1: Water quality, sediments, sediment contaminants, A.-M. Schwarz, D. Thiao, E. Torell, S. Troëng & S. Villasante, 2017: oil and gas seeps, coastal habitats, offshore plankton and benthos, A typology of fisheries management tools: using experience to and shellfish [Ward, C.H. (ed.)]. London, Springer Open, pp. 769-839. catalyse greater success. Fish and Fisheries, 18(3): 543-570. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3447-8_8 Shady, R. & D. Cáceda, 2008: Áspero, la Ciudad Pesquera de la UNIVISION, 2018: Chile estrena 3 áreas marinas protegidas más grandes Civilización Caral. Recuperamos su historia para vincularla con nuestro que Texas y California juntas. Planeta. Conservación de especies. Sitio presente. Proyecto Especial Arqueológico Caral-Supe. Instituto web consultado el 20 de octubre de 2018, https://www.univision. Nacional de la Cultura, 28 pp. com/noticias/planeta/chile-estrena-3-areas-marinas-protegidas-mas- Shelton, C., 2014: Climate change adaptation in fisheries and aquaculture grandes-que-texas-y-california-juntas – compilation of initial examples. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Van Hooidonk, R., J.A. Maynard, Y. Liu & S.-K. Lee, 2015: Downscaled Circular n.º 1088. Rome, FAO. 34 pp. projections of Caribbean coral bleaching that can inform conservation Simpson, S.D., S. Jennings, M.P. Johnson, J.L. Blanchard, P.J. Schon, planning. Global Change Biology, 21(9): 3389-3401. Disponible en: D.W. Sims & M.J. Genner, 2011: Continental shelf-wide response https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12901 of a fish assemblage to rapid warming of the sea. Current Biology, Van Tussenbroek, B.I., J. Cortés, R. Collin, A.C. Fonseca, P.M.H. Gayle, 21(18): 1565-1570. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. H.M. Guzmán, G.E. Jácome et al., 2014. Caribbean-wide, longterm cub.2011.08.016 study of seagrass beds reveals local variations, shifts in community Smetacek, V. & A. Zingone, 2013: Green and golden seaweed tides on structure and occasional collapse. Plos One, 9: e90600 (on-line). the rise. Nature, 504: 84-88. Citado el 26 de marzo de 2018, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0098377 Soares, H.C., D.F.M. Gherardi, L.P. Pezzi, M.T. Kayano & E.T. Paes, 2014: Patterns of interannual climate variability in large marine Van Tussenbroek, B.I., H.A. Hernández Arana, R.E. Rodríguez-Martínez, ecosystems. Journal of Marine Systems, 134: 57-68. Disponible en: J. Espinoza-Avalos, H.M. Canizales-Flores, C.E. González-Godoy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2014.03.004 M.G. Barba-Santos, A. Vega-Zepeda & L. Collado-Vides, 2017: Severe impacts of brown tides caused by Sargassum spp. on Soto, D. & R. Quiñones, 2013: Cambio climático, pesca y acuicultura en nearshore Caribbean seagrass communities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, América Latina: Potenciales impactos y desafíos para la adaptación. 122(1-2): 272-281. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Taller FAO/Centro de Investigaci.n Oceanográfica en el Pacífico Sur marpolbul.2017.06.057 Oriental (COPAS), Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile. FAO Actas de Pesca y Acuicultura n.º 29. Roma, FAO. 335 pp. Vargas-Yáñez, M., F. Moya, M.C. García-Martínez, E. Tel, P. Zunino, F. Plaza et al., 2010: Climate change in the Western Mediterranean Soto, D., J. Leon-Munoz, J. Dresdner, C. Luengo, F.J. Tapia & R. Sea 1900-2008. Journal of Marine Systems, 82: 171-176. Garreaud, 2019: Salmon farming vulnerability to climate change insouthern Chile: understanding the biophysical, socioeconomic and Vargas-Yáñez, M., F. Moya, M.C. García-Martínez, J. Rey, M. González governance links. Reviews in Aquaculture, 11, 354-374. & P. Zunino, 2009: Relationships between Octopus vulgaris landings

326 RIOCCADAPT REPORT Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

and environmental factors in the northern Alboran Sea (Southwestern sediments, sediment contaminants, oil and gas seeps, coastal habitats, Mediterranean). Fisheries Research, 99, 159-167. offshore plankton and benthos, and shellfish [Ward, C.H. (ed.)]. London, Springer Open, pp. 1-54. Disponible en: https://link.springer.com/ Vergara, W., 2009: Assessing the Potential Consequences of Climate chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4939-3447-8_1 Destabilization in Latin America. Latin America and Caribbean Region sustainable development working paper n.º 32. Washington DC, World Ward, R.D., D.A. Friess, R.H. Day & R.A. MacKenzie, 2016: Impacts Bank Group, 117 pp. of climate change on mangrove ecosystems: a region by region overview. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 2(4): e01211 (on-line). Villamor, B., C. Gonzalez-Pola, A. Lavin, L. Valdés, A.L. De Lanzós, C. Franco & P. Carrera, 2011: Environmental control of Northeast Citado el 28 de marzo de 2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/ehs2.1211 Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) recruitment in the southern World Bank, FAO & WorldFish Center, 2012: Hidden Harvest: The Global Bay of Biscay: case study of failure in the year 2000. Fisheries Contribution of Capture Fisheries. Informe n.º 66469-GLB. Washington Oceanography, 20(5), 397-414. DC, World Bank, 92 pp. Villasante, S., G. Macho, J. Giraldez, S. Rivero-Rodríguez, J. Isusu de Worm, B., E.B. Barbier, N. Beaumont, J.E. Duffy, C. Folke, B.S. Halpern, Rivero, S. Harper, D. Zeller & D. Pauly, 2016: Spain (Northwest). J.B.C Jackson et al., 2006: Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean pág. 397. En: Global Atlas of Marine Fisheries: A critical appraisal of ecosystem services. Science, vol. 314, pp. 787-790, https://science. Catches and Ecosystem Impacts [Pauly, D. & D. Zeller (eds.)]. Island sciencemag.org/content/314/5800/787 Press, Washington DC. Worm, B., R. Hilborn, J.K. Baum, T.A. Branch, J.S. Collie, C. Costello, Villasante, S., G. Macho, N. Calvo, D. Wethey, S. Woodin & E. Vázquez, M.J. Fogarty, E.A. Fulton, J.A. Hutchings, S. Jennings, O.P. Jensen, 2018: Social adaptation to climate change in Galician (NW Spain) H.K. Lotze, P.M. Mace, T.R. McClanahan, C. Minto, S.R. Palumbi, shellfisheries. International Workshop. Interdisciplinary approaches A.M. Parma, D. Ricard, A.A. Rosenberg, R. Watson & D. Zeller, 2009: to the study of human and molluscs’ interactions: from prehistory to Rebuilding Global Fisheries. Science, vol. 325. 46 pp. present. French Museum of Natural History Paris, France, 31 de enero-2 de febrero de 2018. Xunta de Galicia, 2018: Pesca de Galicia. Estatísticas oficiais de pesca. Sitio web consultado el 12 octubre 2019, www.pescadegalicia.gal Vinagre, C., F.D. Santos, H. Cabral & M.J. Costa, 2011: Impact of climate warming upon the fish assemblages of the Portuguese coast under Yáñez, E., N.A. Lagos, R. Norambuena, C. Silva, J. Letelier, K.P. Muck, different scenarios. Regional Environmental Change, 11, 779-789. G. San Martin, S. Benítez, B.R. Broitman, H. Contreras, C. Duarte, S. Gelcich, F.A. Labra, M.A. Lardies, P.H. Manríquez, P.A. Quijón, Vögler, R, F. Arreguín-Sánchez, D. Lercari, P. Monte-Luna & L. Ramajo, E. González, R. Molina, A. Gómez, L. Soto, A. Montecino, D. Calliari, 2015: The effects of long-term climate variability on M. Ángela Barbieri, F. Plaza, F. Sánchez, A. Aranis, C. Berna & the trophodynamics of an estuarine ecosystem in southern South G. Böhm, 2018: Impacts of Climate Change on Marine Fisheries and America. Ecological Modelling, 317: 83-92. Aquaculture in Chile, pp 239-332 En: Climate Change Impacts on Walther, G.R., 2010: Community and Ecosystem Responses to Recent Fisheries and Aquaculture: A Global Analysis [Phillips, B.F. & M. Pérez- Climate Change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 365, Ramírez (eds.)], vol. I, 1.ª edición, 1048 pp. 2019-2024. Ye, Y. & N.L Gutierrez, 2017: Ending fishery overexploitation by Wang, D., T.C. Gouhier, B.A. Menge & A.R. Ganguly, 2015: Intensification expanding from local successes to globalized solutions. Nature and spatial homogenization of coastal upwelling under climate Ecology & Evolution, 1. Sitio web consultado el 5 de mayo de 2018, change. Nature, 518: 390-394. Disponible en: https://www.nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0179 com/articles/nature14235 Zavala, R., D. Gutiérrez, R. Morales, A. Grünwaldt, N. Gonzales, J. Tam, Ward, C.H. & J.W. Jr. Tunnell, 2017: Habitats and biota of the Gulf of C. Rodríguez & S. Bucaram (eds.), 2019: Avances del Perú en la Mexico: an overview. En: Habitats and biota of the Gulf of Mexico: adaptación al cambio climático del sector pesquero y del ecosistema before the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Volume 1: Water quality, marino-costero. Monografía del BID, Serie IDB-MG-679, Lima, 124 pp.

RIOCCADAPT REPORT 327