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UNDERWATER AMBIENT NOISE Peter H UNDERWATER AMBIENT NOISE Peter H. Dahl Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98105 James H. Miller Department of Ocean Engineering, University of Rhode Island Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882 Douglas H. Cato Defence Science and Technology Organisation and University of Sydney Institute of Marine Science Sydney, NSW 2009, Australia Rex K. Andrew Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98105 Introduction “Is there a convenient relating to the use of decibel notation nderwater ambient noise, long in both the air and underwater noise an important area of study in and physically correct way communities. Next, underwater ambi- Uunderwater acoustics and ent noise is described in terms of its acoustical oceanography, has recently to compare measurements spectrum, or frequency content. This entered the forefront of public aware- is a useful and informative summary ness. A renewed emphasis on its study of sound in air and water? of underwater noise, but here we can is driven in part by basic questions only briefly allude to the noise field’s concerning the relation between This question has caused variation in time, space and angle of anthropogenic noise and the ecology arrival (angular intensity distribution). of marine mammals. For example, a number of interesting The major anthropogenic and natural there is concern about the degree to constituents of the spectrum are item- which marine mammals are possibly discussions involving air ized, and two spectra, corresponding habituating to, or otherwise being to nominal high and low ambient affected by increasing anthropogenic and underwater acousticians, noise levels, are introduced to illus- noise contributions. Natural ambient trate the dynamic range of underwater noise has always provided the back- journalists, and the ambient noise. These spectra are then ground noise limitation on the use of compared with several examples of sound by marine mammals, but now general public.” field measurements, and some histori- ambient noise contains a significant cal trends in field measurements are anthropogenic component. mentioned. Here we provide a brief overview of unidentified sources. Its distinguish- Finally, an interesting perspective and perspective on the subject of ing features are that it is due to multi- is gained by a brief examination of underwater ambient noise, of interest ple sources, individual sources are not ambient noise as we might experience to a diverse set of behavioral, biological identified (although the type of noise it in air, including a familiar impact and physical science professionals source—e.g., shipping, wind—may be concept, speech intelligibility. For this, involved in its analysis. In addition, known), and no one source dominates measurements of noise originating this article may also serve as an intro- the received field.” This definition from highway traffic that also exempli- duction of the subject to those involved excludes the anthropogenic noise due fies time variation and contributions in the analysis of human community to individual sources more localized in from multiple sources, which is com- noise, and motivate a useful informa- both time and space. Such sources are, mon in underwater ambient noise, are tion exchange. That said, we state up for example, close shipping, sonars, used. Of course, discussion of sound in front that this article is neither com- seismic air guns, and pile driving and air and in an underwater environment prehensive nor exhaustive on the top- dredging devices. Suffice to say that an has frequently led to confusion, so we ics presented. understanding of such noise sources tread carefully, using genuinely com- We quote directly from the including their potential impacts on parable physical units. The intent here National Research Council’s 2003 marine mammals requires an under- is to provide some background to report, Ocean Noise and Marine standing of the background, ambient understand the effects of noise on Mammals1 to define ambient noise as noise conditions. marine mammals by comparing sound “The noise associated with the back- This article begins with a restate- in air and water, and the ambient noise ground din emanating from a myriad ment of some important definitions in the two environments. Underwater Ambient Noise 23 Definitions: The use of decibel notation The approximate magnitude range of the pressure We recall that decibels in acoustics were defined origi- spectral density for underwater ambient noise nally at Bell Labs as 10 times the logarithm of the ratio of the The underwater ambient noise field depends both on the sound intensity to a reference intensity.2 Sound intensity has strength and density of sources of sound and on the propaga- units of W/m2 and is given by tion to the receiver, which in turn depends on the particular underwater environment as set by sound speed, bathymetry, (1) acoustic properties of the seabed, and ocean dynamics. We expect and indeed observe large fluctuations in the level of where p is the rms (root-mean-square) pressure in Pa underwater ambient noise upon a change in time, location, or obtained from measurements, ρ is density in kg/m3 and c is depth. Still, it is possible to sketch out a function describing sound speed in m/s. Eq. (1) assumes that pressure is meas- the approximate magnitude range for the pressure spectral ured sufficiently far from its source such that a plane wave density of underwater ambient noise in very general terms. approximation applies.3 The reference intensity for sound in The pressure spectral density gives the mean-squared pressure ρ 3 air ( air is about 1.2 kg/m and cair is about 340 m/s) is of noise measured within a given frequency bandwidth, divid- ed by the measurement bandwidth ∆f, and thus the ordinate is in units of pressure squared per hertz. (2) For underwater acoustics, the decibel unit for pressure spectral density is dB re 1µPa2/Hz, which is called the spectral level. To obtain SPL in dB from spectral level values, a par- µ where pref-air equals 20 Pa, corresponding to the rms pres- ticular bandwidth of interest needs to be identified. For sure at the nominal threshold of human hearing at a fre- example, if the spectral level were a constant N, over the quency of 1000 Hz. The reference intensity for sound in bandwidth B, in Hz, SPL would be N + 10log10(B). If the ρ 3 water ( water is about 1025 kg/m and cwater is about 1500 spectral level is not constant over the bandwidth of interest, m/s) is integration of the pressure spectral density in linear units (i.e., mean square pressure per hertz) is instead performed to recover the mean-squared pressure. (3) The earliest studies of underwater ambient noise were made during World War II and were quite extensive, covering a wide range of locations and conditions, and were published µ 4,5 where by accepted convention, pref-water equals 1 Pa. in a substantial report and later in a scientific paper. These Note that the reference intensity levels in air and water established that surface-ship radiated noise, sea surface noise differ by more than 6 orders of magnitude. It is this reason (mainly breaking waves and what was later found to be the why air and water measurements in decibels (dB) are not the ensuing bubble production), and the sounds of the marine same, as the references themselves differ by 62 dB. The char- animals contribute most to the ambient noise field. In a later ρ ρ 6 acteristic impedance of air, aircair, and water, watercwater, have study, Wenz recognized that ships across an ocean basin units of rayls named in honor of Lord Rayleigh. The standard could produce a general low frequency background noise that characteristic impedance for air is approximately 415 rayls may not in fact be recognizable as coming from shipping; he and for water is about 1,500,000 rayls. Impedance in called this “traffic noise” to distinguish it from noise from acoustics is the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle velocity readily identifiable shipping sources. His noise summary for plane waves. It plays the same role as resistance does in curves have formed the basis of many prediction systems. electric circuits, the ratio of voltage and current. Ohm’s law As a consequence of their location near the surface, the applies to electricity and acoustics. radiation efficiency of both shipping and sea surface noise Sound pressure can also be expressed as a level in dB, and sources diminishes for sound rays (representing the direction consistent with the above definition regarding ratio of inten- of sound propagation) that have decreasing angle relative to sities, sound pressure level (SPL) in dB is thus defined as: horizontal. On the other hand, long range propagation favors ray angles close to the horizontal, and this tends to dominate in (4) the case of low frequency, distant shipping noise. The vertical angular distribution of sound from distant shipping sources will be enhanced at shallow grazing angles, despite the fact that Equation (4) defines SPL in terms of the square of the pres- the initial radiation efficiency for such angles was small. Sea sure amplitude, and to emphasize the all-important refer- surface noise, however, is mainly generated by bubbles very ence pressure level, the shorthand “dB re 20 µPa2 ” is required close to the sea surface, much closer than ship noise sources. if measurements of p were made in air and “dB re 1 µPa2 ” if Because the sea surface is a “pressure release” surface with a they were made in water. It has, however, become conven- substantial impedance mismatch, the radiation from the bub- tion to express the reference levels as “dB re 20 µPa” in air bles and their surface images is effectively dipole with maxi- and “dB re 1 µPa” in water, in view of the fact that SPL in Eq.
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