RESEARCH REPORT Fire management in Tasmania’s Wilderness World Heritage Area: Ecosystem restoration using Indigenous-style fire regimes?

By Jon B. Marsden-Smedley and Jamie B. Kirkpatrick

This paper is based on research by Jon Marsden- Summary In many natural areas, changes in fire regimes since European settlement have Smedley (Fire Management Section, Parks resulted in adverse impacts on elements of biological diversity that survived millennia of and Wildlife Service, Department of Primary land management by Indigenous people. Some of the rainforest and alpine elements that depend on south-west Tasmania’s World Heritage Area have been in decline since Euro- Industries, Water and Environment, GPO pean settlement of Tasmania due to an increase in the incidence of landscape-scale fires Box 44a, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia. Email: in the period 1850–1940. Some of the buttongrass moorland elements that also depend on [email protected]) carried out in collabo- the region are in decline or impending decline because of a decreased incidence and/or ration with Jamie B. Kirkpatrick (School of size of burns since 1940. Will an Indigenous-style fire regime serve the interests of bio- Geography and Environmental Studies, Univer- logical diversity? We examine this question in the context of the fire ecology and fire history of south-west Tasmania. From this assessment we argue that a return to Indigenous- sity of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia). style burning, modified to address contemporary issues such as the prevention of unplanned ignition, suppression of wildfires and burning to favour rare and threatened species may help to reverse trends towards ecosystem degradation in this region. Key words south-west Tasmania, fire management, Indigenous burning, World Heritage Area.

Introduction Marsden-Smedley 1993b; Arkell 1995; The fire ecology of Greenslade 1997; Driessen 1999). Both south-west Tasmania his paper refers to the approximately changes appear to be reducing elements of T1.2 million ha of south-west Tasmania’s south-west Tasmania’s biological diversity, The major terrestrial vegetation types in World Heritage Area included in South- with the possibility of major alterations to south-west Tasmania are alpine vegetation, west National Park and Franklin–Gordon ecological processes and biological pattern- temperate rainforest, eucalypt forest, tea- Wild Rivers National Park, along with and ing (Kirkpatrick 1994). In this paper we tree scrub and buttongrass moorland. Tea- the part of the South-west Conservation argue that such existing damage and the tra- tree scrub is normally dominated by tall Area that is adjacent to the King River and Acacia, Banksia, Leptospermum and/or jectory towards decline warrant the appli- Cape Sorell. A vegetation map of the Melaleuca while buttongrass moorland is cation of ecological restoration-style region has been published by Kirkpatrick normally co-dominated by sedges and low management to return these ecosystems to and Dickinson (1984b) and its fire history heaths,in particular the hummock forming a pre-existing, more desirable state. has been reviewed by Marsden-Smedley Buttongrass (Gymnoschoenus sphaero- An intuitively attractive means of reha- (1998a). cephalus; Kirkpatrick 1991; Reid et al. bilitating the impacts of inappropriate fire Marked changes have occurred in the 1999). Alpine vegetation can be adjacent regimes on biodiversity is a restoration of fire regime of south-west Tasmania since to any of these lowland vegetation types European settlement. These changes have the style of fire regime that prevailed (Kirkpatrick 1983, 1984; Kirkpatrick & resulted in the spread of fire into fire- when Indigenous Tasmanians managed the Brown 1987). sensitive temperate rainforest and alpine landscape. In this paper we examine the These vegetation types characteristi- vegetation (Kirkpatrick & Dickinson 1984a; appropriateness of this response in terms cally occur in close juxtaposition, with Bowman & Brown 1986; Brown 1988; of a number of criteria and contrast the their distributions being related to site pro- Cullen & Kirkpatrick 1988). Conversely, a fire management regime that emerges ductivity and its influence on the proba- trend is also evident towards a reduction in from this analysis with six other potential bility of fire (Jackson 1968; Bowman & the fire frequency in many buttongrass fire management regimes. Before engaging Jackson 1981). A common lowland moorlands which are dependent on shorter in these analyses we provide a review of sequence from less productive and/or fire frequencies to maintain plant and the ecology and fire history of south-west more flammable to more productive animal diversity (Brown & Wilson 1984; Tasmania as necessary background. and/or less flammable sites is: buttongrass

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 195 RESEARCH REPORT moorland — tea-tree scrub — eucalypt 50 years without fire (e.g. see Brown & should also result in a lowering of the forest — rainforest (Jackson 1968). Podger 1982; Jarman et al.1988a; Marsden- probability of fire in forest and alpine Below the alpine zone there are few Smedley 1990, 1998b), but by the time vegetation. The literature (e.g. Brown & places that could not support any of rain- these moorlands are 100–150 years of age Podger 1982; Jarman et al. 1988a, 1988b; forest, tea-tree scrub or buttongrass moor- many appear to be undergoing succession Marsden-Smedley 1990, 1998b) suggests land, all of which can occur in the full into tea-tree scrub (J. B. Marsden-Smedley, that this period could vary from less than range of sites from highly waterlogged to unpubl.data).More frequent fires are there- 50 to more than 150 years, the lower limit well drained as well as on the full range of fore needed to maintain buttongrass moor- relating to buttongrass moorland on fertile the region’s geological types. Eucalypt lands and to maintain habitat for some soils and the latter to steep, high altitude forest tends not to occur in the most animal species. For example, Orange- and/or sites underlain by quartzitic rocks. poorly drained sites. This implies that, bellied Parrots (Neophema chrysogaster) given the capacity for rainforest to expand require fire frequencies of 3 to 12 years The fire history of and exclude other vegetation groups in between fires (Brown & Wilson 1984; south-west Tasmania the prolonged absence of fire or other Marsden-Smedley 1993b) while small major exogenous disturbance, almost all of patchy fires about every 20 years seem to Pre-human fire history non-alpine south-west Tasmania could con- maintain small mammal and invertebrate ceivably be covered with rainforest, and a species diversity (Arkell 1995; Greenslade The time period over which humans have large proportion of the alpine vegetation 1997; Driessen 1999). occupied south-west Tasmania is currently of the region could be dominated by the subject of some conjecture. Anthropo- logical evidence suggests a minimum native gymnosperms and Deciduous Key role of buttongrass occupation age of about 35 000 years (see Beech (Nothofagus gunnii). moorland in landscape-scale fire Kee et al. 1993) but in a recent review Most rainforest and alpine shrub and dynamics tree species will regenerate after fire, with based on palaeoecological data, Jackson several fires at relatively high frequency The most critical ignitions are those that (1999) proposed that an occupation age of being necessary for their total local elimi- occur when any or all of tea-tree scrub 70 000 years is more probable. Prior to nation. However, the re-establishment of (particularly its fibrous peat layer), euca- 70 000 years ago, during interglacial Deciduous Beech and native gymno- lypt forest, alpine and rainforest areas are periods the proportion of rainforest taxa sperms in burned areas is normally an dry enough to burn under the prevailing in the pollen record is much higher that is extremely slow process because they are weather conditions. During most of the currently the situation (see Jackson 1999). killed by fire, have no persistent seed year,however,fuel moistures in south-west Dominance by rainforest taxa would be bank, and have very limited dispersal Tasmania are such that only buttongrass expected in south-west Tasmania under a ranges (Kirkpatrick & Dickinson 1984a). moorlands are dry enough to burn, and regime where lightning was the only Conversely, under prolonged absence of fires are therefore limited in their duration significant cause of fires. In the current fire in lowland sites, Eucalyptus can be by the size of the buttongrass patch in interglacial, the incidence of lightning eliminated from an area if the interval which ignition took place. The probability resulting in medium- to large-scale fires is between fires exceeds their lifespans. This of fire transgressing the boundary be- extremely low with lightning usually being is due to Eucalyptus having no persistent tween buttongrass moorland and tea-tree associated with rainfall, and lightning fires seed bank, poor dispersal mechanisms and scrub increases with increasing button- covering very small areas (Parks and its requirement for open regeneration grass moorland fuel. Fires in old button- Wildlife Service, unpubl. data; see also niches which tend not to occur in the grass moorlands burn with high rates of Marsden-Smedley 1998b). absence of fire. The seed bank and disper- spread and intensities, tend to burn Indigenous fire regimes sal characteristics of most buttongrass throughout the diurnal cycle and fre- moorland taxa are also poorly known. quently burn into scrub vegetation types Direct observational evidence of Indige- However, canopy closure by overstorey where there is a high potential for peat nous fire regimes in the study area, tree and heath species will probably result fires (see Marsden-Smedley 1993a, 1998b; although necessarily limited, leaves little in the elimination of many species. There Marsden-Smedley & Catchpole 1995a, doubt that Indigenous people burned but- seems little doubt that the extensive areas 1995b, in press; Marsden-Smedley et al. tongrass moorlands (Kelly 1816; Goodwin of eucalypt forest, tea-tree scrub and 1998, 2000, in press). Thus, frequent fire 1828; Robinson 1829–1834; Calder 1847; buttongrass moorland in south-west Tasma- in buttongrass moorlands in conditions in Sharland 1861). Given that buttongrass nia are a product of a fire regime frequent which other vegetation types will not burn moorland was burned by Indigenous enough to prevent the successional seems likely to lower the probability of the people and that extensive areas of highly process that terminates in rainforest. With other vegetation types burning at other fire-sensitive vegetation also occurred in a reduction in fire frequency in these areas, times. Conversely, an absence of fire from close proximity (Kirkpatrick & Brown buttongrass moorland has been shown to buttongrass moorland for a period suffi- 1991; Corbett unpublished), such burning maintain its species richness for at least cient to allow tea-tree scrub to develop must have either been restricted to times

196 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 RESEARCH REPORT in which escapes into non-moorland vege- the fire regime currently being practised in moorland during the period when the tation types was unlikely, the burning was northern Australia by Indigenous people region was abandoned, which in turn facil- so frequent and patchy that the probability (Jones 1995;Andersen 1996).Under such a itated regional-scale fires during the next of escape into non-moorland vegetation fire regime, the aim would probably have period of land exploitation, in a context in was low,or a combination of both of these been to create a large number of small, which lighting fires in wild country was a options. This latter alternative seems the recently burnt areas surrounded by thicker socially acceptable activity. most likely (Thomas 1993, 1995) and is vegetation. Burning would also probably Since the 1930s, there has been no further supported by the implication that have been conducted to improve access decade that has rivalled the peak earlier patch burning was employed, although tracks. The weather and site conditions decades in terms of the area burned there is no clear indication of specific fre- used to achieve these burning outcomes (Table 1). In the 1990s there were very few quencies and sizes of burns (Marsden- were probably very similar to those cur- fires and these covered only small areas. Smedley 1998a).For example,the available rently being developed for the technique During this decade, fire prevention and evidence strongly suggests that Indigenous of unbounded patch burning. suppression were the major tactics used by burning was performed during wetter land managers along with very limited area seasons and/or following recent rainfall European fire regimes hazard-reduction and ecological-manage- (e.g. see the accounts of Goodwin 1828; Following the displacement of Indigenous ment burning. Between 1940 and 2000 Robinson 1829–1834; Sharland 1861) and people from south-west Tasmania, the fire only about a dozen large fires occurred, all contemporary fire research indicates that regime changed to one of periods of few of which primarily burned buttongrass burning under these conditions tends to fires followed by a regional-scale fire.Since moorland, with only limited areas of rain- result in small-scale patchy fires (Marsden- the 1830s there have been three such forest, alpine and subalpine vegetation Smedley et al. 2000, in press). cycles of few fires followed by a regional- being burned. The majority of these fires From this information, the most likely scale fire (Marsden-Smedley 1998a), result- occurred in areas adjacent to the coast or fire regime utilized by Indigenous people ing in massive vegetation change (Brown access points and many areas were burned in south-west Tasmania was one of fre- 1988; Pemberton 1988, 1989; Peterson several times.As a result,the majority of the quent (e.g. on average less than about 20 1990; Robertson & Duncan 1991). These region has not been burned since the fires years between fires) and probably rela- very large fires burned extensive areas of the 1930s or 1890s (Marsden-Smedley tively low-intensity fires in buttongrass of all vegetation types. These cycles of 1998a). This change is almost certainly the moorlands, and with the exception of few fires followed by a regional-scale result of a reduction in human-initiated burning for access tracks,few fires in other fire reflected periods where the region fires,as a result of declining social and legal vegetation types. These fires would have was more or less deserted followed by acceptability of unplanned ignition of been mostly lit when scrub, eucalypt attempts to utilize it (e.g. open up the bush. In the 1980s and 1990s there were forest, rainforest and alpine areas were too country, expose potential mineral depo- several years (e.g. 1980/1981, 1981/1982, wet to burn (Marsden-Smedley 1998a, sits, improve access and/or to make the 1994/ 1995, 1997/1998, 1998/1999) 1998b). This regime would have been vegetation more economically productive). during which the weather conditions analogous to the firestick farming regime Such processes allowed for the develop- were comparable to the major fire years proposed by Jones (1969) and is similar to ment of extensive areas of old buttongrass of 1897/1898 and 1933/1934 (Bureau of

Table 1. Area of different vegetation types and area burned in 1850, the 1890s and since the 1930s Moorland Wet eucalypt Subalpine Total, all and scrub forest Rainforest and alpine vegetation types ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % Total area 704 179 57.4 225 594 18.4 245 867 20.0 51 562 4.2 1 227 202 100.0 Estimated 1850 >127 000 –.. unknown –.. unknown –.. unknown –.. 400 000 33.0 Estimated 1890s 690 000 98.0 188 000 83.3 94 000 38.0 26 000 50.0 998 000 81.0 1930s 489 625 69.5 51 161 22.7 59 364 24.1 28 906 56.1 629 056 51.3 1940s 8257 1.2 2158 1.0 356 0.1 80 0.2 10 851 0.9 1950s 71 384 10.1 4755 2.1 5096 2.1 2497 4.8 83 732 6.8 1960s 25 743 3.7 3860 1.7 3739 1.5 394 0.8 33 736 2.7 1970s 92 349 13.1 7835 3.5 4649 1.9 390 0.8 105 223 8.6 1980s 88 947 12.6 8307 3.7 7595 3.1 379 0.7 105 228 8.6 1990s 19 380 2.8 456 0.2 142 0.1 19 0.0 19 997 1.6 Source: Marsden-Smedley (1998a). Note: areas burned in the 1850 and 1890s fires are estimates only; area covered includes South-west and Franklin – Lower Gordon National Parks along with that part of the South-west Conservation Area that is adjacent to the King River and Cape Sorell.

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 197 RESEARCH REPORT

Meteorology data; see also Marsden- (Parks and Wildlife Service 1993). Thus, a that of the endangered herb, Lepidium hys- Smedley 1998b). re-imposition of the putative Indigenous- sopifolium, which now largely depends on It is important to note that if current style fire regime is likely to reduce the the survival of large exotic trees on ungrazed trends continue (i.e. a regime of few small impact of the Cinnamon Fungus if it lowers roadsides and farmyards (Kirkpatrick & fires, as occurred in the 1990s), by 2005 the probability of forests burning. Gilfedder 1998). The reinstatement of an about 79% of south-west Tasmanian but- Indigenous-style fire regime in all remnants tongrass moorlands will be ‘old’ (i.e. in The area of remaining of lowland native grassland could be a excess of 60 years) while by 2035 over vegetation is inappropriate to recipe for accelerated extinction. 99% of the buttongrass moorland in south- the scale of the fire regime In south-west Tasmania,rather than seg- west Tasmania will be ‘old’ (Marsden- If the remnants of a particular ecosystem regation of different sets of species into Smedley 1998a, 1998b). are not sufficiently large to allow a mosaic areas with different post-European distur- of patch burning, taxa such as wind- bance regimes, the pattern has been range Potential constraints on the dispersed herbs that rely on dispersal to reduction of those species unsuited to the contemporary application recolonize burned areas, or taxa such as new regimes, without notable expansion of Indigenous-style fire the Orange-bellied Parrot that require in the ranges of other species in areas regimes vegetation in several successional states subject to the new fire regimes.Thus, gym- may become locally extinct (Brown & nosperms and Deciduous Beech have not While one of the difficulties in applying Wilson 1984). Where only a few stands survived in burned areas of rainforest and Indigenous-style fire regimes is the know- remain of fire-susceptible vegetation types alpine vegetation (Kirkpatrick & Dickin- ledge gaps referred to above, further con- in a matrix of flammable vegetation, the son 1984a), and the range of the Orange- cerns also need to be addressed. adoption of a risk minimization strategy bellied Parrot has contracted to those might be more appropriate than the small parts of the area where patch The potential presence of re-imposition of the fire regime that burning has continued through the long introduced biota that are likely prevailed during periods of Indigenous periods of general fire exclusion (Brown & to produce undesirable management.For example,the fire regimes Wilson 1984). consequences under a burning utilized by Indigenous people may have regime similar to that of occasionally caused the loss of stands of There is no practical way to Indigenous people fire-susceptible vegetation,but these losses reinstate an Indigenous-style Some introduced plants and herbivores would probably have been offset by the fire regime have been shown to change the nature of expansion of other patches. However, in a Where Indigenous people still inhabit the impacts of particular fire regimes in the Top remnant landscape, any such losses could landscape, and wish to do so using their End (Bowman 1998); and cattle in Queens- be critical. traditional fire-management techniques, land have increased the penetrability of fire Almost the entire area of south-west practicality is assured (e.g. see Langton into rainforest (Fensham et al. 1994). Intro- Tasmania is covered by native vegetation. 1999).Where Indigenous people no longer duced plants, such as Giant Sensitive Plant While fire-sensitive patches (e.g. rainforest inhabit the landscape, or have no desire to (Mimosa pigra) in the Northern Territory containing native gymnosperms) have suf- reinstate traditional fire regimes,there may floodplains and Boneseed (Chrysan- fered a high rate of loss since the 1830s, be a substantial cost associated with the themoides monilifera ssp. monilifera) in large areas of all vegetation types remain. reinstatement of the regime. south-eastern Australia may have had their Nevertheless, some particularly outstand- Due to the size and remoteness of spread accelerated or their dominance ing remnants of unburned rainforest and south-west Tasmania, the only economi- increased with changes in fire regimes alpine vegetation may need more protec- cally practical means for reimposing wide- (Kirkpatrick 1986; Miller & Lonsdale 1991). tion than might be provided by a fire spread patch burning of buttongrass Most exotic flora species found in the regime designed to approximate that of moorlands is aerial ignition without study area are confined to disturbed areas Indigenous people. It may be advisable ground crews or constructed firelines. (in particular roadside verges) and show to conduct hazard-reduction burning in Prior to the 1990s, aerial ignition of but- little tendency to invade undisturbed order to reduce the level of fire risk adja- tongrass moorland frequently resulted in native ecosystems. The most widespread cent to these areas. more extensive fires than were planned. exotic species are European wasps, These escapes were primarily due to the The vegetation has been bumble-bees, honey bees, cats, trout and flawed nature of the burning prescriptions segregated into remnants with a the Cinnamon Fungus (Phytophthora cin- which were current at the time and partly variety of management regimes namomi). The five animals all seem highly due to a failure to observe the prescrip- unlikely to influence the impact of fire.The Such segregation into remnants has tions themselves. In the absence of Cinnamon Fungus can gain higher altitudes occurred in temperate lowland grasslands research on buttongrass moorland, these after forests are disturbed by fire,otherwise and grassy woodlands on the mainland of original prescriptions were largely devel- being largely unaffected by its incidence Australia (Lunt 1997). An extreme case is oped using fire behaviour data from dry

198 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 RESEARCH REPORT sclerophyll forests and with only limited areas, and/or have impacts on perceived ment. Old buttongrass moorland is much data from buttongrass moorlands (e.g. see aesthetic or recreational quality. more difficult to traverse than young. For Forestry Commission 1977; Gellie 1980). The aesthetic values of the World Her- this reason some early bushwalkers used Once appropriate research was under- itage Area were one of the main reasons fire to improve access. There is a possibil- taken, it became apparent that button- for its listing (Parks and Wildlife Service ity that Cinnamon Fungus and trampling grass moorland will burn at moisture 1999). If the restoration of an Indigenous- damage will become more widespread in levels well in excess of those at which any style fire regime succeeded in reducing the region with the increased accessibility other documented vegetation type will the loss of fire-sensitive vegetation to fire resulting from a more frequent burning burn (Marsden-Smedley & Catchpole then these values should be improved, as regime. However, even in summer, the 1995b, in press; Marsden-Smedley et al. burned rainforest and alpine vegetation is number of off-track bushwalking parties is 1998). regarded by most people as aesthetically currently extremely low (on average only The majority of the operational fire unattractive. On the other hand, if burned about six bushwalking parties per year: research required in order to securely buttongrass moorland is regarded as aes- Parks and Wildlife Service unpubl. data). conduct prescribed burning in button- thetically unpleasant there will be much Again, this problem is far from insur- grass moorlands has now been completed. more of it under this regime. Some people mountable, requiring only that measures This research has provided systems for may consider that this type of burning be taken if increased usage becomes a predicting fuel characteristics, fuel mois- regime is inconsistent with the mainten- problem. ture, rate of fire spread, fire intensity, fire ance of wilderness qualities. However, the extinction, prescriptions for prescribed current Australian conception of wilder- Planned burning does not burning (for both ecological management ness recognizes Indigenous landscapes address the problem and hazard-reduction) and the options and management. The major rationale for restoring patterns available for wildfire control (Table 2). As The main users of most of the study of Indigenous-style burning by people is a result, the aerial ignition of buttongrass area are bushwalkers.Aerial ignition could that this action is likely to maintain native moorland now has relatively predictable potentially present a hazard to walkers, a biological diversity more effectively than consequences in terms of rate of spread hazard easily avoided by seasonal closure alternatives. However, illegal and acciden- and intensity for a given set of climatic of areas in which it is to take place. Such tal burns are not precluded by these conditions and fuel ages (i.e. time since closures would be highly unlikely to affect planned burns.Thus, planned burning may the past fire). significant numbers of bushwalkers since end up being additive to other burns, From this work,a methodology has been bushwalking in south-west Tasmania is a possibly producing a fire regime of exces- developed for conducting unbounded highly seasonal activity with very few sive frequency for the conservation of patch burning. Unbounded patch burning walkers being in the region during the the biota of an area. This is particularly a is where fires are lit under conditions prescribed burning season (April to problem where levels of incendiarism are which allow them to burn well during the October). For example, between April high and the vegetation has a restricted day but self-extinguish overnight as a result and October in south-west Tasmania, on low-fuel period. of increases in fuel moisture, decreases in average there is only one off-track remote In south-west Tasmania, a fire lit on one wind speed and dewfall (Marsden-Smedley area multi-day bushwalking trip every of the few days in which the fuels in all or et al. 2000, in press). This strategy for con- 8 years and about 40 on-track multi-day most vegetation types are dry enough to ducting burning is considered by the bushwalking trips per year. During this burn could only be stopped by immediate authors to be the one that most closely season most of these on-track bushwalk- suppression, which is usually impossible. approximates the burning performed by ing trips are on the South Coast and With dry fuels and a strong wind button- Indigenous people. Huon Plains tracks with a small number of grass moorland will burn within a couple parties also using the Port Davey track of years after the last fire (Marsden- Conflict with other management (Parks and Wildlife Service, unpubl. data). Smedley 1998b). Patch burning of button- goals There is probably more reason to be grass moorland on a cycle of decades An Indigenous-style fire regime could worried by the likely effects of the would be almost totally ineffective in fire result in risks to adjoining property, result burning program on the behaviour of control in these extreme conditions, pro- in unacceptable air quality in adjoining walkers and their impacts on the environ- viding only safe bases for back-burning

Table 2. Technical reports and papers relating to buttongrass moorland fire behaviour research Topic Technical reports Refereed scientific papers Fuel characteristics Marsden-Smedley (1993a) Marsden-Smedley & Catchpole (1995a) Fuel moisture Marsden-Smedley et al. (1998) Marsden-Smedley & Catchpole (in press) Fire behaviour Marsden-Smedley (1993a) Marsden-Smedley & Catchpole (1995b) Fire extinguishment Marsden-Smedley et al. (1998) Marsden-Smedley et al. (in press) Operational management Tasmanian Fire Research Fund (2000) Marsden-Smedley et al. (2000)

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 199 RESEARCH REPORT where the planned burns had been under- potential for fires lit at particularly danger- might be necessary to provide suitable taken in the last few years. The only feas- ous times in particularly dangerous situa- habitat for particular species. Hazard- ible tactic for avoiding such fires is tions is likely to be much higher than it reduction and ecosystem-management prevention of ignition.This tactic has been was in 1800. Action to prevent accidental burning can be performed at either a largely effective in 1999–2000, which had or malicious ignition in these circum- broad scale or a tactical scale. Broad-scale very low precipitation, yet no landscape- stances seems an essential element of fire burning is where the aim is to burn the scale fires. The adoption of this tactic is management.We also have the handicap of majority of the site subjected to burning probably the reason that few large fires lack of knowledge of the exact nature of while tactical-scale burning is where spe- occurred in the south-west of Tasmania in the Indigenous fire regimes. Yet, given cific areas are targeted and only part of the the 1990s as a whole, a period in which these provisos a strong case can be made area is burned. there were many periods of weather suit- for changing fire management in south- able for such a conflagration. west Tasmania in the direction of the puta- Fire management options Loss of fire-susceptible ecosystems is tive regime that prevailed before 1800. Seven potential fire management strategies but one of the fire management problems for south-west Tasmania are discussed in south-west Tasmania. The other is the Options for fire below: (1) do nothing; (2) broad-scale loss of fire-requiring ecosystems. Planned management in south-west ecosystem-management burning; (3) tacti- burning is not appropriate for most tea- Tasmania cal ecosystem-management burning; tree scrub and eucalypt forest, because the (4) broad-scale hazard-reduction burning; days on which it is possible to burn these Possible fire management strategies (5) tactical hazard-reduction burning; ecosystems are days on which it would be include combinations of hazard-reduction (6) tactical ecosystem-management and too risky for rainforest and alpine vegeta- burning, ecosystem-management burning, hazard-reduction burning along with wild- tion to do so.No matter what strategies are fire suppression and/or fire exclusion. The fire suppression; and (7) broad-scale adopted in the future for fire management main aim of hazard-reduction burning is to ecosystem-management burning, tactical in south-west Tasmania,it seems likely that broaden the weather conditions within hazard-reduction burning and wildfire sufficient unplanned fires will occur in which effective fire suppression can be suppression. eucalypt forest and tea-tree scrub to performed and within which fires will not Within these different fire regimes, if ensure their perpetuation as major ele- sustain. Implicit within hazard-reduction natural (i.e. lightning) fires occurred ments in the landscape, as they require burning is the assumption that wildfire within conditions that were unlikely to only one fire every 100–350 years. There control is the most important management result in large-scale wildfires, then consid- is, however, a possibility that a large pro- aim and that ecological considerations are eration could be given to letting the fires portion of buttongrass moorland will be of secondary importance. In buttongrass burn. lost if fire exclusion remains the prevailing moorlands hazard-reduction burning is policy for the area. The ecological data normally performed on a 5–8 year rotation 1. Do nothing suggest that a fire frequency of decades (Marsden-Smedley et al. 2000) and, as a rather than centuries is necessary to main- result, a major shift in community dynam- The option of doing nothing will be cheap tain the biological diversity of this system. ics occurs due to the reduction in the in economic terms but will also be highly Widespread aerial patch burning seems a dominance and cover of the heath compo- unlikely to provide adequate protection possible solution to this potential problem nent of the vegetation (Marsden-Smedley, for fire-sensitive assets (Blanks 1991) or of buttongrass moorland loss. unpubl. data). In contrast, ecosystem- suitable conditions for the maintenance of The fact that all these elements sur- management burning aims to advantage fire-dependent buttongrass moorlands. vived several millennia of landscape particular species and/or community The probability of excluding fires from the management by Indigenous people does types. An ecosystem-management burn region for long enough for the vegetation not inexorably lead to the conclusion that which results in a patchy burn will pro- to undergo succession to less flammable a restoration of their regimes will be a total bably be superior to a fire which burns all community types (e.g. buttongrass moor- solution to the problems of decline. In the of the site (e.g. see Bradstock 1993; Cary land to rainforest) is extremely low year 2000 there is much less vegetation & Morrison 1995; Bradstock et al. 1996). (Jackson 1968). Under this option when with gymnosperms and Deciduous Beech On the basis of presently available ecolog- the inevitable fires occur, they will tend to than there was in 1800, and much more ical data, a variable regime of burns with have high rates of spread and intensities vegetation of relatively high flammabil- an average frequency of one fire every and have a high potential to burn rain- ity. The protection of the surviving areas 20 years (frequency range from about forest, subalpine and/or alpine vegetation of fire-susceptible vegetation seems to 8–50 years) appears generally suitable for types. In addition, if extensive areas of require more intensive protection than ecosystem-management burning in but- buttongrass moorland occur with fire ages that which would be provided by patch tongrass moorlands, although much lower in excess of 65–150 years,then this regime burning of buttongrass moorland at a fre- frequencies would be appropriate for sub- will almost certainly result in decreas- quency of decades. In the year 2000 the alpine moorlands and higher frequencies ed species richness (Marsden-Smedley,

200 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 RESEARCH REPORT unpubl. obs.). As a result, such a policy of burned in wildfires. However, as was However, this regime would also include ‘benign neglect’ (see Brown 1996) will discussed above, such a regime will also tactical hazard-reduction burning in areas only provide for a low level of protection cause high-level impacts to the ecological of demonstrated fire risk and where for fire-sensitive rainforests, subalpine and values of buttongrass moorlands and so appropriate and feasible, fire suppression alpine vegetation types while also failing will not meet the management goals out- operations. to adequately maintain the ecological lined in the region’s management plan Since this option would manage the values of buttongrass moorlands. (Parks and Wildlife Service 1999). majority of the area of buttongrass moor- It needs to be borne in mind, however, land in south-west Tasmania using a that there is no certainty that an absence 5. Tactical hazard-reduction ecosystem-management regime it should of planned fire will necessarily result in burning have the highest probability of meeting the almost total disappearance of the but- The application of tactical hazard-reduc- the ecological requirements of buttongrass tongrass moorland ecosystem.The careless tion burning, as occurs currently along the moorlands.In addition,due to it also acting incendiarists and lightning might maintain Lyell Highway, has the potential to reduce to break up the area of buttongrass moor- the ecosystem, if not all its elements. the area burned in wildfires by ensuring land into a mosaic of patches with differ- that arson fires have a lower probability of ent ages, it should result in increased 2. Broad-scale ecosystem- protection for fire-sensitive assets and management burning spreading and causing extensive area fires. In common with the tactical ecosystem- enhanced wildfire suppression operations. Current ecological research indicates that management regime, this regime will This regime will be discussed in more broad-scale ecosystem-management burn- probably only provide for low level pro- detail below. ing on about a 20-years rotation has a high tection for fire-sensitive assets while also probability of maintaining ecological potentially failing to adequately maintain An integrated strategy for values of buttongrass moorlands. This buttongrass moorland species richness. managing fire in south-west option should also provide for moderate Tasmania fire protection to fire-sensitive assets by 6. Tactical ecosystem- breaking up the area of buttongrass moor- management and hazard- An integrated strategy of broad-scale lands into a range of fire ages. Such a reduction burning along with ecosystem-management burning in associ- regime would involve the application of wildfire suppression ation with tactical hazard-reduction a large number of variable frequency, burning and wildfire suppression where Maintaining the current regime of very appropriate is considered to have the variable size and intensity fires and is anal- limited tactical ecosystem-management ogous to the fire regime most likely to highest probability of achieving the goals and hazard-reduction burning in associa- of maintaining ecological values in button- have been practised by Indigenous people tion with active fire suppression is unlikely prior to European settlement. grass moorland while minimizing the area to be effective in the long term at either of fire-sensitive vegetation being burned. 3. Tactical ecosystem- protecting fire-sensitive assets or maintain- The implementation of such a program management burning ing fire-dependent buttongrass moorlands. should greatly reduce the risk of large- If fires occur in remote areas or burn away scale wildfires by acting to break up the This regime is currently employed in two from access points prior to their being area of buttongrass moorland and reduc- small parts of the World Heritage Area, contained (a likely prospect due to the ing the potential for fires to burn into the Birch Inlet and Melaleuca, in order to typically high rates of spread in old but- region. promote Orange-bellied Parrot habitat tongrass moorlands), most of these fire- Across much of the region, the eco- (Marsden-Smedley 1993b). Although the suppression operations will have a low to system-management fire regime would burning of small selected areas for eco- very low probability of success. approximate (in its fire frequencies and system management has the potential to intensities) the fire regime most probably 7. Broad-scale ecosystem- maintain selected fire-dependent species utilized by Indigenous people prior to management burning, tactical and/or community types, it is unlikely to European settlement. As a result, where hazard-reduction burning and be effective at either protecting fire-sensi- the aim is to replicate Indigenous-style wildfire suppression where tive assets or maintaining buttongrass burning there would be considerable appropriate moorland species richness across exten- scope for input from the Indigenous com- sive areas. Over the majority of the region, a regime munity in the planning and application of these burns. 4. Broad-scale hazard-reduction of broad-scale ecosystem-management The main aims of the ecosystem- burning burning in association with tactical hazard reduction and fire suppression management burning would be to develop This option probably has the highest would be very similar in its manage- a mosaic of fire ages, fire sizes and areas potential for protecting fire-sensitive vege- ment aims to the second option; broad- burned with different fire intensities tation types by minimizing the area scale ecosystem-management burning. with the region being divided up on the

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 201 RESEARCH REPORT

basis of its natural fire boundaries. Tactical mania, 1991. Department of Parks, Wildlife Goodwin J. (1828) Goodwin’s statement. CSO hazard-reduction burning would aim to and Heritage, Hobart, Tasmania. 1/276/6658, Archives Office of Tasmania. Bowman D. M. J. S. (1998) Tansley Review 101: Greenslade P. (1997) The effect of fire on inverte- develop a series of fire control zones. The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on brates in buttongrass moorland in southwest These fire control zones would be located the Australian biota. New Phytologist 140, Tasmania. Parks and Wildlife Service, Depart- such that they crossed natural fire corri- 385–410. ment of Environment and Land Management, Bowman D. M. J. S. and Brown M. J. (1986) Hobart, Tasmania (unpubl. report). dors, were adjacent to major areas of fire- Bushfires in Tasmania: a botanical approach Jackson W. D. (1968) Fire, air, water and earth — sensitive vegetation, and/or were in areas to anthropological questions. Archaeology in an elemental ecology of Tasmania. Proceed- of high ignition risk. Oceania 21, 166–171. ings of the Ecological Society of Australia 3, Bowman D. M. J. S. and Jackson W. D. (1981) 9–16. Vegetation succession in southwest Tasma- Jackson W. D. (1999) The Tasmanian legacy of nia. Search 12, 358–362. man and fire. Papers and Proceedings of the Conclusion Bradstock R. A. (1993) Fire management for con- Royal Society of Tasmania 133, 1–14. servation of native plant diversity. In: The Jarman S. J., Kantvilas G. and Brown M. J. An analysis of fire management strategies Burning Question: Fire Management in NSW (1988a) A Preliminary Study of Stem Ages in in the context of biodiversity management (ed. J. Ross) pp. 115–119. University of New Buttongrass Moorlands. Research Report 3. England, Armidale, NSW. Tasmanian Forest Research Council Inc., goals suggests that the maintenance of Bradstock R. A., Bedford M., Scott J. and Keith Hobart, Tasmania. the ecological values of south-west Tas- D. A. (1996) Simulation of the effect of spatial Jarman S. J., Kantvilas G. and Brown M. J. mania is likely to be best served by and temporal variation in fire regimes on the (1988b) Buttongrass Moorland in Tasmania. population viability of a Banksia species. Con- Research Report 2. Tasmanian Forest an integrated program of broad-scale servation Biology 10, 776–784. Research Council Inc., Hobart, Tasmania. ecosystem-management burning (with Brown M. J. (1988) Distribution and Conservation Jones R. (1969) Firestick farming. Australian strong similarities to what we understand of King Billy Pine. Forestry Commission, Natural History 16, 224–228. Hobart, Tasmania. Jones R. (1995) Mindjongork: legacy of the fire- to have been Indigenous fire regimes) in Brown M. J. (1996) Benign neglect and active stick. In: Country in Flames. 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(1983) Treeless plant communi- sandstone communities in the Sydney region: ties of the Tasmanian high country. Proceed- managed for nature conservation would combinations of inter-fire intervals. Australian 12 Journal of Ecology 20, 418–426. ings of the Ecological Society of Australia , apply to almost all of the reserve estate 61–77. in Australia. However, in many large Corbett S. WHA 1:25 000 Vegetation mapping project. Nature Conservation Branch and GIS Kirkpatrick J. B. (1984) Altitudinal and succes- reserves, as with south-west Tasmania, a Section, Department of Primary Industries, sional variation in the vegetation of the West Coast Range, Tasmania. Australian Journal of partial implementation of these regimes, Water and Environment, Hobart, Tasmania (unpubl.). Ecology 9, 81–91. in combination with other management Cullen P. J. and Kirkpatrick J. B. (1988) The Kirkpatrick J. B. (1986) The viability of bush in measures, might lead to improved conser- ecology of Athrotaxis D. Don. 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