MALAWI GOVERNMENT
Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Natural Resources
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
Environmental Affairs Department October 2006
Printed by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, Malawi Recommended citation: Environmental Affairs Department 2006. National Biodiversity strategy and action plan.
Published by Environmental Affairs Department Private Bag 394 Lilongwe 3 Malawi Tel: (+265) -1 -771 111 Fax: (+265) -1 -773 379
Printed in Malawi by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, Malawi
ISBN: 99908-26-54-9
2006 Environmental Affairs Department. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or translated in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Environmental Affairs Department.
This publication is product of Environmental Affairs Department and was made possible through support provided by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), the African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Norwegian Government.
NBSAP drafting team Editors: Augustin C. Chikuni (PhD) Eston Y. Sambo (PhD) Chapter authors Humphrey Nzima Richard Phoya (Prof.) Moses Banda (PhD) Paul Munyenyembe (PhD) Wisdom Changadeya George Phiri (PhD) Kenyatta K. Nyirenda Vincent W. Saka (Prof.) James Chuma (Deceased) Ernest Misomali Judith Kamoto Yanira Ntupanyama FOREWORD
Malawi’s Biodiversity is characterised by a large number of species, diverse habitats and ecosystems some of which are important sites of high endemism such as Lake Malawi, Nyika plateau and Mulanje mountain. Lake Malawi, covering about 20% of Malawi’s total area, boasts of over 700 endemic Cichlid species and contains 15% of world's freshwater fish. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1984. On the other hand, Lake Chilwa which became a Ramsar site in 1997 and also an important bird Sanctuary in Malawi is a wetland of international importance. It annually supports about 153 species of resident and 30 species of migratory water birds.
Biodiversity provides various benefits to Malawians such as food, shelter, medicine, income, cultural and spiritual. It is also source of livelihoods and engine of economic growth. Despite these benefits the sustainability of biodiversity is threatened by several factors such as habitat loss (due to agricultural expansion); encroachment into protected areas; disruption of important, fragile but unprotected ecosystems; uncontrolled bush fires; illegal exploitation of forestry and wildlife resources; over-exploitation of freshwater biodiversity and policy failures. The greatest challenge for Malawi is to ensure conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity resources whilst dealing with equally pressing and important issues of rapid human population growth, extreme poverty, high illiteracy levels, HIV/AIDS and harmonisation of policies and legislation in the country.
Despite all these problems Malawi is committed to conserve and sustainably use its biological resources. This is exemplified by the recent efforts to rehabilitate heavily deforested forest reserves (e.g. Ndilande Forest Reserve), putting in place regulatory framework for Access and Benefit Sharing, and developing strategies and action plans for natural resources management, the latest being this Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Delopment of this strategies would not have been possible if Malawi did not put in place enabling policy framework such as the National Environmental Policy (NEP) and the Environmental Management Act (EMA) in 1996.
This NBSAP outlines the status of the various biodiversity resources in Malawi and stipulates strategies and actions necessary to ensure the management and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity. It further provides strategic guidance for the implementation of Chapter III Section (d) of Malawi's Constitution.
The NBSAP recognises the importance of stakeholder participation in biodiversity conservation and the need to improve accessibility and availability of information on biological resources. It also recognises the importance of harmonising sectoral policies and legislation in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and promotion of fair and equitable sharing of benefits that arise from the utilisation of biodiversity resources and traditional knowledge. Although the Government has taken necessary steps to strengthen our ability to conserve biological resources, programmes proposed in this document will strengthen our co-operative effort in promotion of biodiversity issues through participatory approach and various media.
It is my sincere hope therefore that this NBSAP will increase our appreciation of the rich biological resources and that it will provide a strategic framework for reversing the trend of environmental degradation in the country.
C. P. MSOSA Secretary for Energy, Mines and Natural Resources
(v) Acknowledgements
The Environmental Affairs Department on behalf of the Ministry of Natural Mines, Resources and Environmental Affairs is indebted to all local biodiversity experts especially Task Force Leaders and members of the following task forces: the Diversity of Plants in Malawi; Microorganisms; Wild and Indigenous Animals; Ecosystems; Review of Conservation Legislation; Domesticated and Introduced Species; Land Use Management and Biodiversity Conservation; An Inventory of Literature on Biodiversity; for collecting, collating and preparing task force reports that formed the basis for this document. Names all Task Force Leaders and members that the department would like to thank most sincerely are included in Annex One.
The department is also thankful to Mr. H. Nzima, Dr. A. Chikuni, Prof. R. Phoya, Prof. V. Saka, Dr. G. Phiri, Dr. P. Munyenyembe, Mr. W. Changadeya, Mr. K. K. Nyirenda, late Mr. J. Chuma, Mr. E. Misomali, Mrs. Y. Ntupanyama and Mrs. J. Kamoto who volunteered to form the drafting team and prepared various chapters of this strategic plan. Special appreciations are due to Dr. A. Chikuni who volunteered to take over the coordination of the NBSAP project from Dr. Z. Vokhiwa upon his retirement, and compiled and edited the document together with Dr. E. Sambo.
The department also wishes to thank most sincerely Directors and Heads of natural resource sectors for critical reading of this document. Further appreciations are due to Dr. David Duthie, UNEP Nairobi, Dr. Alan Rogers, GEF Tanzania, Prof. J. Seyani, Commonwealth Science Council UK (now with National Herbarium and Botanic Garden of Malawi) and Prof. CO Dudley, Chancellor College, Malawi for reviewing this document. Further thanks are due to all who contributed to the NBSAP process through their participation in workshops whose names are too many to be mentioned.
Further thanks are due to the National Herbarium & Botanic Gardens of Malawi, which through its role as the Chair of the Biodiversity Committee worked very closely with the NBSAP secretariat to guide preparation of this document.
The department is also thankful to the Norwegian Government for providing financial support through the NORAD/SADC Biodiversity Support Programme to NHBG towards the finalisation of the NBSAP document, and the financial support it received from Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM) and the Malawi Environment Endowment Trust (MEET) during the National Consultative Workshop.
Finally the Government of Malawi is also indebted to the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The Wild Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), the African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), for financial and technical support without which the First National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity and the NBSAP would not have been possible.
(ix) List of figures
PAGE Figure 1. Map of Malawi ...... 3 Figure 2. Biodiversity hotspots of Malawi ...... 9 Figure 3. Indigenous fruit juices ...... 10 Figure 4. Deforestation in Malosa Forest Reserve ...... 12 Figure 5. Examples of rare, threatened and endemic plants not included in list of protected trees ...... 24 Figure 6. Some reptiles of Malawi ...... 26 Figure 7. Some frogs of Malawi ...... 26 Figure 8. Some birds of Malawi ...... 27 Figure 9. Some threatened mammals of Malawi ...... 28 Figure 10 Slash and burn (shifting cultivation) in Chitipa District, Northern Region ...... 29 Eichhornia crassipes Figure 11. Water hyacinth a major invasive aquatic plant . . 34 Figure 12. Some fish species of Lake Malawi ...... 35 Figure 13. Traditional cereals of Malawi ...... 42 Figure 14. Common and naturalised livestock types ...... 45 Figure 15. Summary of total fish catches in major waters of Malawi . . . . 47 Figure 16. Analysis of fish catch in Lake Malombe ...... 47 Figure 17. Common and notorious alien invasive species recorded in Malawi 67 Figure 18. Institutional structures for the implementation of the NBSAP . . 104
(xi) Table of contents
PAGE Chapter One: Introduction Topography...... 1 Climate ...... 1 Soils...... 1 Vegetation ...... 1 Population ...... 1 Economy...... 2 Land Tenure ...... 2 Chapter Two: Malawi’s Rationale for Biodiversity Conservation in Malawi What is Biodiversity? ...... 5 Importance of biodiversity ...... 5 Malawi’s response to biodiversity conservation ...... 7 Threats to biodiversity ...... 10 Rationale for biodiversity strategy and action plan for Malawi . . 12 The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Process . . . . 14 Chapter Three: Vision, Goals and Guiding Principles for Management of Biodiversity Vision ...... 17 Goals ...... 17 Guiding principles for biodiversity management in Malawi . . . . 19 Chapter Four: Strategies and Actions for Malawi’s Biodiversity Introduction ...... 21 Theme One: Terrestrial biodiversity ...... 22 Theme Two: Aquatic biodiversity ...... 33 Theme Three: Sustainable use of biological diversity ...... 41 Theme Four: Indigenous knowledge, access and benefit sharing . . . . 55 Theme Five: Biotechnology ...... 61 Theme Six: Invasive species ...... 66 Theme Seven: Biodiversity policies and legislation ...... 74 Theme Eight: Community participation and awareness ...... 80 Theme Nine: Information, knowledge and capacity ...... 85 Theme Ten: Incentives measures ...... 91 Theme Eleven: Malawi’s role in global biodiversity conservation . . . . 95 Chapter Five: Strategic Priorities and Implementation Arrangements Strategic priorities ...... 99 Implementation arrangements ...... 105 Implementation strategy ...... 109 Annex 1 . List of task force members for the NBSAP project . . . . 111 Annex 2 . Glossary of terms ...... 113 Bibliography ...... 117 Acronyms and Abbreviations
ABS Access and Benefit Sharing ACTS African Centre for Technology Studies ARET Agricultural Extension Research and Technology AU African Union BCFP Blantyre City Fuelwood Project BNRML Block National Resource Management Committee BSAP Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan BSP Biodiversity Support Programme BVCs Beach Village Committees CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBNRM Community Based Natural Resources Management CBOs Community Based Organisations CCANR Cabinet Committee on Agriculture and Natural Resources COJEA Coalition of Journalists for Environment and Agriculture COMPASS Community Participation for Sustainable Resource Management in Malawi COP Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity CURE Coordination Unit for the Rehabilitation of the Environment DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DARTS Department of Agricultural Research and Technical Services DDP District Development Plan DEAP District Environmental Action Plan DESC District Environment Subcommittee DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid DNPW Department of National Parks and Wildlife DREA Department of Research and Environmental Affairs EAD Environmental Affairs Department EDOs Environmental District Officers EIAs Environmental Impact Assessments ELISA Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay EMA Environmental Management Act EMF Environmental Management Fund EPA Environmental Protection Agency ESCOM Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi FCM Fisheries Conservation and Management Act FD Forestry Department FECO Forum for Environmental Communication DoF Fisheries Department FR Forest Reserve FRIM Forestry Research Institute of Malawi GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms GOM Government of Malawi GRBC Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Committee GTI Global Taxonomic Initiative GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation HIV/AIDS Human Immunovirus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ICDPS Integrated Conservation Development Projects ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre (International Centre for Research in Agroforestry)
(xiii) ICTP Information and Communication Technology Policy IFDC International Centre for Soil Fertility on Agricultural Development IGAs Income Generating Activities IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems IPR Intellectual Property Rights IUCN The World Conservation Union (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) LSM Law Society of Malawi MASAF Malawi Social Action Fund MBERU Molecular Biology and Ecology Research Unit MDI Malawi Dairy Industries MEET Malawi Environmental Endowment Trust MIRTDC Malawi Industrial Research and Technology Development Centre MMCT Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust MoA&FS Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security MoE Ministry of Education MoGC Ministry of Gender and Community Services MoHP Ministry of Health and Population MoJ Ministry of Justice MoLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MoLPPS Ministry of Lands, Physical Planning and Surveys MoLVT Ministry of Local and Vocational Training MoMNRE Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment MoT&PSD Ministry of Technology and Private Sector Development MoWD Ministry of Water Development MPRSP Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper MRA Malawi Revenue Authority MZUNI Mzuzu University NAC National Aids Commission NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NCE National Council for the Environment NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NEP National Environmental Policy NFAP National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy NFP National Forestry Policy NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NHBG National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of Malawi NORAD Norwegian Agency for International Development NPs National Parks NPGRC National Plants Genetic Resource Centre NRC Natural Resources College NRCM National Research Council of Malawi NSDC National Spartial Data Centre NSO National Statistical Office NSSD National Strategy for Sustainable Development NTFPs Non timber forestry products NWP National Wildlife Policy PAP Poverty Alleviation Programme PCANR Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture and natural Resources PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
(xiv) PFM Participatory Fisheries Management PPB Participatory Plant Breeding S&T Science and Technology SABONET Southern African Botanical Network SABSP Southern African Biodiversity Support Programme SADC Southern African Development Community THs Traditional Healers TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNIMA University of Malawi USAID United States Agency for International Development VFAs Village Forestry Areas VNRMCs Village Natural Resources Management Committees WAMP Water Resources Management Policy WEHAB Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity WESM Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi WMA Wildlife Management Areas WRMP Water Resources Management Policy WSSD World Strategy for Sustainable Development WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund
(xv) Executive Summary
This strategy was prepared in response to the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), which identified biodiversity loss as one of the major environmental concerns requiring immediate action. In addition this strategy demonstrates Malawi's commitment to implementing the requirement of the International Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It thus provides a strategic framework for action to conserve and sustainably use the biodiversity. The strategy is arranged into five chapters as follows. Chapter One Introduction
This chapter provides brief background information to Malawi highlighting the topography, climate, soils, vegetation, land tenure, population and economy. Chapter two Rationale for Biodiversity Conservation in Malawi
For the ordinary Malawian, biodiversity means sources of livelihoods, God given and therefore unlimited. Both early and current natural resource management policies follow a sectoral approval and treats biodiversity under a separate sector. The official interpretation of biodiversity, therefore, appears to be fundamentally different, from that of the ordinary Malawian. Taking the CBD definition as a benchmark, the clear understanding of the perception of various stakeholders is considered an important step towards sustainable biodiversity management and conservation. Malawi's biodiversity is unique and thus contributes to the global biodiversity. It is important to the human society, being a source of food, medicine, fodder etc. Thus this global and national importance of biodiversity gives us the obligation to ensure its continued existence. Despite this importance, biodiversity is threatened by the dramatic loss of habitats, habitat fragmentation and isolation of the remaining communities. High population and density are also considered the greatest causes of biodiversity degradation since more land is cleared for agriculture and settlement. Other threats to biodiversity include invasive species, genetically modified organisms, inadequacy of policies and market failures. For effective implementation these threats must be understood. Chapter three Vision, Goals and Guiding Principles for Biodiversity Management in Malawi.
The vision
The vision for this biodiversity strategy is to conserve, protect and manage by the year 2020 all forms of life for all people with full participation of all stakeholder, and to use the biodiversity sustainably and where benefits accrue to share them fairly and equitably. The strategy established four goals which highlight Malawi's commitment to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use at the national, regional and international levels and summarise the outcomes that Malawi intends to achieve through the implementation of this strategy, as follows. Goal one
Actively protect, conserve and maintain protected areas, mountains and species within them; promote restoration of degraded and vulnerable ecosystems and habitats and recovery of rare and threatened species.
(xvii) Goal Two
Enhance and improve biodiversity knowledge base through research; strengthen and build human and infrastructure capacity for effective information dissemination and research. Goal Three
Enhance agricultural production through active protection and management of agricultural biodiversity and support initiatives that encourage fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of the genetic resources. Goal Four
Enhance community understanding and appreciation of biodiversity, and support coordinated community action to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity. Eight principles are identified to guide the conservation and management of biodiversity and the implementation of this strategy. These principles are similar to those presented in Environmental Management Act and National Strategy for Sustainable Development. Chapter four Strategies and action for Malawi’s biodiversity
Guided by the goals and guiding principles for biodiversity conservation and management, the strategy identified a total of 192 actions which are grouped into the following eleven themes: terrestrial biodiversity; aquatic biodiversity; sustainable use of biological diversity; indigenous knowledge, access and benefit sharing; biotechnology; invasive species; biodiversity policies and legislation; community participation; information, knowledge and capacity; incentive measures; and Malawi's role in global biodiversity conservation. The focus of each theme is summarised in a brief but concise scope. This is followed by a description of desired outcomes to be achieved when the actions are implemented. A description of the status of the biodiversity component is provided and is followed by a description of current biodiversity management regimes. Based on this, gaps and inadequacies in our biodiversity knowledge are identified. Strategies and actions are formulated as interventions for the gaps and inadequacies. Major issues for each theme were varied but can all be summarised into the following broad categories. ● Inadequate public participation and awareness ● Inadequate and unharmonised sectoral policies ● Unsustainable use of genetic resources ● Inadequate infrastructure, institutional and human capacity ● Inadequate biodiversity knowledge base ● Lack of sustainable financing mechanisms Chapter Five Strategic Priorities, Targets and Implementation Arrangements
A total of 192 actions were identified to be implemented over a period of fifteen years. Of these 24 were prioritised based on the extent to which they address the existing gaps in biodiversity conservation and the extent to which they would contribute to the implementation of Global 2010 targets. Priority actions are grouped into the following five broad categories:
(xviii) Infrastructure and human capacity enhancement that will contribute to substantial improvements in our knowledge and understanding of the biodiversity. Enhancement and maintenance of partnership and relationships between government departments and communities, government and the development partners and NGOs. Promoting sustainable use of genetic resources through promoting systematic protection and characterisation of agrobiodiversity and protection from biopiracy, invasive species and pests. Enhancement of good governance by prioritising actions that encourage Malawi to continue taking a leading role in coordinating and monitoring implementation of natural resource programmes, and provision of funding for biodiversity programmes through the national budget. Enhancing protected areas management through community participation, research, information management and policy enforcement. Implementation arrangement
This strategy and actions are directed at all stakeholders involved in the management and utilisation of biological resources and its implementation will require their active participation. However, the primary responsibility for the implementation of this strategy should continue to rest in the Environmental Affairs Department. For effective implementation, this will be supported by coordinating mechanisms through a biodiversity secretariat and a committee which shall among other things oversee and coordinate the development of a detailed workplan for the implementation of this strategy. The National Biodiversity Secretariat will require professional staff, infrastructure and continuous financial support. This will only be possible if the portion of the Environmental Fund is earmarked for biodiversity programmes and supplemented by government funding through the national budget.
(xix) Chapter one Introduction Background Information to Malawi Topography widespread of the group are the shallow stony soils associated with steep slopes. Malawi has a total area of 119,140 km² of These red-yellow soils include the which 20,902 km2 (20%) is made up of ferruginous soils of the Lilongwe Plain and inland waters dominated by Lake Malawi. some parts of the Southern Region and the Mozambique borders it to the south, east weathered ferrallitic soils, some with a high and west, Tanzania to the north and Zambia lateritic content, which are of low fertility to the west (Figure 1). and easily exhausted. The Haplic lixisols Malawi lies between latitudes 9º22' and include the alluvial soils of the lacustrine 17º03' S and longitude 33º40' and 35º55' E. and riverine plains; the vertisols of the The topography varies from near sea level in Lower Shire Valley and the Phalombe the lower Shire (i.e. 50 m above sea level) to plains; and the mopanosols of Liwonde and about 3,000 m on high mountains e.g. Balaka areas. Mulanje. Vegetation Climate As a result of its varied topography and The climate is continental with two distinct rainfall regimes, Malawi presents a rich seasons - the dry and wet seasons, which are mosaic of different habitats. Several characterised by large seasonal variations in attempts to classify the vegetation of temperature and rainfall. The rainy season Malawi have been made, but according to runs from November to April and the dry the classification by White, vegetation in season from May to October. The average Malawi is represented by three regional rainfall is about 1,200 mm per annum with centres of endemism: the Zambezian the highest rainfall being recorded in regional centre of endemism, the Nkhata Bay and Mulanje. Shire valley Afromontane Archipelago-like regional receives the lowest rainfall (below 900 mm centre of endemism, the Eastern (Forest) per annum). The mean annual minimum regional mosaic. This classification as and maximum temperatures range from modified by Dowsett-Lemaire identifies 12ºC to 32ºC. Temperatures are highest in nine major vegetation types (Table 1). The the rift valley and along the lakeshore and most extensive of these are: the miombo could be as high as 38ºC. The highest woodland, deciduous forests and thickets, temperatures occur at the end of October, evergreen and semievergreen forests, and but thereafter the rains usher in cool Afromontane grassland. weather. The lowest temperatures are Population experienced in high altitude areas, particularly the Viphya and Nyika plateaux, The population, currently estimated at 11 and the Dedza, Zomba and Mulanje million people and growing at 2%, down mountains. from 3.2% in 1994, has a density of 105 persons per sq. km. This decline in Soils population growth is due to the repatriation of Mozambique refugees and the impact of Malawi’s soils are dominated by three major HIV/AIDS related diseases. The last census soil types: the Eutric leptisols (also known as in 1998 showed that the population lithosols), the Chromic levisols (latosols), distribution by region was 46.5% (south), and the Haplic lixisols. The most 1 41.4% centre and 12.1% (north). The or leaseholds. It constitutes 21% of the land Southern Region has the highest density of in Malawi. Private land is land owned, held 162 persons per square kilometre, followed or occupied under freehold title, or a by the Central and Northern Regions with certificate of claim, or which is registered as 113 and 44 persons per square kilometre, private under the Land Act and it respectively. Blantyre District has the constitutes 14% of the land in Malawi. highest density at 389/km2 while Chitipa has the lowest density at 29/km2. A land policy approved and adopted by the Malawi Government in 2001 aims at There has also been considerable rural to ensuring tenure security and equitable rural migration of farmers from the densely access to land. Following the adoption of populated southern highlands to the less this policy, the current Land Act is being densely populated central and the more reviewed. The revised Act will classify land sparsely populated northern regions. The into three categories: government, public level of urbanization is very low such that and private land. Government land will over 80% of the population lives in rural comprise land owned by the government areas. The high population densities have and put to specific national use. Public land resulted in a low land holding which is will be managed by the government or estimated at 0.8 ha per household. traditional authority, but exclusively for the Economy public whilst private land will include freehold and customary land allocated Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of exclusively to families or individuals and the country’s economy. The sector accounts leaseholds. Private land will be subject to for about 36% of the Gross Domestic common residual rights of the state such as Product (GDP), 87% of the total compulsory acquisition. employment, and supplies more than 65% Under the new land law, customary tenure of the manufacturing sector's raw materials. will be codified and granted full statutory Agriculture is also the main livelihood of recognition as free simple customary estate, the majority of rural people. registered and available for disposition Malawi’s agriculture is characterised by a under market conditions. Customary land dual system consisting of the smallholder will be demarcated and district/village sub-sector and the estate subsector. The registries set up and maintained throughout smallholder sub-sector operates on 4.8 the country. million ha of customary land and contributes 80% of Malawi's food and 10% of exports. The estate sub-sector concentrates on tobacco, tea and sugar, which account for 80% of all agricultural exports. Land Tenure
The Land Act recognises three land tenure categories: customary, private and public. Customary land is land that is held, occupied or used under customary laws but excludes public land. It constitutes about 65% of the land in Malawi. Public land is the land which is occupied, used or acquired by the government, and any other land which reverts to government on termination, surrender or fall-in of freehold 2 Songwe River Chitipa
Karonga TANZANIA
ZAMBIA Malawi
Mzuzu City Rumphi Lake Malawi
Likoma Island Mzimba MOZAMBIQUE
Nkhotakota M1 Road Ntchisi
Kasungu Dowa Bua River Salima
Mangochi Lake Malombe Lilongwe Shire River Dedza
MOZAMBIQUE Ntheu Lake Chilwa
Mwanza Zomba
Blantyre Mulanje
Chikwawa
Nsanje
Figure 1. Map of Malawi
3 Malawi examples and Namizimu FRs and Kasungu NP. NP and Lower Majete WR Vinthukutu, Mulanje, Viphya and Nyika Nkhata Bay (Kalwe, Nkuwadzi forests). Mulanje, Nyika). Dedza Mountain, Zomba-Malosa mountains. Mulanje mountain. Nyika National Park. Nyika National Park. Dedza and Mulanje mountains. Dzalanyama FR. Ntchisi mountain, Misuku Hills,Dedza, Nyika Zomba, and Mulanje Viphya mountains. plateaux; species. Lilongwe and drier lake shore plains. . Mua Tsanya FR, Vwaza marsh, Liwonde Combretum species Widespread and common on larger mountains (Dedza, and Erica Acacia Defining characters Isoberlinia Colophospermum mopane Arundinaria alpina and Julbernardia but often dominated by Intermediate between forests and woodlands. Small fragments are found in Nkhata Bay, Characterised by canopy speciesa deciduous month for and more understorey than species deciduous for several months and Sambani FR; Lengwe, Small Mwabvi, patches Rumphi of and deciduous Karonga. forests are found in Lengwe NP species Characterised by stunted individualsbushland of and thicket Mainly, secondary, fire-maintained grassland Nyika Misuku National Hills, Park, Mulanje Mulanje Mountain, mountain. Nyika and Viphya Dominated by Characterised by species adaptedinfluenced to by banks flood of river courses orCharacterised by the presence of only 0-25% of Afromontane Rivers in Nyika and Viphya Plateaux, Foothills around Thyolo and Mulanje mountains, and in Defined by flora containingAfromontane a elements mixture of lowland andEssentially evergreen Mulanje foothills, Kaning'ina FR, Chipata mountain. forest Vegetation type forest forest (Divided into miombo, mopane, and undifferentiated woodlands) Zambezian miombo woodland. Dominated by species of Brachystegia, alone or with Small fragments are found in Chimaliro Zambezian mopane woodland. Dominated by Zambezian undifferentiated woodland Defined by the absence of miombo and mopane dominants Once common in Shire Valley, Phalombe, (subdivided into riparian, lowland, mid altitude and Afromontane rain forests) Riparian forest Widdringtonia whytei Juniperous procera Lowland rain forest Mid altitude rain forest Afromontane rain forest They occur on high plateaux (2250-2450 m) Hagenia abyssinica : Dowsett-Lemaire (2001) Table1: Vegetation types of Malawi Zambezian Woodland Transition woodland Deciduous forests and thickets Evergreen forest Afromontane shrubland Source Afromontane grassland plateaux, Afromontane Bamboo Afromontane evergreen bushland and thicket Defined by the dominance of Undifferentiated Afromontane forests 4 Chapter Two Rationale for Biodiversity Conservation in Malawi What is Biodiversity?
The term biodiversity is defined as natural resources are God-given and variability among living organisms from all therefore unlimited, has ironically inter alia sources including terrestrial, contributed to the current rate of marine and other aquatic systems and biodiversity loss. complexes of which they are part and includes diversity within, or between Both early and current natural resource species and ecosystems. The term management policies follow a sectoral biodiversity is however relatively new to approach which appears to favour the Malawi and as such is perceived differently management of economically important by stakeholders. The National resources (e.g. forestry, fisheries, wildlife, Environmental Policy (NEP) of 1996 affirms land and agricultural resources). Resources that Malawians are intrinsically linked to that are perceived not to be of obvious natural resources perhaps on the premise economic importance such as viruses, that natural resources are a source of bacteria are sometimes placed in a livelihoods provided by God. In addition, biodiversity sector which is not governed by natural resources are believed to possess a separate policy framework and a single spiritual powers. This is manifest in ritual institution. By treating biodiversity under a ceremonies, which are often conducted in separate sector, Malawi appears to consider the forests protected by traditional beliefs biodiversity as fundamentally different (e.g. Khuluvi forest in Nsanje and the from forest, fisheries, agricultural, wildlife, Ndunda forest in Makanjira, Mangochi). water and land resources. It would thus Such forests are often very small but very appear that the official understanding of valuable to the surrounding people. Some biodiversity is fundamentally different from Adansonia digitata species (e.g. , that of the Convention on Biological Pseudolanchnostylis baobab/mlambe and Diversity (CBD), which considered maprouneifolia , msolo) also hold traditional biodiversity as the variability among living values in the communities and are organisms at genetic, species and symbolized as holy trees. The protection ecosystems levels. accorded to individual species may extend Understanding the value of biodiversity as to other species around them, resulting in perceived by different stakeholders the protection of the entire ecosystem. including the local communities is therefore Although these traditional beliefs have an important step towards multisectoral contributed to community participation in and multicultural approaches to biodiversity conservation, the belief that biodiversity management. Importance of biodiversity
Contribution towards global biodiversity Malawi alone. Ninety-five percent of these species are haplochromine cichlids, which Malawi has unique and diverse flora, fauna are internationally recognized as an and ecosystems which are attributed to its outstanding example of rapid speciation, diverse climate, soils and topography. with a potential to provide greater insights Currently, with over 800 species of fish, 90% into the understanding of the evolutionary of which are endemic, Malawi is one of the process. Because of their sedentary habits, countries with the largest number and the most of the cichlids rarely migrate long most diverse communities of freshwater distances from their locality. The resultant fish in the world. Around 15% of the global isolation of communities has created species total freshwater species are found in Lake 5 endemic not only to the lake but to certain aquatic biodiversity such as fish, frogs and restricted areas within the lake itself. In turn water birds. this aspect has led to adaptive speciation of fish species, which is more diverse than the The driving force for Malawi's agricultural finches of the Galapagos Islands. sector is the rich agrobiodiversity (which is defined as the variability among living The level of endemism in plants, organisms associated with cultivated crops invertebrates, and mammals is not well and domesticated animals and the known. However it is estimated that ecological complexes of which they are a approximately 47 species of the 172 species part). Agrobiodiversity is often placed in of molluscs, 12 species of reptiles and about two broad categories: domesticated plants seven species of amphibians, especially and animals. Domesticated plants may be frogs, are endemic to Malawi. There is lack categorised as cereals, legumes, of detailed knowledge of the distribution commercial/industrial crops, wild food and status of endemic and/or rare plant crops, fruits and vegetables, and roots and species in Malawi. The 2002 IUCN Red Data tubers. List of Threatened Plants for Malawi, lists 14 endangered, 89 vulnerable, and 25 critically Tobacco is the major export earner for endangered species. Approximately 114 Malawi, contributing over 65% of the plant species are known from only a few foreign exchange earnings. Other important localities in Malawi but none of these are export commodities include tea and sugar, formally protected. Only eleven plant which, respectively, contribute about 10% species have legal protection in Malawi. and 11%. Maize, on the other hand, is the major staple food crop with 60% of the total It is clear from the above that Malawi's cropped land devoted to its production. biodiversity is unique and an important part Livestock contributes about 8% to Gross of the global biodiversity. The responsibility Domestic Product (GDP). Ruminants, such to conserve and manage the biodiversity as cattle, goats and sheep, and monogastrics, therefore does not rest in Malawi alone but such as pigs and chickens, constitute the also in the international community. livestock enterprises, which provide for both subsistence and commercial Value of biodiversity to Malawi requirements.
Human society is highly dependent on The full potential of Malawi's biological genetic resources, including those from wild resources in the health sector cannot be and semi-domesticated sources, for the estimated with certainty due to lack of data productivity of its agriculture, livestock and and research in the field of traditional fisheries. Malawi's economy is entirely medicine. It is envisaged, however, that based on the biological diversity and biological resources are a source of medicine services provided by the ecosystems. For or raw material for medicine. Globally it is instance, ecosystems perform services known that more than half of the world's beyond production of food, fibre, fuel and modern drugs are derived from biological income such as recycling of nutrients, resources and it is estimated that some control of local microclimates, regulation of 20,000 species of plants are used in local hydrological processes, regulation of traditional medicine. As biotechnology the abundance of undesirable organisms, makes new advances and new screening and detoxification of noxious chemicals. tools become available, there is increased Forests or grasslands prevent soil erosion, potential and interest in biodiversity as a replenish groundwater, and control source of both raw materials and chemical flooding by enhancing infiltration and information for developing new medicines. reducing run-off and are major sinks for green house gases. Aquatic ecosystems The fisheries sector is estimated to provide sanctuary or breeding nurseries for contribute 4% towards the GDP. Socio 6 economically the fisheries sector provides populations are threatened due to employment opportunities to people in unsustainable harvesting. fishing, processing and marketing. It is estimated that more than 250,000 people Wildlife maintained in forest reserves is along the major fishing areas depend on fish source of protein to the surrounding as a source of food and livelihood. It is also communities. Hunting, for the past decades, estimated that the fisheries sector provides constituted the major use of wildlife 60-70% of total animal protein in Malawi. resources and is probably the oldest subsistence and livelihood use of biological In the forestry sector use of biodiversity, resources in Malawi. In areas where human especially in forests adjacent to villages, is population is small and game is common, extremely important as source of fuelwood, nearly all animal protein consumed by the food (vegetable, tubers, fruits, insects, local population is derived from wildlife. mushrooms), construction material, medicines, etc. Commercial uses of the Tourism in Malawi thrives on natural forest plantations are mainly in form of resources and major resource attractions timber and firewood. Although a few include water bodies, parks, mountains and indigenous tree species yield good timber cultural heritage. The value of biodiversity most are poor in commercial timber. Species in terms of aesthetic value has never been Widdringtonia cuppresoides such as (Mulanje quantified although it was estimated that Pterocarpus angolensis cedar), (mlombwa), tourism, which was dominated by visits to Khaya anthotheca (mbawa) produce quality the lake and game viewing contributed 4.2% and durable hard wood and as a result their and 3.2% of the GDP between 1996 and 1997. Malawi’s response to biodiversity conservation
The government as far back as the 1920s set Affairs, MoREA) in 1994 but was up protected areas as a measure to conserve restructured three years later in 1997. The and protect the unique ecosystems, habitats Environmental Affairs Department (EAD) is and species (Figure 2). The main three now under the Ministry of Mines, Natural categories of protected areas-national parks, Resources and Environment (MoMNRE) wildlife and forest reserves-together cover and currently is the CBD focal point whilst approximately 185,000 ha and represent the research component (managed by the about 20% of the total land area. Lake National Research Council of Malawi, Malawi National Park forms the only NRCM) is under Office of the President and Fisheries Protected area in Malawi. Natural Cabinet (OPC). resources that are not part of the protected Malawi has for the past decade made areas network such as fisheries, water, significant progress in reducing the threats agriculture and land are guided by separate to biodiversity. For instance, through a policies and legislation. consultative process the government in 1994 Despite establishing a network of protected developed the National Environmental areas and policy frameworks, biological Action Plan (NEAP). The NEAP spells out resources have continued to decline. This strategies and actions that Malawi needs to prompted Malawi in 1991 to establish the put in place and undertake to conserve, Department of Research and Environmental sustainably use and manage the biological Affairs (DREA), which was mandated to resources. NEAP also identified threats to coordinate issues pertaining to research and biodiversity as one of the main key sustainable use of the environment. The environmental challenges in Malawi. The department was elevated to a full ministry Government in 1996 developed a cross (Ministry of Research and Environmental cutting environmental policy, the NEP and
7 enacted the Environmental Management Society of Malawi (WESM) is currently Act (EMA) that aimed at providing a legal implementing a community based natural framework for the regulation and resources project in Mwanza where establishment of sustainable environment communities are engaged in fruit juice Adansonia digitata utilization practices. To facilitate processing from Tamarindus indica implementation of NEAP Malawi in 1998 (baobab/mlambe) and developed an Environmental Support (bwemba) fruits, guinea fowl rearing, bee Programme (ESP) whose objective was to keeping, tree planting and cane furniture integrate environmental concerns into socio- making. Community Partnerships for economic development. In keeping with the Sustainable Resources Management in requirement of the NEP and the EMA, Malawi (COMPASS) empowered Natural Malawi undertook an environmental policy Resource Management Clubs around Nyika reform through which old legislation and National Park on community based natural policies pertaining to the conservation and resources management techniques. sustainable use of biological diversity (such as Forestry Policy, National Parks and Wildlife policy, Fisheries and Aquaculture policy, Water and Land policies) were reviewed and harmonized.
Various committees and working groups had been established to oversee and coordinate implementation of government biodiversity initiatives. These include the National Biodiversity Committee, which coordinates activities pertaining to the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity; Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Committee (GRBC) which controls access to genetic resources; The National Council for Environment (NCE) which is charged with environmental monitoring and thus operates like an environmental watchdog; and the CBNRM working group (an ad hoc-committee of the NCE) which was established to coordinate implementation of community based natural resources activities. The working group was also involved in the development of a CBNRM strategy and action plan.
The Government developed the National Environmental Education and Communication Strategy to raise awareness of the complexity of the environment, environmental issues and methods of sustainably managing the environment and other life support systems. Through this strategy community based natural resource management techniques have been disseminated to the communities. For example, Wildlife and Environmental
8 Nyika National Park has the highest number of large mammals and the highest concentration of Roan Antelopes in Africa. The main species are eland, reed back, roan antelope and zebras. It supports the world’s Nyika National largest breeding Park population of blue swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea). Its an area of high plant biodiversity with about 215 Orchid Lake Malawi is a World species. Heritage Site and is home to Vwaza Marsh about 15% of global Wildlife Reserve freshwater fish species. It has about 1000 fish species of which about 400 are endemic Cichild. Lake Malawi
Kasungu National Park
Kasungu National Park probably has the only wild dog (Lycaon pictus ) Nkhotakota Lake Malawi National Park population. In Malawi the Wildlife puku antelope an Reserve endangered species appears to be restricted to the park
Lake Chilwa is Ramsar site and also an important breeding site of migratory birds.
National Parks Liwonde Wildlife Reserves National Park Lakes International Boundary
Majete Wildlife Reserve
Lengwe National Park Mulanje mountain is Mwabvi a Man & Biosphere Wildlife Reserve with the Reserve highest number of (69) endemic plant Lengwe National park species including has the highest National Tree, the population of Nyala Mulanje Cedar. antelope. Together with Majete Wildlife Reserve they are the northern limit of the Nyala.
Figure 2: Biodiversity Hotspots of Malawi. a b
Figure 3: a Tamarindus indica b Adansonia digitata Indigenous fruit juices: ( ) (bwemba) fruit and fruit juice, ( ) (baobab/mlambe) fruits and fruit juice. Photos by D. Mauambeta (WESM) Threats to biodiversity
Malawi’s efforts to halt the currant rate of Despite this requirement deforestation is biodiversity loss can be achieved if factors widespread in forests within and outside that contribute to habitat loss, population the estates while enforcement of the 10% is growth and poverty are also reduced. These weak. factors are perceived here as major challenges to biodiversity conservation in Developmental activities contribute to Malawi. habitat loss through conversion of arable land, wetlands and forests for road Habitat loss and fragmentation construction, urbanization and human settlements. In addition, damming of rivers The greatest threat to biodiversity in for irrigation and water supply lead to Malawi is the dramatic loss of habitats, changes in ecosystems downstream and fragmentation of species and habitats and also impede migration of aquatic organisms isolation of remaining communities due to upstream and hence cut off species access to unsustainable land use practices. In Malawi spawning areas. agriculture, urbanisation, infrastructure development and human settlements are Invasive alien species the major uses of land. Invasive alien species have either been The agriculture sector comprises small, intentionally or accidentally introduced into medium and large-scale farmers. Malawi and threaten indigenous Small-scale farming is largely practiced by biodiversity through consuming and smallholder farmers whose land holding preying on them, competing with ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 ha. The small-scale indigenous species. The major threats to farming is characterised by continuous biodiversity are from invasive plants. There cultivation on the same piece of land, are four major invasive aquatic species in Salvinia molesta cultivation in wetlands and riverbanks, Malawi (e.g. water hyacinth, Pistia stratiotes encroachment into protected areas and and ), which mainly threaten cultivation on mountain slopes. This biodiversity through alteration of the practice has contributed to soils degradation microclimate and displacing the indigenous and has subsequently resulted in low aquatic flora and fauna. Terrestrial alien Eucalyptus Prosopis productivity. The estate sector is dominated species e.g. sp., sp., Gmelina arborea Lantana camara Rubus by tobacco, tea, coffee and sugarcane , , fruticosus production. Estates are required by law to also affect biodiversity in similar set aside 10% of their land for forests. manner.
10 Population pressure used to be the most abundant species, has almost disappeared because of loss of High population and density are considered spawning habitats along the rivers and river the greatest causes of biodiversity mouths. degradation since more land is cleared for settlement and in search of fertile areas to The high population and density has also increase food production. These activities resulted in increased demand for have directly contributed to the reduction in indigenous plant resources for food, forest cover from 45% in 1975 to 28% in the medicine, fodder, fuelwood and early 2000s. Of the 28% forest cover, 21% are construction material and has led to these forest reserves, national parks and wildlife becoming locally rare. This coupled with reserves, and 7% are customary land forests. unsustainable harvesting methods of plant Deforestation has resulted in soil erosion resources, such as uprooting, tree felling and reduction in species composition and and debarking have reduced their abundance and has increased sedimentation populations to non-sustainable levels. and siltation of many rivers and lakes. Wildlife is equally threatened due to The increased population has also brought increased population since deforestation for about great demand for fish for domestic cultivation and settlements destroys natural consumption leading to an increase in the habitats for large animals. Increased number of fishermen, localised fishing, and population also has resulted in increased reduced fish catches. In recent years, fish demand for game meat. For example, in landings have fallen dramatically due to Majete Game Reserve, elephants became overfishing and environmental extinct in 1992 due to poaching whilst in degradation. Total catches declined from Lake Chilwa over a million birds are 76,500 tonnes/year in 1990 to 43,000 tonnes captured every year primarily for food and in 1999, while per capita consumption for sale. declined from 10.2 kg/year to 7.0 during the same period. There has been a decline in the Land for human settlement cannot be Oreochromis spp stocks of . (chambo) in both determined with certainty. The southern Lakes Malawi and Malombe from 8,500 to region is heavily populated and this has 6,000 tonnes between 1984 and 2000, forced the communities to encroach into representing about 75% reduction in fish protected areas and estates. For example in catches. 2002, communities around Thyolo Forest Reserve encroached into the reserve for Lakeshore areas are also experiencing settlement and cultivation. To ease pressure ecological and environmental degradation on land, the government has embarked on a because of the very dense and increasing land reform programme in which families human population whose livelihood from densely populated districts in the depends on the utilization of a limited and south (Thyolo and Mulanje) would be diminishing resource base. Anadromous resettled in designated areas. fish species face more serious threats from unsustainable agricultural practices in As long as the population growth rate catchment areas where there is a complete remains high, pressure on land for damming of rivers without provision of fish settlements, agriculture and resource use ladders to enable migration of the fish into will remain the biggest challenge to the rivers to spawn. In addition, cultivation achieving sustainable biodiversity on riverbanks has been suggested to be conservation. responsible for the degradation and eventual loss of spawning habitats due to siltation, exacerbated by pesticide pollution. Labeo mesops For instance, (ntchila), which
11 Figure 4: Deforestation in Malosa Forest Reserve due to cultivation and charcoal burning. Photo by A. Chikuni
Poverty poverty. Poverty, therefore, forces people to Malawi is one of the poorest countries in the depend on natural resources for energy (fuelwood), food, construction material, world being listed 162 out of 175 in the medicine, and fodder. Thus Malawians are United Nations Human Development Report for the year 2003. The poverty forced by this low income base to trade-off situation in Malawi is critical considering long term sustainable resources for short that 52.40% of the population live below the term consumption of stocks since they poverty line whilst 22.40% live in dire depend entirely on the existing natural
Rationale for the National Biodiversity Strategy and Actions Plan
Malawi has an international obligation to of inland water ecosystems, marine and fulfil its commitments under the CBD, coastal biodiversity, impact assessment and which Malawi signed on 15th June 1992 and incentive measures. ratified on 28th February 1994. This Malawi also has a regional obligation to biodiversity strategy and action plan is contribute to regional biodiversity prepared in response to article 26 of the conservation initiatives through CBD and Decision II/17 of the Conference implementation of various regional of the Parties (COP), which requested protocols that Malawi is party to. Through Parties to focus the First National Report, as this strategy, therefore, Malawi would meet far as possible, on the measures taken to its obligations under the SADC Strategy on implement Article 6 of the CBD (Box 1). The Food Security, Natural Resources and conservation of biodiversity cannot be Environment which calls on member states separated from the conservation of unique to institute policy measures and ecosystems and habitats (e.g. wetlands) and mechanisms to protect the environment and as such this strategy attempts to respond to manage natural resources utilisation with a resolution VII of COP4 of the Ramsar view to achieving optimum sustainable Convention which notes with pleasure benefits for the present and future Decision IV/15 of the 4th meeting of the generations. CBD, to cooperate with other biodiversity- related conventions, and endorses the Joint At the national level this strategy is Work Plan with the CBD, in particular the considered a key strategy for sustainable collaboration and cooperation in the areas development. It provides strategic guidance
12 for the implementation of Chapter III, sustainable poverty reduction through Section 13(d) of the Malawi’s Constitution empowerment of the poor by promoting that calls upon the State to manage the rapid sustainable pro-poor economic environment responsibly in order to growth and structural transformation, prevent the degradation of the enhancing human capital development, environment; provide a healthy living and improving the quality of life of the most working environment for the people of vulnerable, and promoting good Malawi; accord full recognition to the rights governance, while mainstreaming key of future generations by means of cross-cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS, environmental protection and sustainable gender, environment and science and development of natural resources; and technology. conserve and enhance biological diversity of Malawi. In addition to this the strategy On the whole this strategy provides a provides guidance for the implementation framework and guidelines for the of the Malawi poverty reduction strategy conservation of the biological resources, the paper (MPRSP), which was launched in sustainable use of its components and the 2002. The PRSP aims at achieving fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of its utilization.
Box 1. The Convention on Biological Diversity
Article 1. Objectives
The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant provisions, are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding. Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use
Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities: a ( ) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned; and b ( ) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. Article 26. Reports
Each Contracting Party shall, at intervals to be determined by the Conference of the Parties, present to the Conference of the Parties, reports on measures which it has taken for the implementation of the provisions of this Convention and their effectiveness in meeting the objectives of this Convention.
13 The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Process
This NBSAP has been prepared through a In order to ensure public participation in the broad-based interactive participatory preparation of this plan, two national process comprising eight task forces but workshops and three regional workshops coordinated by the Environmental Affairs were organised. Political input was sought Department. The task forces comprised through a national consultative workshop experts drawn from government and direct contact with senior government departments, non-governmental officials. Both national and international organizations and parastatal organizations experts in the field of biodiversity also (Annex One). reviewed the document.
The task forces collected and collated Malawi’s biodiversity strategic planning information to document and assess was funded by the Global Environment biological resources covering plants, Facility (GEF) and facilitated by the United microorganisms, wild and domesticated Nations Environmental Programme animals, ecosystems, domesticated and (UNEP). UNEP provided technical expertise introduced species, land use issues, socio- to implement the project. Other partners economic aspects, and legislation, in order included the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), to identify gaps and inadequacies in the African Centre for Technology Studies Malawi's biodiversity knowledge base and (ACTS) and the World Conservation Union management. Issues of biosafety although (IUCN). Supplementary funding was addressed under a separate initiative were obtained from the SADC Biodiversity considered an important aspect of NBSAP Support Programme (SADC BSP) and the considering Malawi's obligation to Norwegian Government through the implementing the Biosafety Protocol. Task Biodiversity Support Programme in order Forces were guided by a set of objectives for to ensure that the strategic planning the NBSAP process (Box 2). The objectives included all emerging issues such as were developed on the basis that the Biosafety, the ecosystems approach, NBSAP is the beginning of a continuous regional issues and the Clearing House process and as such their achievement will Mechanism (CHM). be guided by the timeframe of this strategy.
14 Box 2. The Objectives of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Process
The objectives of the NBSAP process were stated at the beginning of the project, as follows:
● To review documentation of the biological diversity of Malawi covering plants, animals, micro-organisms, genetic material and ecosystems;
● To identify gaps in the knowledge-base and existing efforts to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity resources, and to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from such use;
● To assess our knowledge of the various components of biological diversity;
● To assess and identify biological resources requiring immediate statutory protection;
● To assess and evaluate current indigenous knowledge systems pertaining to the conservation, sustainable use and the fair and equitable sharing of its benefits;
● To determine the social-economic value of biological diversity and the benefits arising from conservation and sustainable use thereof;
● To assess the capacity of institutions and personnel in meeting the demands imposed by the requirement to conserve, sustainably use, and fairly and equitably share the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources of the country's biological diversity;
● To initiate creation of a database for use in raising public awareness for protection and sustainable use of biodiversity resources in Malawi;
● To promote the integration of biological diversity conservation, sustainable use and the fair and equitable sharing of its benefits into sectoral and cross-sectoral policies, plans and programmes in the country;
● To foster collaboration between neighbouring countries in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from such use.
15 Chapter Three Vision, Goals and Guiding Principles for Biodiversity Management in Malawi
The Vision
The vision for this biodiversity strategy is to long enough to permit effective conserve, protect and manage by the year implementation of complex strategies and 2020 all forms of life for all people with full also to allow for revision of this biodiversity participation of all stakeholder, and to use strategy plan. The timeframe is also the biodiversity sustainably and where compatible with the Malawi National benefits accrue to share them fairly and Strategy for Sustainable Development equitably. (NSSD, to the year 2015) formulated following the landmark World Summit on The vision has been selected to closely Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in parallel that shown in the National Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002 as a Constitution, which requires the follow-up to the United Nations Conference government and the people of Malawi, on Environment and Development among other things, to strive to prevent (UNCED) of 1992. The timeframe is also degradation of the environment and adequate to enable Malawi contribute to the enhance conservation of biological 2010 targets of reducing biodiversity loss by diversity. This vision thus attempts to 50% as agreed by the global community, describe the overall desired outcome for this and achieve, by 2015, the Millennium strategic plan and also the overall approach Development Goals which were drawn to achieving the outcome. from the actions and targets contained in The year 2020 was chosen to coincide with the Millennium Declaration adopted at the the timeframe for Malawi Vision 2020, UN Millennium Summit in September 2000, which is the overall policy framework for in particular Goal 7 “Ensure environmental medium term socio economic development. sustainability”. In addition this timeframe is considered Goals
The goals attempt to highlight Malawi’s Under the CBD Malawi has sovereign rights commitment for biodiversity conservation, to conserve its biological resources and has sustainable use and equitable sharing of a responsibility to ensure sustainable use of benefits arising from the use of biological its biological diversity. Goal one provides diversity at the national, regional and for an enabling environment to reduce the international levels and summarise the current rate of biodiversity decline. This outcomes that Malawi intends to achieve goal also recognises that most habitats and through the implementation of this strategy. ecosystems are degraded and fragmented Goal one and species within them are threatened. Thus in keeping with CBD's emphasis on Actively protect, conserve and maintain conserving species in nature (in situ protected areas, mountains and species conservation) and ex situ, this goal provides within them; promote restoration of for habitat restoration and species recovery degraded and vulnerable ecosystems and programmes. habitats and recovery of rare and threatened Most ecosystems and biological resources species. are represented in protected areas, 17 mountains, private and customary land. In in the format not accessible by stakeholders. recognition of this, goal one provides for Furthermore, most biodiversity information improved management and conservation of and data relevant to Malawi is held in protected areas and mountains, increasing foreign institutions. In order to facilitate the number of protected areas and access to biodiversity information and data, involvement of the private sector in goal three reflects on the focus of CBD in biodiversity management. creating a Clearing House Mechanism and on protecting Malawi's indigenous For this goal to be achieved, however, knowledge and access to Malawi's Malawi must establish its targets in terms of biodiversity data and information. specific species and ecosystems to be conserved. The biggest challenge for Malawi to achieve Goal Two this goal is inadequate human and infrastructure capacity. In line with CBD Enhance sustainable use of biological decisions pertaining to technical and diversity including agricultural production scientific cooperation, access to and transfer through active protection and management of technologies, Malawi plans to achieve of biological resources and support this goal through institutional collaboration initiatives that encourage fair and equitable at national, regional and the international sharing of benefits arising from the use of levels, and through establishing regulatory the genetic resources. frameworks on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS). This goal recognises the emphasis Malawi places on agriculture as the engine of Goal Four economic development and food security. Enhance community understanding and This goal also recognises that the current appreciation of biodiversity, and support agricultural practices appear to contribute coordinated community action and to genetic erosion since they favour incentives to conserve and sustainably use improved introduced species. In order to biodiversity. ensure that genetic resources continue to steer the economy of Malawi, goal three has Goal four recognises that early management provisions for protecting agrobiodiversity plans that focused exclusively on against invasive species, genetically enforcement contributed to the current modified organisms and biopiracy. biodiversity loss. It also recognises that Goal Three every Malawian contributed either directly or indirectly to the present situation and Enhance and improve biodiversity thus calls on every Malawian to contribute knowledge base through research; to conservation and management of strengthen and build human and biodiversity. infrastructure capacity for effective information dissemination and research. The goal recognises that communities, individuals and organisations can actively The CBD calls on parties to make participate in biodiversity conservation if inventories of their biological resources. they are informed about the importance and This information is crucial in decision values of biodiversity. People are likely to making regarding what to conserve and participate more in biodiversity how much to conserve. The goal, therefore, conservation if opportunities and is a prerequisite for effective constraints that influence their behaviour implementation of in situ and ex situ towards biodiversity are provided. Thus conservation of biodiversity elements in apart from emphasising on mechanisms for relation to sustainable use of genetic better understanding, information exchange resources. and support, goal four seeks to provide for incentives for biodiversity conservation and Goal three recognises that current community participation. biodiversity information is scattered and is 18 Guiding principles for biodiversity management
These guiding principles were adopted issues in sectoral policies, and in the from the NEP and from the list of unmet coordinated implementation of needs for biodiversity conservation that existing and new policies and were identified during the consultation research. period. g ( ) The conservation of biodiversity a ( ) Conservation of biological diversity should be supported by is a form of natural resource opportunities and constraints that as management whose primary goal is much as possible influence the the maintenance of biological behaviour of individuals and resources to meet the needs and organisations and facilitate aspirations of both present and conservation and sustainable use of future generations. biodiversity. b h ( ) Biodiversity has an intrinsic value ( ) Sound decision making on and is vital for agricultural, conservation and sustainable use is medicinal, scientific, research, possible when individuals and tourism and other socio-economic policy makers have a better developments. understanding and appreciation of biodiversity. c ( ) As custodians and users of biological diversity, local communities have accumulated knowledge, skills and information relating to conservation and management of biodiversity, which can be utilized to promote sustainable management of biodiversity. d ( ) Indigenous knowledge systems provide important knowledge in the agricultural, medical and pharmaceutical industries that has provided a significant proportion of modern technologies and products. e ( ) The conservation of biodiversity both within and outside protected areas including mountains is best done following the ecosystems approach and ex situ conservation is only important to support conservation of rare and threatened species. f ( ) The government is responsible for providing direction and leadership especially in integrating biodiversity 19 Chapter Four Strategies and Actions for Malawi’s Biodiversity
Introduction
These strategies and actions are based on The themes are structured in such a way the information gathered by the eight task that each follows the same format. Each forces on the following issues: theme has the following successive parts: microorganisms, wild and domesticated scope; desired outcome by the year 2020; a animals, ecosystems, land use, socio- brief review of the current state; current economics, domesticated and introduced management regimes; and a summary of species, information and legislation. The issues which highlight major gaps and information has been organised to address problems, thus forming the basis for choice articles or thematic areas of the CBD. of strategies and actions. This layout was Guided by the goals and guiding principles preferred because it ensures that each theme for biodiversity conservation, the strategies is complete and also focussed on and actions are grouped in eleven themes. responding to specific issues. The strategy The relationship between the thematic outlines the overall objective for each areas, the goals and the CBD articles is theme, strategies and actions to be shown in Box 3. undertaken to implement the strategies. Most of the thematic areas address more than one CBD article.
Box 3 Relationships between thematic areas and CBD articles Goals Thematic Areas Target CBD Article
Protect, conserve, ● Terrestrial biodiversity Identification and monitoring (7) ● In situ maintain and restore Aquatic biodiversity conservation (8) ● Ex situ habitats and species Invasive species conservation (9) ● Biodiversity policies and Relationship with other legislation international conventions (22) ● Malawi’s role in global Impact assessment and minimising biodiversity conservation adverse effects (14) Research and training (12)
Conservation and ● Sustainable use of biological Sustainable use of components of sustainable use of resources biological diversity (10) biological resources ● Invasive species Incentive measures (11) ● Biotechnology Handling of biotechnology and ● Indigenous knowledge, distribution of its benefits (19) In situ access and benefit sharing conservation (8) Access to genetic resources (15)
Improve knowledge ● Information, knowledge and Exchange information (17) base, infrastructure capacity Technical and scientific and human capacity ● Terrestrial biodiversity cooperation (18) ● Aquatic biodiversity Access and transfer of technology (16)
Enhance community ● Community participation Public education and awareness participation and and awareness (13) appreciation Incentive measures (11)
21 Theme One: Terrestrial Biodiversity
Scope
Terrestrial ecosystems (including natural and modified habitats within and outside protected areas) and the indigenous species inhabiting these areas understood and conservation mechanisms put in place.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) Significant progress made in the conservation of species, habitats and ecosystems important for terrestrial biodiversity leading to increase in area under protection (such as forests and grasslands) and restoration of degraded areas. b ( ) Significant number of private landowners are managing and protecting species and habitats leading to a reduction in number of species requiring in situ and ex situ conservation. c ( ) A significant increase in the number of protected areas will lead to increased protection of a representative range of ecosystems and species and provision of legal status to some important ecosystems that are currently under customary and private land tenure systems. d ( ) Programmes and mechanisms to prevent establishment of pests including prevention of introductions, control and eradication of alien invasive species identified and implemented, resulting in less frequencies of pests and reduced impact of invasive species on terrestrial ecosystems. e ( ) A clear understanding of threats to biodiversity and ecosystems has been achieved and avoided or mitigated. Malawi's Red Data Lists have been revised and contribute to better decision-making on species recovery programmes and ex situ conservation. f ( ) Clear government guidelines and strategies on the conservation of mountain biodiversity and ecosystems facilitate community participation leading to gazetting more mountains as protected areas. g ( ) An understanding of the extent of Malawi's terrestrial biodiversity through inventories and systematic research has been achieved. State of terrestrial biodiversity
Terrestrial ecosystems Zambezian regional centre of endemism characterized by different forms of Several different methods of describing woodland and thicket, within the altitudinal ecosystem-level biodiversity have been range of 500-2050 m. Secondly, most of the applied to Africa e.g. White's vegetation “forest" category is in the uplands and map of Africa of 1983 and Eco-Floristic Afromontane elements are the most Zones of Sharma of 1988. These methods are numerous constituents of the forest based on the major vegetation type found vegetation overall, forming the growing in a particular area. These are Afromontane Archipelago-like regional perceived to provide an important center of endemism. The proportion of perspective on large-scale biodiversity in Afromontane endemic or near-endemic Malawi. species increases with altitude within the According to White’s classification, range 500-2450 m. Local factors of mountain vegetation in Malawi is represented by size and exposure play a role in determining three regional centres of endemism. First, altitudinal limits of various species. The the country lies entirely within the evergreen bushland/thicket and evergreen shrubland lie within the Afromontane 22 region, mainly above 1500-1600 m, while include Dedza, Ntchisi and Dzalanyama grassland is most extensive on some of the ranges. Mountains of Malawi are important high plateaux or in dambos at the lower sources of rivers and this was one of the levels. Thirdly, there are enclaves of reasons for establishing protected areas lowland rain forest with an important such as Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, proportion of the “Eastern” elements, Nyika National Park, Dzalanyama Forest forming the Eastern (Forest) regional Reserve, etc. Currently, most of the mosaic, altitudinal range 500-1300 m. This remaining biodiversity is on mountains and classification as modified by Dowsett- some of these, such as Nyika and Mulanje, Lemaire (2001) is adopted here, recognize are biodiversity hot spots in Malawi. nine major vegetation types, which are However, due to population pressure and summarised in Chapter One, Table 1. agricultural expansion there is extensive encroachment into mountains and some of In 1975 about 47% of Malawi was classed as these have been completely deforested. forest but this was reported to have reduced Diversity of terrestrial species to 28% in 2000. With the ever-increasing population and deforestation rate of 2.8% The high diversity of terrestrial habitats and per annum, Malawi's forest cover is likely to ecosystems, ranging from dry miombo to reduce further. There has been extensive Afromontane peaks coupled with diverse deforestation of Miombo woodlands soils and climate support a wide range of outside protected areas for various reasons plants and animals. A substantial amount of e.g. fuelwood for domestic purposes and Malawi's indigenous terrestrial species has curing of tobacco, charcoal production for been documented although many taxa supplying urban areas and clearing for remain poorly documented/known and the gardens/shifting cultivation (e.g. total number of species is undoubtedly Chitemene in Chitipa). much higher than the currently recorded Most of the evergreen forests occur in numbers. From the available information it protected areas, such as Forest Reserves, is possible to make general statements on National Parks and Wildlife Reserves. species diversity and current status for the However, those close to the urban areas following major groups of organisms. with valuable timber such as Mulanje cedar Microorganisms (Widdringtonia whytei) are prone to extensive exploitation. In areas with high The term microorganisms often human population some evergreen forests encompasses viruses, bacteria and protists. (e.g. Thyolo Mountain) have been clear About 600 species of microorganisms have felled because of encroachment for so far been documented comprising 89 agricultural activities. Similarly most species of viruses, 60 species of bacteria and montane grasslands are under protection in 23 species of protozoa. Almost all virus Forest Reserves and National Parks, but species recorded in Malawi are associated wetlands, especially dambos outside with agricultural crops (42 species) and protected areas, are subjected to cultivation livestock (30 species). This also applies to or overgrazing. bacteria most of which e.g. Agrobacterium, Eiwinia, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas are Malawi's topography is dominated by known plant pathogens. mountains, mountain ranges, plateaux and Fungi hills. The highest mountain (Mulanje mountain), Zomba and Malosa mountains Despite their well-known role in comprise the largest highland area east of decomposition of organic matter and the rift valley. In the northern region, Nyika nutrient recycling, fungi are the least and Viphya plateaux cover large areas. appreciated. Only 500 species have been Notable mountains in the central region documented most of which are associated
23 with major economic crops such as maize, diversity, despite being primary producers rice, cassava, and cotton as pathogens. In in food webs of all water bodies and a major addition to contributing to ecosystem source of food for fish productivity, is stabilisation fungi are also a source of food scanty. and income to many rural Malawians considering that over 53 species are edible Vascular Plants mushrooms. Pteridophytes (ferns and allies) and Plants angiosperms: A total of 200 species of Pteridophytes belonging to 32 families have The total number of terrestrial plant species been recorded. About 5,500 species of in Malawi is not known but available flowering plants have been described in records indicate that there are Malawi of which about 4,000 are approximately 6000 plant species. dicotyledons and about 1,500 are monocotyledons. Lower Plants Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) and Of the total number only 261 species are algae: A total of 168 bryophytes have been considered threatened, vulnerable, rare or described in Malawi. Only 66 algal species, endangered. Despite the high number of mostly belonging to Chlorophyta, have been threatened species only eleven plant species documented. Our knowledge of algal have legal protection (Table 2).
a
b c
Figure 5: Examples of rare, threatened and endemic plants not included in list of protected trees; (a) Erythrina abyssica , Photo by A. Chikuni, (b) Aloe sp. Source : Lake Chilwa wetland Project, (c) Widdringtonia whytei , Mulanje cedar, Photo by Carl Bruessow (MMCT).
24 Table 2. Plant species that are protected by law in Malawi.
Scientific Name Common Name Vernacular Names Breonadia microcephala Redwood Mwenya; Chonya; Mgwenya; Mung'ona; Mwina; Mungwina Afzelia quanzensis Mahogany Bean Msambamfumu Borassus aethiopum Deleb Palm, Mvumo Palmyra Palm Bridelia micrantha Coast Goldleaf Mpasa Burkea africana Ash Mkalati; Kalinguti Colophospermum mopane Butterfly Tsanya; Sanya; Mopani Tree/Turpentine Cordyla africana Sunbird Tree, Mtondo Wild Mango Hyphaene crinata Doum Palm Mgwalangwa Khaya anthotheca Mahogany Mbawa Pterocarpus angolensis African Taek Mlombwa Terminalia sericea Yellow Wood Napini; Mpini
Source: National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP, 1994) Invertebrates of certainty. However, a total of 7,805 species have been collected. Coleoptera and The precise number of invertebrate species Lepidoptera are the best known while in Malawi is not known with any degree of Plecoptera and Slvesiptera are the least certainty although it is estimated that there known. The list of endemic species is are over 8,000 species, including more than unknown. 7,000 insect species. Amongst the better- studied taxa, the molluscs contain 47 Vertebrates endemic species from a total of 172 species. Reptiles Eight species are listed by IUCN as either Bulinus nyassanus vulnerable e.g. There are 140 species of reptiles recorded in Lanistes (Planorbidae), or Endangered e.g. Malawi, represented in 22 families but very nasutus (Ampullaridae). Beyond those little is known of their conservation status. Lygodactylus bonsi - species of agricultural or forestry interest, Twelve species ( Gekkonidae chobiensis; Ramphholeon very little is known of the population ;L. platyceps chapmani; Trioceros gotzei nyikae; biology of any species. ; R. Proscelotes mlanjensis; Melanoseps ater ater; Nematodes Mabuya maculilabris maculilabris; Panaspis wahlbergii; Eumeces anchitae johnstonii; Approximately 173 species of nematodes Chaemaesaura macrolepsis miopropus; have been described in Malawi. Seventy Platysaurus mitchelli nematode species are plant parasites ) are thought to be belonging to such genera as Meloidogyne, endemic to Malawi. Distribution of these Radophous. However, species of free-living endemic species is poorly known and hence helminthes and those that parasitise fish should be treated as under conservation and insects are still unknown. threat. Insects In addition to the endemic reptiles, the following species/sub-species are An inventory of insects of Malawi is considered to be rare in Malawi: unavailable and as such the total number of Rhampholeon brachyurus, Sepsina tetradactyla, insects cannot be estimated with any degree Geochelone pardulis babcocki.
25 b
a c
Figure 6: Some reptiles of Malawi; (a) Mozambique spiting cobra, Naja mossambica Photo by Carl Bruessow (MMCT), (b) monitor lizard, Source: Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project, (c) crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus Photo by S. G. Thorisson. Amphibians Frogs (Rana spp .) and toads (Bufa spp. ) are by Amphibians are threatened with habitat far the largest group of amphibians (3,500 destruction. As land is cleared or drained species) worldwide in distribution and for agriculture their breeding sites occupy a great range of habitats. There are disappear, those which are left are often 74 species of amphibians recorded in polluted by industrial effluent, and even Malawi, comprising two species of Apoda sites far away from development may be (caecilians) and 72 species of Anura (toads affected e.g. by atmospheric pollution. The and frogs). There are no recorded species of removal of insects from the food chain Claudata (salamanders and newts). Few affects amphibians. Regrettably, studies have been carried out on amphibians do not provide the same amphibians and the current known species response as some other types of threatened richness is probably underestimated. animals and very few are protected per se.
Figure 7: Some frogs of Malawi (a) Chiromantis Xerampelina (tree frog) (b) Hyperolius Sp (reed frog). Source : Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project. 26 Birds found in only one or a few biomes. There About 648 species from 78 families, are no true national endemic bird species, comprising 456 residents, 94 but the thrush, Alethe choloensis, is found intra-African migrants of regular only in south-east Malawi and adjacent occurrence, most of which probably breed northern Mozambique, whilst three other Cisticola in Malawi, plus 77 regular and 12 vagrant species, the Black-lured Cisticola ( nigriloris Palaearctic species have been documented ), Churring Cisticola (C. njombe) Euplectes in Malawi. Over a third of all bird species in and Mountain Marsh Whydah ( psammocromius Malawi are considered to be uncommon or ), are found only in south- rare and of long-term conservation concern. western Tanzania and northern Malawi. Ninety-four birds in Malawi are restricted- range species,
b a
c d
Figure 8: a Haliaeetus vocifer Source Some birds of Malawi: ( ) Fish Eagle ( ), : www.biorsearch.org.uk/gallery/image- b Tauraco sehalwi c 14.htm. ( ) Sehalow's Turaco ( ). Photo by S. G. Thorisson, ( ) White faced-duck Dendrocygna viduata d ( ), Photo by S. G. Thorisson, ( ) Masked weaver sp. Photos by S. G. Thorisson. Mammals
About 188 species of mammal species from Rhynchocyon cirnei (Chequered Elephant- 37 families have been recorded in Malawi. shrew) are listed in the 1996 IUCN Red Data Of these seven: Lycaon pictus (African Wild List of Threatened Animals. Most of these Dog), Acinonyx jubatus (Cheetah), Panthera animals are found in protected areas and leo (Lion), Loxodonta africana (African their long-term survival outside protected Elephant), Diceros bicornis (Black areas could be problematic due to human Rhinoceros), Paraxerus palliates, activities. 27 a b
c d
Figure 9. a Some threatened mammals of Malawi; ( ) Rhino Diceros bicornis, locally extinct but reintroduced in Source b Loxodonta africana Liwonde National Park, : www.wildlife-pictures-online.com, ( ) (African c Tragegelaphus strepsiceros, Elephant), Photo by Craig Dockrill, ( ) Kundu (ngoma) Photo by Craig Dockrill; d Alcelaphus lichtensiteini, ( ) Hartebeest, Photo by Craig Dockrill. Current Management
Management of terrestrial biodiversity is ● Identifying and protecting rare and under a number of sectoral policies and acts. threatened species; These policies are grouped into three broad ● Identifying and restoring degraded categories: those related to utilization of biological resources (e.g. forestry, fisheries ecosystems; and and wildlife), those related to soil and water ● Protecting indigenous species and conservation, and those that influence habitats from alien invasive biodiversity utilization, e.g. land tenure and species. liberalization of agricultural production linked to biodiversity and ecosystem The terrestrial ecosystems under the management are described in Theme 7 customary land tenure system, mostly (Biodiversity policies and legislation). Most under subsistence agriculture, are prone to of these policies were revised in line with extensive deforestation for various reasons, the requirements of the NEP that was adopted in 1996 to promote sustainable e.g. fuelwood for domestic purposes and social and economic development through curing of tobacco, charcoal production for sound management of the environment in supplying urban areas and clearing for the country. gardens/shifting cultivation (e.g. Chitemene in Chitipa). These activities have Terrestrial plants are under the resulted in fragmentation of forests and management of the National Forestry Policy misrepresentation of species in protected of 1996, the National Parks and Wildlife areas. Policy of 2004, and the National Land Resources Management Policy and Strategy of 2000. These policies attempt to protect biodiversity and ecosystems through:
28 Figure 10: Slash and burn (shifting cultivation) in Chitipa District, Northern Region. Photo by Captain Steve Kasomphe. Summary of issues
Protecting ecosystems, habitats and ecosystems and habitats on private and mountains customary lands.
Malawi’s ecosystems and habitats including The current knowledge of terrestrial mountains, some of which are unique, are biodiversity in terms of taxonomy, under threat and are vulnerable to further conservation status, and socio-economic loss from such threats as deforestation value is inadequate, resulting in poor unhamornised policies etc. decision making in biodiversity conservation. In addition the level of To prevent further loss there is need for understanding of the general populous of harmonisation of sectoral policies and the term biodiversity is insufficient, making legislation dealing with biodiversity. it difficult for the policy maker to Deforestation has caused a considerable communicate effectively the meaning of level of soil erosion resulting into siltation of biodiversity conservation and the values or many of the water bodies, local extinction of gains in biodiversity conservation. indigenous species, and reduction in Private land owners, e.g. on tobacco estates, mountain biodiversity to unsustainable manage remnants of ecosystems and levels habitats based on existing regulations and Uncontrolled grazing and in many cases out of interest. For sustainable conservation overgrazing has seen the disappearance of of biodiversity on private land, private many shrub and grass species exaggerating landowners need incentives and recognition water runoffs and soil erosion. from government in order to increase their interest and willingness in biodiversity There is a need to identify and protect conservation. significant remnants of natural habitats, ecosystems and mountains through Mountains and mountain ranges are coordinated research and prioritisation of hotspots for biodiversity and need particular attention. 29 Habitat fragmentation The little that exists is not well integrated with habitat protection and management of There has been extensive deforestation of public land. There is growing interest in the forests within and outside protected harvesting indigenous species on land for areas for various reasons e.g. fuelwood for cultural and commercial purposes, but domestic purposes and curing of tobacco, policy and mechanisms to effectively charcoal production for urban areas and manage their use on a sustainable basis are shifting cultivation. This has produced lacking. many isolated remnants that are important for diversity but vulnerable to continuing Biodiversity knowledge base degradation. Evergreen forests and montane grasslands, though fragmented are Research and information about indigenous represented in protected areas. However, terrestrial biodiversity in terms of those close to the urban areas with valuable taxonomy, distribution, and patterns of Widdringtonia timber such as Mulanje cedar ( genetic flow, ecosystem function and whytei ) are prone to extensive exploitation. managing threats is still rudimentary. This In areas with high human population some has implications on decision-making, and evergreen forests (e.g. Thyolo Mountain) for interactive learning between research have been clear-felled because of providers and biodiversity managers. As a encroachment for agricultural activities. In result the diversity, uniqueness and this regard there is need for greater vulnerability of Malawi’s terrestrial recognition and action to restore fragmented habitats, ecosystems and species, and the and degraded habitats. process that threatens them, are not well Threatened species appreciated by the general public. Priority setting for biodiversity management cannot The number of indigenous species on land be achieved in the absence of such scientific known to be at risk from insufficient or information. degraded habitat, plant and animal pests, or Coordinated transboundary the adverse effects of human activities is not management known. Many populations of threatened species continue to decline as attention and Malawi shares her protected terrestrial areas funds are focused on a small number of with neighbouring countries, in highly threatened, and often most visually the same way that she shares her appealing indigenous species such as water bodies with these countries. elephants and rhinos. This requires that there are There is no coherent management of appropriate collaborative transboundary threatened species existing in the country. management agreements put in place. Action Plan Objective 1.1 Protecting terrestrial species, b ( ) Formulating a policy framework that habitats and ecosystems would promote conservation of Strategy 1.1.1 Enhance the existing network habitants and ecosystems important but of protected areas and initiate programmes not represented within the existing to protect the remnants of important protected area wetworks or that are at habitats and ecosystems on private and significant risk of irreversible loss or customary lands. decline. Actions c ( ) Harmonise sectoral policies and a ( ) Initiate and undertake biodiversity legislation related to biodiversity survey and assessment to identify conservation and provide guidelines to habitats and ecostystems of high species district assemblies on the implemention diversity and of particular importance of provisions contained in existing for indigenous biodiversity. policies. 30 d Objective 1.3 Threatened terrestrial ( ) Develop and implement programmes species management for sustainable conservation of ecosystems of biodiversity importance Strategy 1.3.1 including miombo ecosystems, Increase the population and mountain ecosystems, wetlands and distribution ranges of rare and threatened biosphere reserves. species and prevent additional ones from becoming threatened. e ( ) Promote and support sustainable Actions utilisation of genetic resources as a income generating activities. ( ) Review and strengthen all acts relating f to natural resource management in ( ) Encourage and support a grazing terms of their effectiveness in culture (or land carrying capacity) that protecting threatened species and would promote the improvement of ecosystems. shrub and grass species thereby b reducing threats to indigenous ( ) Promote and monitor sustainable use biodiversity. of threatened species through provision of licenses. Key players: NHBG, Museum of Malawi, c ( ) Undertake surveys and assessments to MZUNI, UNIMA, FRIM, MoJ, EAD, FD, identify and document threatened DNPW, MoA&FS WESM, MoLGDA species and revise the Red Data List for Objective 1.2 Terrestrial habitats and Malawi and Malawi's list of protected species restoration plants. d Strategy 1.2.1 ( ) Increase research into, and Restore areas of degraded development of, new technologies habitats and ecosystems and support techniques and programmes to combat initiatives and programmes that have existing and emergent threats to priority in species restoration, conservation biological diversity and promote and sustainable use of biodiversity. increase in population and distribution Actions range of threatened species. a e ( ) Develop and manage effectively ( ) Conduct and produce inventories of habitat and ecosystem restoration priority species and ecosystems programmes and initiatives to restore requiring immediate protection and habitats to a healthy functioning state. conservation. b Key players: ( ) Develop and implement national and MoA&FS, EAD, Gene Bank, DNPW, Museum of Malawi, NHBG, MoJ, locally based restoration strategies FRIM, WESM, UNIMA, MZUNI, DNPW. identifying priority areas for restoring biodiversity and develop opportunities Objective 1.4 Biodiversity knowledge for collaboration at the local, national base and regional levels. Strategy 1.4.1 Enhance the knowledge base c ( ) Encourage and support the protection, of Malawians on the extent of biodiversity maintenance and restoration of areas of and promote sound decision making in particular importance for the biodiversity conservation. conservation of selected indigenous Actions species. a Key Players: ( ) Develop appropriate methods for EAD, FD, DNPW, MoLG&RD, collecting, documenting, identifying, MoA&FS NHBG, WESM, NGO's and classifiying biological resources and Private Sector. promote production of inventories and checklists. 31 b ( ) Develop human, institutional and national capacities to identify, monitor and manage biodiversity and ecosystems through training in such courses as taxonomy, natural resources management, biodiversity assessment and ethnobotany. c ( ) Conduct needs assessment in biodiversity research, prioritise national research needs and undertake research in priority areas. d ( ) Develop and strengthen existing centres of biodiversity conservation and information management. Key Players: Museums of Malawi, NHBG, UNIMA, MZUNI, FRIM, EAD
32 Theme Two: Aquatic Biodiversity
Scope
Aquatic ecosystems such as lakes, small water bodies, rivers, marsh and swamp systems, and the species within them understood and conservation mechanisms put in place.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) Inventories of all aquatic ecosystems and species available, guidelines to promote research especially in the areas of ecology and taxonomy, and threats to biodiversity developed. b ( ) Increased public knowledge about the importance of aquatic ecosystems and their current threats has been achieved through public awareness and education campaigns. c ( ) Policies and legislation related to aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems are harmonised and strengthened and are supporting conservation and management of aquatic biodiversity. d ( ) Management plans for various types of aquatic ecosystems based on holistic and integrated approach put in place and instituted in a co-management arrangement. This will lead to an increase in number of aquatic protected areas and increase in protection of a representative range of aquatic ecosystems and species. State of aquatic biodiversity
Aquatic ecosystems Sediments also affect the productivity of water by reducing light penetration, thus Aquatic ecosystems cover about 26% of the affecting photosynthetic rates. A high input total surface area of Malawi (118,900 km2). of certain nutrients such as nitrogen, Four major types of aquatic ecosystems are phosphorous and silicon in the lake is on the recognised: lakes, small water bodies, increase. This is a symptom of nutrient rivers, marsh and swamp systems. The enrichment derived from agricultural lakes are the largest constituents of the activities in the catchment. If such high water systems and most of these comprise concentrations remain unchecked, there the areas occupied by the four major lakes may be an increase in the occurrence of (Lakes Malawi, Malombe, Chilwa and noxious algae which may produce toxins Chiuta). Lake Malawi is the largest water harmful to both fish and humans. body covering about 20% of Malawi's total Contaminants and pollutants arising from area and the most significant water body in urban and rural sources are mostly chemical terms of fish production and diversity. The in origin and enter the lakes via their main threats to lakes in Malawi are inflowing rivers and from the atmosphere. sediment loads, nutrient inputs, pollutants Although these do not currently constitute and contaminants, all generated from an immediate threat to the lakes anthropogenic activities. environment especially Lake Malawi, they need to be addressed. Recent water quality studies on Lake Malawi indicate that sediment deposits The exact number of small water bodies that from rivers that feed into the lake is on the include lagoons, manmade dams and ponds increase and these reduce the habitat of the is not yet known. The largest however, is demersal fish especially the ornamental fish the Chia lagoon situated in the central species that utilize the rocky littoral zones. region and is the fifth largest water body in 33 the country. The lagoon is important for fish There are numerous marsh/swamp systems production since it harbours more than 24 recorded in the country and these are fish species. Artificial water bodies such as associated with lakeshore basins, inland manmade dams and ponds are managed for basins, river floodplains and inland valleys. a variety of reasons including irrigation, Marshes are important habitats for a wide water supply, and generation of electricity diversity of plants and animals. Marshes of and fish production. the northern region (e.g. marshes of Chitipa Hills) are important habitats for waterfowl Malawi has six major river systems, the and large mammals. Most of the marshland Songwe, South Rukuru, North Rukuru, has been lost due to cultivation and invasive Dwangwa, Bua, Linthipe and the Shire. All species. The loss is very pronounced in the except the Shire River are major river central region where over 60% of the inflows into Lake Malawi. Rivers such as marshes and dambos have been lost to Ruo, Mwanza are major tributaries of the winter cultivation. Apart from the loss of Shire River. Most rivers, for part of their swamps and marshes due to anthropogenic length, flow through farmland and urban activities, invasive species such as water areas but for a few rivers some parts of the hyacinth are major threats to aquatic river systems flow through the protected biodiversity. areas. No river has any form of protection and many rivers are ecologically degraded by invasive species, sedimentation, cultivation and deforestation.
Figure 11. Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth a major invasive aquatic plant. Photos by A. Chikuni Aquatic biodiversity Vertebrates Fishes Aquatic life is diverse but the species richness is poorly known mainly due to Fish is the most studied group. The total inadequate research and ineffective number of species is estimated at 1,000 information dissemination. However, it is species in 14 families and 81 genera, thus reasonable to make general statements on representing approximately 15% of the the biodiversity of such groups as fish, global total of freshwater species and amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, approximately 4% of the world's fishes. invertebrates and aquatic plants. Over 800 fish species are found in Lake 34 Reptiles and Amphibians Malawi alone although less than 250 species are described. Ninety-five per cent of these species are endemic. The haplochromine Seventy-four species of amphibians have cichlids are the most common fish group in been recorded in Malawi of which 72 are Lake Malawi. With over 800 species the lake frogs and toads. There are 140 species of has the largest number and the most diverse reptiles represented in 22 families. Of these communities of freshwater fish species in reptiles, monitoring lizard, terrapin, turtles the world. The fishes of Lake Malawi are and some snakes such as pythons are therefore the most remarkably diverse and associated with the aquatic environment. abundant faunal groups in the world.
a
b c
d e
f
Figure 12: a Tilapia rendalli b Opsaridium microlepis Some fish species of Lake Malawi; ( ) ,( ) , mpasa, photo by G. F. c Anguilla bengalensis labiata d Marcusenium nyasensis e Maylandia zebra syn Turner ( ) - eel ( ) ,( ) : Pseudatropheus zebra f Aethiomastacembelus shiranus Source ,( ) - spiny eel. : www.malawicichlids.com, and www.hull.ac.uk/cichhds/fish-nonrich-gallery.html, 35 Mammals Invertebrates
Of the 188 mammal species recorded in The aquatic invertebrates, broadly divided Malawi Hippopotamus, rodents and Otters into insect and non-insect groups, are are the common mammals that have a true poorly studied and as a result their species affinity for aquatic habitats. Hippopotamus richness is uncertain. Recent studies on non- are on the decline due to conflicts with man insect aquatic invertebrates indicate that for habitats and if the present trend this group comprises 280 species (93 continues they may be completely lacustrine and 187 associated with water). decimated. These non-insect aquatic invertebrates include Molluscs, Nematodes, Crustaceans Birds (Copepod, Cladoceran, Crabs, Ostracods, The bird fauna comprises 648 species of Isopods, small prawns etc), Rotifers, which a high proportion has strong Annelids, Acarins and many others. affinities for aquatic habitats. Fish eagles, Chironomids, water mites and nymphs of grey-headed gulls, pelicans, open-billed various insects are the most common stork, white-breasted cormorant and pied amongst the insect group. Although the diversity of molluscs is low, there are kingfisher are some of the birds found in Neothauma ecclesi endemic species like and this country that show strong affinities for Bulinus nyassanus. aquatic habitats. These birds are valuable ecological components and are attractive to Vegetation ornithologists and tourists. For instance, the Aquatic vegetation comprises the vascular white-breasted cormorants are one of the macrophytic species, filamentous attached important predators on Lake Malawi and algae, phytoplankton and unicellular feeding studies estimated that the 10,000 demersal algae. The aquatic vascular plants cormorants consume about 950 tons of fish are the true macrophytic components of the per year. system and are categorised in terms of their Some Lake Malawi islands, such as life-forms as rooted emergent macrophytes Boadzulu and Mumbo in the past (e.g. reeds, bulrush, papyrus, hippograss), supported large colonies of white-breasted rooted macrophytes with floating leaves (e.g. water lily, water hyacinth), rooted cormorants, but populations have declined Vallisnera submerged with floating leaves ( possibly due to deforestation or hunting. spp Potamogeton spp . and .) and free-floating The largest density of fish eagles in the Azolla nilotica macrophytes (e.g. ). The world was supported by the Lake Malawi filamentous algae comprise at least 50 National Park, but currently the population species, but its taxonomy is poorly seems to be declining. Monitoring surveys understood. Phytoplankton and unicellular for the populations are needed to track the demersal algae comprise more than 60 trends. species and more species are being discovered. Current management
Aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems are deficiencies are addressed in the draft managed by complex and often conflicting Water Resources Management Policy of policies and legislations. Water resources 2004. are currently managed by the 1994 Water Resources Management Policy (WRMP), Most aquatic ecosystems are not protected which places much emphasis on provision except the southern part of Lake Malawi, of portable water. The policy fails to address Lake Chilwa, Vwaza Marsh, part of the issues pertaining to water resource middle Shire River and part of Elephant monitoring, assessment and Marsh. Lake Malawi National Park is the implementation of strategic plans. The only truly lacustrine park and was 36 established in 1984 as part of the the top-down approach, with the central Government Policy to conserve part of the government agencies deciding the issues lake biome, with particular reference to and needs of the fishing industry. rocky shore habitats and its specialised fish Compliance with management regulations, communities. The park was declared a however, is low due to inadequate UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. Lake enforcement of fisheries regulations caused Chilwa is a Ramsar site and was designated by financial and human resources as a wetland of international importance for constraints, and the open entry nature of the waterfowl habitat in 1997. fisheries, in particular the small scale fisheries. Some aquatic ecosystems, principally rivers and marshes, are partially protected where In view of the above unsatisfactory some portions fall within or pass through management regime, alternative fisheries the protected area but Malawi lacks a management arrangements have been wetlands policy framework to guide initiated especially in Lakes Malombe, management and conservation of wetland Chilwa and Chiuta. The new initiatives resources. involve the formulation of management plans which are being implemented through Fisheries management is under the Fisheries a more consultative and participatory Conservation and Management Act (FCM) approach referred to as Participatory of 1997, which seeks to strengthen Fisheries Management (PFM) approach. institutional capacity by involving various Long-term management objectives other stakeholders in the management of translated into management actions are the fisheries, including the private sector, local basis for the formulation of the management communities and NGOs. The FCM is plans. So far three management plans have implemented by the fisheries and been developed under the new initiative: for aquaculture policy, which among other Lake Malombe fisheries, for Lake Chilwa things encourages conventional and for the Chambo fishery. All the three management regulations. These regulations strategies have different objectives and are have previously been administered through implemented through PFM approach. Summary of issues
Conflicting policies and legislation achieve sustainable integrated management of the aquatic biodiversity the following Aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems are issues need to be considered: managed by complex and often conflicting policies and legislations, which are ● Encourage integrated watershed compounded by the existing weak management and minimize the institutional arrangements. This calls for current deforestation, biomass development of a comprehensive aquatic burning and winter cultivation that is biodiversity policy. wide spread in wetlands and Integrated watershed management riverbanks; these activities are a source of excessive nutrient The threats to aquatic biodiversity are enrichment, sedimentation deposits diverse and pervasive and are linked to and contaminants which affect growing anthropogenic activities of which ecological health of aquatic habitats. poverty and population growth are the root Consequently breeding sites for fish causes. Many land use practices adversely are destroyed, rivers evolve from affect the aquatic biodiversity through their being perennial to seasonal, and effects on the habitats and ecosystem types. excessive flooding occurs in the lower Other threats to the aquatic ecosystems are course. exploitation and pollution. In order to 37 Sedimentation also results in low understood. This low knowledge base productivity of water by reducing affects sound decision making on light penetration. conservation of aquatic biodiversity. ● Minimize activities (such as grazing, Habitat fragmentation drainage) that continue to reduce and degrade aquatic habitats and Due to population growth, new farmlands ecosystems. For instance marshes of are opened up for cultivation and Lilongwe plain and Bua River are settlements. This has created islands of important breeding sites for remnants of aquatic ecosystems, mainly endangered fish species (mpasa), dambos. Intensification of riverbank habitats for waterfowl and large cultivation has resulted in rivers being mammals but most of these unprotected and becoming seasonal. These marshlands have been lost due to islands of aquatic habitats require well- winter cultivation, grazing and designed restoration programmes in order introduced invasive species. to restore them to their original ecological health. ● Reduce flow of contaminants and pollutants (mostly chemical in nature) Coordinated management arising from urban and rural sources. Management of aquatic systems presents Protecting aquatic ecosystems and habitats special challenges because of the need to Malawi is rich in parks and reserves yet integrate land, water, forestry, fisheries and most aquatic ecosystems are not protected animals and to coordinate the use of a range fully. The designation of some aquatic of policy and management tools. Currently, ecosystems as protected areas under the the shared responsibilities are not properly National Parks and Wildlife Act will ensure articulated and this calls for mechanisms to that many distinctive natural habitats with ensure coordination of these activities. unique species that are threatened will be Malawi also shares her water bodies with protected from continuing degradation. neighbouring countries, in the same way This will also increase our knowledge of the that she shares protected terrestrial areas distribution and taxonomy of aquatic with these countries. This requires that species and will facilitate sustainable use of there are appropriate collaborative biodiversity and identification of threatened transboundary management agreements species. put in place. Our knowledge of aquatic biodiversity Open access
Our current knowledge of aquatic Aquatic ecosystems are open access where biodiversity and the ecological functions of property rights are virtually absent. This the aquatic ecosystems are still rudimentary makes management of the aquatic mainly due to the fact that many of aquatic ecosystems difficult. Currently, it is taxa remain undescribed. Furthermore, government responsibility to manage these threats to aquatic ecosystems are not well aquatic ecosystems. Action Plan
a Objective 2.1 Protecting aquatic species, ( ) Review existing policies and habitats and ecosystems legislation and create enabling policy Strategy 2.1.1 framework and harmonise existing Promote protection of the policies to promote conservation of existing network of aquatic protected areas aquatic habitats and ecosystems not and initiate programmes to provide legal represented within the existing protection to other aquatic habitats. protected area networks. Actions
38 b Objective 2.3 Threatened aquatic species ( ) Create and support alternative income management generating activities that can take away pressure from the unstable areas Strategy 2.3.1 such as wetlands and dambos and by Increase the population and so doing preserve the ecosystem. distribution ranges of rare and threatened aquatic species and prevent additional ones c ( ) Develop guidelines and programmes from becoming threatened. to promote integrated watershed Actions management and community a participation in conservation and ( ) Undertake surveys and assessments to sustainable use of aquatic biodiversity. identify and document aquatic d threatened species and revise the Red ( ) Establish a permanent office to be Data List for Malawi. responsible for the collection, collation, b storage and dissemination of aquatic ( ) Increase research into, and biodiversity conservation information. development of, new technologies and Key Players: techniques to combat existing and Museums of Malawi, UNIMA, emergent threats from plant and MZUNI, FRIM, MoJ, EAD, FD, DNPW, animal pests to indigenous MoA&FS, DoF, NRCM. biodiversity. Objective 2.2 quatic habitat restoration c ( ) Develop guidelines and programmes for Strategy 2.2.1 situ ex situ Restore degraded aquatic in and conservation of rare habitats and ecosystems and support and threatened aquatic species. initiatives and programmes that have d ( ) Promote private sector and priority in sustainable use of aquatic community participation in fish biodiversity. farming programmes. Actions Key players: MoA&FS, EAD, MoJ, UNIMA, a ( ) Develop and manage effectively MZUNI, DoF, MOLPPS. aquatic habitats and ecosystems Objective 2.4 Improve aquatic biodiversity restoration programmes and knowledge initiatives to restore aquatic ecosystems to a healthy functioning Strategy 2.4.1 Enhance the knowledge base state. on the extent of aquatic biodiversity and b ( ) Develop and implement national develop enough human, institutional and and locally based aquatic restoration national capacity to monitor, identify and strategies identifying priority areas manage aquatic biodiversity. for restoring biodiversity and Actions develop opportunities for a collaboration at the local, national ( ) Develop appropriate methods for and regional levels. collection, documentation and c curation of aquatic biodiversity. ( ) Develop guidelines and b programmes for the compilation, ( ) Develop human, institutional and inventory and prioritisation of national capacities to identify, degraded habitats and aquatic monitor and manage aquatic ecosystems that require priority biodiversity and ecosystems management and restoration. through training in such courses as Key players: taxonomy, conservation and EAD, MoA&FS, NPGRC, FD, sustainable use. DNPW, DoF,MoLGRD, MoLPPS.
39 c ( ) Develop and or strengthen existing centres of activity in biodiversity conservation and information management. d ( ) Enhance research on biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of the biodiversity. Key Players: EAD, FD, DNPW, DoF, UNIMA, MZUNI, NHBG.
40 Theme Three: Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity
Scope
Sustainable use of Malawi’s biodiversity components is supported by a strong and enabling national policy; and strong indigenous and local community participation.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) Guidelines and procedures for conservation and sustainable use of forest, fish, and wildlife biological diversity are in place and are resulting in the improvement in ecological functioning of forests and aquatic ecosystems. b ( ) Mechanisms for stakeholder participation in collection, characterisation, research and storage of biological resources, including programmes for public awareness and education on the role and importance of pollinators, soil flora and fauna in maintaining the agricultural diversity are contributing substantially to maintenance of domesticated and indigenous species important for agricultural production and food security. c ( ) Integrated policy and institutional framework are encouraging and facilitating a coordinated approach to conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. d ( ) Guidelines and procedures to enhance, protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in keeping with traditional practices that are compatible with sustainable use of biological resources are in place. e ( ) Mechanisms and guidelines to enhance research, human and institutional capacities are promoting investigations into the relationships between sustainable use and conservation of biological resources, and subsequently leading to realisation of the full potential of Malawi’s biological diversity in socio economic development. f ( ) Guidelines and mechanisms to promote and facilitate on-farm management, utilisation and conservation of biological diversity are developed and are encouraging conservation of biodiversity on customary land.
State of sustainable use of biological diversity
Biodiversity components that are directly categorised as cereals, legumes, relevant to sustainable use can be grouped commercial/industrial crops, fruits and into five categories; agricultural vegetables, and roots and tubers. biodiversity, forestry, fisheries, wildlife and Cereals non woody forestry products. Sorghum bicolor Agricultural biodiversity Maize, sorghum ( ), rice, Pennissetum Eleusine millet ( spp. and coracana The driving force of Malawi’s agricultural ) are major cereal crops of Malawi. sector is the rich agrobiodiversity (which is Originally Malawi was a country of defined as the variability among living sorghum and millet but these have been organisms associated with cultivated crops marginalized with the introduction of maize Zea mays and domesticated animals and the ( ). Very few sorghum and millet ex situ ecological complexes of which they are a materials are currently being held part). Agrobiodiversity is often placed in because inadequate storage facilities do not two broad categories: domesticated plants allow long-term storage of genetic material. and animals. Domesticated plants may be 41 a b
c d
Figure 13: a b Traditional cereals of Malawi; ( ) figure millet, mawere, ( ) germinated figure millet grain chimela Eleusine coracana c Pennissetum glaucum c Sorghum bicolor, ( ), ( ) pearl millet, mchewere ( ), ( ) Sorghum ( mapila ). Photos by A. Chikuni Legumes Vigna only one released variety of cowpea ( unguiculata ), possibly an introduction called Major leguminous crops grown in Malawi Sudan 1. Cowpeas are grown in most places include common beans, cowpeas, bambarra that are warmer and more suitable than for beans, peas, groundnuts and pigeon peas. Phaseolus vulgaris the common beans. Most of the cowpea The common beans ( ) have materials are prostrate landraces. Newer the greatest diversity in morphological and materials from IITA that are upright are agronomic characteristics. The northern and available and are being tested. Similarly, central regions have the greatest diversity Cajanus cajan there is only one pigeon peas ( ) but their diversity in the south is eroded released variety called ICP 9145 while there due to market forces that demanded red are many local types, similar in growth kidney classes. Other species of beans such Phaseolus lunatus Phaseolus coccineous habit to ICP 9145 that are grown. as and are also grown. Malawi has a little over a hundred different Vigna Arachis types of bambarra groundnut ( The diversity of groundnuts ( subterranea Voandzeia subterranea hypogaea , formerly ). ) is not as extensive but over five This is referred to as a ‘crop of our varieties are commonly grown. There is ancestors’ and up to now it is associated 42 Saccharum with some taboos. It is more nutritious than Several varieties of sugarcanes ( officinarum the groundnut and it also contributes more ) are grown in Malawi. The sugar biologically fixed nitrogen than the estates grow improved varieties whilst local groundnuts. But it is not widely grown in farmers cultivate local varieties, which are the country and its production is in quite diverse, but very little characterisation localised communities. has been done. Glycine max Domesticated fruits and vegetables Soya beans ( ) is a fairly new legume. There are about ten released The introduced fruits like the pineapple Ananas sativus Carica papaya varieties but all of them have the ( ), pawpaw ( ), Citrullus lanatus requirement for inoculation with Chimwela ( ), oranges, Pisum sativum Citrus spp Mangifera Rhizobium. Peas ( ) are grown lemons ( ), mangoes ( indica Malus domestica off-season along the river valleys. The bulk ), apples ( ), banana Musa paradisiaca Passiflora of the crop is probably that which is grown ( ), Magalagadea, ( edulis Prunus armeniaca in Zomba, Chiradzulu, Thyolo, Ntcheu ), apricot ( ), peach (Tsangano) and Mwanza districts. The Prunus persica Psidium guajava Mucuna pruriens ( ), guava ( ), velvet bean ( ), locally and others are playing a major role in the known as kalongonda, is grown in the nutrition of Malawians. Similarly southern and central regions but is not introduced vegetables such as tomato Lycopersicon esculentum widely consumed and as a result no ( ), tanaposi or mpiru Brassica chinensis Brassica systematic collections are available. ( ), cabbages ( oleracea Lactuca sativa Commercial crops ), lettuce ( ), spinach Spinacia oleracea ( ) also contribute to the There are 8 major industrial crops namely, nutrition of Malawians. The genetic sunflower, tobacco, sesame, cashew nut, resources are often maintained by various macadamia, coffee, tea and sugar cane. horticultural organisations and Nicotiana Burley and flue cured tobacco ( departments. tabacum ) are commonly grown in Malawi, Roots and tubers but there is lack of genetic biodiversity for Manihot esculenta Cassava ( ), sweet potatoes all tobacco types. Tobacco is the most Ipomoea batatus Solanum ( ) and irish potatoes ( important foreign exchange earner. Most tuberosum tobacco germplasm is maintained at the ) are among the widely cultivated Agricultural Research and Extension Trust root and tuber crops. There are many (ARET), on estates and smallholder farms. varieties of sweet potato most of which are improved. Most of the local varieties are Camellia There are many clones of tea ( maintained on farm. The 24 varieties of Irish sinensis ) produced, grown and maintained potatoes, which are mostly grown in high at the privately owned Tea Research altitude areas, are a source of cash and food Foundation. The genetic material of coffee to most rural communities especially in Coffea arabica varieties ( ) however are areas such as Tsangano, Neno, Dedza, Shire maintained at Lunyangwa Research Station. highlands, Viphya Plateau, Ntchisi, Phoka Most of the coffee grown in Malawi and Misuku hills. All the varieties of originated from Ethiopia, Brazil and potatoes grown in Malawi are introduced. Portugal. Many varieties of cassava are cultivated in Helianthus annuus Sunflower ( ) is a crop that Malawi most of which are improved has been grown in the country over many varieties. Cassava is a stable food for about recent years by smallholder farmers. The 30% of the population especially along the materials grown are mostly tall traditional Lakeshore areas. types. The traditional types were once collected but the germplasm was lost in In addition to these there are also many storage due to poor storage facilities. wild edible tubers and the most popular 43 Plectranthus esculentus ones include buye ( ) Zealand Red, the Flemish Giant and the and terrestrial orchids. Orchid tubers are California. All breeds are used for meat. often processed into a meat substitute called chikande. The habitat for most of the Local pigs (black types) are maintained on indigenous tubers is severely restricted and farms and a few are maintained at research as such most of them have become rare. stations and commercial farms. The Lack of collection and management indigenous black pig is basically a programmes means that most of the scavanger and its meat is often shunned and indigenous tubers will become locally as a result it has received limited extinct. characterisation. Only large white and landraces are bred for porkers. The diversity of domesticated animals There are five breed types of domesticated Gallus domesticus Animal genetic resources comprise and introduced birds ( ): the ruminant livestock, mammalian Indian River and Cobb-Cobb for meat, Hy- monogastrics and avian monogastrics, line for eggs, Black Australorp for both eggs which come in many breeds and varieties. and meat, Black Australorp and local Ninety percent of these are of the crosses for egg and meat production and the indigenous type, with pure exotics and local for egg and meat production. Broiler crossbreeds making up the remainder. types are less abundant than the Black Livestock production contributes about 36% Australorp and its crosses that are more to agricultural production and is dominated abundant. The local variety is diverse and by cattle and poultry production. Cattle includes dwarf, frizzle, the naked neck, the population in Malawi is dominated by spotted, the helmeted and long-legged Malawi Zebu type, which is mainly a beef types. Among the local types the frizzle and animal. Indiscriminate crossbreeding with long-legged types are extremely rare and exotic types e.g. Brahman, Sussex, are feared locally extinct. Columna livia Africander and Charolais has seriously Pigeons or doves ( ) of all types diluted the genetic diversity of the Malawi of plumage are highly abundant in Malawi. Zebu. They are a neglected species that has attracted very little or no attention from There are four main genotypes of goats Anas Capra hircus researchers. The common duck ( ( ) in Malawi: the indigenous platyhynchos (local types), which is typically a meat ) is a local mostly kept for the breed, the Boer goat an introduced dual- table. purpose goat from South Africa, the Boer crosses (which are kept for meat), and the Saanen goat. Ovis aries The sheep ( ) is present in three genotypes, the long-tailed (natulised) and mainly kept for mutton - the Dorper, an introduced breed from South Africa, and the Dorper crosses that are also kept for mutton. The Kasikidzi Sheep Improvement Centre in Kasungu, under the Malawi Germany Livestock Development Programme used to keep Merinos (wool breed) and Van Rooy (Mutton breed) but these are no longer found. Oryxtolagun There are five breeds of rabbits ( cuniculus ), the New Zealand white and New 44 a b
c d
Figure 14: a b c Capra hircus d Common and naturalised livestock types; ( ) Cattle, ( ) pigs, ( ) goats ( ), ( ) sheep Ovis aries ( ). Photos by A. Chikuni. Forest biological diversity Utilisation of biological resources, especially in forests adjacent to villages, is Approximately 38% of total land area of extremely important to local communities Malawi is under forest cover. Of these about since the forests are sources of livelihood. 11% is under national parks and wildlife, For example, grass and papyrus are used 10% are gazetted forest reserves and the extensively for thatching, especially in rural remaining 17% is natural woodlands on areas. Wood fuel (firewood and charcoal) customary land. Currently there are about remains the dominant source of energy, 87 gazetted forest reserves and accounting for approximately 90% of the approximately 80 are under consideration household and industrial energy to be gazetted. Forests are important as they requirement. At the household level wood contribute towards environmental is also used for construction, timber, farm protection, soil and water conservation. implements such as axe and hoe handles. They mitigate against climate change since Local communities also harvest different they are a major sink for greenhouse gases, fruits, mushrooms, roots and tubers for in particular carbon dioxide, and contribute household consumption and for sale. Forest towards reduction of pollution. Forests also resources therefore contribute substantially play a major role in nutrient recycling and to food security and poverty reduction. in maintaining microclimate for other organisms. Over half of Malawi’s terrestrial Wildlife resources species diversity including threatened species are associated with forests (both Malawi has five National Parks and four protected and unprotected), thus forests are Wildlife reserves. Like forests, national a refuge for a wide range of biological parks and wildlife reserves contribute to resources ranging from vertebrates, environmental protection. They are the only invertebrates, mushrooms and plants. habitats where Malawi’s endangered large 45 mammals receive full protection, without fishery in the southern part of the lake in the which species such as elephants, lions, 1980's, but it is presently overexploited. The crocodiles, zebras, buffalos, hippopotamus, chambo landings for both Lakes Malawi antelopes, kudus, and common duiker and Malombe averaged 11,000 metric tons would have been locally extinct. This has during the period 1976-90 and declined to also encouraged reintroduction of species, an annual average of 3,400 metric tons which were once extinct such as the black during the period 1991 to the present. The rhino. The actual and potential benefits of decline of the chambo stocks is most wildlife resources are many but include pronounced in Lakes Malombe and Malawi economic, aesthetic, scientific and cultural. and the trend is also observed in other At present the contribution of wildlife to the natural water bodies such as Lake Chilwa Fig. 16 socio-economic development is very small ( ). largely because the potential for tourism has not been fully exploited. There is also a growing ornamental fish trade that utilises the Lake Malawi cichlids, Wildlife maintained in forest reserves is particularly targeting the export market to source of protein to the surrounding satisfy the demand for aquarium fish. The communities. Hunting, for the past decades, amount of ornamental fish being exported constituted the major use of wildlife has not been established nor its resources and is probably the oldest contributions to the economic growth. subsistence and livelihood use of biological Non-woody forestry products resources in Malawi. In areas where human population is small and game is common, The potential value of such biological nearly all animal protein consumed by the resources as fungi, algae, microorganisms, local population is derived from wildlife. and invertebrates is not well known. The Fisheries resources role invertebrates play as pollinators appears not to be appreciated since no Approximately 50,000 tons of fish are deliberate policy or mechanisms are in place caught annually from Malawi’s lakes (Lakes to protect them. This also applies to soil Malawi, Malombe, Chilwa and Chiuta) and microorganisms that play a crucial role in river systems (e.g. Shire River) of which 60% nutrient recycling and soil fertility. This lack are caught by commercial fisheries in of knowledge in terms of their economic Salima and Mangochi. It is estimated that potential, distribution and diversity leads to 250,000 people along the major fishing areas undervaluation of less known biological depend on fish as a source of food and resources and has often times facilitated free livelihood. It is also estimated that the access by foreign investors to biological fisheries sector provides 60-70% of total resources (e.g. medicinal plants) and animal protein in Malawi. unsustainable exploitation of the same resources. Fisheries in Malawi have experienced considerable decline in the 1990s after a Numerous indigenous edible fruits have relative stability in the preceding years. The been recorded but the commonly used ones Adansonia digitata catches have declined from an average of include baobab, ( ) masuku Uapaca kirkiana Tamarindus 60,000 metric tons in the period of 1976-1990 ( ), bwemba, ( indica Ziziphus mucrunata to 49,000 metric tons in 1991-2001. This ); masawu ( ). Some U decline is mainly caused by declining of the indigenous fruits such as masuku ( . kirkiana Sclerocarya birrea fisheries in the smaller water bodies such as , Marula ( ) etc are Fig. Lakes Malombe, Chilwa and Chiuta ( being characterised through various 13 Oreochromis ). For instance, species (e.g. agroforestry programmes for Oreochromis karongae , locally known as domestication. Through a community based chambo), a highly valuable, famous and natural resources management project, popular fish, supported an important communities in Mwanza are producing
46 Figure 15: Source Summary of total fish catches in major waters of Malawi; : Fisheries Research Unit.
Figure 16: Source: Analysis of fish catch in Lake Malombe; Fisheries Research Unit.
47 Tamarindus indica Adansonia Amaranthus spp. juice from and Bonongwe ( ), luni or cat digitata Gynandropsis gynandra . whiskers ( ). Programmes to collect and characterise Malawi has many edible indigenous indigenous vegetables are under way at vegetables. Some of the popular indigenous Corchorus Bunda College of Agriculture. vegetables include denje ( triocularis Hibiscus acetosella ), limanda ( ), Current management
Malawi’s active participation in the botanic gardens have a living collection of conservation of biological diversity started introduced and indigenous species. as early as 1912 when the first forest reserve was established. To date Malawi has a In line with the requirements of the EMA network of protected areas comprising 87 and NEP, sectoral legislation and policies on forest reserves, five national parks and four environment and natural resources were wildlife reserves. The bulk of the revised to incorporate provisions for in indigenous genetic diversity is conserved community participation in natural situ in the network of forest reserves and resource management. This has resulted in national parks. A substantial amount of various co-management arrangements of in situ ex situ biodiversity is conserved and forest resources through Village Forestry on customary and private land. Areas (VFAs), fisheries resources through the Beach Village Committees (BVCs) and Collections of indigenous and introduced wildlife resources through the Wildlife genetic material (both plants and animals), Management Areas. is the responsibility of both private and public research stations, botanic gardens, Many government departments and the universities and private estates. The organisations e.g. the National Herbarium National Plant Genetic Resources Centre and Botanic Gardens, wildlife reserves, collects, characterises and maintains Gene Banks and the Universities participate indigenous crop plants and wild relatives of in global conservation and recovery cultivated plants. Forest trees, on the other programmes of threatened and rare species hand, are collected and characterised by only. Such programmes are often part of Forestry Department especially the government obligations to implement National Tree Seed Centre at the Forestry international and regional conventions Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM). The which Malawi is party to. Summary of issues
Major issues that Malawi should take into representation of species diversity in forest consideration in its effort to achieve reserves. sustainable use of biological diversity Conservation of Malawi's agricultural include the following: biological diversity Conservation of biological resources in protected areas Erosion of genetic diversity within domesticated, cultivated and wild and Protected areas were primarily created to harvested species is widespread and is conserve soil and water since most of them largely due to a number of factors some of are catchments for major water bodies. which include preference to improved Conservation of other forms of biodiversity varieties. For example over-emphasis on appears to be secondary since no efforts maize has contributed to the Sorghum were made to ensure moderate marginalisation of sorghum ( 48 bicolor Pennisetum glaucum Inadequate policies, laws, regulations and ) pearl millet ( ) Eleusine coracana institutional framework and figure millet ( ) which were once staples in some parts of Malawi. Similarly, the heterotic benefits that Progress towards sustainable use of crossbreeding offers have not been realised biological resources requires political will to since most of the indigenous crops and local create an enabling environment. Despite the breeds of animals have lately been existence of a number of multisectoral neglected, leading to genetic erosion of the policies, laws and regulations that in one local plants and animals. In order to reverse way or another deal with sustainable use of the current trend the remaining varieties biological resources, lack of a streamlined and breeds/strains should be characterised, policy and legislative framework that protected and multiplied in a way that best clearly articulates strategies on how utilises them in the short term and biological resources can be used sustainably maintained for the long term. is to some extent contributing to unsustainable use of biological resources. The agricultural diversity is dependant The existing policies and legislation often upon a number of other related biological conflict and are often not harmonised and resources such as pollinators and soil flora synergised with international and regional and fauna without which loss of the genetic frameworks. resources would be inevitable. In this regard conservation of agrobiodiversity Operationalisation of sustainable use should as much as possible integrate programmes requires an enabling programmes that enhance conservation and institutional and administrative structure at identification of pollinators and soil all levels. Currently frontline workers in organisms. different sectors dealing with sustainable use of biological resources infrequently Commercialisation and bioprospecting collaborate on the ground in their effort to of indigenous biological resources conserve biological resources. With each sector working independently, duplication Over 90% of Malawi’s population rely on of efforts is common. The current natural resources as a source of livelihood institutional framework, therefore, requires (for food and income). Mushrooms, wild significant funding in order to build critical vegetables and fruits, caterpillars, medicinal human capacity required to effectively plants are collected for food and as a source implement programmes. of income. Currently a significant amount of the biological resources especially Inadequate research and information medicinal plants is exported to the outside market, but this is currently unregulated. Research on the relationship between conservation and sustainable use of There appears to be potential for biological resources including valuation of bioprospecting especially from medicinal biological resources is rudimentary. This is plants, judging from requests institutions constrained by inadequate human and and individuals continuously receive from infrastructure capacity. This inadequate big pharmaceutical companies to supply research capacity means that information is samples of medicinal plants. If well either unavailable, inadequate or is developed, bioprospecting can lead to scattered around and is not in the format development of commercially viable easily accessible by the users. This products and thus contribute to poverty unavailability of information may affect reduction. If unregulated, however, sound decisions on sustainable use of bioprospecting can encourage biological diversity. unsustainable use of biological resources and can lead to biopiracy.
49 Action Plan
Objective 3.1 Sustainable use of mainstreaming, and issues that have agrobiodiversity direct impact on agricultural Strategy 3.1.1 biodiversity such as pollinators and Design, develop and in situ ex situ soil organisms. implement and agricultural b diversity conservation programmes with ( ) Conduct research and promote full participation and involvement of local domestication of wild plants and communities. animals with emphasis on Actions estimating genetic variation of target species using modern molecular a ( ) Conduct public and political biological techniques and awareness campaigns on the role of participatory plant breeding. agrobiodiversity in poverty c reduction and economic ( ) Train staff and farmers on collection, development and the role of characterisation, conservation and communities through active farmers storage of agrobiodiversity. clubs in agrobiodiversity d ( ) Develop mechanisms and facilities conservation. to improve storage of germplasm in b ( ) Collect all agrobiodiversity, gene banks, seed banks, botanic including their wild relatives, gardens and agricultural research threatened and/or endangered stations. species, with full participation of Key Players: communities and preserve them on UNIMA, EAD, FD, DoF, farm, in field gene banks, seed banks DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, NHBG, and botanic gardens. NGOs. c Objective 3.2 Promote sustainable use of ( ) Document indigenous knowledge forest biological diversity on the utilisation and conservation of agrobiodiversity of Malawi Strategy 3.2.1 Develop appropriate through ethnobiological surveys. guidelines, methodologies and procedures d ( ) Strengthen and build the capacity of and technologies that fully utilise the national centres for the collection, concepts of ecosystems approach and characterisation and maintenance of enhance sustainable use of forest biological agrobiodiversity using clear diversity. guidelines and procedures. Actions Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD, a ( ) Develop and implement guidelines DoF, DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, and/or technologies for applying MZUNI. ecosystems approach in forest Strategy 3.1.2 Enhance human and research ecosystems. b capacity on conservation and sustainable ( ) Promote mechanisms for the use of agrobiodiversity. participation of all stakeholders in Actions the conservation of forest a biodiversity. ( ) Develop and implement research c guidelines and programmes for ( ) Promote activities that minimise the sustainable use of agricultural impact of fragmentation of forest diversity, paying particular attention biological diversity such as to gender and HIV/AIDS agroforestry and forest restoration. 50 Key Players: Objective 3.3 Promote sustainable use of FD, EAD, MoLG, MoLPPS, fish biological diversity NGOs. Strategy 3.2.2 Strategy 3.3.1 Develop and implement Promote sustainable mechanisms to prevent and mitigate the harvesting and management of Malawi’s adverse effects of forest fires on biological fish resources especially chambo, and diversity. heavily exploited and under exploited fish Actions species through implementation of relevant strategies and action plans. a ( ) Strengthen the existing measures Actions and mechanisms on forest fire management, including developing a ( ) Develop a national wetlands policy guidelines that promote community to guide and ensure the protection participation in fire prevention and sustainable use of fish activities. biodiversity. b ( ) Strengthen policies and institutional b ex situ in situ infrastructure that address fire ( ) Undertake and prevention and ensure that such conservation of threatened or policies are integrated into other endangered fish species and other sectoral policies. aquatic organisms. c c ( ) Promote participatory research on ( ) Promote and support fish farming forest fire management. and develop enabling regulatory Key Players: framework for private sector FD, CBOs, MoLGRD, DNPW, investiment in commercial fish MMCT, WESM, CURE. farming. Strategy 3.2.3 Enhance conservation of d ( ) Establish a permanent committee forest biological diversity through promotion of sustainable use of resources. that will regularly meet and discuss matters pertaining to conservation of Actions aquatic biodiversity including fish a farming. ( ) Develop guidelines and e programmes to document and ( ) Review and implement fisheries evaluate the economic importance of management strategies and plans for forest biodiversity especially in chambo in Lakes Malawi, Chilwa sustaining the livelihoods of local and Malombe. communities. Key Players: b EAD, FD, DNPW, DoF, ( ) Develop, support and promote UNIMA, MoIWD, MoLGRD, NHBG, NGOs. programmes and initiatives that Objective 3.4 Public awareness and address the sustainable use of timber and non timber products. community participation c Strategy 3.4.1 ( ) Strengthen the capacity of local Raise the awareness of the communities to develop and importance of promoting conservation and implement community based sustainable use of biological resources as programmes on conservation and sources of livelihood to poor Malawians. sustainable use of forest biological Actions diversity. Key Players: a FD, FRIM, MoLGRD, NGOs, ( ) Document and promote knowledge, NHBG, WESM, DNPW. innovations and practices of local communities relevant to 51 conservation and sustainable use of resources in gene banks, botanic biological resources. gardens, national parks, herbaria, b museums and zoos to facilitate ( ) Provide a spectrum of alternative decision making about livelihood opportunities and include bioprospecting. them in national strategies and c CBNRM programmes. ( ) Develop or strengthen existing c regulations and institutional ( ) Develop incentives for local level framework on conservation and and private sector participation in sustainable use of rare and biodiversity conservation and endangered taxa including sustainable use. international trade on endangered d ( ) Study and understand factors species. affecting sustainable use of d ( ) Promote reintroduction of biological resources and provide endangered biological resources of effective mechanisms for mitigating ex situ economic potential through against the problems. in situ and programmes. e ( ) Introduce the concept of sustainable Key Players: use of biological resources in both NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, NRCM, formal and informal education Museums of Malawi, FD, DoF, DNPW, systems. WESM, CURE, MMCT f Objective 3.6 Strengthen policies, law and ( ) Develop methodologies and institutional frameworks guidelines for economic valuation studies of the environmental Strategy 3.6.1 services of biological resources. Study sectoral policies and g legislation and as far as possible integrate ( ) Promote the involvement of local considerations of sustainable use into communities through various sectoral policies and if necessary develop an CBNRM institutions such as enabling and comprehensive policy on VNRMCs, VNRCs, BVCs and sustainable use of biological diversity Wildlife Clubs. Actions Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD, a DoF, DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, ( ) Review relevant sectoral policies and MoE legislation and develop an integrated policy on sustainable use Objective 3.5 Promote and regulate of biological diversity that takes into bioprospecting consideration issues of common Strategy 3.5.1 property rights. Develop guidelines and b strengthen existing procedures, policies and ( ) Develop and implement effective laws to promote and regulate monitoring systems to ensure that bioprospecting and international trade on the concept of sustainable use is endangered species. applicable to all sectors. c Actions ( ) Harmonise national laws and regulations with international and a ( ) Conduct surveys to identify and regional instruments paying prioritise biological resources particular attention to removing requiring commercialisation and provisions that have negative bioprospecting. impacts on sustainable use. b d ( ) Strengthen institutional capacity to ( ) Integrate local customs and collect and maintain genetic traditions including customary law,
52 b by laws into existing policies and ( ) Promote recognition of the value of regulations. local indigenous knowledge about e conservation of biodiversity by: ( ) Build the human capacity through training and recruitment of relevant ● Empowering local people to control staff to implement and enforce laws, local biodiversity resources; policies and regulations. ● Sensitising local communities on Key players: MoJ, EAD, FD, DoF, UNIMA, their intellectual property rights; NGOs ● Compensating local people for Objective 3.7 Promote research and indigenous knowledge on information management conservation of biodiversity; and Strategy 3.7.1 Promote and support ● Promoting formation of indigenous interdisciplinary research on all aspects of knowledge systems groups. sustainable use of biological resources and Key players: make the information available to MoMNRE, NHBG, MoH, biodiversity users. MoA&FS, UNIMA, MZUNI, MMCT, VDCs, Museums of Malawi, EAD, FD, DoF, CURE, Actions WESM. a ( ) Develop research guidelines on the management of biological components that promote their sustainable use. b ( ) Develop cooperation between researchers and biodiversity users (private and local communities) especially involving local communities as research partners. c ( ) Make research results available in a form which decision makers can use and other stakeholders can apply. d ( ) Strengthen and develop sustainable infrastructure on sustainable use research. Objective 3.8 Promote indigenous knowledge systems
Strategy 3.8.1 Promote indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) for sustainable management and use of biodiversity. Actions
a ( ) Study and document indigenous knowledge systems and traditional practices for biodiversity conservation and integrate them into mainstream biodiversity management activities.
53 Theme Four: Traditional knowledge, access and benefit sharing
Scope
Traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous or local communities are governed by enabling policies, laws and institutional frameworks that are facilitating and promoting regulated access.
Desired outcome by 2020
a ( ) Guidelines for the enhancement of preservation and maintenance of indigenous knowledge and the innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities are promoting sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising for the use of biological resources. b ( ) Policy guidelines and legislation that have provisions to facilitate the implementation of Article 15 of the CBD and integrate the Bonn Guidelines on access to genetic resources and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources are promoting access to genetic resources, utilisation and bioprospecting in accordance with international conventions and national regulations. c ( ) Guidelines and procedures on public awareness on access and benefit sharing and on utilisation of indigenous knowledge are empowering local communities and are enabling them to have bargaining power to negotiate fair and equitable terms of access and benefit sharing both at national and international levels. d ( ) Biological resources, products and processes other than plants and animals are protected by patents and plant varieties are protected by some form of IPRs. e ( ) Guidelines and procedures to ensure equitable and fair distribution of benefits to Malawi stakeholders are in place.
State of traditional knowledge, access and benefit sharing
a Access and Benefit Sharing ( ) revenue from exploitation of forest reserves and 60% revenue from exploitation of the Formal access and benefit sharing surrounding customary land forests. In mechanisms are recent in Malawi and Mwanza, forest By Laws allow community appear to be restricted to co-management groups in liaison with forest officials to arrangements in forestry, fisheries and confiscate charcoal. When the confiscated wildlife sectors. In the forestry resources, charcoal is sold, community groups are through co-management arrangements entitled to 25% of the sales. communities are allowed some access to local forestry resources and are also entitled As is the case with Forestry Department, the to 20% to 60% of forest revenues. For example Fisheries Department has mechanisms for through a World Bank Project communities entering into co-management agreements around Chimaliro Forest Reserve in the with local communities, including the duties Northern region were entitled to 40% of the and responsibilities of the management
54 authorities, where communities are allowed WESM, one of the NGOs actively access to and utilization of fisheries involved in the implementation of NRM resources. Beach Village Committees (BVCs) programmes, with support from GTZ is have been established following these implementing a programme to promote regulations and are being constituted as sustainable management of indigenous legal entities through which the activities forest resources in Kamwamba, Mwanza and interests of BVCs can be articulated and District. A number of CBNRM activities represented. Through this agreement the such as production of indigenous fruit Department of Fisheries seeks to transfer to juices, honey and cane furniture are being the fisheries management authorities (the implemented as income generating associations) specific rights of use and activities. The programme gives back to the management of the aquatic environment communities 20% of the income through and other aquatic resources for the duration employment and 40% through project of the agreement. This would seem to create activities. The programme has since exclusive user rights in favour of the developed into a community owned association and would therefore curtail company, Village Hands Ltd and the rights of communities outside the revenues shall continue to be shared with membership of the association. The reason communities either through support to for creating exclusive rights and duties in community project or through employment. favour of community institutions is to b Traditional knowledge, innovations ( ) improve fisheries management and not and practices necessarily to exclude others from access.
The Department of National Parks and Traditional access and benefit sharing Wildlife also has mechanisms for systems have existed in most communities collaborative management of wildlife from time immemorial. In agriculture between the local communities and the genetic resources has been distributed private sector. Through this provision the within and between geographical regions department has entered into agreements through exchange of seeds and knowledge on use and propagation methods. Farmers with Wildlife Management Authorities have also exchanged animals with desirable (WMAs), which are defined as any local traits to improve productivity of their community or private organization livestock through cross breeding. Despite established to promote local community playing a role in the conservation of participation in wildlife conservation and agrobiodiversity traditional knowledge management. In Nyika/Vwaza, Lengwe, systems in agriculture have not been Liwonde and Kasungu national parks, adequately documented. WMAs have been established and they have facilitated sustainable use of park resources Collection and maintenance of where local communities are allowed to agrobiodiversity is the responsibility of the harvest certain wildlife products such as Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. mushrooms, thatch grass, caterpillars, Through the National Genetic Resources medicinal plants, reeds, and other products Centre, MoA&FS in collaboration with the mainly for domestic use. Government has SADC Genetic Resource Centre in Zambia agreed to share 50-50 with the communities collects and maintains plant genetic but this arrangement is yet to be resources. Recognising the weak legislative implemented. Privately owned Wildlife framework on sharing of benefits that may Reserves Kuti Wildlife Reserve in Salima arise when a new plant variety is developed promotes community participation in based on resources collected from farmers, conservation programmes. In return MoA&FS is in the process of developing the communities are entitled to 70% of the Plant Breeders Bill which will regulate revenue through project activities. access.
55 Traditional knowledge systems related to medicine and increase capacity in the area of traditional healing appear to be the most medicine including industrial development studied systems in Malawi. Most rural and production of traditional medicine for communities benefit from traditional local and export market. It provides for healing through treatment of various conservation of biodiversity and diseases for a small fee either in kind or preservation of indigenous knowledge. It cash. Despite traditional medicine also seeks to protect IPRs of individuals and complementing the national health care institutions involved in research and services, traditional healing is not regulated development and promote bilateral and by any kind of legislation and is not multilateral agreements between traditional officially recognised by the Ministry of health practitioners and users of their Health. In order to promote a harmonious products for equitable sharing of benefits. working relationship between conventional The draft traditional medicine policy does medical practice and traditional healers, a not provide for issues of regulating access to code of ethics for traditional health traditional medicine and knowledge by practitioners, traditional medicine policy researchers or mechanisms for sharing and a draft Traditional Health Practitioners benefits from technological exploitation of Bill have been prepared, all in consultation samples of genetic resources or knowledge with and collaboration between the obtained from traditional health Traditional Healers’ Associations and practitioners. Further the draft does not Ministry of Health. In particular, the Policy provide for protection of Indigenous seeks to promote research into traditional Knowledge Systems. Current management
Access to genetic resources in Malawi is Genetic Resources in Malawi (2002) and partially provided for in Environmental Procedures and Guidelines for the Conduct Management Act. Sectoral laws and policies of Research in Malawi (2002). Realising that were revised in keeping with EMA and as a these guidelines are inadequate because result they all have provisions for they do not indicate type of benefits to be community participation in management of shared and have not been promulgated into natural resources. Access to genetic rules or regulations under the existing resources by researchers and other users is legislation, Malawi has drafted access and currently guided by Procedures and benefit legislation. Guidelines for Access and Collection of Summary of issues
Traditional Healers are among the most adequate safeguards. organised systems of indigenous knowledge in Malawi. They have Authority responsible for administration of associations through which they articulate access and benefit sharing arrangements their interests. In addition policies and draft rests in sectors such as the fisheries, legislation on traditional healing have been forestry, agriculture and national parks. The prepared including a code of conduct. These National Research Council of Malawi need to be improved since they appear not provides the coordination mechanisms by to provide clear direction on access and providing permits in consultation with benefit sharing mechanisms. If enacted, responsible sector agencies. The GRBC of adopted or implemented in the current form the NRCM provides technical expertise and genetic resources will continue to be makes the recommendations for permits to exported or collected by other users without be granted. The GRBC has no statutory 56 mandate; hence if granting of a permit is attention to biological resources. The IPR refused based on its recommendations, such framework is designed in such a way that a decision could easily be challenged for indigenous knowledge systems commonly lack of mandate. perceived to be in the public domain would not be protected on the ground that it may A condition for granting the permit is that not be a new invention or capable of the researcher should be affiliated to a industrial application. According to the Act, recognised institution. In this way the an application for a patent must be in institution would monitor compliance with relation to an invention and by the inventor, the conditions of the permit including the his legal representative or assignee. As collections made. However, most currently defined most of the indigenous institutions are unable to provide well technologies which passed from generation qualified assistants due to constraints in to generation may not be considered ‘new’. human resources and as such, compliance Nevertheless when the same knowledge is monitoring can hardly be satisfactory. This utilized in manufacturing in the clearly shows that capacity to implement conventional sense it will pass under the Act and monitor compliance with the because the ‘mechanization’ will be ‘new’ procedures and guidelines for access to and not obvious. The Patent Act is also genetic resources and the general regulatory problematic because most indigenous regime is inadequate since there is no knowledge systems with legal mechanism for monitoring use of genetic representative cannot enforce rights under resources once approval has been granted the common law. This calls for a new regime for research or collection of samples. This for recognition and protection of such makes determination of benefits to be knowledge and to ensure that those who obtained from use of genetic resources claim benefits from indigenous knowledge collected from Malawi difficult. Secondly, can be protected just as those who do so despite the existence of the procedures and under the common law. Malawi therefore sui generis guidelines, these regulations are not always needs to develop . In addition followed. regional instruments such as the African An important aspect with regards to access Model Legislation for the Protection of the and benefit sharing mechanisms is the use of Rights of Local Communities, Farmers and intellectual property rights. The relevant Breeders, and for the Regulation of Access IPR legislation in Malawi is the Patents Act, to Biological Resources (the Model which principally deals with industrial Legislation) should be integrated into the inventions and was not designed to cater for Plant Variety Bill being drafted by the issues such as community, farmers and Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. breeders rights or indeed with specific Action Plan
Objective 4.1 Mainstream indigenous practices in Malawi. knowledge systems into biodiversity b conservation. ( ) Identify relevant working IK practices and raise their value, Strategy 4.1.1 Identify relevant working IK through the development of a practices, raise their value, and integrate natural resource based enterprise. c them into conservation activities. ( ) Raise awareness among the Actions communities on the value of IK and a build their capacities to recognise, ( ) Conduct a survey and produce an document and mainstream the IK inventory of new and existing IK
57 Strategy 4.3.1 into natural resource management Promote community practices. participation, public awareness and d capacity building of state actors and the ( ) Build human and institutional private sector on access and benefit sharing. capacity for IK research and Actions development. Key Players: a UNIMA, NHBG, THAs, ( ) Conduct awareness campaigns for MoMNRE, MoIWD, MoLGRD, MoA&FS, all stakeholders emphasizing on NRCM, NGOs. duties and responsibilities of Objective 4.2 Strengthen legal and policy traditional leaders, traditional framework for access and benefit sharing healers and the local communities, especially those adjacent to Strategy 4.2.1 Develop binding framework biodiversity hotspots, and on access to regulate access to genetic resources and and benefit sharing and the the sharing of the benefits by integrating the importance of their participation in procedures and guidelines for access to and ABS programmes. b collection of genetic resources into EMA. ( ) Conduct studies to determine values Actions for most sought after genetic resources and develop guidelines a ( ) Develop and implement regulations for sustainable harvest and equitable for access to and equitable sharing of sharing of benefit accruing from benefit arising from the use of their use. genetic resources. c ( ) Develop training programmes on b ( ) Review and enhance the existing principles of access and benefit institutional framework and sharing and on intellectual property improve coordination between the rights for the community, the regulatory agency for approval of private sector and the informal permits for access to genetic education sector. resources and sector agencies that d grant permits to researchers and ( ) Develop well-defined property collectors. rights regimes. c Key Players: ( ) Prepare guidelines and procedures UNIMA, EAD, FD, DNPW, for prior informed consent, mutually WESM, MoA&FS NPGRC, NRCM, MoJ, agreed terms and conditions for LSM, NHBG. access to and benefit sharing Objective 4.4 Regulating access to genetic mechanisms. resources and benefit sharing d Strategy 4.4.1 ( ) Clarify the roles and responsibilities Promote and regulate access of traditional leaders with regard to to biodiversity and equitable sharing of access to and benefit sharing of benefits arising from the use of biodiversity genetic resources from customary through provision of Intellectual Property land including the governance Rights regimes. systems for IKS and traditional Actions medicine. Key Players: a sui generis UNIMA, EAD, FD, DNPW, ( ) Enact policy and WESM, MoA&FS, NRCM, MoJ, NPGRC legislation to regulate access to and Objective 4.3 Raise awareness of the benefit sharing of genetic resources importance of access and benefit sharing with special emphasis on protecting farmers’ rights.
58 b ( ) Clarify property rights and access regimes for various stakeholders and for different types of utilization under sector legislation such as fisheries, forestry, national parks and wildlife and agriculture. c ( ) Review existing controls and legislation at the national and regional levels regulating bioprospecting of indigenous genetic resources and develop a more integrated framework for managing bioprospecting and distributing its benefits. d ( ) Revise and develop a national policy framework for traditional medicine and medicinal plant research and use. e ( ) Undertake collaborative research into institutional systems that tend to influence the way biodiversity resources are managed, allocated and used. Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD, DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, NRCM, MZUNI.
59 Theme Five: Biotechnology
Scope
Develop enabling mechanisms to enhance the wise use of biotechnologies without overlooking their potential adverse effects on conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, human health and socio-economic issues.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) A definitive biotechnology policy governing the development and handling of biotechnology in Malawi is developed and implemented. b ( ) The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Biosafety Act of 2002 are enforced fully for the creation of an enabling environment for the environmentally sound application of biotechnology. c ( ) Guidelines are available to guide public awareness programmes on biotechnology and its products and biosafety issues surrounding the technology. d ( ) Human and infrastructure capacity is developed in the field of biotechnology.
State of biotechnology in Malawi
Biotechnology is a collection of techniques ● Biological control in pest management. that utilise biological systems or derivatives thereof to create, improve or modify plants, These traditional biotechnologies have animals and microorganisms for specific succeeded in producing a wide variety of use. Biotechnology has traditionally been useful plants and animals. For example, used for many centuries in agriculture and farmers have been altering the genetic make manufacturing industry to produce food, up of crops and animals through selection chemicals, medicines and many other for features such as faster growth and products that have been of benefit in many higher yields. areas including nutrition, human and Modern biotechnologies are used by animal health. In Malawi both modern and government research institutions, the health traditional biotechnologies are available. and agricultural sectors for various Traditional biotechnology has been in use in purposes. For example, the DNA this country for many centuries. Some of Laboratory at Chancellor College, in the traditional technologies available in Malawi Molecular Biology and Ecology Research include: Unit (MBERU), has equipment for characterization of species at DNA level and ● Fermentation: This uses bacterial so far Malawi Zebu cattle, selected breeds of fermentations on dairy industries and dairy cattle and species of fish have been yeast fermentations in breweries (e.g. studied. The Central Veterinary Laboratory Chibuku); under the department of Animal Health and ● Plant and Animal breeding; Industry uses ELISA techniques to conduct animal disease diagnosis. The laboratory ● Biofertilizer production; and also produces a tick borne disease vaccine
60 for the SADC region. In addition Bunda tissue culture techniques. In the health College of Agriculture, Bvumbwe and sector PCR based techniques and other Lunyangwa Agriculture Research Stations diagnostic kits are used for disease are involved in micro-propagation using diagnosis including malaria. Current Management
Biotechnology programmes are currently Committee, National Biosafety Regulatory regulated by the Biosafety Act, which was Committee, Biosafety Desk Officer, developed and enacted in 2002 in response Inspectors and Reviewers. Individuals to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the serving in these positions will need to be CBD. The Biosafety Act provides for trained in biotechnology and their formulation of regulations and guidelines to respective responsibilities. The Biosafety govern the development, importation, and Act therefore provisions for regulations for utilisation of GMOs. Regulations and development, importation and utilisation of guidelines for management of GMOs have GMOs. However the Biosafety Act in been drafted and these will be supported by currently not supported by a single policy. sectoral regulations and guidelines in such In recognition of this Malawi is in the sectors like agriculture, health, process of developing a comprehensive environment, trade and commerce. biotechnology policy which will guide implementation of all issues of The Biosafety Act provides for the existence biotechnology including GMOs. of National Biosafety Advisory
Summary of issues
Genetic modification might contribute impossible to control. In addition to this use toward socio-economic development crops may result in the conventional through improved crop production and non-GM crops receiving transgenes from medicine. However concerns have been GM crops, resulting in situations that are raised on the effects of the transgenic plants either undesirable or unlawful. The to the environment. For example, concerns potential inadvertent mixing of GM and have been expressed that GM crops will non-GM crops through pollen dispersal and hybridize with related species and result in seed is a particular concern for the organic the merging of the GM crops with their farming industry. GM crops can also have weedy relatives. This means that GM crops an influence on biodiversity because they may transfer that trait to the weedy relatives could threaten the centres of crop diversity to make them “superweeds”. Another or outgrow a local flora to the detriment of concern is that widespread use of GM crops, the native species. being 'unnatural', may lead to secondary or indirect ecological effects with undesirable Issues of biotechnology especially GMOs consequences. are complex and as such parties are encouraged to apply the precautionary The release and widespread cultivation of principle (Articles 10.6 & 11.7 of the GM crops with pest or disease resistance Cartagena Protocol) and methodology for has raised concerns that this will impose biotechnology risk assessment and intense selection pressure on pest and management. Such methodologies are pathogen populations to adapt to the outlined in several documents including the resistance mechanism, resulting in the UNEP International technical Guidelines for development of super pests and super Safety in Biotechnology and the Cartagena diseases that would be difficult or of GM Protocol. Each of these documents includes
61 the following steps that, together, identify 'foreign' genes escaping into the indigenous potential impacts and assess the risks: gene pool of maize. Effects of such genes to biodiversity are yet to be seen. Malawi, ● Identify potential adverse effects on however, has limited human and human health and/or the infrastructure capacity to monitor and environment; identify the foreign gene. ● Estimate the likelihood of these Human and infrastructure capacity in adverse effects being realised; biotechnology and biosafety issues ● Evaluate the consequences should the identified effects be realised (the While recognising a few individuals who risk); have capacity in biotechnology and ● Consider appropriate risk biosafety issues, the general trend is that management strategies; human capacity in biotechnology and biosafety is limited. This also applies to ● Estimate the overall potential infrastructure capacity although there are a environmental impact, including a few laboratories, have basic equipment, consideration of potential impacts which can be used in biotechnology and that may be beneficial to human biosafety related research. health and environment. Public awareness campaigns on However, application of the precautionary biotechnology and biosafety issues principle and risk assessment and management methodologies would be There is little or no awareness of possible if the following have been put in biotechnology and biosafety among the place: rural masses and a small proportion of Enabling biotechnology policy urban population know very little about biotechnology and biosafety. Modern The importance of an enabling policy biotechnology is a new field in Malawi and framework in biotechnology was it has not yet been fully incorporated into appreciated in 2002 when Malawi and its primary and secondary school curricula southern Africa counterparts received food though a few techniques that fall under aid from USAID in form of maize traditional biotechnology are taught in consignment, which was said to contain schools. The education system in Malawi, genetically modified maize (GM maize). therefore, generally produces people that When the GM maize consignment arrived in have not been introduced to biotechnology. Malawi, concerns were raised as to the effect Enhance research and training in the field of the maize on local varieties if planted by of biotechnology recipients. The issue centred on the transfer of ‘foreign genes’ from the GM maize Although tertiary education curricula in through cross pollination to local maize Malawi has recently introduced some varieties. Realising this, the Ministry of elements of both traditional and modern Agriculture decided to reduce the risks by biotechnology in its biological sciences distributing the maize in flour form. The courses, biotechnology does not have the government, however, distributed whole same recognition as other disciplines that grain especially after the planting season. It fall under biology such as biochemistry. is likely, though, that some farmers planted There are also few research institutions that the maize out of ignorance despite the huge conduct research in biotechnology related campaign. Thus there are chances of the fields.
62 Action Plan
infrastructure development to Objective 5.1 Strengthen policy and legal monitor, identify GMOs and framework undertake risk assessments and train Strategy 5.1.1 staff on precautionary principle and Strengthen legal and gene transformation. institutional structures on biotechnologies. b Actions ( ) Train border control system personnel to minimize introduction a ( ) Develop and implement a broad and illegal exportation of based biotechnology policy. undesirable biotechnologies. b c ( ) Implement and enforce the Biosafety ( ) Clarify responsibilities of different Act at institutional and national institutions involved in levels. biotechnology management in Malawi. c ( ) Develop harmonised sectoral Key Players: legislation and policy frameworks EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW, and procedures for identification, NHBG, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoE, NRCM, monitoring and risk assessment and DoHRMD, DoF, MoJ, MoT&PSD, MoH, management of biotechnologies. MoIT&C, NGOs, MoLG. d Objective 5.3 Research and Information ( ) Develop guidelines to control the Management Systems transboundary movement of GMOs. e Strategy 5.3.1 ( ) Develop guidelines to facilitate the Promote research and sharing of benefits arising from the disseminate user friendly information on use of Malawi's biodiversity in the relevant biotechnologies, emphasising on development of biotechnology risk assessment, identification of GMOs, products. and socio economic impact. f Actions ( ) Formulate regulatory biosafety safeguards to address biodiversity a ( ) Assess national research needs and conservation. conduct research in the field of Key Players: EAD, NRCM, MoA&FS, biotechnology and biosafety. MoT&PSD, MRA, MoH, FD, DNPW, b ( ) Develop guidelines to promote the NHBG, MoH, DoHRMD, MZUNI, UNIMA, participation of the private sector NGOs, MoLGRG. and communities in biotechnology Objective 5.2 Strengthen human and and biosafety research. institutional capacities c ( ) Develop procedures and guidelines Strategy 5.2.1 Enhance development of to enhance cooperation between human and institutional capacity for agencies and encourage information identification, monitoring and risk sharing on biotechnology and assessment and management of develop Biosafety Clearing House biotechnologies and research. Mechanism. d Actions ( ) Develop research guidelines and methodologies and conduct research a ( ) Strengthen existing scientific and surveys on socio- economic institutions in terms of human and impact of biotechnologies.
63 Key Players: EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW, NHBG, UNIMA, DoF, NRCM, MoT&PSD, DoHRMD, MoH, MZUNI, MRA, MoE, NGOs, MoJ, MoMNRE, MoLGRD. Objective 5.4 Community participation and Public awareness
Strategy 5.4.1 Enhance public awareness and community participation in identification, assessment, management and information dissemination on biotechnology and biosafety. Actions
a ( ) Develop guidelines to enhance and strengthen public awareness campaigns and community participation in biotechnology and biosafety issues. b ( ) Integrate biotechnology issues into primary, secondary and tertiary school curricula. Key Players: NRCM,EAD,FD,DNPW, NHBG, MoIT&C, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoT&PSD, MoA&FS, MoE, MoH, NGOs, DoHRMD, MoLGRD.
64 Theme Six: Invasive Species
Scope
Malawi's efforts to prevent introductions, control or eradicate alien invasive species is guided by a strong policy that is backed by appropriate legal and institutional framework and effective invasive species management plans that are linked strongly to sectoral activities.
Desired outcome by 2020
a ( ) Education, training and public awareness programmes have been developed and are operational and have made the Malawi public more aware about the biology, impacts (economic, social and environmental) and ecology of invasive species including risks posed by them. b ( ) Standardised procedures and guidelines for identification, risk assessment, socio- economic impact assessment, reporting systems, prevention, control and eradication methodologies of invasive species are in place and are contributing to the reduction in number of invasive species and or establishment of new alien invasive species as well as minimizing the spatial distribution and frequency of introductions of invasive species. c ( ) Significant progress is made in the development of mechanisms for transboundary cooperation, multilateral cooperation and coordination of national programmes including establishment or strengthening of a coordinating unit to coordinate invasive species programmes. d ( ) In line with CBD guiding principles for the prevention, introduction and mitigation of impacts of alien species, enabling policies and legislation including institutions are developed and are guiding national management and surveillance of invasive species programmes and research; invasive species considerations are integrated into sectoral policies and programs. e ( ) Research guidelines are in place and are promoting coordinated research and community participation in invasive species research.
State of invasive species
A range of invasive plant and animal species Unfortunately, the benefits come at the exist in Malawi, some indigenous but most expense of costs often catastrophic to native of them exotic or alien. Table 3 presents a species and ecosystems. This is because summary of the key invasive species that some of these invasive species degrade have been recorded in Malawi most of biodiversity by replacing indigenous species which are alien having been introduced and bringing significant habitat accidentally or deliberately for various transformation that leads to reduction of purposes. Some of the alien species include ecosystems services, changes in multipurpose trees, ornamental and food microclimate, changes in fire regime of species which were brought in to provide vegetation which in turn increases the cost economic and recreational gains. of biodiversity conservation. In Malawi,
65 Pistia stratiotes invasive species are regarded as the second water lettuce ( ), and red water Azolla filiculoides largest threat to conservation of biodiversity fern ( ). The precise impact after direct habitat destruction. of these alien aquatic invasive species on the affected aquatic ecosystems and other Malawi is particularly prone to alien species dependent on them is not yet fully invasive species due to its geographical understood, although the massive mats of position, pantropical climate and interlocked plants that they form are bound agriculturally based economy and also the to change the water chemistry, impede the country relies heavily on imported Xanthium penetration of light and decimate products. For example, the ( pungens indigenous flora, and negatively affect fish ) has been introduced into Malawi and invertebrate biodiversity, and overall accidentally through maize consignments aquatic ecosystem integrity. that were purchased to feed Mozambican refugees and to feed communities that were Major alien invasive invertebrate species affected by the famine of 2001/2002. A have largely been agricultural and forestry number of invasive species have been pests. For instance, the accidental invasion Phenacoccus introduced by tourists, smugglers, cargo of the alien cassava mealybug ( manihoti and sometimes researchers. ) in the Malawian cassava agroecosystem in the mid 1980s led to the While there is currently limited published recruitment of a diverse range of parasitoids and consolidated information on invasive and predators, and even pathogens whose species in Malawi, the invasion of important impact on indigenous arthropod ecosystems such as mountains and aquatic biodiversity remains to be studied. A similar ecosystems has been well documented. For situation was observed with the advent of example, Mulanje Mountain, a major centre the neotropical cassava green mite Mononychellus tanajoa of diversity is endangered or threatened by ( ) that also attracted a the invasion of alien Himalayan yellow Rubus ellipticus diverse range of predatory mites most of raspberry ( ) and the Mexican Pinus patula which were indigenous and probably pine ( ). The Central American Prosopis juliflora feeding on other indigenous arthropods. mesquite ( ) present at Also, the introduction of the larger grain Swang'oma, on the plains of Lake Chilwa in borer (Prostephanus truncatus) occurred Phalombe District and in the Lower Shire through the importation of unfumigated Valley is a threat, particularly to the relief maize during the 1991/92 major biodiversity of the wetlands. Its strong drought that hit southern Africa. In the tendency for allelopathic-induced forestry ecosystem, there have recently been monocultural growth and its prolific seed an accidental introduction of four conifer Cinara production efficiently spread by browsing aphid pest species; the cypress aphid ( cupressivora animals are the major factors that have ) in1986, the pine woolly aphid Pineus boerneri enabled this species to take over large areas ( ) in 1984, the pine needle Eulachnus of the habitats that it has invaded. aphid ( rileyi) in 1984 and the Cinara pinivora Malawi’s inland freshwater bodies that are giant pine aphid ( ) in 2001 home to endemic and unique aquatic flora which have caused various levels of damage and fauna are also threatened by invasion of and economic losses to conifer trees, including the valuable and nationally alien species. For instance, Lake Malawi Widringtonia prestigious Mulanje cedar ( which is known for its high endemism (over cuppressoides 700 endemic cichlid species) and the Lake ). Chilwa wetland, a Ramsar site, which The introduction of aquaculture has supports important populations of 153 increased the distribution of fisheries in species of resident and 30 species of migratory Malawi and this has also led to the palearctic ( ) water birds are Eichhornia deliberate introduction of alien fish species threatened by the water hyacinth ( crassipes Salvinia molesta that are unfortunately potentially invasive. ), giant salvinia ( ), During the initial stages of aquaculture for 66 Cyprinus carpio example, the common carp ( ) There are no recorded invasive genetically was the choice species. This species is, modified organisms in Malawi. There is however, known to reduce water quality by however a possibility that genetic material increasing turbidity, a situation that can of the genetically modified maize that was cause the extinction of native species. In the donated to Malawi during the 2001/2002 Micropterus 1940s, the invasive black bass ( famine escaped into the local gene pool salmoides ) was deliberately introduced in since some of this maize was planted. Although genetically modified organisms dams and ponds in Malawi. Other alien fish Salmo are considered to have economic value they species such as rainbow trout ( gairdnerri also have the potential to alter the local ) have also been introduced in genetic resources through interbreeding ponds in and around Zomba and Mulanje and thus can transfer the traits to weedy mountains. It is, however, not known species, which may become invasive. The whether these potentially invasive fish Genetically modified organisms themselves species are presently still confined to the foci may adapt better to the environment than of their introduction or if they have invaded the native species and become potential other natural water bodies. invasive species.
Cinara cuppressivora
a b
c d
Figure 17: a Cinara cuppressivora Source Common and notorious alien invasive species recorded in Malawi; ( ) . : b c Cyprinus carpio Source FRIM, ( ) Lantana camara, photo by A. chikuni, ( ) (Common carp). : Jica d Prostephanus truncatus Aquaculture Project, National Aquaculture Centre, Domasi, ( ) (larger grain borer), photo by A. Chikuni.
67 Table 3: An inventory of key alien invasive species recorded in Malawi
Suspected/known Name of Invasive species Reason for introduction Origin a Invasive invertebrates of forestry ( ) or agricultural ecosystems Phenoccoccus manihoti Accidental on cassava cuttings Americas (cassava mealy bug) Mononychellus tanajoaName of Accidental Americas (cassava green mite) Prostephanus truncatus Accidental on maize grain Americas (larger grain borer) Chilo partellus (spotted stalk Accidental India/Pakistan borer) Cinara cuppressivora (cypress Accidental (conifer tree pest) North America aphid) Cinnara pinivora (giant pine Accidental (conifer tree pest) North America aphid) Eulachnus rileyi (pine needle Accidental (conifer tree pest) Europe aphid) Heteropsylla cubana Accidental on Leucaena plants Tropical America (Leucaena psyllid) Pineus boerneri (Pine Accidental (conifer tree pest) North America woolly aphid) and Europe b Invasive plants of fresh ( ) water ecosystem Eichhornia crassipes (water Ornamental South America hyacinth) Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed) Ornamental South America Pistia stratiotes (Water lettuce) Ornamental South America Azolla filiculoides (red water fern) Ornamental South America c Invasive plants of terrestrial ( ) ecosystem
Mimosa pigra Ornamental Mexico, Cuba Tithonia diversifolia ( Mexican Ornamental Mexico sunflower) Pinus patula (Mexican pine) Aforestation for timber and as Central America nursery crop for Mulanje cedar. Prosopis juliflora (Mexican Fodder/agroforestry, live fencing South America mesquite) Eucalyptus terreticornis Aforestation for timber Australia (Blue gum) Leucana leucocephala Agroforestry (mostly fodder) Tropical America (Leucaena) Lantana camara Ornamental, hedging Central and South America Caesalpinia decapitala Ornamental, security hedging Asia (Mauritius thorn) Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle) Aforestation, agroforestry Australia and Tasmania Bauhinia variegata (Orchid Tree) Ornamental Asia Rubus ellipticus (Himalayan Ornamental, horticultural Asia raspberry) (edible fruits) Pteridium aquilanium (Bracken fern) Accidental d Potential invasive fish ( ) Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Aquaculture (fish) Europe Micropterus salmoides (black bass) Aquaculture (fish) North America Salmo gairdnerri (rainbow trout) Aquaculture (fish) North America
68 Current Management
There is no single policy and legislation on not been effective and as a result the management of invasive species in implementation of invasive species Malawi although issues of invasive species programme continue to be fragmented are covered in sectoral policies and along the sector. legislation dealing with biodiversity. The h Plant Protection Act, 1970 (Cap. 64:01) and In response to Article 8 ( ) of the CBD, the Noxious Weed Act, 1970 (Cap. 64:02) which calls on parties to prevent the aim to prevent the introduction of alien introduction of, control or eradicate, those weeds, invertebrate and microbial pests and alien species which threaten ecosystems, provide for the eradication of pests, diseases habitats, or species, Malawi started various and weeds that are destructive to plants and national initiatives and programmes which other habitats. These Acts further prevent have largely based on the concepts of the importation, culturing, distribution, classical biological control that seek to selling and exportation of any plant forms recreate an ecological balance in the new and growth media such as rooting compost environment between an alien invasive and soil without an official permit issued by species and its natural enemies. Examples of such initiatives are the control of (i) the National Plant Protection Services. Aleurothrixus plocosis (in citrus fruit trees), Unfortunately, the Acts are seriously Monoinchelus tanagoe (ii) (in cassava) iii) outdated, considering that there exist a Prostephanis truncatus (which attacks stored wider range of alien invasive species today Tetramychis evancea grain), (iv) (which than what was recognised when the Acts Cinara attacks tomatoes and potatoes) (v) were published. The enforcement of the cupressi, Eulachnus rileyi Acts is also very weak to the extent that and Pineus boerneri (conifer aphids which attack Mulanje cedar many invasive species are currently being Chilo partellus imported and distributed in Malawi often and other conifer trees, (vi) without the knowledge of the Plant (the spotted stem borer). Protection Services. The fisheries policy has Private sector participation in prevention, provisions for prohibiting the introduction control and eradication of invasive species is of exotic species and also has the mandate to minimal and often triggered by economic monitor and control the spread of aquatic losses the invasive species pose on their weeds specially water hyacinth using businesses. For example, the Electricity biological and other control measures in Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM) collaboration with communities and the has recently intensified manual removal of private sector. Similarly the wildlife policy water weeds along upper shire river as one mandates the wildlife sector to maintain the way of protecting the hydropower stations. ecological and aesthetic quality of protected Further programmes havemainly been areas by preventing and controlling among project oriented. Both the Blantyre and other things introduction of exotic plants Lilongwe city assemblies are also involved and animals. The Ministry of Agriculture in manual removal of the Kariba weed Salvinia molesta and Food Security is perceived to the be that is threatening their responsible body to coordinate invasive water reservoirs. species programme but the coordination has Summary of issues
Invasive alien species pose serious threats to and widespread, and in many cases the ecosystem functioning and the survival of invasive species are increasing in both indigenous species in many natural areas. number and distribution. The cost of their Problems of invasive species are pervasive control is high, and insufficient resources
69 currently limit control efforts. These horticulture, construction projects, problems may be due to the fact that there is landscaping, ornamental aquaculture and scientific uncertainty about the tourism which are potential sources of environmental, social and economic risk unintentional introductions of alien invasive posed by a potentially invasive alien species are very often not subjected to species. This coupled with the lack of rigorous study and assessments. certainty about the long-term implication of an invasion are the reason why eradication, Although recognizing that research and containment or control measures against the monitoring are key to early detection of new introduction of potentially invasive alien alien species, Malawi’s capacity to species are often delayed or postponed. undertake such research which among other things should concentrate on documenting Current programmes are uncoordinated, the history of invasions (origin, pathways none cost effective and do not give priority and time-period), characteristics of the alien to prevention of introductions. This is made invasive species, ecology of the invasion, worse by current weak border control and and the associated ecological and economic quarantine measures and inadequate impacts and how they change over time is human and infrastructure capacity to rudimentary. As a result of this, information effectively implement and coordinate on invasive species is often scattered about programmes. and incomplete and does not contribute to decision making regarding actions to be Institutional framework and policies that taken in the context of any prevention, would have facilitated control and spread of introduction and mitigation activities on potentially invasive species within Malawi alien species that have potential to threaten and between its neighbours are not in place. ecosystems, habitats or species. This is compounded by unavailability of guidelines and procedures for risk Education and public awareness assessment, economic and social impact programmes of the risks associated with the assessment that are required as part of the introduction of alien species, including evaluation process before a decision is made mitigation measures, are not in place. Thus on whether or not to authorize a proposed local communities and appropriate sector introduction. Unavailability of a designated groups are not aware of the impact of the organisation to coordinate invasive species invasive species. This may have contributed programmes means that sectoral activities, to the lack of public participation in current such as fisheries, agriculture, forestry, invasive species programmes. Action Plan
Objective 6.1 Eradication, prevention and b ( ) Develop invasive species control of invasive species management plans that place much Strategy 6.1.1 emphasis on prevention of Develop a balanced and introductions, control and objective nation-wide invasive species eradication of invasive species. management plan to facilitate coordination c and cooperation among agencies but ( ) Develop systems and tools for mindful of the fact that there are many effective monitoring and evaluation frequently competing public and private of invasive species. d interests. ( ) Develop and create mechanisms to Actions coordinate and manage invasive a species programmes which focus ( ) Produce a comprehensive inventory oninvasive species prevention, of invasive species and evaluate eradication, research and their economic, social and enforcement. environmental impacts. 70 Key players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA, ecosystems, including early MZUNI,FRIM,DNPW.EAD,NHBG, detection and coordinated MoIWD, ESCOM, WESM, MMCT, NGOs. management efforts at the Strategy 6.1.2 community, national and regional Develop mechanisms to levels. prevent the introduction and establishment Key Players: of new invasive species and identify current FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA, and potential conditions that promote MZUNI, FRIM, MRA, DNPW, EAD, NHBG, introduction of new invasive species. NGOs, MoLGRD. Actions Objective 6.2 Public awareness and community participation a ( ) Strengthen and introduce border Strategy 6.2.1 control and quarantine measures to Promote awareness of the ensure that intentional introductions threat to biological diversity and related are subject to appropriate ecosystem goods and services posed by authorisation. invasive species. b ( ) Produce and develop training Actions programmes for border control a officers including focusing on a ( ) Develop guidelines and implement a comprehensive list of invasive coordinated public awareness species in Malawi and surrounding campaign programme about the countries. impact of invasive species. c b ( ) Develop programmes, procedures and ( ) Develop and compile national guidelines for risk assessment and database of invasive species, management for first time identification guides and make introduced species. available the information to the d ( ) Develop and implement rapid stakeholders. response procedures appropriate for c ( ) Strengthen the capacity of and provide the prevention of new and potential appropriate support to media invasive species. organisations to participate in Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA, information dissemination in close MZUNI,FRIM,DNPW.EAD,NHBG, collaboration with local communities WESM, MMCT. and private sector about the impact of Strategy 6.1.3 Develop cost effective invasive species. d invasive species management programmes. ( ) Provide support to education Actions institutions to incorporate into their a curricula issues of invasive species, ( ) Conduct needs assessment studies emphasizing identification, and develop effective management prevention and eradication. programmes on prioritized areas. e b ( ) Support the involvement of all ( ) Identify invasive species problems stakeholders especially the private and recommend management sector, local communities as well as actions to private landowners, government departments and policy NGOs and government makers in alien invasive species departments. management programmes. c Key Players: ( ) Develop methodologies to monitor, FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA, prevent and arrest the spread of MZUNI, FRIM, MRA, DNPW. EAD, NHBG, invasive species in shared NGOs, MoLGRD.
71 Objective 6.3 Improved human and Actions infrastructure capacity a ( ) Harmonise sectoral rules and Strategy 6.3.1 Enhance and facilitate regulations relevant to invasive coordinated research and monitoring of species and use the information to invasive alien species. formulate policy and legislation for the control of introductions, Actions movement and management of alien a ( ) Assess the degree of success and invasive species. b movement of invasive species by ( ) Establish an institution or strengthen using quantitative assessment an existing one to coordinate and methods and develop maps of implement the policy framework distribution of the most important especially to coordinate research, invasive species. management and eradication of alien b ( ) Conduct research on characterization of invasive species. Key Players: invasive species; vulnerability of EAD, FD, DoF, MoA&FS, MoJ, ecosystems and habitats; environmental, MZUNI, UNIMA, MoWD, WESM, NHBG, social and economic implications; CBOs, NGOs. prevention, control and eradication methodologies; and use the results to produce research guidelines. c ( ) Review research needs on invasive species and formulate and implement a prioritized research agenda. d ( ) Review human, institutional and national capacity to facilitate results- oriented research on invasive species. e ( ) Promote community-based research especially promoting the use of traditional knowledge in the development and implementation of measures to address invasive species problems. f ( ) Strengthen and broaden existing governing agencies and authorities and train staff to effectively implement and coordinate national invasive species programmes. Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA, MZUNI,FRIM,DNPW.EAD,NHBG, NRCM, MMCT. Objective 6.4 Strengthen policies, legal and institutional framework Strategy 6.4.1 Review relevant policies, legislation and institutions and as appropriate adjust or develop enabling policies, legislation and institutions.
72 Theme Seven: Biodiversity Policies and Legislation
Scope
Government continues to facilitate broad based policy direction and national guidance for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) Roles of government, NGOs and the private sector in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use have been identified, defined and prioritised. b ( ) Biodiversity objectives as defined in the NEP and relevant sections of international conventions and treaties have been reviewed and incorporated into all sectoral policies and legislation. c ( ) Government has mandated a technical department under an independent Environmental Protection Authority to implement and enforce biodiversity policies and legislation. d ( ) Significant political will has been created leading to a significant improved government leadership in fulfilling international conventions and treaties. e ( ) Increased public awareness of various biodiversity-related policies and legislation. f ( ) Significant progress is made to identify and harmonise conflicting and non-complementing sectoral policies.
State of biodiversity policy and legislation
Malawi has no comprehensive structural of the policy, the 1996 NEP has been revised. and legal framework for the conservation of The revision was necessary to ensure that biodiversity but rather follows a sectoral the NEP remains current and responsive to approach focus. Most of the sectoral policies new challenges and incorporates lessons and legislation have been reviewed to be learned. The revised NEP contains a section consistent with NEP and EMA. The main on the conservation of biological diversity, features of the National Environmental which is general in nature. It seeks to Policy and sectoral policies and acts are manage, conserve and utilise biological described below. diversity (ecosystems, genetic resources and The National Environmental Policy (NEP) species) for the preservation of national heritage. It also contains sections, which The NEP was adopted in 1996 in order to deal specifically with fisheries, and parks promote sustainable social and economic and wildlife among other things and these development through sound management contain strategies on conservation of specific of the environment. It provides an overall species. However, the NEP does not include framework against which relevant sectoral a section which deals specifically with environmental policies can be developed conservation of species. and revised to ensure that these are The NEP is backed by the Environment consistent with the principle of sustainable Management Act (EMA), which was development. However, as a result of policy enacted in 1996 in order to remove the lack gaps, conflicts and duplication, which have of an overarching statute providing general adversely affected effective implementation environmental protection. Sectoral policies 73 therefore (e.g. policies on land, water, programmes and manage forests in their fisheries, waste, forestry) are required to be areas of jurisdiction. It appears that these consistent with the National Environmental powers may be exercised independent of Policy. The EMA makes provisions for and exclusive from the Department of preparation of NEAP, conducting of EIAs, Forestry. Such uncoordinated cross-sectoral control of pollution and discharge of waste, responsibilities cannot be properly executed and also has provision for the establishment and possibly account for the fact that these of environmental protection areas and statutory provisions have largely remained conservation of biological diversity, access unenforced. to genetic resources, waste management and protection of the ozone layer. The Act, The National Forestry Policy (NFP) was however, lacks provision for the protection adopted in 1996 in order to address problem of endangered species. In view of this, there areas contained in the Forestry Act such as is need to include in the Act issues of non recognition of individuals or endangered species such as list of communities to own, manage and utilise endangered species, designated critical forest resources and inadequate framework habitats, regulations for access and to encourage private sector involvement in utilisation of endangered species and forest conservation for the benefit of the penalties. nation by: The Forestry Act ● Allowing all citizens to have regulated and monitored access to The principal legislation that governs some forest products; forestry matters is the Forestry Act ● [No. 11 of 1997], which provides for Contributing towards improving the participatory forestry, forest management, quality of life in the rural forestry research, forestry education, communities and providing stable forestry industries, protection and economy; and rehabilitation of environmentally fragile ● Establishing appropriate incentives areas and international cooperation in that will promote community-based forestry. The Act has provisions relating to conservation and sustainable use of co-management of forest areas such that forest resource as a means of poverty local communities can assist in the reduction. implementation of a mutually acceptable The National Fisheries and Aquaculture management plan. Policy (NFAP) One major weakness of the Act is that it was developed without extensive consultation The fisheries and aquaculture policy was and without specific reference to EMA. It adopted in 2001 in order to improve the may be necessary to harmonize the two efficiency of all aspects of the national Acts, particularly with regard to provisions fisheries industry, the production and relating to declaration and revocation of supply of existing fisheries products, as well forest reserves and environmental impact as development of new products to satisfy assessment. There is also need to harmonize local demands and potential export markets. the Forestry Act with Land Act, the The policy thus aims at controlling and Electricity Act (Cap. 73:01], the Local monitoring fishing activities to enhance Government Act and the National Parks and quality of life for fishing communities. Wildlife Act [No. 11 of 1992] since their The principal statute governing fisheries is provisions affect, directly or otherwise, the Fisheries Conservation and forestry issues. For example, the Local Management Act, 1997, which seeks to Government Act gives powers to local strengthen institutional capacity by authorities to carry out reafforestation involving various other stakeholders in 74 the management of fisheries, including should be designated for protection. It also the private sector, local communities and has provisions in section 28 to declare any non-governmental organizations. The Act area of land or water within Malawi as a promotes community participation in the national park or wildlife reserve. protection of fish and provides for the establishment and operation of aquaculture. The national parks and wildlife amendment The establishment of aquaculture is an bill, now before parliament, is a legal important step in order to reduce pressure expression of the wildlife policy adopted in on natural fisheries. It is noteworthy, 2000. In particular, the amendment bill seeks however, that the Act does not provide for to: any incentives to aquaculture farmers to ● Promote community and private encourage them to engage in fish farming. sector participation in the The National Wildlife Policy (NWP) management of wildlife resources; ● Provide for stiffer penalties; The policy was adopted in 2000 with a goal ● to ensure proper conservation and Promote international cooperation; management of wildlife resources in order ● Promote equitable sharing of to provide for sustainable utilization and benefits; and equitable access to the resources and fair ● Promote general stakeholder sharing of the benefits from the resources participation. for both present and future generations of Malawi. To achieve this goal the policy Water Resources Policy seeks to: The 1994 Water Resources Management ● Adequately protect representative Policy (WRMP) placed much emphasis on ecosystems and their biological provision of portable water but failed to diversity through adopting address issues pertaining to water sustainable land management resource monitoring, assessment and practices; implementation of strategic plans. These ● Raise public awareness and deficiencies are addressed in the draft appreciation of the importance of Water Resources Management Policy of wildlife conservation and 2004. The draft policy, however, does not management; provide policy guidelines for the conservation and sustainable use of aquatic ● Provide enabling legal framework to biodiversity. control poaching;
● Encourage wildlife-based The management of water resources has to enterprises; and contend with two distinct though related issues: provision of wholesome supply and ● Develop a cost-effective legal, the removal and disposal of contaminated administrative and institutional liquid wastes and in that regard has a framework for managing wildlife bearing on waste management. The Water resources. Resources Act, 1969 is the major statute The principal legislation dealing with dealing with management of water management of wildlife resources is the resources. The Act is intended to make National Parks and Wildlife Act [No. 11 of provision for the control, conservation, 1992], which repealed the Game Act, the apportionment and use of water resources Crocodile Act, the Wild Birds Protection Act of Malawi. and the National Parks Act. The Act National Land Resources Management Policy provides for wildlife management, and Strategy including identification of species which
75 The policy was approved in 2000 in order to the establishment of the National promote the efficient, diversified and Herbarium & Botanic Gardens of Malawi. sustainable use of land-based resources both Among other things the NHBG was for agriculture and other uses. In addition, established to: the policy was put in place in order to avoid ● Establish herbaria and botanic sectoral land use conflicts and enhance gardens as a centre for assemblage, sustainable socio-economic growth for the growth, curation and classification conservation of biodiversity in objectives of plants of Malawi; dealing with technology development in land management. The objectives include ● Conduct investigations and research the development of technologies that are into the science of plants and related economically viable, ecologically sound and subjects and disseminate the results; socio-culturally acceptable, especially in ● Provide advice, instructions and environmentall fragile areas such as steep education in relation to those slopes, stream banks, watershed areas, aspects of the science of plants; and swamps anddambos; and the promotion of the management, conservation and ● Keep the collections as national utilization of natural resources in order to reference collections and ensure that ensure sustainable land and ecosystem collections are available to interested productivity. The National Land Resources persons for the purposes of study. Management Policy, however, is very Other policies and Legislation broad, does not offer a radically new approach to solve land use problems and as Although Malawi has sector policies and such is considered unremarkable. legislation dealing with endemic and Land in Malawi is administered and endangered species, including those relating to forestry, fisheries and wildlife, there is Box 4 Legislation associated with land management and need, however, to provide for biodiversity harmonization of these to ensure that they achieve 1. Land Act [Cap. 57:01] similar objectives and there is 2. Registered Land Act [Cap. 58:01] cross sector coordination. 3. Land Acquisition Act [Cap 58:04] Further, Malawi has no policy 4. Land Surveys Act [Cap. 59:03] or legislation specifically 5. Customary Land (Development) Act [Cap. 59:02] dealing with community, 6. Adjudication of Title Act [No. 18 of 1971] farmers and breeders rights 7. Town and Country Planning Act [Cap. 23:01] for plant and animal genetic 8. Local Government Act (No. 42 of 1998] resources as they relate to food 9. Mines and Mineral Act [No. 18 of 1971] and agriculture. A draft plant 10. Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act [Cap. 61:02] 11. Public Health Act [Cap. 43:01] variety bill is under 12. Tobacco Act [Cap. 65:02] consideration in the Ministry 13. Plant Protection Act [Cap. 64:01] of Agriculture and Food 14. Public Roads Act [Cap 69:02] Security. It is necessary that 15. Control of Goods Act this policy framework be developed, including regulation of intellectual regulated under a set of sectoral Acts property rights. presented in Box 4. The National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens Act Malawi is also party to a number of international and regional treaties and The Act was established in 1987 and conventions some of which are highlighted provides for the development and in Theme Eleven (Malawi's Role in Global management of herbarium and botanic Biodiversity Conservation). Efforts have gardens as national heritage for Malawi and been made to integrate provisions from 76 Current Management
Enforcement and implementation of NEP. The Ministry of Mines, Natural policies and legislation dealing with Resources and Environment through the biodiversity conservation is fragmented EAD is responsible for the coordination of along the Energy and Natural Resources the cross-sectoral environment and natural departments (agriculture, lands, forestry, resources programmes through a network water, fisheries, national parks and wildlife of stakeholders and a number of etc). These sectors are responsible to ensure coordinating committees such as the that their sectoral policies, plans, strategies National Council for Environment and and programmes are in line with EMA and National Biodiversity Committee. Summary of issues
By engaging in an environmental policy Malawi’s overall commitment to provide review and reform process Malawi is guided direction for conservation and responding to her obligations under the sustainable use of biodiversity. However, Convention on Biological Diversity, the for effective monitoring and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the World implementation of environmental policies Trade Organization Trade Related aspects there is need to strengthen the capacity of of Intellectual Property Rights institutions in terms of infrastructure and (WTO/TRIPS) and the International Treaty human capacity and develop an effective on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and mechanism with such institutions to Agriculture. In this respect the AU Model monitor and implement policies and Legislation on Community, Farmers and regulations related to biodiversity Breeders Rights provides useful guidelines conservation and sustainable use. for domesticating these international Furthermore there is also need to develop a instruments in the context of the peculiar comprehensive policy framework for the needs of developing countries in general biodiversity sector. This will promote a and the African countries in particular. In more coordinated implementation of addition this policy process is indicative of conservation activities. Action Plan international and regional conventions into particular attention to incorporating the national laws and policies. emerging international and regional Objective 7.1 Strengthen policies and conventions and obligations. legislation c ( ) Evaluate and strengthen of existing Strategy 7.1.1 laws and policies to address issues of Develop biodiversity policy endemic biodiversity, access and and act benefit sharing, indigenous Actions knowledge and intellectual property a rights. ( ) Provide strategic direction and d ( ) Develop appropriate mechanisms guidance to review and harmonise for co-existence of the customary relevant policies and legislation and and statute laws given the difficulty develop a broad based Biodiversity to combine the implementation of policy. the two types of laws especially in b ( ) Study and assess the existing policies relation to property rights. e and revise them accordingly, paying ( ) Review and harmonise existing
77 policies and legislation and integrate Protection Agency. international conventions and Key Players: treaties and customary laws into MoE, EAD, MoMNEA, MoJ, national laws and policies. NRCM, NHBG, MoA&FS. Key Players: EAD, NRCM, MoMNRE, MoJ, MoLGRD, MoLPPS, NHBG, MoA&FS. Objective 7.2 Strengthen Institutional capacities of biodiversity sectors
Strategy 7.2.1 Provide mechanisms to strengthen institutional infrastructure and human capacity to monitor and implement environmental policies and legislation. Actions
a ( ) Strengthen environmental education especially in the areas of environmental law, economics and science. b ( ) Undertake training and community awareness campaigns on access and benefit sharing and biodiversity related intellectual property rights. c ( ) Establish alternative enforcement mechanisms, which will minimise resource expenditure and encourage close collaboration between sectors. d ( ) Enhance enforcement of biodiversity sector agencies including the police, judiciary, immigration and customs and excise authorities. e ( ) Provide policy guidelines for creation and strengthening of financing mechanisms for biodiversity programmes through the national budget. f ( ) Promote enforcement and compliance to policy, legislation and international conventions through the creation and empowerment of an independent Environmental
78 Theme Eight: Community Participation and Awareness
Scope
The involvement and participation of the private and public sectors, communities and NGOs in the conservation sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefit of biological diversity appreciated and understood.
Desired outcome by 2020 a ( ) Communities participate in planning, management and implementation of biodiversity programmes and law enforcement through natural resources community associations. b ( ) Primary, secondary and tertiary curricula revised and strengthened to incorporate issues of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. c ( ) The public, especially the children, are more aware of the value of biodiversity through schools and community programmes. d ( ) Local stakeholders including researchers, professionals and private resource managers have adequate information about biodiversity in their areas and that indigenous knowledge is incorporated into biodiversity management programmes. e ( ) The private sector actively participates in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use through provision of adequate financial resources at the local community level. f ( ) Guidelines and programmes for gender and HIV/AIDs mainstreaming in Biodiversity conservation are promoting participatory and appropriate research. State of community participation and awareness
The Malawi government recognises that To enhance public awareness and environmental education is the major and compliance, the government of Malawi in remedial and preventative measure of the 1996 put in place a national environmental current environmental. This is confirmed by education and communication strategy the NEP of 1996 revised in 2004, which seeks whose main objective is to raise public to promote sustainable social and economic consciousness to the complexity of natural development through, among other things, resources management at all levels. Guided enhanced public and political awareness by environmental strategic planning, a wide and understanding of the need for range of environmental education activities sustainable environmental protection, (from formal to informal) are being conservation and management. Following undertaken by different organizations. the publication of the Environmental Policy, Informal environmental education is sectoral policies affecting biodiversity such undertaken by the civil society, such as the as the Forestry; Fisheries and Aquaculture; WESM, COMPASS, and CURE. Through its and the National Parks and Wildlife wide network of clubs whose membership policies, were amended to include mostly comprise the youth, WESM is provisions that encourage community assisting the government instil the participation and provision of appropriate environmental culture in the youth of incentives that will promote community Malawi, through distribution of leaflets, based natural resources management. CBNRM activities, etc. Government 79 departments such as the Environmental masters levels. The secondary and primary Affairs Department, Fisheries Department, school curricula, incorporate elements of and Forestry Department reach out to environmental education in the syllabi. various stakeholders through radio and However, teaching and learning materials television programmes, sensitisation and are very limited, teacher training courses training sessions of focus groups such as have not yet been reviewed to integrate journalists, artists, club patrons, politicians environmental issues and the teachers in the and local leaders, or through CBNRM field are not oriented to enable them activities. Sensitisation of journalists effectively teach environmental education resulted in the establishment of Forum for in the carrier subjects. Environmental Communicators (FECO) in 1999 and Coalition of Journalists for The legal requirement of stakeholder and Environment and Agriculture (COJEA) in public consultations in the preparation 2003. These forums have improved the process of environmental impact capacity of the print and electronic media to assessment (EIA) for prescribed projects is increasingly disseminate environmental contributing to the raising of environmental information to the public and therefore awareness. For instance, through public contribute to informed decision making hearing on proposed development projects about the wise use and management of supported by either government, NGOs as biodiversity and other natural resources. well as the Malawi Social Action Fund (MASAF), communities are made aware of Formal education institutions (e.g. environmental issues affecting them and the Chancellor College, Bunda College, the importance of their effective participation in Polytechnic, Mzuzu University) have addressing environmental problems. introduced new courses in environment which are offered at bachelors and Current Management
Implementation of environmental education the District Executive Committee, especially and community participation programmes the District Environment Sub-Committee are the responsibility of government sectors (DESC) a technical sub-committee to dealing with environmental management provide advice to DEC. At the local level the such as Agriculture, Water, Forestry, there are Area Development Committees National Parks and Wild Life. In line with that facilitate community led planning and the requirements of NEP most sectoral implementation of projects and also promotes policies and legislation were revised and community participation in natural resources now have provisions for community management. The decentralisation participation. The existing national programme therefore has provisions for institutional framework for environmental empowerment of local communities to education and community participation is actively participate in environmental coordinated by the Ministry of Mines, management and the institutions created Natural Resources and Environment under it, providing viable mechanism for through the EAD. Within the EAD the integration of environmental concerns environmental education is coordinated identified at local levels into district plans through Education and Outreach section. then into national plans.
In line with the decentralisation programme The Department of Local Government is the various mechanisms have been established key institution to the implementation of to promote community participation at the decentralisation programme and as such has local level. At the Assembly level natural established Environmental Unit, which resources management is facilitated through assists and advises all Local Authorities on
80 matters of the environment. The EAD, management. Co-ordination Unit for the on the other hand, is responsible for the Rehabilitation of the Environment coordination of the cross-sectoral (CURE) coordinated implementation of environment and natural resources NGO environmental education. Summary of issues
By putting in place various environmental use of English as the official language programmes, Malawi is moving toward the for documenting policies, legislation, right direction to implement Article 13 of plans and reports that limit the Convention on Biological Diversity on community participation especially in Public education and awareness. The planning, monitoring, and successful implementation of this implementation of environmental programme, however, will depend on the programmes and enforcement of active involvement of the people and their environmental laws. commitments to biodiversity conservation. ● Major issues relating to community Government departments (e.g. participation and awareness include: Forestry, Fisheries, Lands, Agriculture, National Parks and ● Much indigenous knowledge about Wildlife) and NGOs such as WESM Malawi’s biodiversity among the local are involved in a number of formal communities remains untapped with and informal environmental the exception of a few loose linkages education initiatives, but the with a limited number of herbalists. programmes are not well coordinated Most of this indigenous knowledge is and integrated, therefore, not most passed on orally from generation to effective, resulting in duplication of generation and unless there is a effort and fragmentary information deliberate attempt to document this distribution. There is, therefore, need some of it is likely to be lost. to mainstream biodiversity concepts into broader environmental education ● There exists in Malawi a wide range programmes and to make of cultural beliefs and practices that biodiversity information more have over the years contributed relevant to the people's local needs. towards conservation of certain Existing environmental education components of biodiversity. curricula need to be reviewed and However, these are not well where necessary develop new ones to understood, not adequately target the youth. documented and not incorporated into the current environmental ● There is limited involvement of management programmes. the private sector in environmental management in general and ● Despite all the available policies and biodiversity conservation legislation dealing with biodiversity programmes in particular, which is conservation, Malawi still experiences compounded in part by limited access environmental degradation, which is to biodiversity information, lack of linked to unsustainable use of natural appreciation of the relevance of resources. This is due in part to the biodiversity to their business and the lack of general understanding and impact of their activities on the local appreciation by the communities of biodiversity. the importance of biodiversity in sustaining life. This is also ● Although National Environmental compounded by low literacy rate and Policy provides for mechanisms for
81 the implementation of environmental ICUCN Netcab, however a process to education and public participation, Malawi develop an Environmental Education Policy does not have a stand alone Environmental was initiated but the policy is yet to be Education Policy. With support from finalised. Action Plan
Objective 8.1 Raise awareness on the value Private Sector in international and of biodiversity local negotiations in order to ensure Strategy 8.1.1 that indigenous knowledge is not Raise the appreciation of the subject to political manipulation and communities on the value of biodiversity in is not lost through excessive sustaining life. bureaucracy. Actions b ( ) Promote the involvement of the local a ( ) Develop, revise and coordinate the communities, local leaders and implementation of an effective NGOs in decision-making regarding public awareness strategy. the management of biological b diversity and ecosystems through ( ) Make information about village natural resources biodiversity available to people by management committees. developing, promoting and c implementing an effective ( ) Promote and support establishment information exchange and sharing of local groups and associations on strategy. sustainable use of natural resources c and promote community ( ) Develop a public awareness participation in biodiversity programme about Malawi's lesser research. known ecosystems, habitats and d species that are of biodiversity ( ) Develop training guidelines and conservation importance. programmes for community d participation and strengthening. ( ) Prepare simple extension messages, Key Players: visual aids, radio programmes on MoJ, MoMNRE, WESM, the conservation and wise use of CURE, MoA&FS, FD, DoF, EAD, NGOs, biodiversity for dissemination to CBOs, MoLGRD, Museums of Malawi, stakeholders. MMCT. Key Players: MoA&FS, MoNRE, MoH, Objective 8.3 Biodiversity knowledge WESM, CURE, NHBG, UNIMA, VNRMC, base in education system improved MoLGRD, MZUNI, MMCT, NGOs. Strategy 8.3.1 Objective 8.2 Strengthen linkages between Promote and strengthen the stakeholders on biodiversity conservation teaching of biodiversity in Malawi’s and sustainable use education system. Actions Strategy 8.2.1 Strengthen the participation a of communities and the private sector as ( ) Instil biodiversity culture in the youth equal partners in biodiversity conservation of Malawi by developing guidelines and sustainable use and equitable sharing of on environmental education and by benefits. reviewing and developing new Actions curricula for schools so that issues of biodiversity are addressed through a ( ) Involve communities, NGOs and the folk stories and textbook readings. 82 b Objective 8.5 Strengthen policies, legal ( ) Establish, promote and support in- and institutional frameworks service training programmes for teachers and assist training Strategy 8.5.1 institutions identify their Provide enabling policy, legal environmental education needs and and institutional frameworks for strategies. Environmental Education and Public Awareness. c ( ) Promote informal biological diversity Actions education programmes through a community natural resources ( ) Strengthen and establish management programmes, outreach mechanisms for effective programmes and adult literacy coordination, monitoring and programmes. implementation of environmental Key Players: MoE, MoLVT, EAD, UNIMA, education and public awareness MZUNI, MoLG&RD, WESM, DNPW, programmes. b NHBG, Museums of Malawi, FD, DoF, ( ) Develop an enabling policy on NRC, MMCT. environmental education and public Objective 8.4 Mainstream HIV/AIDS and awareness and integrate issues of gender Environmental education into existing sectoral policies and Strategy 8.4.1 Integrate issues of Gender strategies. and HIV/AIDs in biodiversity programmes, c policies and practices. ( ) Develop guidelines and programmes for enhanced existing Actions institutional capacity including a environmental focal points and ( ) Address socio-economic and coordination units. cultural obstacles that pose Key Players: challenges in biodiversity EAD, WESM, MoLG&RD, FD, conservation and equitable sharing DOF, DNPW, NHBG, CURE, MoA&FS. of benefits. b ( ) Involve communities in gender and HIV/AIDs awareness in order to promote participation in biological conservation and promote the involvement of women in biodiversity programmes. c ( ) Address the impacts of HIV/AIDs on biodiversity and initiate research on how biodiversity can best be managed amidst HIV/AIDs pandemic. d ( ) Integrate issues of HIV/AIDs and gender and biodiversity conservation into the school curricula. Key Players: EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW, DOF, NAC, NGOs, MZUNI, UNIMA, CBOs, VNRMC
83 Theme Nine: Information, Knowledge and Capacity
Scope
The provision of adequate information, knowledge and capacity for the conservation and sustainable use, and sharing of benefits arising from the use, of
Desired outcome by 2020
a ( ) Biodiversity information is readily available and in a format and language most appropriate to the end user. b ( ) Inventories of Malawi's taxonomic groups maintained and regularly updated to facilitate efficient monitoring and identification of biodiversity. c ( ) Sufficient progress is made in filling the existing scientific information gaps in the following areas: species identification and classification, natural products research including medicinal plants, ecosystems management and systematics. d ( ) Noticeable progress in the collection, classification, identification and management of biological collections of different taxonomic groups, with emphasis on understudied taxonomic groups, such as invertebrates, leading to accurate identification of crop pests and to improved food security. e ( ) Guidelines and mechanisms for information sharing and exchange are enhancing information sharing between institutions and organisations.
State of information, knowledge and capacity
Malawi has a number of different developing an Information and biodiversity information sources in form of Communication Technology Policy (ICT) to gray and published literature, databases guide the utilization and development of and biological collections. Literature on the ICT to enhance information access, sharing biodiversity of Malawi is particularly and dissemination. inadequate although available information shows that a considerable amount of study Biological collections, such as herbarium and research has been carried out in the specimens, living and zoological collections, country over the past 135 years. Results of and museum specimens are a primary the research were either published in source of taxonomic, ecological and foreign journals or are unpublished and as biodiversity information. The National such are inaccessible to users. In order to Herbarium maintains over 100,000 plant address these problems and improve on specimens of which 50% have been availability, accessibility and information databased. A representative sample of flow at national level, Cabinet in 1996 Malawi's mammals, birds, reptiles and approved a policy on library, invertebrates are housed at the National documentation and information services. Museums. It would appear, however, that Despite being broad and comprehensive, most collections are in foreign museums and advocating and recognizing the and are inaccessible to local users. importance of information technology, Specimens of fishes of Malawi are housed at communication patterns and indigenous the Fisheries Research Unit, Monkey Bay. knowledge systems, the policy was never Presently, the major invertebrate adopted. Government is in the process of collections, each containing 10,000-20,000 84 (insect) specimens, are housed with the groups the biological collections have never Bvumbwe Agriculture Research Station, the been databased and this forces users to Department of Biology, Chancellor College, physically visit the institutions. This has and the Forestry Research Institute of been one of the factors that have affected Malawi. Other institutions, such as the information exchange and sharing between Museums of Malawi; Crop Sciences and among institutions at the national, Department, Bunda College; Makoka regional and international levels. In Research Station; and Chitedze Agricultural addition unresolved concerns on issues of Research Station, have smaller but still Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), valuable collections. inadequate terms and procedures for information exchange and data sharing, and Malawi’s biological collections are often not lack of fully fledged data standards and well managed, misidentified and are classification systems that are applicable to scattered about. In addition the information custodians of biodiversity information, contained on specimen labels is in a format have affected data exchange and sharing. not easily accessible to users and hence Information on Malawi’s biodiversity unavailable to the users. would certainly be effectively shared and Most of Malawi's biodiversity information exchanged if some of the information was has never been consolidated, repackaged available on line or in designated and made available to the users. Apart from information centers such as exiting national a few checklists of selected taxonomic libraries.
Current management
Management of biodiversity and its related regulation on access to biodiversity information in Malawi is the responsibility information and biological collections. of specific government departments and Despite the fact that loss of biodiversity is institutions such as fisheries, forestry, highlighted in NEAP as one of major national parks, agriculture and lands problems the country is facing, financing of although much emphasis is placed on the biodiversity management activities through conservation of the biodiversity and very the national budget is inadequate. Apart little is done to manage the information, from the Malawi Environmental literature and biological collections. This is Endowment Trust (MEET) and the Mulanje evidenced by the lack of provisions within Mountain Conservation Trust, there is no the existing policies pertaining to mechanism to finance biodiversity management of biodiversity information programmes. The Environment Fund Frame and associated biological collections. Gray developed and approved by Cabinet in literature held by these organizations has September 2003 proposes allocation of the never been consolidated and the institutions funds to some environment and natural do not have functional libraries. The resources sectors at national and district proposed Clearing House Mechanism when levels. Ironically, the Environment Fund has fully operational would assist to collect, not included Biodiversity as a sector that manage and disseminate biodiversity would get a share of the funds for information. Considering that the CHM implementation of biodiversity activities would sometimes be dealing with gray including information management. literature, it might be necessary to develop or revise the existing legislation to include
85 Summary of issues
Malawi through the Science and Technology inadequate budget allocations towards Policy of 2001 recognizes the importance of herbarium, museums, and library activities scientific information in socio-economic are made. Policy makers are unable to development. However, effective appreciate the value of Malawi's information management, sharing and biodiversity because the biological resource exchange appear to be affected by some of and its diversity has not been systematically the following factors: measured to determine its economic value. Inadequate capacity This calls for reliable and credible means of measuring the benefit and costs of Currently institutions holding biodiversity biodiversity. information have inadequate capacity in Lack of information management form of infrastructure, human capacity and standards sustainable financing mechanisms, and as such are unable to maintain information Biodiversity information maintained by sources as part of their work programmes. various institutions is often in a format that This has resulted in information material cannot be easily understood and accessed being scattered within the institutions, by resource users, and shared between the which makes information gathering, custodian institutions. In order to make retrieval and selective dissemination such information available to users there is difficult. Efforts must therefore be made to: need to put in place mechanisms to repackage and or reorganize the ● Build human capacity capable of information and present it in the format and collecting, packaging, interpreting and language appropriate to potential users. dissemination biodiversity Malawi's commitment to achieve this is information; manifested through its commitment to ● Build infrastructure capacity in form of establish a Clearing House Mechanism that purpose built herbaria, museums, is designed to face the challenge of setting a information centers, research national biodiversity information network equipment, etc; of experts and institutions. The network will improve information flow and a means for ● Strengthen training institutions on resource sharing and technology transfer at biodiversity research and national, regional and international levels. dissemination; and Thus, the network will endeavor to promote awareness on the available information ● Develop sustainable financing resources and their sources. The network mechanisms to support information will also attempt to sensitize resource management activities including centers to provide tailor-made services. information dissemination. Inadequate biodiversity information Lack of an enabling policy Very little is known about Malawi's Malawi currently has no clear policy on biodiversity. In particular there are scientific management of biodiversity information gaps in the knowledge of taxonomy, and as such most activities are haphazard distribution, population variations and and result in inefficient collection, viability, socio-economic importance, management and dissemination of quality classification and ecosystems functioning. scientific information. In addition, the There is therefore need to initiate processes inadequate policy leads to inadequate to identify knowledge gaps and recommend appreciation by policy makers of the value ways of filling up the gaps. of biodiversity information. As a result 86 Lack of sustainable financing mechanisms external support stops. Efforts should be made to develop innovative financing Financing of biodiversity activities mechanisms to strengthen existing including biodiversity information institutions in management of the management has tended to depend on clearinghouse mechanisms, herbaria, external sources which are routed through museums and biodiversity information projects. The over dependency on external centers. The starting point would be to sources has impinged severely on data ensure that a portion of the Environmental collection, dissemination and distribution of Trust Fund is allocated to biodiversity biodiversity information as most of the programmes through a biodiversity activities have not continued once secretariat. Action Plan
Objective 9.1 Develop Human, and awareness programmes and infrastructure, financial and institutional ensure that the Environment Fund capacity. deliberately include a component on Strategy 9.1.1 support to management of Build the capacity of biodiversity information. institutions to collect, interpret, manage and Key Players: disseminate quality and relevant NRCM, NHBG, MoMNRE, biodiversity information and biological FRIM, Museums of Malawi, UNIMA, collections effectively and efficiently. MZUNI, MoA&FS, DISTMS, NSDC. Actions Objective 9.2 Develop Information sharing mechanisms. a ( ) Ensure that herbaria and museums Strategy 9.2.1 have adequate infrastructural capacity Develop, consolidate and to collect, classify and identify share existing and new biodiversity biological collections. information, methods, technologies and b management experiences. ( ) Ensure appropriate skills training and Actions education to enhance the capacity of a people and relevant agencies to ( ) Document and database existing and manage biodiversity information and new biodiversity data and information knowledge. and make it available to users through c ( ) Establish national biodiversity various media. b information centers using existing ( ) Compile a list of core datasets and infrastructures such as national establish metadatabases to capture libraries or other resource centers. core datasets of key biodiversity d ( ) Establish formal and informal information and make it available in collaborative linkages with regional the national biodiversity information and international centers of taxonomic centers as pointers to key information excellence to ensure accurate sources. c identification, classification and ( ) Establish a standardized information management of biological collections system capable of tracking relevant and exchange and access to biological Malawian biodiversity literature information not available in Malawi. through cross-referencing keywords. e d ( ) Ensure that innovative financing ( ) Create, strengthen and implement the mechanisms are established to support existing CHM institutional structure. biodiversity information management
87 e ( ) Promote the use of ICT in biodiversity promotes coordination of research information management. activities and promotion of knowledge Key players: sharing. NRCM, NHBG, MoMNRE, Key Players: Museum of Malawi, UNIMA, MZUNI, NRCM, NHBG, Museums of MoA&FS, DISTMS, NSDC. Malawi, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoA&FS, LSM. Objective 9.3 Strengthen policy, law and institutional capacity
Strategy 9.3.1 Develop and review existing policy and legislation on exchange and sharing of biodiversity scientific knowledge, technologies and management practices. Actions
a ( ) Develop and review the existing policies for access to biological information and data including gray literature, published literature and oral literature and biological collections. b ( ) Establish mechanisms for effective repatriation of biodiversity data and collections maintained in foreign institutions. c ( ) Establish mechanisms for effective monitoring and implementation of policies and regulations on sharing and exchange of biodiversity information and knowledge. Key Players: NRCM, MoMNRE, MoA&FS, MoJ, DISTMS, NSDC, LSM. Objective 9.4 Increase scientific knowledge and research capacity
Strategy 9.4.1 Identify and fill critical gaps in scientific knowledge, including applied research and coordinate future research to address key issues and threats to biodiversity. Actions
a ( ) Assess knowledge gaps, prioritize critical research areas requiring urgent attention and identify and motivate appropriate institutions to research on the prioritized areas. b ( ) Develop resources and a system that
88 Theme Ten: Incentive Measures
Scope
Mechanisms for creating incentive measures are promoting stakeholder participation in biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources.
Desirable outcome by 2020 a ( ) Policies, laws and institutional frameworks are revised or developed to remove or minimize potential perverse incentives. b ( ) Guidelines and procedures to regulate creation of incentives and promote community participation in biodiversity conservation are in place. c ( ) Significant progress is made in developing and or adopting tools and methodologies for valuation of biodiversity and biological resources. d ( ) Institutional framework is established to facilitate implementation and effective monitoring, enforcement and evaluation of incentive measures. State of incentive measures
Causes of biodiversity loss appear either confiscation of illegal forest produce and directly or indirectly linked to economic income-generating activities (IGAs) as an gains of the societies. Therefore, to achieve economic incentive such as bee keeping, sustainable biodiversity conservation, there guinea fowl rearing and juice making. is need to create or develop relevant incentive measures which may be in form of Another example of CBNRM related economic, regulatory and investment incentive measures for conservation of incentives. biodiversity has been through the border zone project around Nyika-Vwaza in The National Environmental Policy (2004) northern Malawi. The project took an old provides for mechanisms for economic approach used under the Integrated incentives for sustainable environmental in Conservation Development Projects section 3.2. The concept of incentive (ICDPs) initiated by conservation measures in biodiversity conservation organisations throughout the world in the however is relatively recent and not true 1980s. This takes the form of socio-economic incentive measures in biodiversity investiment through support to community conservation have been recorded in Malawi. development projects (community schools and clinics, boreholes, agricultural and The only measure that are providing some enterprise development, credit and income kind of incentives to the rural communities generating activities) for communities on sustainable use of natural resources are bordering parks. those related to access and benefit sharing. For example, since the late 1990s Malawi A project implemented by the Wildlife and government has on a pilot basis gone into Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM) collaborative management of forest reserves also following a similar approach. The with communities living close to the forest project developed strategies for sustainable reserves. Co-management activities have harvesting of non-timber forest products, given back to communities some stake in processing and marketing with an emphasis forest conservation and use, have been on sustainable management of indigenous source of income to the communities forest resources to ensure continued through sharing of revenues earned from availability of benefits to communities. 89 The other reason was to arrest deforestation, provided technologies that provide by providing alternative sources of income alternative sources of energy to both local to local communities. The activities communities and low-income urban involved include bee keeping, guinea fowl residents. These include solar energy, rearing, indigenous fruit processing, biogas, gel fuel, solid fossil fuel (coal), bamboo furniture making and fire briquette ethanol and electricity. These energy making for both home and commercial sources provide alternative sources of purposes. energy to fuelwood and biowaste from agricultural fields, thus conserving The private sector has been involved in biodiversity. The provision of electricity in provision of indirect incentive measures for rural areas (rural electrification) may be biodiversity conservation to both rural and considered an investment incentive urban populations in Malawi. They have measure for natural resources management. Current Management
Overall guidance on incentive measures is cover the issues of incentive measures provided for in the NEP (2004). In addition adequately. to this Forestry, Fisheries and National Parks and Wildlife policies and legislation Private sector involvement in provision of have provisions that provided an enabling incentive measures is almost non-existent environment to advance the paradigm of probably due to high investment costs. provision of incentive measures. The NGOs especially the Wildlife and policies have put the interests of local Environmental Society of Malawi have been communities as being central to the active in providing incentives for management of forests, fisheries and conservation of biodiversity through wildlife. These policies however do not CBNRM programmes. These programmes however are donor supported. Summary of issues
Inadequate policy and legal framework high taxes in such commodities as paraffin and electricity force people to depend on Sectoral policies such as forestry, fisheries fuel wood for domestic uses. and national parks lack specific provisions for incentive measures although Policies and legislation that would promote comanagement arrangements provides incentives are simply unavailable. For some kind of incentives for biodiversity example lack of legislation on intellectual conservation. Implementation of property rights mean that genetic resources comanagement programmes however has and indigenous knowledge are exchanged been very slow and is still monopolized by freely and as such the potential resulting government control which encourages commercial and technological benefits do encroachment and unsustainable use of not trickle down to the local communities. natural resources. Malawi therefore needs to undertake a comprehensive study of various policies Other policies, such as the economic growth and legislation to identify policy areas and policy, trade policy, public roads policy, develop a streamlined policy that clearly agriculture and livestock policy which articulate issues of incentive measures. encourage development of one sort, may Economic policy and market failure directly or indirectly have negative impacts on biodiversity and ecological functioning systems. For instance, price controls and Malawi’s biodiversity is inadequately valued, resulting in poor pricing of 90 biological resources. This when coupled City Fuelwood Project (BCFP), which with ill-defined, disputed or non-existent established forest plantation property rights and missing or incomplete by transfer of land usufruct rights from local markets for biological resources results in communities to the project through over exploitation of the resources. In compensation. When the plantations were addition, the low prices of natural resources later given back to local communities, the products are a discouragement to question of who should get back the forest communities to invest in natural recourses plantations had to be addressed especially management as an economic activity. in cases where communities adjacent to the Weak Institutional framework plantations were without traditional rights to forest land. In order to ensure sustainable The concept of incentive measures has not use of the resources, plots were allocate to been integrated into the existing institutions all villages living along the plantation and as such human capacity to implement without taking into consideration the programmes is inadequate resulting in original boundaries. This has caused a ineffective implementation of programmes number of conflicts, which have resulted in that have elements of incentives. A good unsustainable harvesting by communities example of institutionalfailure in the that feel unfairly treated. implementation of incentives is the Blantyre Action Plan
Objective 10.1 Improve knowledge and Strategy 10.2.1 Develop guidelines for understanding of incentive measures promoting public participation and Strategy 10.1.1 awareness on importance of removing Promote the participation of policies and practices that promote perverse the private sector and local communities in incentives. identification of practices that promote perverse incentives and identification and Actions implementation of incentives a ( ) Undertake an inventory of incentive Actions measures being practiced and a promote the adoption of best ( ) Assess and identify available practices. incentive measures important for b biodiversity conservation, ( ) Carry out community and private sustainable use as well as benefit sector awareness campaigns on sharing and promote the adoption of available and innovative incentive best practices. measures. b c ( ) Carry out biodiversity valuation to ( ) Undertake community training on determine potential economic uses innovative measures for biodiversity of biodiversity resources in Malawi. conservation and sustainable use. c ( ) Develop mechanisms to regulate and Objective 10.3 Develop policies and promote the transfer of innovative regulatory framework for incentive technologies. measures Key Players: Strategy 10.3.1 UNIMA,NRCM,FRIM, Identify policies and MZUNI and MoLG&RD, CBOs, NGOs, practices that generate perverse incentives NHBG and formulate appropriate policies that Objective 10.2 Promote public encourage conservation through provision participation and awareness of incentives.
91 Actions Key Players: MZUNI, UNIMA, NHBG, FD, a DoF, DNPW, MoA&FS, MoE, MIRTDC, ( ) Study, critically review and evaluate EAD existing policies and practices that Strategy 10.4.2 potentially contribute to biodiversity Develop markets for the loss. agricultural and natural resource products b (including non timber and wildlife ( ) Harmonize sectoral policies and products). legislation that have a bearing on Actions biodiversity with a view to minimizing their conflict and impact a ( ) Conduct socio-economic surveys to on the promotion of incentive establish new potential products and measures at local and national level. facilitate local market development. c ( ) Develop guidelines and mechanisms b ( ) Improve existing products and their to promote periodic quantitative marketing locally and evaluation of the effectiveness of internationally. policy instruments and an c assessment of any incentives created. ( ) Establish the monetary value of Key Players: Agriculture and Natural Resource MoMNRE, NRCM, UNIMA, Products. MZUNI, DNPW, DoF, CBOs, MIRTDC, d MoJ. ( ) Encourage development of Objective 10.4 Enhance institutional community cooperatives for capacity agricultural and natural resource products. Strategy 10.4.1 Enhance capacity of e ( ) Provide credit schemes to support institutions to undertake biodiversity local community cooperatives and valuation, research, and monitoring and other low-income groups. evaluation of policy reforms and f programmes. ( ) Promote multiplication distribution Actions and marketing of indigenous genetic material of plants with high a ( ) Undertake institutional needs commercial value. Key Players: assessments and enhance their FD, DNPW, MoA&FS, MEPC, capacity to monitor and implement MoTPD, VNRMC, NGOs programmes. Strategy 10.4.3 b Develop Sustainable ( ) Develop and implement research Financing Mechanisms guidelines on incentive measures. Actions c ( ) Undertake skills development a training programmes for the ( ) Undertake an inventory of available community cooperatives and other financing mechanisms and low-income groups in collaboration document lessons and experiences. b with the private sector. ( ) Develop innovative sustainable d financing mechanism strategies as ( ) Develop guidelines and mechanisms incentives to biodiversity for sustainable financing of conservation. programmes to identify policies and c practices promoting perverse ( ) Undertake community training and incentives. awareness campaigns on sustainable e financing mechanisms. ( ) Establish a coordinating mechanism Key Players: for implementation of incentives. EAD, FD, DNPW, MoA&FS, NGOs, VNRMC 92 Theme Eleven: Malawi’s Role in Global Biodiversity Conservation
Scope
Malawi’s international role and responsibilities with respect to the goal of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and furthering of national biodiversity goals as spelled out in the Malawi constitution.
Desired Outcome by 2020
a ( ) Malawi contributes to a global vision of implementing the biological resources management by participating in international fora, sharing information and expertise and fostering bilateral and multilateral cooperation in biodiversity conservation efforts. b ( ) Malawi continues to plays an important role in protecting biodiversity nationally regionally and globally. c ( ) Malawi makes significant progress to implement the CBD in harmony with relevant treaties and conventions related to biodiversity and natural resources. State of Malawi’s Role in Global Biodiversity Conservation
Malawi's commitment to global biological commitment to the international efforts to conservation dates back four decades ago contribute towards conservation of when Malawi signed the Convention on biological diversity, sustainable use and Fishing and Conservation of the Living equitable sharing of benefits of biological Resources of the High Seas (1958). This was diversity. followed by the signing of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance In conformity with some of the above Especially as Water Fowl Habitat (Ramsar conventions, Malawi has designated the Convention, 1971) in 1971, the African following sites for the protection of Convention on the Conservation of Nature biodiversity: Lake Chilwa was designated a and Natural Resources (1968) in 1973, the Ramsar Site in 1997; Nankumba Peninsula Plant Protection Convention (1951) in 1974, was declared the Lake Malawi National the signing of the Convention on Park and further declared a World Heritage International Trade in Endangered Species Site (UNESCO) in 1984 and Mulanje of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) in 1975 and Mountain was declared a Man and its ratification in 1982, the signing of the Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO) in 2000. Convention on Protection of World Cultural In addition to the international conventions and National Heritage Sites (1972) in 1975 that she is party to, Malawi also contributes and its ratification in 1982, and the signing to biodiversity conservation at the regional of the Convention on the Conservation of level. Malawi was the secretariat for Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1893) in biodiversity activities in the SADC region 1983. The signing of the 1992 United Nations before SADC activities moved to the SADC Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat in Botswana. This gave Malawi (UNFCCC) in 1992 and its ratification in the opportunity to manage and implement 1996, and the signing and ratification of the regional biodiversity projects such as the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 Southern African Biodiversity Programme, also confirms Malawi’s continued 93 SADC Wetlands Project etc. Recognising the and implementing policies and legislation transboundary nature of Malawi’s that manage the environment responsibly. This biological resources, Malawi signed regional was followed in 1996 by the NEP and the protocols on shared Watercourse systems, Environmental EMA, which is the legal Wildlife Conservation and Law instrument for the implementation of the Enforcement, the Environment, Forestry principles of environmental and natural and tourism development. resource management contained in the NEP. These documents are cross-cutting in With a view to incorporating relevant nature and, therefore, provide structure and aspects of the international conventions into legal frameworks for sustainable national laws and policies, Malawi for the management and conservation of biological past decade was engaged in a review and resources. reform of environmental and natural resources management policies and Most sectoral legislation has been revised to legislation. The reform was also in response be consistent with EMA. Furthermore, the to the requirements of the CBD. In addition, majority of Acts have provisions that make the reforms were driven by the recognition an express commitment to international of two deficiencies in the existing policy and cooperation. This commitment is put into legislation regime: the over reliance on effect through an elaborate system of rules, central government control over the use of regulations and procedures. natural resources and lack of community participation in natural resource In line with regional and international management. Thus in 1994, Malawi conventions that Malawi is party to, Malawi prepared its first NEAP and further made has participated in a number of regional and environmental management a national international biodiversity projects such as policy priority by including in the SADC Biodiversity Support Programme, constitution section 13 (1) which empowers Southern Africa Botanical Network the state to promote the welfare and (SABONET) and Lake Malawi Biodiversity development of the people by adopting Project. Current Management
The Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources National Parks and Wildlife and the and Environment through the EAD is the National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of national focal point for conventions and Malawi are key lead implementing protocols dealing with natural resources institution for the CBD whilst the management and as such is charged with department of Forestry is the implementing following up and implementation at the institution for the UNCCD (Table 4). national level. Furthermore some issues that However, EAD lack capacity to effectively fall under different conventions but have coordinate implementation of obligations of strong relationship to the CBD are generally various conventions at the national level. coordinated by local agencies and focal points. For example coordination of CITES is the responsibility of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife.
To ensure effective implementation of the CBD and other conventions dealing with natural resources management various institutions have been given key implementing responsibilities. For example Forestry Department, Department of
94 Table 4. A sample of biodiversity related conventions and protocols that Malawi is party to. Date of Signing or Key lead Implementing Regional or international treaty Institutions Institutions
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 15 Sept. 1968 DNPW Convention on Wetlands of International 2 Feb. 1971 DNPW Importance Especially as Water Fowl Habitat Convention on International Trade 3 March 1973 DNPW in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species on Wild Animals 23 June 1979 DNPW United Nations Framework Convention Meteorological on Climate Change 9 May 1992 Department Convention on Biological Diversity 22 May 1992 FD, NHBG, DNPW United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and Drought 17 Jan. 1995 FD Summary of issues
Malawi’s commitment to global need to be developed and used by relevant biodiversity conservation and sustainable institutions. use confirmed through the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity is There is need to strengthen the existing CBD complemented by a number of national focal points in international negotiations legislation and policies. The inclusion of and to undertake meaningful collaborative section 13(1) in the constitution implies a research with international organisations. In responsibility to provide guidance and addition there is need to strengthen leadership in biodiversity issues. institutions dealing with biodiversity in management of bilateral and multilateral There is need to establish a national funding with international donor agencies. framework that harmonises all the sectoral Acts and policies. The framework should There is need to harmonise and enhance establish biodiversity goals and priorities to collaboration in the implementation of other conserve the biodiversity and also integrate conventions and treaties related to the CBD. the role and responsibilities of the private This will ensure sustainable use of natural sector and NGOs. Appropriate mechanisms resources at regional and international to enforce policies and Acts to conserve and levels including issues related to sustainably use the biodiversity biodiversity conservation and sustainable use and international trade. Action Plan
Objective 11.1 Participate and contribute important to Malawi in international fora to intergovernmental negotiations on and treaties. biodiversity conservation and sustainable Actions use a Strategy 11.1.1 ( ) Promote the participation of Build consensus on and different government agencies and present critical biodiversity issues that are collaboration with international
95 organisations in programmes and to the CBD by integrating the activities to fulfil Malawi's protocol into national policies and obligations to the CBD and related implementing related activities. treaties and protocols. c ( ) Participate in negotiations of the b ( ) Review policies and legislation that agreements on conservation and address the international sustainable use. conventions, protocols and treaties d on conservation and sustainable use ( ) Provide experts to secretariats that that Malawi is a party to. promote the CBD provisions. c e ( ) Participate in the international ( ) Negotiate the transboundary negotiations, in priority areas for agreements that will promote Malawi as appropriate on the Conservation and sustainable use of development of international biodiversity. Key Players: provisions and instruments relevant MoMNRE, DNPW, MoLGRD, to the conservation and sustainable EAD, MoJ, FD, DOF, MoLPPS, DNPW, use of biodiversity such as WTO, Objective 11.3 Enhance inter-institutional WIPO, Biosafety that are related to cooperation the CBD. d Strategy 11.3.1 ( ) Promote the development and use of Promote collaborative supportive trade and environmental studies between institutions in conservation policies for the conservation and and sustainable use of biological resources. sustainable use of biodiversity in Actions international trade and other a forums. ( ) Strengthen Malawi’s role in e international and regional ( ) Provide the international experts collaboration in biodiversity lists to assist in the drafting of the research through collaborative links different articles. with institutions of excellence in the Key Players: MoMNRE, MoLGRD, area of biodiversity conservation. MoLPPS, MoJ, DNPW, UNIMA, MZUNI b ( ) Promote joint management of and NGOs biodiversity and ecosystems along Objective 11.2 Promote regional national boundaries for the cooperation management of shared biological Strategy 11.2.1 resources. Promote effective c cooperation and support for the ( ) Provide mechanisms for wise use of conservation and sustainable use of international aid. biological conservation between d ( ) Put in place initiatives that promote governments of the SADC region and implementation of the CBD. beyond. Key Players: Actions NHBG, MoMNRE, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoJ, NGOs, NPGRC, FD. DOF, a ( ) Operationalise the Biodiversity and DNPW. Bisafety Clearing House Mechanism (CHM) for information exchange and scientific collaboration with other countries. b ( ) Promote regional protocols related
96 Chapter 5 Strategic Priorities, Targets and Implementation Arrangements
Strategic priorities
Malawi has limited resources and low crucial in this decade lest most of the capacity to adequately implement all actions mountains are stripped bare due to over- identified in this strategy and as such these exploitation of resources especially for actions cannot all be implemented at once. firewood and agricultural expansion Thus some should be implemented first, especially in areas close to urban areas. The giving priority to those that address existing biodiversity hotspots outside the protected gaps and inadequacies in Malawi’s areas network must be identified and biodiversity management and those that prioritised and comprehensive would contribute more towards achieving environmental management plans should national and global biodiversity goals and be developed in partnership with all targets. This means that although Malawi relevant stakeholders. has not prepared a framework for the implementation of the Global 2010 targets, Communities and the private sector have actions that are perceived to contribute to vital roles to play in the management of the implementation of the Global 2010 protected areas. Effective partnership targets were prioritised. These priority between the private sector, government actions are not sufficient by themselves and departments and the communities need to for effective implementation, these will have be forged and strengthened. In order to to be accompanied and integrated into ensure that Malawi achieves sustainable government programmes and initiatives. management of protected areas the following actions should be given high A total of 192 (one hundred ninety two) priority. actions were identified for implementation Priority Action 1: over a period of fifteen years. Of these 23 Formulate a policy were prioritized and grouped into the framework that would promote following five areas. conservation of species, habitats and ecosystems that are important but not Enhancement of protected areas represented within the existing protected management area networks or are vulnerable, fragile or are at risk of irreversible loss or decline of As a measure to protect and conserve the biodiversity. biological diversity hotspots for species, Targets: habitats and ecosystems, areas are declared Biodiversity hotspots including protected areas. The protected areas lakes and wetlands, mountains and network consists of national parks, wildlife terrestrial habitats and ecosystems outside reserves, forest reserves and botanic the protected areas network are identified, gardens. The priority protected areas should characterized and protected by 2010. include vulnerable freshwater ecosystems, Priority Action 2: the four lakes in the country and watersheds Develop and implement for major rivers, mountains and the programmes for sustainable conservation of terrestrial ecosystems. Currently, the Lake important ecosystems of biodiversity Malawi National Park forms the only importance including miombo ecosystems, fisheries protected area in Malawi. mountain ecosystems, wetlands and biosphere reserves. Conservation of mountain biodiversity is
97 Targets: Areas of particular importance to agricultural research stations, the biodiversity such as Miombo ecoregions, universities, MBERU and other research Afromontane ecoregions of forest units. ecosystems and wetlands diversity effectively conserved by 2010. GMOs, Invasive Alien Species and pests can be propagated by cross border trade Priority Action 3: Encourage and support through intentional or unintentional the protection, maintenance and restoration introductions. Alien species and pests can of areas of particular importance for the spread and threaten indigenous species, conservation of selected indigenous species. habitats and ecosystems. There is need to Targets: develop and strengthen and implement Restore, maintain or reduce the policies and regulations for the prevention, decline of population of species of 50 control and management of such issues. threatened species by 2010. Priority Action 4: Policies and regulations for Access and Promote enforcement and Benefit Sharing of genetic resources and Bio- compliance to policy, legislation and prospecting also need to be developed. international conventions. Access to genetic material and the Targets: Policy, legislation and other associated traditional knowledge, international instruments ratified and innovations and practices is inadequately promulgated by 2008. controlled and individuals and communities do not or inadequately benefit Priority Action 5: Promote the involvement from bioprospecting and biotrade. Issues of of the local communities, local leaders and sustainable use of genetic resources are NGOs in decision making regarding the complex and as such require cross cutting management of biological diversity and actions for effective implementation. ecosystems through village natural Priority Action 6: resources management committees. Develop and enact regulations for access to and equitable Targets: Rates of loss and degradation of sharing of benefit arising from the use of natural habitats decreased by 2010. genetic resources. Promotion of sustainable use of genetic Targets: Benefits arising from commercial resources and other utilisation of genetic resources are equally shared with stakeholders by 2010. Sustainable use of genetic resources in Priority Action 7: Malawi is challenged by transboundary Collect and maintain issues such GMOs, Access and Benefit genetic resources in gene banks, botanic Sharing and the problem of loss or gardens, national parks, herbaria, museums replacement of local indigenous crop and zoos, and promote re-introduction, in-situ ex-situ varieties and animal breeds. In the pursuit and conservation of priority, of food security, GMOs are introduced and rare, or endangered taxa. the indigenous species are crossbred with Targets: exotic varieties or breeds with desirable Databases of genetic resources are traits. However, most of the indigenous created and published by 2009. Priority Action 8: genetic resources are indiscriminately Collect all crossbred among communities without agrobiodiversity, including their wild proper measures to preserve and conserve relatives, threatened and/or endangered the indigenous species. Recognizing this, species, with full participation of the strategy proposes strengthening and communities and preserve them on farm, in promoting systematic protection and field gene banks, seed banks and botanic characterization of genetic resources by the gardens. National Gene Bank, seed centers, and
98 Targets: Agrobiodiversity, genetic diversity habitats and ecosystems associated with the of fish and other valuable species conserved. places they live. As such informing, Priority Action 9: consulting and involvement of the local Develop or strengthen communities is central in the promotion of existing regulations and institutional conservation and sustainable use of framework on conservation and sustainable biological resources. To influence people’s use of rare and endangered taxa including attitudes and behavior and make it more international trade on endangered species. desirable for them to conserve rather than Targets: deplete or degrade biodiversity in the Illegal trade on endangered species course of their economic activities, economic reduced by 2010. incentives for biodiversity conservation Priority Action 10: Develop methodologies should be developed. to monitor, prevent and arrest the spread of Forestry, fisheries, national parks and invasive species in shared ecosystems, wildlife and the water sectors have including early detection and coordinated incorporated participatory approaches and management efforts at the community, have established good working national and regional levels. relationships and partnerships with local Targets: Pathways for major potential alien communities in natural resource invasive species controlled by 2010, management programmes. This partnership management plans in place for major alien needs to be extended to private landowners invasive species that threaten major whose participation is of paramount ecosystems of Malawi by 2008. importance yet often lacking. Priority Action 11: Government needs to develop and Implement the Biosafety strengthen good working relationships and Act and develop and implement a broad- partnerships with developmental partners, based biotechnology policy. NGOs, private sector and relevant Targets: Sectoral plans for the government agencies. Partnerships should implementation of the Biosafety Act are also be developed when it comes to developed and implemented by 2010; management of shared natural resources relevant departments and institutions have along national boundaries. Furthermore, identified and trained staff in handling, government should work in collaboration monitoring and identification of GMOs. with international organizations in implementation of its obligations to the CBD Priority Action 12: Assess and identify and other international conventions or available incentive measures important for treaties. biodiversity conservation, sustainable use as well as benefit sharing and promote the The Malawi Government should take into adoption of best practices. consideration the current decentralization process and promote the involvement of all Targets: Biological resources that support stakeholders at the local, district and sustainable livelihoods, food security and regional levels in the implementation health care identified and maintained by process. In this regard, the devolution of the 2010. environmental sector and the current Enhancement and maintenance of decentralized institutional framework for partnerships the environmental sector should be supported and strengthened.
Different groups of people have a stake in The following priority actions have been conservation of biodiversity resources. The identified which when implemented would 90% of the nation living in the rural areas, facilitate implementation of biodiversity have a broader appreciation and better management plans in partnership with understanding of the indigenous species, other stakeholders. 99 Priority Action 13: Targets: Promote the Guidelines, procedures and involvement of the local communities, local mechanisms for technology transfer are leaders, the private sector and NGOs in developed and implemented by 2010. decision-making regarding the management Enhancement of governance in of biological diversity and ecosystems biodiversity conservation through community based natural resources management communities. The government should provide strategic Targets: Guidelines and regulation for direction, funding, national guidance, establishing and managing village natural coordination and monitoring, and resource management areas are developed encourage the private sector, community and implemented; community natural and individual participation to ensure the resource management areas identified and conservation and sustainable use of managed by 2010. Malawi’s biodiversity. Government should review and establish an effective Priority Action 14: Promote joint implementation structure with well-defined management of biodiversity and ecosystems roles for implementing and monitoring along national boundaries for the biodiversity conservation strategies. The management of shared biological resources. commitment displayed by government Targets: through incorporation of biodiversity Cross border management concerns into the constitution should committees are established along shared continue if this strategy is to be fully natural resources; guidelines for cross implemented. border management of natural resources developed and implemented by 2008. Malawi should continue to play a leading Priority Action 15: role in coordinating and monitoring, and Promote the implementation of biodiversity participation of different government conservation and management programmes agencies and collaboration with by incorporating commitments made in this international organisations to fulfill national strategy into the national and Malawi’s obligations to the CBD and related departmental biodiversity management treaties and protocols. plans. The current environmental Targets: Establish and promote management plans should have a sound multisectoral committees on natural implementation mechanism. The existing resources management at local, district and institutions involved in the management of national levels by 2010. biodiversity should be strengthened and initiatives to set up an Environmental Priority Action 16: Promote mechanisms for Protection Agency should be given priority, wise use of development assistance. government support and funding. The Targets: agency is important since it would be New and additional financial responsible for coordinating programmes resources are transferred to Malawi; and also has potential to become the center regulations and code of conduct for use of of biodiversity management in Malawi. development aid are developed and implemented by 2008. Malawi is currently experiencing a decline Priority Action 17: in development assistance especially in the Promote the area of environment and natural resources. participation of different government In addition to this, Malawi has in recent agencies and collaboration with years experienced sudden withdrawal of international organisations in programmes development assistance (e.g. the Danish and activities to fulfil Malawi’s obligations Development Aid, DANIDA) that resulted to the CBD and related treaties and in the premature termination of protocols. environmental programmes such as Lake 100 Targets: Chilwa Wetlands project. This underscores Environmental Protection Agency the need to develop sustainable financing is established and operational by 2007. mechanisms to ensure long term Strengthen infrastructure and human sustainability of natural resource capacity management programmes especially when donor funding ends and to reduce Full implementation of actions identified in dependence on external assistance. It is this strategy will require considerable and against this background that intensive work substantial improvements in our knowledge with the Ministry of Finance and alignments base and understanding of biodiversity. of natural resources activities with the This can only be achieved if Malawi invests Malawi Development and Growth Strategy in training of professionals through research is needed. It is envisaged that through this and implementing a biodiversity approach, Malawi will progressively curriculum at primary, secondary and support efficient investment in biodiversity via the national budget. Launching of Trust tertiary levels as well as community funds and other mechanisms of mobilizing education programme in biodiversity financial support for biodiversity management. A comprehensive biodiversity conservation programme should certainly education programme would provide assume a high priority. Malawi with human capacity necessary for long-term natural resources management. The responsibility to reverse the decline in biodiversity is a government priority Availability and accessibility of information strategy and as such this strategy on biodiversity and biodiversity recommends that government should information sources have to be improved. strengthen issues of governance through Biodiversity information in form of gray and implementation of the following actions. published literature, databases and Priority action 18: Provide strategic biological collections have to be packaged in direction and guidance to review and a form that could be easily accessible harmonize relevant policies and legislation through information systems technologies and ensure that policy and legislation are in and other media. line with the Convention on Biological Malawi’s institutions such as the National Diversity and other international Herbarium and Botanic Gardens (currently conventions. a national centre for plant diversity), Targets: Sectoral policies are revised to Agricultural Research and Extension Trust, incorporate biodiversity issues by 2008. Universities and colleges, the Museums of Priority action 19: Establish alternative Malawi, Fisheries Research Unit (with a financing mechanisms that will minimize wide collection of fish of Malawi), Forestry resource expenditure and encourage close Research Institute of Malawi (with a decent collaboration between sectors. insect collection) have potential to become Targets: biodiversity centres because their biological Biodiversity Trust funds are collections are primary sources of established and fully operational; guidelines taxonomic, ecological and biodiversity for establishing biodiversity working information; but they lack human and groups are developed and implemented by infrastructure capacity. Such scientific 2008. institutions including the Molecular Biology Priority action 20: Promote enforcement and and Ecological Research Unit (MBERU) and compliance to policy, legislation and the proposed Malawi Invertebrate Centre, international convention through the should be supported through provision of creation and empowerment of an research equipment and other necessary independent Environmental Protection infrastructure. Agency. 101 Malawi will only effectively implement these strategic priorities with improved human and infrastructure capacity. To achieve this the following actions should be earmarked for implementation within the first five years. Priority action 21: Develop human, institutional and national capacities to identify, monitor and manage biodiversity through training for target groups in relevant courses including taxonomy, natural resources management, biodiversity assessment and ethnobiology. Targets: Diplomas, certificates, BSc and MSc degrees in Biodiversity management are established and fully functional in universities and other natural resource management training institutions by 2010; relevant posts (e.g. taxonomists, ecologists, geneticists) and training opportunities are identified and implemented by 2010. Priority action 22: Instill a biodiversity culture in the youth of Malawi and local communities by developing guidelines on environmental education and curricula for schools and establishment of in-service training programmes for teachers. Targets: Curricula and guidelines for primary and secondary schools are developed and fully implemented. Training needs and institutions for teachers are identified, prioritized and promoted; guidelines for community participation and education for environmental and natural resources management are developed and fully implemented by 2010. Priority action 23: Establish and provide capacity for operationalizing the national CHM and strengthen and implement the existing CHM institutional structure, and develop national biodiversity databases. Targets: Policy guidelines on biodiversity information management are developed and/or reviewed; regulations and guidelines on biodiversity information standards and on access and benefit sharing of biodiversity information developed by 2010. 102 Implementation arrangements
e The National Biodiversity Strategy and ( ) Ministry of Youth, Sports and Action Plan is a product of a consultative Culture through Department of process involving all stakeholders in the Museums; management and utilization of biological f ( ) Department of Local Government resources in Malawi. Effective and efficient responsible for District Assemblies; implementation of the strategy and action g plan requires effective institutional ( ) National Herbarium and Botanic arrangement and mechanism to facilitate Gardens of Malawi; h active participation of the stakeholders. The ( ) NGOs and Civil Society; performance of the current institutional i arrangement and mechanism has not been ( ) Mulanje Mountain Conservation very effective as evident by the continued Trust; j loss of biodiversity in many sectors. ( ) Research and Development Therefore, it is important that stakeholders Institutions e.g. Universities of continually evaluate the performance and Malawi and Mzuzu; capacity of key institutions as well as the k ( ) Ministry of Industry, Science and institutional arrangement and mechanism to Technology; make necessary improvements to ensure l attainment of targets set in the NBSAP. ( ) Ministry of Trade and Private Sector Current Institutional Arrangements Development; The organizations are linked through The implementation of the NBSAP falls committees and focal points at various within the existing institutional levels (Figure 18). arrangement at central and local Roles and Mechanism for Implementation government levels in which relevant statutory corporation and non- governmental organizations participate. The At the national level, the ministries and key institutions involved in biodiversity Departments have responsibilities of conservation activities include government facilitating participatory formulation, ministries, Departments, statutory development and implementation of corporations, Non-Governmental sectoral policies and legislation with Organizations and trusts that have different coordination by the Ministry of Mines, mandates and responsibilities. Some of the Natural Resources and Environment institutions are as follows: through Environmental Affairs Department. The Department of Local Government a integrates central government functions for ( ) Ministry of Mines, Natural implementation at the District Assembly Resources and Environment through level. Departments of Environmental Role of Government Agencies Affairs, Fisheries and Forestry; b ( ) Ministry of Information and The Environmental Affairs Department, Tourism through the Department of which is the national focal point for the National Parks and Wildlife; CBD, coordinates and facilitates sustainable c ( ) Ministry of Agriculture through management of the environment and Departments of Crop Production, natural resources in the country. As such it Research and Technical Services, is responsible for harmonisation of national and Animal Health and Industry; environmental policies and legislation, d enforcement of legislation, capacity ( ) National Research Council of building, setting of standards, compliance Malawi; 103 monitoring and representation at Protocol on Biosafety. Therefore, the international conventions and treaties. Its Environmental Affairs Department serves coordination mandate enables it to balance as a secretariat for implementation of concerns of both interested and affected biodiversity activities hence the NBSAP. parties under the CBD and the Cartagena
CCANR
National Council on Environment (NCE)
National Biodiversity Committee
MoMNRE Environmental Affairs Department (NFP & Secretariat)
NGO & Civil R&D NHBG FD DoF DNPW NRCM Society Institutions
DISTRICT ASSEMBLY
Figure 18: Institutional structures for the implementation of the NBSAP
104 The Department of Forestry is mandated to environmental programmes through conserve the national forestry resources to District Assemblies. Environmental the upliftment of the quality of life for the Programmes at the District Assemblies level benefit of the nation. The sector has are implemented through the empowered communities through Environmental District Office. To ensure community based forest management public participation in environmental programmes that focus on the management decisions and plans, the augmentation, management and protection District Assembly manages natural of forests on customary land. The mandate resources through committees responsible of the Fisheries Department is to protect the for Agriculture and Natural Resources, existing fish resources through appropriate Health and Environment. The Assembly control mechanisms and to provide Secretariat is the operational arm of the framework conditions and excellent services District Assembly, which is responsible for for sustainable utilisation and management planning and implementing the District of capture fisheries and aquaculture Development Plan (DDP) and District production. Environmental Action Plan (DEAP) after approval by the Assembly. The Secretariat The Department of National Parks and established District Environment Wildlife in the Ministry of Information and Subcommittee (DESC) to coordinate and Tourism is mandated to protect and ensure that environmental issues are conserve wildlife in such protected areas as mainstreamed into all district development National Parks and Wildlife Reserves in plans. collaboration with other stakeholders Role of Non-Governmental Organizations especially boarder zone communities. The and Trusts National Research Council of Malawi coordinates all forms of research in Malawi and is the secretariat for Genetic and The Wildlife and Environmental Society of Biotechnology Resources Committee. Malawi is probably the most active and experienced NGO in the field of natural The Ministry of Agriculture promotes resources management. However, CURE conservation and use of agro-biodiversity coordinates activities of all NRM NGOs and through the Departments of Crop CBOs. In this regard, CURE in close Production, Animal Health and Industry collaboration with WESM will continue to and Agricultural Research and Technical take an active leading role in coordinating Services. A gene bank was established and it and implementing natural resources serves as a repository for various biological programmes and initiatives that promote ex-situ resources thereby enhancing sustainable use and management of biodiversity conservation. biodiversity in the country.
Museums of Malawi promotes conservation In the last few years Malawi witnessed the of biodiversity through cultural and natural establishment of Mulanje Mountain heritage education. It also promotes Conservation Trust that primarily promotes preservation and application of indigenous mountain biodiversity conservation. knowledge to conservation of the national Malawi Environmental Endowment Trust heritage. was established during the same period and provides a sustainable financing mechanism The Department of Local Government for community-driven environmental established through the 1998 Local management projects. Government Act is a single institutional Role of Coordination Committees framework that unifies government and traditional authorities thereby facilitating community participation in the formulation Several political, technical and grassroots' and implementation of developmental and committees have been established in the 105 country to guide or support policy, legislative and programme formulation as well as implementation of environment and natural resources management activities. The Cabinet Committee on Agriculture and Natural Resources (CCANR) is the highest- level policy and decision-making body responsible for environmental policy issues and informs Parliament on the state of the environment.
The Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture and Natural Resources (PCANR) lobbies Parliament on all environmental maters but the National Council for the Environment (NCE) advises both the CCANR and PCANR committees. As a policy advisory institution, the NCE operates through working groups and national steering committees. The Technical Committee on the Environment (TCE), which advises the NCE, examines scientific issues and makes recommendations for action.
The National Biodiversity Committee chaired by the National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of Malawi meets quarterly to steer the NBSAP implementation of biodiversity programs and activities.
106 Implementation Strategy
Strengthening existing Coordination and MEET and Environment Management Fund Institutional Linkages (EMF). However, the level of investment in MEET is still relatively small to ensure The secretariat needs to coordinate and significant improvements in the natural facilitate the development of a detailed resources management to meet the work plan for the implementation of the biodiversity targets by 2010 and the NBSAP. However, effective coordination Millennium Development Goals as well as and implementation of CBD activities in NSSD by 2015. In addition, capitalization of Malawi is constrained by lack of common the EMF is often too small to sustain vision and strategy amongst implementing meaningful implementation of biodiversity agencies. To ensure a coordinated approach activities. the institutional arrangement for the implementation of NBSAP shall continue to Furthermore, the current guidelines for the rest at Environmental Affairs Department of management of the Environmental the Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources Management Fund do not have specific and Environment, as the National Focal provisions for funding biodiversity as a Point of the Biodiversity Convention and “sector”. In this regard, the guidelines for secretariat of the National Biodiversity the management of the Environmental Committee. The National Herbarium and Management Fund will have to be revised to Botanical Gardens of Malawi will continue ensure that the fund supports to chair the National Biodiversity implementation of Malawi’s NBSAP. Committee. Strengthening existing technical capacities
Technically, the National Biodiversity The current technical capacity is insufficient Committee will spearhead the to facilitate effective and efficient implementation of NBSAP activities in implementation of NBSAP. The various sectors (Figure 18) by providing inadequacies include human, financial, guidance to different institutions and infrastructural and other material resources. organizations involved in biodiversity Therefore, there is need to build capacity at conservation and management. all levels and in all sectors. Thus for effective Furthermore, the National Biodiversity delivery of services, the National Committee will provide leadership in Biodiversity Secretariat and key monitoring and evaluation of activities stakeholders will require professional staff, under the NBSAP. infrastructure and continuous financial and The National Council on Environment technical support. (NCE) has the responsibility and provide Promote enabling policies and approaches policy direction in addition and monitor the Revise and enforce existing policies to implementation of NBSAP while the ensure harmonization of principles and Cabinet Committee will provide political strategies for conservation of various guidance and support. The Secretariat will components of biodiversity. build and strengthen technical capacities at all levels of NBSAP implementation structure through established focal points. Establishing sustainable financing mechanisms
Apart from establishing the various institutions responsible for biodiversity management, Malawi also set up two sustainable funding mechanisms namely
107 Annex one List of task force members for the NBSAP Project The Diversity of Plants in Malawi Ecosystems of Malawi Lead Agency Lead Agency_ _NHBG Chancellor College (Biology Department) Task force Leaders: Prof. Seyani, NHBG Task force Leaders: Mrs. M. P. Members of the Team: Kalindekafe _ Mr. A. K. Banda (Deceased) NHBG Members of the Team: Mr. M. P. Munyenyembe_Chancellor College Mr. Lusayo Mwabumba_FRIM Mr. L. Mwabumba_FRIM Mr. Montfort L. Mwanyambo_NHBG _ Mr. H. M. Banda Malawi College of Prof. Aggrey J. Ambali__Chancellor Forestry College _ Mr. M. C. Mwambene Department of Mavuto Kapyepye_WESM Local Government Mr. Shaibu Mapila_Department of Microorganisms Fisheries (Deceased) __ Lead Agency Dr. P. W. Chirwa FRIM _Bunda College of Agriculture Mr. S. Makungwa_FRIM Task force Leaders: Prof. V. W. Saka_Bunda College of Agriculture Review of Conservation Legislation in Members of the Team: Malawi _ Lead Agency Prof. W. A. B. Msuku Bunda College of _Ministry of Justice Agriculture Task force Leaders: Mr. K. Nyirenda _ Dr. C. T. Kisyombe Ministry of _Ministry of Justice Agriculture, Chitedze Research Station. Members of the Team: Dr. A. T. Daudi_Ministry of Agriculture, Bvumbwe Research Station Mr. D. A. Kamundi_NHBG Mrs. E. B. Mwafongo_NHBG Mr. Makawa_EAD P. Ngwira_Ministry of Agriculture, Mr. F. E. Zhuwao_Ministry of Finance Chitedze Research Station Mr. M. W. Mikuwa_EAD N. C. Gondwe_Ministry of Agriculture, N.D. Mhura_Chancellor College Chitedze Research Station Domesticated and Introduced Species Dr. E. Kaunda_Bunda College of Lead Agency Agriculture _Bunda College of Agriculture Task force Leaders: Dr. A.B.C. Wild and Indigenous Animals Mkandawire, Bunda College. Lead Agency_ DNPW Members of the Team: Task force Leaders: L. D. Sefu_DNPW Dr. J. M. Bokosi_Bunda College of Members of the Team: Agriculture _ Ms. C. R. Mhango_Chancellor College Dr. M. B. Kwapata Bunda College of Dr. C. O. Dudley_Chancellor College Agriculture _ Mr. Wilbert N. Chitaukali_Museums of Prof. R. K. D. Phoya Bunda College of Malawi Agriculture _ Dr. M. E. D. Nhlane_Museums of Malawi E. M. H. Khonje Ministry of Agriculture, Mr. D. D. Bandula_Metrological Chitedze Research Station _ Department (Deceased) Mr. L. Nsapato Chitedze Agricultural Research Station
109 Land Use Management and Biodiversity Conservation Lead Agency _Land Resources and Conservation Unit (Ministry of Agriculture & Irrigation) Task force Leaders: V. A. L. Mkandawire_Land Resources and Conservation Unit Members of the Team: Rev. D. P. K. Mjojo_Forestry Department Mr. B. B.A. Rashidi_Fisheries Department Dr. E. Y. Sambo_University Office G. Mloza_Ministry of Energy and Mining M. L. Kamwambe_Ministry of Justice P. N. S. Mkwamba_Ministry of Women, Children Affairs and Community Services Mr. S. J. Nanthambwe_Land Resources and Conservation Unit An Inventory of Literature on Biodiversity in Malawi Lead Agency _EAD Task force Leaders: Mr. J. Chuma _National Research Council of Malawi Members of the Team: Mr. C. B. Malunga_National Archives Mr. D. B. Vuwa-Phiri_Chancellor College
110 Annex two Glossary of Terms1
Agrobiodiversity agricultural biological or complexes of which they are part; this diversity ; that component of biodiversity includes diversity in within that contributes to food and agriculture species, between species and of ecosystems. Biological resources production, it encompasses within-species, ; includes genetic species and ecosystem diversity. resources, organisms or parts thereof, Access and Benefit Sharing Access ; means populations, or any other biotic component the acquisition of biological resources, their of ecosystems with actual or potential use derivatives, community knowledge, or value for humanity. Biopiracy innovations, technologies, or practices as ; bioprospecting regarded as the authorized by the National Competent perpetuation of the colonial habit of Benefit Sharing Authority. means the plundering other countries' biological sharing of whatever accrues from the resources without fair and equitable utilization of biological resources, compensation, resulting in environmental, community knowledge, technologies, economic and social detriment. Bioprospecting innovations or practices. ; the search for Access to genetic resources ; is the action economically valuable genetic and through which an interested party, having biochemical resource (i.e. useful genetic and fulfilled all relevant legal requirements in biochemical compounds and materials and national and international legislation, makes related information) from nature. Biosafety use of genetic resources. ; safety aspects related to the Agrobiodiversity ; means that component of application of biotechnologies and to the biodiversity that contributes to food and release into the environment of transgenic agriculture production. plants and other organisms particularly Alien Invasive Species ; species that microorganisms that could negatively affect becomes established in a natural or semi- plant genetic resources, plant, animal or natural ecosystem or habitat, is an agent of human health, or the environment. Biosphere Reserves change, and threatens native biological ; areas of terrestrial and diversity. coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to Alien species ; a species that has been reconcile the conservation of biodiversity introduced outside its normal past and with its sustainable use. They are present distribution. internationally recognized, nominated by Aquaculture ; breeding and rearing fish, national governments and remain under shellfish, etc., or growing plants for food in sovereign jurisdiction of the states where special ponds. they are located. Benefit-sharing: Biotechnology means the sharing of ; any technological benefits arising from the use, whether application that uses biological systems, commercial or not, of genetic resources, and living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to may include both monetary and non- make or modify products or processes for a monetary returns. specific use. Biotechnology, in the form of Biological control ; pest control strategy traditional fermentation techniques, has making use of living natural enemies, been used for decades to make bread, antagonists or competitors and other self- cheese or beer. It has also been the basis of replicating biotic entities. traditional animal and plant breeding Biological diversity ; the variability among techniques, such as hybridization and the living organisms from all sources including, selection of plants and animals with specific inter alia , terrestrial, marine and other characteristics to create, for example, crops aquatic ecosystems and the ecological which produce higher yields of grain. Source 1 : Belgian Clearing House Mechanism for CBD_on line http//bcd-cbd.naturalsciences.be/Be;gium/ 111 Co-management Environmental Impact Assessment ; the sharing of authority, ; the responsibility, and benefits between process by which the consequences of government and local communities in the proposed projects or programs are management of natural resources. evaluated as an integral part of planning the Conservation of biodiversity ; the project, alternatives are analyzed, and the management of human interactions with general public has ample opportunity to genes, species, and ecosystems so as to comment. Ethnobiology provide the maximum benefit to the present ; study of the way plants, generation while maintaining their potential animals and micro-organisms are used by to meet the needs and aspirations of future humans. Ex-situ conservation generations; encompasses elements of ; the conservation of saving, studying, and using biodiversity. components of biological diversity outside Customary land ; all land falling within the their natural habitats. Farmers’ rights jurisdiction of a recognized Traditional ; rights arising from the past, Authority, which has been granted to a present and future contributions of farmers person or group and used under customary in conserving, improving and making law. available plant or animal genetic resources, Deforestation particularly those in centres of origin. ; the conversion of forest to Forest biological diversity another land use or the long-term reduction ; the variability of the tree canopy cover below the among forest living organisms and the minimum 10 per cent threshold. ecological processes of which they are part; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) ; the long this includes diversity in forests within chain of molecules in most cells that carries species, between species and of ecosystems and landscapes. the genetic message and controls all cellular Gene bank functions in most forms of life. ; a storage facility where Domesticated species ; species in which the germplasm is stored in the form of seeds, evolutionary process has been influenced by pollen, embryos, semen, pollen, or in vitro humans to meet their needs. culture, or in cryogenic storage, or, in the Ecosystem ; a dynamic complex of plant, case of a field gene bank, as plants growing in the field. animal and micro-organism communities Genetic diversity and their non-living environment ; the diversity of genes within and among populations of a species. interacting as a functional unit. Genetic erosion Ecosystem diversity ; loss of genetic diversity ; the diversity among between and within populations of the same biological communities and their physical species over time; or reduction of the genetic settings, characterised by differences in basis of a species due to human species composition, physical structure, and intervention, environmental changes, etc. function. It is the highest level of biological Genetic material ; any material of plant, diversity. Ecosystem restoration animal, microbial or other origin containing ; the return of an functional units of heredity. ecosystem to its original community Genetic resources ; genetic material of structure, natural complement of species, plants, animals or micro-organisms, and natural functions. Ecosystems approach including modern cultivars and breeds, Endangered species primitive varieties and breeds, landraces ; a group of plant or and wild/weedy relatives of crop plants or animal species that is not Critically domesticated animals, of value as a resource Endangered but is facing a very high risk of for future generations of humanity. extinction in the wild in the near future. Genetically Modified Organism Endemic species (GMO) ; species is a native species ; the modification of the genetic restricted to a particular geographic region characteristics of a micro-organism, plant or owing to factors such as isolation or in animal by inserting a modified gene or a response to soil or climatic conditions. gene from another variety or species. 112 Habitat Pollinator ; the place or type of site where an ; a pollinator is an agent, organism or population naturally occurs. generally an animal (insect, bird, bat, etc.) Habitat restoration ; the return of a habitat that carries pollen to the female part of a to its original community structure, natural flower. Precautionary principle complement of species and natural ; (= do-no-harm functions. principle) a proactive method of dealing Indigenous Knowledge ; the accumulated with the environment that places the burden knowledge that is vital for conservation and of proof on those whose activities could sustainable use of biological resources harm the environment. (Opposite: wait-and- and/or which is of socio-economic value, see principle). Private land and which has been developed over years in ; all land that is exclusively indigenous/local communities. In-situ conservation owned, held or occupied under freehold ; the conservation of tenure and customary land allocated ecosystems and natural habitats and the exclusively to a clearly defined community, maintenance and recovery of viable corporation, institutions, clan, and family. Vascular plants populations of species in their natural ; includes ferns, flowering surroundings and, in the case of plants and trees, but do not include mosses domesticated or cultivated species, in the and liverworts. Protected Area surroundings where they have developed ; an area of land and/or sea their distinctive properties. Intellectual property right especially dedicated to the protection of ; a right enabling biological diversity, and of natural and an inventor to exclude imitators from the associated cultural resources, and managed market for a limited time. Invasive alien species through legal or other effective means. ; species which Public land ; land held in trust and managed becomes established in natural or semi- by the government or Traditional Authority natural ecosystems or habitats. Micro-organisms and openly used or accessible to the public ; groups of microscopic at large. It includes land gazetted for use as organisms, some of which cannot be national parks, recreational areas, and forest detected without the aid of a light or reserves. electron microscope, including the viruses, prokaryotes Quarantine the (bacteria and archaea), and ; official confinement of eukaryotic life forms, such as protozoa, regulated articles for observation and filamentous fungi, yeasts and micro-algae. research or for further inspection, testing or Modern biotechnology ; the application of: treatment. a Red list ( ) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, ; a comprehensive inventory of the including recombinant deoxyribonucleic conservation status of plant and animal acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic species. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate b acid into cells or organelles, or ( ) fusion the extinction risk of thousands of species of cells beyond the taxonomic family, and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world. that overcome natural physiological Restoration reproductive or recombination barriers and ; the return of an ecosystem or that are not techniques used in traditional habitat to its original community structure, breeding and selection. natural complement of species, and natural Nematode ; roundworms, often internal functions. Risk assessment parasites of animals and plants. ; the use of scientific data to Participatory approach ; means the methods identify and characterize the nature and that bring about involvement of players and magnitude of hazards, if any, and the stakeholders in a decision making process. likelihood of hazards being realized. Patent Seed bank ex-situ ; a government grant of temporary ; a facility designed for the monopoly rights on innovative processes or conservation of individual plant samples products. through seed preservation and storage.
113 Semi evergreen forest in such fields as agriculture, fisheries, Speciation ; separation of one population health, horticulture, and forestry. World Heritage Site “cultural heritage” into two or more reproductively isolated, ; a independent evolutionary units. is a monument, group of buildings or site of Species ; a group of organisms capable of historical, aesthetic, archaeological, interbreeding freely with each other but not scientific, ethnological or anthropological with members of other species. value. Species diversity ; the number and variety of species found in a given area in a region. Stakeholder ; means an individual, organization or group whether formal or informal, affected by, or with an interest in, the activities relating to the acquisition, use or supply of genetic resources. Sustainable use ; the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long term decline of biological diversity thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations. Taxon (pl. taxa) ; the named classification unit to which individuals, or sets of species, are assigned. Technology transfer ; the transfer of knowledge or equipment to enable the manufacture of a product, the application of a process, or the rendering of a service. Threatened species ; species that are, often genetically impoverished, of low fecundity, dependent on patchy or unpredictable resources, extremely variable in population density, persecuted or otherwise prone to extinction in human-dominated landscapes. Tissue culture ; a technique in which portions of a plant or animal are grown on an artificial culture medium. Traditional knowledge ; refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over the centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language, and agricultural practices, including the development of plant species and animal breeds. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly
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118 PREFACE
After long and comprehensive consultations and much work by both local and international biodiversity experts I am pleased to present our Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, NBSAP. The process started in 1998 with comprehensive analyses of biodiversity components and assessment of current biodiversity management regimes. The process identified a number of critical biodiversity issues and threats that must be addressed if Malawi is to achieve its environmental protection obligation as called for in the Constitution. As such the overriding goal of the strategy is to protect, conserve and maintain protected areas, mountains and species within them, promote restoration of degraded and vulnerable ecosystems and habitats and recovery of rare and threatened species for the benefit of the people.
The ultimate objective is to promote conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits with full participation of all stakeholders including rural communities. As such implementation of this strategy and action plan is critical if Malawi is to fully benefit from biodiversity. In implementing this strategy Malawi will be fulfilling its obligations to the Convention of Biological Diversity.
The NBSAP follows a thematic approach rather than the traditional sectoral approach. It is thus comprehensive and I perceive this strategy as a spring board for the implementation of the five focal areas (water, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity popularly referred to WEHAB) that the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development identified. It is also my hope that priority actions identified in this strategy will be the basis for International donor commitments for supporting the conservation of biological diversity in Malawi.
The NBSAP presents a number of strategies and action plans that I believe will lead to:
- improved awareness of the importance of biodiversity and community participation in biodiversity conservation; - harmonized sectoral policies, legislation, strategies and programmes; - improved infrastructure and human capacity for biodiversity conservation; and - improved biodiversity knowledge base.
This strategy is not a stand-alone initiative. It forms part of a broad range of activities and programmes which are being implemented by various stakeholders. Its implementation will therefore require coordinated approach and it is my hope therefore that this shall be achieved through the participation of all the stakeholders that are involved in the implementation of all matters on the Conservation on Biological Diversity in Malawi.
I trust that this NBSAP will be a valuable tool and guide that will contribute substantially to the enhancement of conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing of biodiversity in Malawi.
HENRY CHIMUNTHU BANDA, M.P. Minister of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment
(vii) MALAWI GOVERNMENT
Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Natural Resources
NationalNational Biodiversity Biodiversity StrategyStrategy and and Action Action Plan Plan
Environmental Affairs Department October 2006 Printed by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, Malawi