Schweizerischer Association suisse pour Associazione Svizzera per lo Verband für Personelle l’échange de personnes scambio di persone Entwicklungs- dans la coopération nella cooperazione zusammenarbeit internationale internazionale

Swiss association for Asociación Suiza para el Associação Suíça para o the exchange of intercambio de personas intercâmbio de pessoas personnel in development en la cooperación na cooperação cooperation internacional internacional

THE WORLDVIEW FUNDAMENTALISM CHALLENGES FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PERSONNEL IN DEVELOPMENT

COOPERATION

Report on the Mutual Learning Process of Unité 2013-2016

Raji Sultan, in collaboration with Josef Estermann (COMUNDO), Anne-Marie Holenstein (inde- pendent), Josefina Hurtado (Mission 21) et Nicolas Monnier (DM-échange et mission)

19/12/2016

CONTENT

1. Genesis ...... 4 2. Process objectives ...... 4 3. Challenges and considerations for the process of mutual learning ...... 5 4. Fundamentalisms...... 6 5. Survey of, and awareness-raising amongst, players in development cooperation via personnel exchange ...... 8 6. Fundamentalist players and their doctrines ...... 10 7. Factors ...... 13 7.1. Global results ...... 13 7.2. Political factors ...... 14 7.3. Economic factors ...... 16 7.4. Social factors ...... 17 7.5. Psychological factors ...... 18 8. Development of the fundamentalist trend in the context ...... 20 9. Impact of fundamentalisms on the project or programme ...... 21 9.1. Mapping ...... 21 9.2. Risks to safety of persons and property ...... 23 9.3. Differentiation between local personnel and expatriates ...... 23 9.4. Freedom of expression and action...... 23 9.5. Instrumentalisation ...... 24 9.6. Programme or project planning ...... 24 10. Specific impact on players in development cooperation via personnel exchange ...... 24 10.1. Volunteers and coordinators ...... 24 10.2 partner organisations in the south...... 25 10.2. Partner organisations in switzerland ...... 26 11. Measures to limit the negative impact of fundamentalisms ...... 27 11.1. Analysis of the context and adaptation of the security concept...... 27 11.2. Awareness-raising ...... 27 11.3. Preparation ...... 27 11.4. Selection ...... 27 11.5. Care with use of the term "fundamentalist" ...... 28 11.6. Detachment with regard to fundamentalism ...... 28 11.7. Promotion of peace and human rights ...... 28 11.8. Differentiated information ...... 28 11.9. Team building and trust building ...... 28 11.10. Adaptation of the mode of cooperation ...... 28 11.11. Self-censorship ...... 29 11.12. Youth support ...... 29 11.13. Capitalising on experience ...... 29 12. Potential of the exchange of personnel ...... 29

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13. Requirements ...... 30 14. Conclusion ...... 31 15. Thanks...... 31 16. Summary sheet ...... 31 17. Table des illustrations ...... 34 18. Ideological fundamentalisms documents ...... 35 18.1. Examples – cases ...... 35 18.2. Concepts – definitions ...... 36 18.3. Instruments - methods ...... 37 18.4. Risks and potential of the exchange of personnel cooperation and worldviews ...... 38

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1. GENESIS

Globalisation has brought, and brings different worldviews together, which sometimes leads to confrontations. This has spawned a rise in awareness of Fundamentalisms in the 20th and 21st centuries. This global phenomenon has brought a challenge to the work of development cooperation agencies, particularly to those that deal with the exchange of personnel. Fundamentalist movements can be a threat to peace and hinder the exchange of ideas and the respective values, which are the core characteristics of the exchange of personnel in development cooperation.

This is a form of cooperation in which neither money, nor technology is in the foreground, but rather the fruitful encounter of people who work together to improve living conditions in the South. The exchange of personnel and professional knowledge, ideas and values are therefore at the centre of development programs, the sending organisations’ projects, per- sons on assignment, coordinators and local partners.

The quality of their work is therefore, compared to other forms of cooperation, particularly vulnerable to fundamentalism, whether the latter is religious, socio-political, ethnic, na- tional or economic. This increased risk of interference or manipulation by fundamentalism is even more marked when it comes to Faith Based Organisations.

During a dialogue between the Institutional Partnerships Division (IP) of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and Unité (Swiss association for the exchange of personnel in development cooperation), fundamentalism worldviews were identified as a crosscutting theme for mutual learning between member organisations, Unité and its partners.

The working group that monitored the process of mutual learning within Unité comprised, in particular, the Swiss Salvation Army (Fernanda Gurzeler), COMUNDO (Josef Ester- mann), DM-échange et mission (Jacques Küng and Nicolas Monnier), Mission 21 (Jose- fina Hurtado) and an external consultant (Anne-Marie Holenstein).

2. PROCESS OBJECTIVES

The key issues that were identified during the dialogue between SDC and Unité, which will be developed during the process are:

a) What specific importance does fundamentalisms take on when it comes to the de- velopment cooperation in the field of personnel exchange? b) In general, what lessons are learned and how do the perspectives present them- selves?

As part of its institutional program 2013-2016, Unité studied these questions with its mem- ber organisations, in coordination with other institutions active in development cooperation including Bread for All and Comundo (Romero Haus), which will also look at „Religion and Development".

Firstly, it was important to understand the different dimensions of the fundamentalism phe- nomenon. Secondly, the players involved in development cooperation via personnel ex- change were made aware of these dimensions at three events. Thirdly, these seminars identified, by means of a study, the negative impact of fundamentalisms on development 4

cooperation projects carried out by Unité member organisations. This enabled the drafting of an overview of the challenges faced, evaluation of their specific impact and identifica- tion of measures to enable member organisations to limit the negative impact of funda- mentalisms on their commitment to development cooperation.

3. CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PROCESS OF MU- TUAL LEARNING

a) There is no unanimous understanding of the term There is no definition of fundamentalism that is widely recognised in the aca- demic world. Thus, its links with other terms such as, for example, radicalism, extremism, terrorism and political violence, makes it difficult for everyone to identify it. Moreover, fundamentalism is widely associated with religion today, in the collective imagination, given the news, with "jihadism". It is important to go beyond the mere semantic debate.

b) Perception plays an important role A movement can be considered fundamentalist by some people, but seen dif- ferently by others. So there is an element of subjectivity in judgments made. The same individual can be labelled as a terrorist by a group and a hero or a martyr by another.

c) It is necessary to distinguish between the ideologies or worldviews of an individual and its fundamentalist speech It is essential not to stop at the speeches of an individual who is acting within a group, but to study their attitudes and effects. Indeed, different factors can lead an individual to join a fundamentalist movement, be it social, economic, political or psychological (see below). It is, therefore, possible that an individ- ual will show fundamentalist positions, without embracing the ideology, the worldview. Depending on the context, belonging to a fundamentalist move- ment can be quite restricting and lead individuals to act contrary to their own identity. Their genuineness is therefore called into question.

d) The diversity of contexts Fundamentalisms, the effects on the exchange of personnel development co- operation assignments and projects are closely linked to the context in which they operate. However, each of these contexts possesses characteristics that must be considered in the analysis of the situation. There is not a single fun- damentalism and there is not one method to limit its negative impact on the projects or programs of the exchange of personnel in development coopera- tion.

e) The term "fundamentalist" dehumanizes those whom it defines The term "fundamentalist" has a very negative connotation. So to use it to de- scribe a movement or a person tends to exclude it and is likely to break the di- alogue. It should therefore be used with caution and should only be used to qualify trends rather than individuals or institutions

f) The theme of fundamentalism can be difficult to address in some con- texts In situations where fundamentalism is present, to approach the topic or to mention it by indicating a movement or a person can be risky. It is therefore understandable that in contexts where fundamentalisms are the strongest, the persons on assignment, coordinators or partners cannot talk about it freely.

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g) The awareness level of the fundamentalism phenomenon is not the same in all Unité members Not all Unité members face the same level of fundamentalism problems and therefore have different interest levels to participating actively in this mutual learning process. It should nevertheless be recognised that some organisa- tions may face this problem as part of their activities, without realising it, espe- cially when it comes to non-religious fundamentalisms.

h) Unité member organisations have limited resources Organisations are solicited by Unité for different jobs or studies, or as part of other processes of common studies by other platforms (e.g. Bread for All and the confederations of cooperation in French-speaking Switzerland or in Tes- sin). It is therefore important to find synergies when it is possible.

i) The risk of giving a negative impression Organisations try to highlight the benefits of their worldview. By working on the topic of fundamentalism, they will have to question their own stances and thereby realise that their own worldview can be carriers of danger. Therefore, organisations can be reluctant to recognise it, for fear of harming their reputa- tion.

4. FUNDAMENTALISMS

The term fundamentalism originated in the early 20th century in a collection of texts «Fun- damentals: a testimony of truth». Written by two American evangelists, traditionalists, it was meant to stop the erosion of the Protestant core beliefs in the face of the progressive currents. Supporters and sponsors of these texts were therefore called «Fundamental- ists».

The term was extended during the 20th century to define not only the currents of various religions but also non-religious, socio-political, ethnic, cultural, nationalist or economic. If the word did not have a negative1 connotation at the start of the 20th century, the word Fundamentalism today conveys a very bad image in the post September 11 context, marked by the Clash of Civilisations theory of Huntington2. This trend is reinforced today with the emergence of the Islamic State in the Middle East, which, by its communication through social networks, diffuses continuous images of barbaric acts, justified in the name of a faith.

There is no typical fundamentalism and each has its own peculiarities. In this context, there is no universally accepted definition of Fundamentalism although the word is broadly used today. That is why we deliberately chose a definition that best suits the needs of the member organisations. This includes three necessary characteristics to identify a move- ment as fundamentalist, which most writers on the subject agree on:

1. Fundamentalism affirms that a source of ideas, usually text, is complete and error-free3. It thus has a monopoly of the truth and does not accept ques- tioning or conflicting interpretations.

1 Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction, Malise Ruthven, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 7. 2 Selon cette théorie, le monde serait aujourd'hui divisé en 8 civilisations qui tendent à s'allier ou se confron- ter. 3 Fundamentalism, Steve Bruce, Polity Press, 2008, p. 12. 6

Fundamentalist movements follow a fixed and absolute original doctrine, which does not accept questioning or other interpretations. It contains a set of rigid standards consisting of a moral order which must be complied with. The potential of dialogue on values and ideas is thus limited and there is no room for diversity or multiplicity, even within the same worldview. If fundamentalisms claim to main- tain and defend the traditions, they often use modern methods and/or ideologies4. The fundamentalists put the emphasis on purity and authenticity as well as on cul- ture and traditions of an idealised past they seek to reproduce.

2. Fundamentalism opposes itself to a threat it perceives

Movements become fundamentalists when they perceive a threat to their identity and tradition or the erosion of their ideology or worldviews. They object generally to modernisation and globalisation due to their pluralism or particularly if one or more 'other' movements marginalise them5. They compare a 'good' to a 'bad' with a clear division, until potentially becoming punitive and violent or excluding them- selves from society. The perceived threat comes not only from other groups, but also from the members of the movement. Those whose behaviour is not consid- ered compliant are often called 'moderate'. Thus, the first victims of Boko Haram in Nigeria were Muslim, although this fundamentalist movement claims to be of the same confession6. Fundamentalisms are generally patriarchal, wanting a 'depriva- tion' of sexuality, especially female7. This includes dress codes or sexual orienta- tion. They frequently oppose women's rights and greater autonomy for women8.

3. Fundamentalism interprets a vision of the world in a selective way in order to impose a political, social, economic or cultural order.

The radicalisation process leads to fundamentalism being used for political pur- poses. So fundamentalist movements are political activists who exploit the ambiva- lence of their worldview to impose a socio economic and political system given for the society. To impose it, they try to exercise power, or to influence it.

When the fundamentalists are in power, human rights instruments are not applied universally. They deprive other ethnic or religious groups from some of their funda- mental rights. A hierarchy is thus made between different segments of society and prejudices are maintained thus damaging the existing solidarity between the differ- ent groups.

Most authors associate fundamentalism to a fourth characteristic: being religious. They thus dispute the existence of non-religious fundamentalisms, particularly because most religions, such as Christianity or Islam, claim that after death, God awaits the faithful9. This belief in a paradise is unique to religions and involves ways of thinking or specific actions that are not found in secular movements. It is not a question of questioning this theory, but

4 Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001 5 Rethinking Fundamentalism in a secular age, R. Scott Appleby, dans Rethinking Secularism, Craig Calhoun, Mark Juergensmeyer, et Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 256. 6 Aktuelles aus Nigeria: Eindrücke zur aktuellen Situation im Rahmen der Dienstreise vom 20.5.-2.6.2013,Jo- chen Kirsch, Mission 21. 7 Fundamentalismus als patriarchalische Protestbewegung, Riesenbrodt Martin, J. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen, 1990. 8 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 12. 9 Fundamentalism, Think Again, R. Scott Appleby, Martin E. Marty, in Foreign Policy, January-February 2002. 7

the needs identified by Unité, go beyond just the religious movements, and include move- ments claiming ideologies or visions of a nationalist or ethnic world, for example, who also meet the three characteristics listed above. The term fundamentalism is, in practice, often used to describe non-religious doctrines. For example, the Nobel economist Joseph Stiglitz calls the International Monetary Fund policies 'market fundamentalism'10. Moreo- ver, it happens in certain environments that one is denigrated and refused dialog when one is linked to a faith or if, for example, when linked to a theologian function. We could also talk of a secularist fundamentalism in these types of cases.

On the other hand, the study of a database identifying the events of transnational terror- ism from 1968 to 2004 has identified that only 216 of 1483 groups committing such acts were “religious"11. However, it stated that over this same period, terrorist acts committed by religious groups were growing; this perhaps explains why fundamentalisms appear to- day primarily as religious12.

5. Survey of, and awareness-raising amongst, players in development cooperation via personnel exchange

Within the framework of a process of mutual learning, a survey was carried out to assess the impact of the phenomenon of fundamentalisms on Swiss development cooperation via personnel exchange, to reveal details of the different dimensions of fundamentalism and to identify experiences that could usefully be shared amongst member organisations.

49 persons replied to the survey conducted by Unité among its member organisations: programme managers or directors of Swiss organisations, heads of partner organisations in the South and coordinators of Swiss organisations. In development cooperation via per- sonnel exchange, coordinators are employed by the Swiss organisation but are based in the South. Their role, notably, is to represent the Swiss organisation in the South, to ac- company volunteers on assignment and to develop partnerships with local organisations.

Before completing the questionnaire, participants were made aware of the phenomenon of fundamentalism by means of a two-hour awareness-raising module that clarified, in partic- ular, the definition of fundamentalism chosen in the framework of the mutual learning pro- cess and presented different dimensions of the phenomenon (factors and impacts, in par- ticular). This module was dispensed at a seminar for Unité coordinators in Africa, at Mwanza in Tanzania in January 2016, at the Unité Annual General Meeting in Bern in June 2016, and at a specially organised joint session during the Interteam and Comundo coordinator seminars in Lucerne in September 2016. During these modules, sufficient time was also set aside for group discussion of the real-life contexts of participants with a view to encouraging participants to reflect critically on their own reality.

Amongst those who completed the questionnaire, 35 stated that one or several forms of fundamentalism were present in their work context: 12 directors or heads of programme of Swiss organisations, 7 representatives from partner organisations in the South and 16 co- ordinators.

10 Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction, Malise Ruthven, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 21. 11 Terrorism, Identity and Legitimacy, The Four Waves theory and political violence, edited by Jean E. Rosen- feld, Routledge, Abingdon, 2011, p.19. 12 Idem, p.23. 8

Table 1 Fundamentalism as experienced by survey respondents

For 14 persons, no fundamentalism in the work context: 29%

For 35 persons, one or several fundamentalisms are present in the context: 71%

Table 2 No. of persons by type of actor for whom fundamentalisms are present in the context

Heads of programme or Directors of Swiss organisations: 12 people, 34%

Coordinators of Swiss organisations: 16 persons, 46%

Heads of partner organisations in the South: 7 persons; 20%

The various contexts identified as affected by fundamentalism concern 21 different coun- tries, including 15 in Africa (South Africa, Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso x 2, Cameroon x 2, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria x 2, Democratic Republic of the Congo x 2, Rwanda x 2, South Sudan, Tanzania x 3, Chad X 2, Zambia, Zimbabwe), 4 in Latin America (Bolivia x 2, Colombia x 2, Nicaragua x 4, Peru x 2) and 2 in Asia (Lebanon, Philippines). Note that, of the partner organisations in the South, only those operating in Africa replied to the questionnaire. Data from heads of partner organisations in Latin America may, however, be forthcoming after the next Unité coordinator seminar in this region.

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Table 3 Countries where fundamentalism is present in the work contexts of questionnaire respondents

These contexts also concern 11 Unité member organisations: COMUNDO, Connexio, Dm-Échange Et Mission, Eirene – Suisse, Interteam, Mission 21, Mission Am Nil Interna- tional, Mission Evangélique au Tchad, Schweizer Allianz Mission, Service de Mission et d'Entraide and Swisscontact/ Senior Experts Corps

6. FUNDAMENTALIST PLAYERS AND THEIR DOCTRINES

Of the players perceived as having fundamentalist tendencies, five may be clearly distin- guished from the others in the list cited in the questionnaire with 30% of replies or more: "armed groups or militias", "political parties", "the state", "one or several ethnic groups" and "religious institutions in the South". It is particularly striking to see the importance of "political" players in the replies. Although religious players such as preachers and armed groups are omnipresent in media reporting on fundamentalism, we note that the phenom- enon is perceived in a more complex manner on the ground. To a lesser degree, "interest groups or lobbies" (14%), another "state" (11%) and "international institutions" (9%) are also perceived as fundamentalists.

In only one case on each occasion was a "partner organisation of the South" or a "Swiss organisation" perceived as a fundamentalist player.

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Table 4 Which players do you perceive as having fundamentalist tendencies?

One person on assignment or more 0%

The coordination 0%

The sending organisation in Switzerland 3%

The sending organisation in the south 3%

Interested groups or lobbies 14%

International institutions 9%

Groups or armed militias 37%

Non-governmental organisations 0%

Political parties 31%

Another State 11%

The State where the assignment is taking place 40%

One or several ethnic groups 34%

One or several religious institutions of the sending 0% society in Switzerland One or several religious institutions of the receiving 31% society in the South

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%

It is interesting to note some major differences between the players perceived as funda- mentalist by the heads of Swiss organisations, the heads of partner organisations in the South and their coordinators, although the contexts in question are not always the same, of course. "The state in the country of assignment", for example, is perceived as having fundamentalist tendencies in 58% of replies from heads of Swiss organisations, against only 38% for the coordinators and 14% for partner organisations in the South. One may assume, perhaps, that this difference is due to a comparison of the situation in the country in the South with that in Switzerland or to a certain loyalty to the state on behalf of partner organisations in the South:

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Table 5 Fundamentalist trends perceived in the State where the assignment takes place

Partner organisation in the South 14%

Coordinators 38%

Swiss organisation 58%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

On the other hand, the perception of "armed groups or militias" as vectors of fundamental- ist tendencies is greater amongst coordinators than amongst the other players.

Table 6 Fundamentalist trends perceived in armed groups or militias

Partner organisation in the South 29%

Coordinators 50%

Swiss organisation 25%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Regarding the doctrines embraced by the fundamentalists, everyone involved in develop- ment cooperation via personnel exchange placed "religious" at the top of the list. It was cited in over half of the replies, but we also note that "political doctrine", "economic doc- trine" and "ethnic doctrine" were also cited in over a quarter of replies:

Table 7 What types of fundamentalist doctrine are claimed?

Traditionalist 9%

Nationalist 9%

Politic 37%

Economic 26%

Racist 17%

Ethnic 26%

Secular (atheistic) 0%

Religious 54%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

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"Political" and "economic" doctrines were cited in particular by coordinators, who place them on almost equal standing with "religious" (political, 44%, economic 38%, religious 44%). It is particularly interesting to note that, even if the doctrine is "religious" in 54% of cases, "religious institutions" are perceived as having fundamentalist tendencies in only 31% of cases. In many cases, therefore, there is a clear instrumentalisation of the "religious".

7. FACTORS

7.1. Global results

The study of fundamentalism does not identify a unique scenario that reproduces system- atically, regardless of the context. It is often an accumulation of factors that causes funda- mentalism to emerge in a given context. On the other hand, the presence of some of these factors does not automatically mean that a fundamentalist movement will emerge. Nevertheless, certain factors can identify settings where there is a particular risk. To es- tablish a list to be submitted for the survey, the working group based its findings on the work undertaken by the AWID (Association for Women’s Rights in Development) network, which unites active organisations in the defence of woman’s rights. Based in particular on the survey of activists around the world and several workshops, the publication 'Under- standing religious fundamentalism' has identified economic, political and social factors for the growth of fundamentalism. To these, we add psychological factors, presented in the academic publication "The Fundamentalist Mindset: Psychological Perspectives on Reli- gion, Violence, and History"13. The reasons that many people think pushes an individual, for instance, to become a terrorist are poverty, lack of education or madness. The study of real cases however shows a more complex reality14.

The survey showed that, for players in development cooperation via personnel exchange, numerous factors do indeed play an important role in the emergence of fundamentalism. A total of thirteen factors – political, economic, social or psychological in nature – were deemed "moderately" or "very" important in at least one third of responses. Amongst these, five are identified in almost half the responses. They are "poverty and inequality", which comes top by a long way (77%), "absence or malfunction of the rule of law" (66%), "authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political alternative" (60%), "use of fundamentalist speech by the state or other political forces" and "lack of certainties and belonging or weakening of traditional value systems" (51%). It is easy to appreciate that we are more likely to see new fundamentalisms emerge in contexts that combine these various factors.

13 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010. 14 Understanding Terrorism and Political Violence, The life cycle of birth, growth, transformation, and demise. Dipak K. Gupta, Routledge, Abingdon, 2008, p.12. 13

Table 8 Factors at 33% or higher of medium or high importance in the emergence of funda- mentalism.

Facteurs à 33% ou plus d'importance moyenne ou forte dans l'émergence de fondamentalismes

The search for a meaning to life 0%

There is a strong charismatic leadership 0%

Paranoia and rage in a group context: there is a high 0% degree of victimisation A dualistic thought, the world is divided into two 0% distinct camps

A patriarchal society 0%

The loss of certainties and belonging or weakening of 0% traditional value systems (religious or cultural)

The presence of a violent economic system 0%

The service provider role is taken away from the State 0%

Poverty and inequality 0%

The weakening of non-fundamentalist political 0% movements The use of a fundamentalist speech by the State or 0% other political force

Absence or malfunction of a rule of law (fragile State) 0%

Authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political 0% alternative

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

We are therefore confronted with an important multiplicity of factors implicated in the emergence of fundamentalisms, and this confirms the difficulty of identifying a single and recurrent typical scenario.

7.2. Political Factors

The following four political factors were proposed in the survey:

- Authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political alternative 15

Fundamentalist movements tend to grow in contexts where political and democratic alter- natives can hardly survive because of regime oppression. They are indeed among the most visible and best-organised groups with an often charismatic and authoritarian leader- ship. They thus gain popularity by appearing as a strong opposition force capable of

15 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 34. 14

changing the status quo. A movement such as Hamas in the Palestinian territories may also present itself as a national liberation movement16.

- Absence or malfunction of the rule of law

When the state is unable to enforce the law on part or all of its territory, it promotes the emergence of fundamentalist movements. They can take over state functions and impose their own Legal order. This is reinforced by the lack of protection enjoyed by civil society in such circumstances.

- The use of a fundamentalist speech by the State or other political forces17

The presence of fundamentalist speeches in a State policy, especially when used for elec- toral purposes, reflects on the society as a whole. For example, in Nicaragua, the newly elected government of Daniel Ortega has banned abortion in order to receive the support of the Catholic Church for his campaign. Fundamentalist governments also have the ca- pacity to export their ideology or worldview through their foreign and military policies in particular.

- The weakening of non-fundamentalist movements18

When 'progressive' movements are weakened, alternative interpretations of an ideology or worldview given by the fundamentalists are marginalised. This was the case, for example in Latin America with the liberation theology that was systematically targeted and deci- mated by the Vatican and the military regimes.

The survey replies underlined the importance of these political factors. The four options offered to respondents were indeed judged to be of "high" or "moderate" importance in the main, as opposed to "low" or "zero". On the other hand, respondents cited 14 other politi- cal factors that had not been suggested! They include the international context – cited several times – with, notably, the example of the fundamentalist movement in Boko Ha- ram, which emerged in Nigeria, but whose influence developed and spread to neighbour- ing states.

"Absence or malfunction of the rule of law" and "authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political alternative" seem to be the most important political factors.

16 Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001, p. 90. 17 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 36. 18 Idem, p. 37. 15

Table 9 Importance of political factors

Political factors

The weakening of non-fundamentalist political 17% 20% 31% 9% movements The use of a fundamentalist speech by the State or 20% 14% 26% 26% other political force

Absence or malfunction of a rule of law (fragile State) 17% 3% 46% 20%

Authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political 14% 14% 29% 31% alternative

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

None Weak Average Strong

7.3. Economic Factors

The following three economic factors were proposed in the survey:

- Poverty and inequality 19

In some contexts where poverty is very strong, joining a fundamentalist movement can be a survival strategy. This is particularly the case, when inequality is very strong within the society, reinforcing a strong feeling of injustice that the fundamentalists can exploit by pre- senting themselves as the only alternative to despair.

- Service provider role 20

When the state benefits are deficient, fundamentalist movements can substitute the State and exploit that assistance for the purpose of mobilisation and recruitment. This is espe- cially the case during major crises or when there is privatisation. By providing jobs or other benefits to its followers, a fundamentalist movement can also prove to be attractive from a professional or economic point of view21.

- Presence of a violent economic system A given economic system is enforced. Alternatives to this economic model are not toler- ated and cannot exist on an enduring basis. They are destroyed to leave the field free for the chosen economic model.

Economic factors play a very important role, also being cited by a majority on each occa- sion. Poverty and inequality were deemed "very" important in 63% of cases and "moder- ately" important in 14%. It is the key factor identified in almost 80% of cases. The weak- ness of alternative economic models and youth unemployment were also cited by re- spondents.

19 Idem, p. 32. 20 Idem, p. 32. 21 Rethinking Fundamentalism in a secular age, R. Scott Appleby, dans Rethinking Secularism, Craig Cal- houn, Mark Juergensmeyer, et Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 256. 16

Table 10 Importance of economic factors

Economic factors

The presence of a violent economic system 17% 17% 20% 20%

The service provider role is taken away from the State 17% 17% 31% 9%

Poverty and inequality 9%3% 14% 63%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

None Weak Average Strong

7.4. Social Factors

The following four social factors were proposed in the survey:

- Loss of certainties and belonging22

In a world increasingly complex and globalised, there is an increasing lack of cohesion or rupture in social relations. The place and functions of individuals in the society are more and more differentiated. Populations are then divided and separated23. In this context, the certainties and sense of belonging offered by fundamentalism can be particularly attrac- tive.

- Globalisation, migration and rising political identities24

The experienced alienation with globalisation and the vast socio-economic changes it in- duces can push people towards introversion or to their own ideology or worldview. The in- dividual finds himself lost in the new models (economic, social, familial, sexual, etc.), which he then needs to comply with. It's the same with the migration phenomena, which can reinforce the self-defining dimensions, notably in the presence of racism or in contexts of exclusions.

- The presence of a fundamentalism25

When fundamentalism is present in a context, other groups tend to be radicalised as well. Thus other fundamentalisms may also emerge. This is particularly the case in conflicts.

- A patriarchal society In society, men and women are not equal. Power is held by the men, who also have more rights and the leading role within the family. A patriarchal society may also be reflected in violence towards women.

22 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 38. 23 Fundamentalism, Steve Bruce, Polity Press, 2008, p. 17. 24 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 38. 25 Idem, p. 41. 17

Regarding social factors, we note that "globalisation, migration and the rise of political identities" are of "zero" or "little" importance – even though this is an aspect often cited in the relevant literature as a key factor in the emergence of fundamentalism. In contrast, "the weakening of traditional value systems" was judged of "moderate" or "high" im- portance in 51% of cases. The "patriarchal society" also plays a significant role, being deemed a factor of "moderate" or "high" importance in 49% of cases – particularly amongst Swiss organisations and coordinators, no doubt because their views are based on a comparison with Switzerland.

Table 11 Importance of social factors

Social factors

A patriarchal society 14% 17% 26% 23%

The presence of other fundamentalism in the context 23% 26% 9% 17% Globalization, migration and the rise of political 20% 31% 23% 9% identities (withdrawal) The loss of certainties and belonging or weakening of 11% 17% 37% 14% traditional value systems (religious or cultural) 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

None Weak Average Strong

7.5. Psychological Factors 26

The six following psychological factors were proposed in the survey. Although individual- ism is a ubiquitous concept in western societies, experimental studies in psychology, cog- nitive science and evolutionary biology show the importance of group behaviour on the decision processes27.

- A dualistic thought

Fundamentalists divide the world into two distinct camps: that of good and that of evil. Everyone is classified as one or the other. The certainty and the truth offered by the doc- trine is particularly attractive for young people who have had a weak identity formation. Faith in an ideology or worldview is reassuring and allows them to overcome the greatest obstacles28. This can be reinforced by the feeling of being part of an 'elected' group, cho- sen to defend their ideology or world vision29.

- Paranoia and anger in a group setting

26 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 11. 27 Terrorism, Identity and Legitimacy, The Four Waves theory and political violence, edited by Jean E. Rosen- feld, Routledge, Abingdon, 2011, p.31. 28 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 14. 29 Rethinking Fundamentalism in a secular age, R. Scott Appleby, dans Rethinking Secularism, Craig Cal- houn, Mark Juergensmeyer, et Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 256. 18

Fundamentalists have an increased sense of danger and victimisation. They have a strong degree of distrust towards those who do not share their worldview. Opposing opin- ions or attacks on goals or group values are perceived as threats30. A weak self-esteem, shame or humiliation plays a major role in the emergence of a paranoid structure, itself a source of violence. Four distinct stages are proposed to describe paranoia, from the most moderate to more severe: the feeling that the world is against us (1), only the 'others' con- trol work, money, power, etc. (2), a sense of victimisation accompanied by a cautious or suspicious hostility vis-à-vis the rest of the world. (3), the psychotic state of paranoia, in- volving the illusion or hallucination of persecution (4)31. Conspiracy theories often emerge among fundamentalists32. The fundamentalist group sees itself as morally superior, but in- ferior in the context of temporal power33. Thus, the establishment of an ideal world through the destruction of another. A typical example of this concept is that of the Nazis who wanted to eliminate the Jews34.

- An apocalyptic orientation

Fundamentalists are often convinced that the present world will end and a new era will begin, governed by their worldviews. They have a kind of utopia of a future, which in rela- tion to the past, does not make sense. Good will triumph over evil and an ideal society will be established in the end35.

- A relationship with a charismatic leadership

Fundamentalists are often entirely devoted to a charismatic leader or a 'guru'. The latter has a form of authority over the group and is distinguished primarily by their self-confi- dence or the strength of their conviction36. They have the ability to formulate the ideology and encourage the group to support or participate in violent acts37. The groups tend to be organised in a pyramidal and authoritarian manner38. The members of fundamentalist movements all strive to be considered on an equal footing within the group39.

30 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 12. 31 Idem, p. 48. 32 Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001, p. 63. 33 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 49. 34 Idem, p. 49. 35 Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001, p. 54. 36 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 38. 37 Idem, p. 39. 38 Rethinking Fundamentalism in a secular age, R. Scott Appleby, dans Rethinking Secularism, Craig Cal- houn, Mark Juergensmeyer, et Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 256. 39 Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001, p. 56. 19

- A “total” conversion experience

A “total” conversion to a new religion includes a total rejection of the previous. It is totally inclusive, creating an imaginary line between what belongs to the new religion and what is excluded to the point of being paranoid. The total conversion is usually pre- ceded by an escalation-induced stress, crisis, social influence, a personal struggle or trauma.40

Searching for a sense of meaning

The lack of perspectives for personal development is a factor in pushing people to join groups that hold out the possibility of gaining a privileged position in society. Fundamen- talism offers the opportunity to fulfil a precise function, to perform a mission for the group, and to be valued in doing so.

The survey revealed that the presence of a "strong charismatic leader" is the psychologi- cal factor with the greatest importance, together with "dualist philosophy dividing the world into two distinct camps". Both factors were deemed "moderately" or "very" important in 49% of cases. "Paranoia and anger in a group setting" is also a key factor with 43% rating its influence as "moderate" or "high". Conversely, "Searching for a sense of meaning", "Total conversion experience" and "Apocalyptic orientation" were often regarded as being of "zero" or "little" importance.

Table 12 Importance of psychological factors

Psychological factors

The search for a meaning to life 31% 9% 26% 14%

Total' conversion experience: a new vision of the world 29% 23% 17% 6% is introduced, which completely rejects the old

There is a strong charismatic leadership 20% 17% 29% 20%

An apocalyptic orientation: in favour of a new idealised 37% 23% 11% 6% era. Paranoia and rage in a group context: there is a high 20% 20% 23% 20% degree of victimisation A dualistic thought, the world is divided into two 17% 14% 26% 23% distinct camps

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

None Weak Average Strong

8. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUNDAMENTALIST TREND IN THE CON- TEXT

The survey results indicate that fundamentalist movements have become slightly or strongly radicalised since 2010 in almost half of the total cases. Only 17% have become

40 The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 41. 20

slightly or strongly more moderate. Whilst these figures show the importance of the phe- nomenon today, they also point to the high likelihood that it will grow and become stronger over the next few years if this trend continues. We must, therefore, pay attention to this and follow its development carefully. Table 13 How has this fundamentalist tendency evolved, since 2010

Don’t know 17%

It has become much more radicalised 34%

It has become slightly more radicalised 20%

It remained stable 11%

It has become slightly more moderated 11%

It has become much more moderated 6%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

9. IMPACT OF FUNDAMENTALISMS ON THE PROJECT OR PRO- GRAMME

9.1. Mapping

The negative impacts on the various players in the exchange of personnel in development cooperation depend on the interaction between each of the players in the context. A “mapping” can be made to represent the different players in the context of an assigning cooperation through the exchange of personnel and identify the intensity influences they are subjected to.

Such a diagram is not static and is always a snap shot of time. Indeed, all the players - in- dividuals as well as institutions – are constantly experiencing the transformation process caused and influenced by others or the environment from the sending or receiving organi- sation.

Here is an example of “Mapping” below:

21

The orange arrows - more or less thick - represent the influence - low or high - on the players of the cooperation through the exchange of personnel. This influence can be neg- ative, positive or neutral.

The sending organisation, the partner organisation, the person on assignment and coordi- nation office are themselves bound by agreements or contracts. They have a shared vi- sion of the world (whether religious or secular), motivation and jointly defined objectives. This is expressed in the guidelines of the organisations, the strategies, the choice of pro- jects and their working practices41.

The mapping identifies the players that can play a positive role and those that can play a negative role, as well as the connectors or dividers.

The survey conducted in 2016 revealed that in almost half the instances where fundamen- talisms were present in the context, they had a negative impact on projects and/or pro- grammes.

41 v. Guide pour une réflexion pratique sur le rôle des facteurs religieux et culturels dans les projets de coopé- ration au développement, Communauté de coopération Pain Pour le Prochain, Groupe de travail „religion et développement“, 2014. The influence of religious and cultural factors on development cooperation projects and programs is expressed in the following four interrelated levels: 1. at the individual level (position and personal experiences, intercultural sensitivity, ability to self-reflection, etc.) 2. at the projects and programs level (partners, target groups, objectives, measures, etc.) 3. at the organizational level (procedures, structures, personnel management, communication, etc.) 4. politically (understanding and development goals, religious and cultural climate eg. 9 / 11-, instruments used etc.) 22

Table 14 Influence on the project or programs

Very negative 3%

Negative 46%

None 46%

Positive 3%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

Whilst that remains significant and confirms the importance of the problem of fundamen- talisms, it is surprising that fundamentalisms have no impact on projects and programmes in the other half or, in one case, even a positive impact. This undoubtedly corresponds to a reality, but may also prompt reflection on whether all the negative impacts are in fact perceived by players in the exchange of personnel programmes. The following list of pos- sible impacts of fundamentalisms on projects or programmes, and on the various players involved in development cooperation via personnel exchange, is intended to encourage reflection on negative impacts.

9.2. Risks to safety of persons and property

Fundamentalisms have a very clear negative impact on development cooperation via per- sonnel exchange through the direct risk posed to personnel when threats and/or violence exist. This risk may concern all personnel or only expatriates. The planned assignment may have to be cancelled or, if already underway, be temporarily suspended or definitively abandoned in the most serious cases. Certain project or programme activities may, there- fore, never be implemented.

In cases of armed conflict, one may also witness the displacement of entire populations and the emergence of serious humanitarian crises. There may be destruction of infrastruc- ture and a lack of means of subsistence. This leads to a reduction in economic activity and the appearance of social problems.

9.3. Differentiation between local personnel and expatriates

Stigmatisation due to geographic origin, ethnic origin, skin colour or religion may create differences between national personnel and expatriates, which may in turn lead to ten- sions within the project. This may also damage the social relations between distinct groups of the population, creating a predominant climate of distrust and hindering collabo- ration between different project or programme players.

9.4. Freedom of expression and action

Another consequence of fundamentalisms is the restriction on freedom of expression and areas of work. Certain rhetoric or working methods are no longer acceptable and persons on assignment, or partner organisations in the South, find themselves having to engage in self-censorship. These restrictions can go as far as individuals or organisations being barred from work, expelled or even criminalised, with the possibility of imprisonment.

23

9.5. Instrumentalisation

The success of a project or programme can be claimed in order to promote fundamental- ism. When this happens, the goals of projects or programmes are diverted. In this context, fundamentalists may also attempt to infiltrate partner organisations in the South to influ- ence the work they carry out.

9.6. Programme or project planning

Confronted with the emergence of fundamentalism likely to slow down the implementation of a project or programme, adaptation measures in terms of context analysis, communica- tion, administrative management and security must be taken by the players involved in de- velopment cooperation via personnel exchange. In these scenarios, partners in the South may have fewer options regarding committing to partnerships with organisations in the North or integrating/accompanying persons on assignment from Switzerland.

10. SPECIFIC IMPACT ON PLAYERS IN DEVELOPMENT COOPERA- TION VIA PERSONNEL EXCHANGE

10.1. Volunteers and coordinators

About "the impact on volunteers and coordinators", it is interesting to note that partner or- ganisations did not identify any impacts at all in their responses to the survey - even though impacts were noted by the coordinators or heads of Swiss organisations. For these latter, volunteers or coordinators are "discredited" and/or "accused of being a bad Christian, Muslim, woman, etc." in 14% of the cases. We note that, in a context of funda- mentalism, volunteers and coordinators may be targeted in relation to their own religion in particular. In 9% of cases, they were accused of being "colonisers" and/or "victims of in- timidation". To a lesser degree (6%), they were perceived as "unbelievers, atheists" and/or "victims of verbal aggression and insults". Only one case of "physical threat", one case of "theft" and one case of "expulsion from a community" were identified during the survey.

24

Table 15 Impact on persons on assigments/ coordinators

Impact on persons on assigments/ coordinators

Arrested 0%

Victim(s) of damages to your workplace 0%

Victim(s) of theft (material) 3%

Expelled from a community 3%

Called a fundamentalist 0%

Called a coloniser(s) 9%

Called an 'atheist' or 'unbeliever' 6%

Called a 'bad' Christian, Muslim, woman, etc. 14%

Threatened physically 3%

Victim(s) of bullying 9%

Victim(s) of verbal abuse and insults 6%

Discredited 14%

Manipulated 6%

Radicalised 0%

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%

10.2 Partner organisations in the South

The survey reveals that in over a quarter of the cases where fundamentalism exists, "the impact of the development cooperation programme implemented by the partner organisa- tion in the South is limited". This is a judgement mostly formulated by Swiss organisations and coordinators ; partner organisations in the South are less self-critical, possibly be- cause, in the context of the survey, these organisations are reluctant to admit to any re- duction in impact for fear of seeing less support from Switzerland. 20% of partner organi- sations also reported "suffering threats". 17% said their "registration with government bod- ies was questioned" and 14% reported that their "reputation was endangered". In the sur- vey of all players, we note that partner organisations in the South appear to be most at risk of suffering negative impacts from fundamentalist movements.

We also note two responses where partner organisations in the South "became radical- ised" and "developed fundamentalist tendencies". 25

Table 16 Impact on the southern organisation

It has developed relationships or collaborations with… 3%

It is questioning its partnership with the Swiss… 0%

Its reputation is at risk 14%

Its registration with the State is questioned 17%

It is subjected to threats 20%

It uses double standards: official image and its… 9%

It is becoming more radicalised and developing… 6%

The impact of its program of development… 9%

The impact of its program of development… 26%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

10.2. Partner organisations in Switzerland

With regard to Swiss organisations, the survey reveals that "the impact of the programme is limited" in almost one-third of cases. We also note a significant impact with regard to "selection of volunteers", which is reduced to a certain type of profile depending on the context and fundamentalism present. Qualified persons of certain religious denominations, races or sexual orientations cannot be sent on assignment.

On the other hand, in 29% of cases, "the Swiss organisation was also able to develop its ability to work in the context", even if this judgement is expressed mainly by the coordina- tors and heads of Swiss organisations themselves.

Here again, we see that partner organisations in the South have little insight into Swiss or- ganisations because very few responses about the impact on these latter were collected.

Table 17 Impact on partner organisation in Switzerland

It is questioning its partnership with the receiving… 3% It has left the country 0% It has developed its capacity to work in this context 29% It has developed relationships or collaborations with… 3% The selection of persons for assignments is limited 20% Its reputation is at risk 0% Its registration with the State in the South is… 6% It is subjected to threats 0% It uses double standards: official image and its… 3% It is becoming more radicalised and developing… 0% The impact of its program of development … 6% The impact of its program of development… 29%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

26

11. MEASURES TO LIMIT THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF FUNDAMEN- TALISMS

In the context of the survey conducted, coordinators and heads of partner organisations or Swiss organisations shared the measures they have implemented, or would implement, when a project or programme is impacted by fundamentalism. Naturally, each solution must be adapted to the context and partnership. It is impossible to evaluate the overall ef- fectiveness of the various measures because they are highly dependent on the specific reality on the ground. Certain measures may even be contradictory; loud promotion of cer- tain human rights, for example, or refraining from openly tackling sensitive subjects (such as human rights) is likely to cause controversy in certain contexts.

The points set out below are not recommendations strictly speaking, but rather a cata- logue of measures into which organisations may dip at will to ensure the efficient imple- mentation of programmes and/or projects in contexts where fundamentalism is present.

11.1. Analysis of the context and adaptation of the security concept

Improved context analysis is the most frequently cited element in efforts to counteract the presence of fundamentalism. This can be achieved by expanding existing information and alert networks and organising specific workshops. The risks should be re-assessed on a regular basis.

Security strategies for personnel and partner organisations may be modified as appropri- ate, including, for example, the organisation of workshops to examine the issue of secu- rity. To this end, the exchange of information between the various players in development cooperation via personnel exchange is vital to ensure protection for everyone and due at- tention to the specific individual vulnerabilities.

11.2. Awareness-raising

Persons on assignment, present on the ground, can be made aware of the problems as- sociated with fundamentalism. Communications should be more regular and they should be kept updated about the political situation. These persons must also be informed of their rights. Relevant skills, e.g. stress management or security management, can be rein- forced, as can know-how about cultural, political and social realities. Special attention should also be focused on the "do no harm" concept and on peace-promoting attitudes. Clear, coherent working principles are required.

11.3. Preparation

Pre-assignment preparation may include a special focus on fundamentalisms based on the content of this document. This will raise awareness and provide the skills for further development in these contexts.

Training in security-related issues, and in "religion & development" may also be rein- forced.

11.4. Selection

Over and above assessment of the specific skills and experience to be brought by the as- signee as specified by the partner, there should also be an in-depth assessment of his or her ability to exchange views, without bias, with persons who embrace another vision of the world, and of his or her ability to engage in dialogue.

27

11.5. Care with use of the term "fundamentalist"

The term "fundamentalism" triggers fear and strong feelings. One should retain an ability to question whether it is appropriate to label a group as "fundamentalist" as the connota- tions associated with this term carry a risk of rejection. It may indeed be more appropriate not to use the term "fundamentalist" to designate a group – even if it is – so as not to con- tribute to its radicalisation.

11.6. Detachment with regard to fundamentalism

It is important to relativise the phenomenon when it appears, despite the fears and strong feelings that it triggers, by comparing the real risk to safety of persons with, for example, the dangers of road traffic, also by assessing the degree of impact on the effective imple- mentation of the project or programme.

11.7. Promotion of peace and human rights

Advocacy work can be undertaken to promote peace and human rights with a view to cre- ating conditions that are less favourable to the emergence of fundamentalism and, as nec- essary, to prevent or stop conflict and ensure the protection of individual persons.

11.8. Differentiated information

All incidents, abuse and blockages due to fundamentalism can be registered and circu- lated. It is also important to avoid generalisation of all kinds in the production of infor- mation and to ensure sufficient attention to differentiation. This allows consideration of al- ternative and local concepts, and the survival of alternative approaches. On the other hand, a culture of respect for other views may be promoted. Care should be taken to dis- tinguish between, for example, a fundamentalist interpretation of a religion and the broad mass of adherents.

11.9. Team building and trust building

Aptitude for teamwork and cooperation can be reinforced during workshops, especially when the problems associated with fundamentalism tend to oppose local personnel and expatriates. It is important to ensure that all incidents or misunderstandings that might arise between the different participants are dealt with rapidly. In this regard, it is equally important to consolidate trust between those involved and to encourage acceptance of others. This will facilitate the implementation of the conditions required to work together on issues with a bearing on society as a whole, hopefully leading to opportunities to repair re- lations between certain sections of society that are broken or destroyed by conflict.

11.10. Adaptation of the mode of cooperation

When long-term assignments are no longer possible, they may be replaced by regular short assignments, or by local personnel or personnel from elsewhere in the South (South-South). When assignments are not possible at all, continued support may be pro- vided in the form of financing so that projects are not abandoned at a critical stage.

Partner relationships may also be nurtured or reinforced by marks of trust and assurance of long-term support in order to limit the negative impact of fundamentalism on the partner organisation's activities.

With regard to new partnerships, a detailed analysis of the partner should be performed, particularly when the latter is associated with controversy.

28

11.11. Self-censorship

Self-censorship may be envisaged as a solution to these obstacles, and the content of documents and official speeches modified as required. For example, by avoiding certain controversial issues or taboos, or by being ultra-cautious about the way they are handled. One may also make a conscious decision not to work on certain topics as a precautionary measure.

11.12. Youth support

More work can be done with young people. This group is perceived as being more sus- ceptible to the attraction of fundamentalist movements due to the lack of social and/or economic perspectives with which it may be confronted.

11.13. Capitalising on experience

An exchange of ideas between different organisations operating in different or similar con- texts, but also confronted with fundamentalism, may help to relativise the issues and open new horizons, like the continental seminar organised by Unité in 2016. The benefit of this experience may also be useful in Europe, where fundamentalisms are also emerging. Real-life case studies could be used.

12. POTENTIAL OF THE EXCHANGE OF PERSONNEL

Ideology or worldviews can be interpreted in different ways. Work on the role of religion in development cooperation, led by Anne-Marie Holenstein on behalf of the SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation) demonstrated the ambivalent influence of reli- gious factors, between potential and danger42. If in the case of religious fundamentalisms, religion can be used to inspire violence, for example, it can also serve as inspiration for non-violent behaviour. Each interpretation is thus vulnerable to a contra-interpretation. There is, therefore, strong potential in dialogues and exchanges that are at the heart of the exchange of personnel in development cooperation. This, whether it is in dialogue with partners sharing the same ideology/worldview43, or because trust is already established, with partners having another worldview44.

The exchange between equals can enable the reflection of their own ideology or worldview within the framework of the dialogue, and offer the same reflection to another player. On the other hand, to identify and understand the worldview of a player, and its im- pact, takes time45. The long-term assignments (minimum two years) of the cooperation through the exchange of personnel appear to have good potential. By renouncing a Swiss salary level and sharing closely living conditions of the local population, the persons on assignment are more likely to maintain a direct dialogue, direct and fair with other players in the context. In addition, the very long-term partnerships that are maintained by some Swiss organisations with Southern partners can strengthen the confidence and knowledge of the context necessary to trade on the ideas and values.

42 Religionen - Potential oder Gefahr?, Religion und Spiritualität in Theorie und Praxis der Entwicklungszu- sammenarbeit , Holenstein, Anne Marie, LIT Velrag, 2010. 43 Wir brauchen Fürsprecher, Interview de Michael N. Kimindu, E+Z, Nr. 4 2014, 2014/04, p. 172. 44 Competing Political Science Perspectives on the Religion in Conflict, Stein Sabina A, in Religion in Conflict Transformation, Politorbis N° 52, 2/ 2011, p. 89. 45 Religionen - Potential oder Gefahr?, Religion und Spiritualität in Theorie und Praxis der Entwicklungszu- sammenarbeit , Holenstein, Anne Marie, LIT Velrag, 2010, p. 116. 29

As a strategy to restrict the impact of fundamentalisms, the creation of alliances or inter- national movements can provide support to advocate change, adds legitimacy as the visi- bility of civil society increases and provides a “safety in numbers”46. By developing rela- tionships with community members, the persons on assignment of the exchange of per- sonnel in development cooperation, support networks and concrete opportunities for col- laboration, says an international study47. The latter also confirms that the social capital thus generated, represents the third largest contributor of international volunteering. This potential can also be strengthened by reciprocal exchanges South-South or South-North and the outreach work done by the persons on assignment returning to the sending or- ganisation.

Finally, some of the exchanges of personnel organisations have had a great experience in working for peace in conflict situations. In such specific contexts, the person on assign- ment plays an interpellation role as an external input48.

13. REQUIREMENTS

Regarding needs, the survey revealed that, with the exception of "awareness-raising in the South" (11%), there is high demand for all the areas suggested and especially "prepa- ration of assignees" and "context analysis". Initial efforts should no doubt be focused on these two areas.

Table 18 Where do you think the main requirements are in the Swiss exchange of personnel in development cooperation?

With the accompaniment of persons on assignment 37%

In raising awareness of the South regarding the 11% fundamentalisms

In raising awareness of the North regarding the 34% fundamentalisms

In raising awareness within the partner organisation in 31% Switzerland

In raising awareness of the partner organisation in the 29% South

Dans la préparation des personnes affectées 60%

In the context of analysis 60%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

46 “Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists”, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2014, p. 79. 47 Measuring and Conveying the Added Value of International Volunteering, Benjamin J. Lough & Lenore Mat- thews, IVCO Forum 2013 Discussion Paper, International Forum for Volunteering in Development. 48 Des volontaires pour la paix dans les Grands Lacs, Contribution prospective de l’« Initiative de Genève pour la paix dans les Grands Lacs », Eirene, 2005. 30

14. CONCLUSION

The mutual learning process confirmed the importance and extent of the phenomenon of fundamentalisms in terms of their impact on development cooperation via the exchange of Swiss personnel. It also highlighted its complexity: it is virtually impossible to define a sin- gle typical scenario for the emergence of a fundamentalism and its impact on projects or programmes. Each case is different and depends on the context. We note, however, that fundamentalism is not limited to religion, and that religion is often instrumentalised for po- litical purposes.

In this framework, the workshops for awareness-raising and exchange organised with the different players involved in development cooperation via personnel exchange clearly met a need. Given the upward trends observed, it is vital that we continue to reflect on this question during the preparation and implementation of assignments. We must make future volunteers aware of these issues and reinforce a regular analysis of the context, in partic- ular through the inclusion of all players in development cooperation via personnel ex- change. This will make participants more alert to the main factors facilitating the emer- gence of fundamentalisms and to the negative impacts that they may have on projects and programmes. Working on this basis, measures specific to the context can be imple- mented as agreed by the Swiss organisations, partner organisations in the South and co- ordinators or volunteers. This document should serve as a resource for these various stages and may be further developed by means of more in-depth case studies as appro- priate. For this purpose, this document has been made available on the Unité website in four languages, as well as the PowerPoint presentations used during these workshops. Other Unité tools and documents, e.g. the "Risk and Safety Rules" or the "Study of Peace Work in the Great Lakes Region", may also contribute to management of the quality of the member organisations. The issue of fundamentalisms has also been earmarked for inclu- sion in the new manual setting out the specific rules applicable to personnel exchange, to be published by in 2017.

15. THANKS

This mutual learning process could not have been brought to a successful conclusion without the broad and committed involvement shown by the heads of partner organisa- tions in the South and coordinators at the Unité seminar in Tanzania, or that of the coordi- nators working on behalf of Interteam and Comundo at a joint meeting in Lucerne, or that of the heads of Swiss organisations at the Annual General Meeting of Unité. We would also like to mention the precious advice given at various points in the process by Richard Friedli (University of Fribourg), Anael Jambers and Jean-Nicolas Bitter (Human Security Division), Hans-Ueli Meier (Mission 21 and focal point, religion and development at PPP), as well as Konrad Specker and Sonia Carlotti (SDC). Finally, our special thanks are due to Martin Schreiber who led two of the three awareness-raising workshops.

16. SUMMARY SHEET

Fundamentalisms

Fundamentalism affirms that a source of ideas, usually a text, is complete and error-free. It thus has a monopoly on the truth and does not accept questioning or contradictory inter- pretations.

Fundamentalism opposes itself to a perceived threat.

31

Fundamentalism interprets a vision of the world in a selective way in order to impose a po- litical, social, economic or cultural order.

Main players having fundamentalist tendencies

In 30% of cases or more

One or several religious institutions of the welcoming society in the South

One or several ethnic groups

The state of assignment

Political parties

Armed groups or militias

Main doctrines used by fundamentalists

In 30% of cases or more

Religious

Political

In 20 to 29% of cases

Ethnic

Economical

Risk factors

In 50% of cases or more

Poverty and inequality

Loss of certainties and belonging, weakening of value systems

Use of fundamentalist speech by the state or other political bodies

Lack or malfunction of the rule of law

Authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political alternative

In 30 to 49% of cases

Authoritarianism, militarism and lack of political alternative

Use of fundamentalist speech by the state or other political bodies

Substitute for the state in the role of service provider

Existence of a violent economic system

Presence of another fundamentalism in the context 32

Dualist philosophy: the world is divided into two distinct camps

An apocalyptic orientation: the end of the present world is announced in favour of a new, idealised era

Negative impacts

Risks for safety of persons and property

Differentiation between local personnel and expatriates

Freedom of expression and action

Instrumentalisation

Programme or project planning

Specific impact on volunteers or coordinators

In 10% of cases or more

Discredited

Deemed "bad Christian, Muslim, woman", etc.

In 5 to 10% of cases

Instrumentalised

Victim of verbal aggression and insults

Perceived as "atheist" or "unbeliever"

Perceived as coloniser

Specific impact on partner organisations in the South

In 10% of cases or more

Impact of the development cooperation programme is limited

Suffered threats

Registration with the state is questioned

Reputation is endangered

In 5 to 10% of cases

Impact of the development cooperation programme is improved

Radicalisation with development of fundamentalist tendencies

Use of contradictory speech, between its official image and its actions on the ground

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Impact on Swiss organisations

In 10% of cases or more

Impact of its development cooperation programme is limited

Recruitment of assignees is limited

Development of ability to work in this context

In 5 to 10% of cases

Impact of its development cooperation programme is improved

Registration with the state in the South is questioned

Possible action

Analysis of context and adaptation of security concept

Awareness-raising

Preparation

Selection

Care with use of the term "fundamentalism"

Detachment with regard to fundamentalism

Promotion of peace and human rights

Differentiated information

Team building and trust building

Adaptation of mode of development cooperation

Self-censureship

Youth support

Capitalising on experience

17. TABLE DES ILLUSTRATIONS

Table 1 Fundamentalism as experienced by survey respondents ...... 9 Table 2 No. of persons by type of actor for whom fundamentalisms are present in the context 9 Table 3 Countries where fundamentalism is present in the work contexts of questionnaire respondents ...... 10 Table 4 Which players do you perceive as having fundamentalist tendencies? ...... 11 Table 5 Fundamentalist trends perceived in the State where the assignment takes place ..... 12 Table 6 Fundamentalist trends perceived in armed groups or militias ...... 12 Table 7 What types of fundamentalist doctrine are claimed? ...... 12

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Table 8 Factors at 33% or higher of medium or high importance in the emergence of fundamentalism...... 14 Table 9 Importance of political factors ...... 16 Table 10 Importance of economic factors ...... 17 Table 11 Importance of social factors ...... 18 Table 12 Importance of psychological factors ...... 20 Table 13 How has this fundamentalist tendency evolved, since 2010 ...... 21 Table 15 Influence on the project or programs ...... 23 Table 16 Impact on persons on assigments/ coordinators ...... 25 Table 17 Impact on the southern organisation ...... 26 Table 18 Impact on partner organisation in Switzerland ...... 26 Table 19 Where do you think the main requirements are in the Swiss exchange of personnel in development cooperation? ...... 30

18. IDEOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALISMS DOCUMENTS

18.1. Examples – cases

- Apostolic Religion, Health and Utilization of Maternal and Child Health Services in Zimbabwe, Brian Maguranyanga, Collaborating Centre for Operational Research and Evaluation, UNICEF.

This study analyses the impact of the Apostolic groups on the effectiveness of care and health policies in Zimbabwe and offers recommendations

- De la théologie de la libération à la théologie de la prospérité, Louis Favreau, http://jupi- ter.uqo.ca/ries2001/carnet/spip.php?article70, 2 avril 2012.

This online article addresses the tension between the liberation theology and the prosperity theology and its repercussion on Canadian NGOs

- Wir brauchen Fürsprecher, Interview de Michael N. Kimindu, E+Z, Nr. 4 2014, 2014/04, p. 172.

A Kenyan chaplain addresses the context of the law against homosexuality in Uganda and the situation of his local NGOs defending human rights of sexual minorities and vis-à-vis the expectations of the North

- Für Fundamentalisten vertreten die großen Verbände einen Wischiwaschi-Islam, Interview de Franz Magnis-Suseno, Welt-sichten, Heft 4/2014.

A theologian and philosopher recalls the situation of Muslim fundamentalists in Indonesia and the relationships between Christians and Muslims.

- Aktuelles aus Nigeria: Eindrücke zur aktuellen Situation im Rahmen der Dienstreise vom 20.5.- 2.6.2013,Jochen Kirsch, Mission 21.

The report from Mission 21 on the situation in the North of Nigeria deals with the impact of the actions of Boko Haram on the activities of its local church partner.

- Gesundheit und religiöse Einflüsse: Apostolics in Simbabwe, Bericht, Medicus Mundi Schweiz Meeting Point, 8. Mai 2014

This is the report of a workshop at which Urs Allenspach of SolidarMed recounted his expe- rience as a physician in Zimbabwe and the challenge posed by the beliefs and conserva- tive Apostolic.

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- Out of Africa, Sektenmitglieder schlagen Polizei in die Flucht, Ruedi Lüthy in Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, 28.07.2014.

This article reviews an incident in Zimbabwe and the influence of sects, including Apostolic.

- Researcher: Human Rights Fundamentalism Disregards the Poor, Teija Laakso, News sur le site du ministère des affaires étrangères finlandais, 30.05.2012.

A Cambridge professor suggests a fundamentalism of human rights that would not take into account the local situation.

- Fondamentalismes chrétiens et droits de la femme dans le contexte africain : cartographie du ter- rain, Jessica Horn, awid.

This case study analyses the mobilization and advocacy strategies of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians fundamentalisms in sub-Saharan Africa, vis-à-vis particularly wom- en's rights. It also suggests strategies of resistance to these fundamentalisms

- What ISIS Really Wants, Graeme Wood, AP/The Atlantic, March 2015, http://www.theatlan- tic.com/features/archive/2015/02/what-isis-really-wants/384980/ (consulté le 19.02.2015

This article reviews the origins of the Islamic State and its interpretation of Islam. It context especially the speeches accusing it of being un-Islamic and suggests ways to counter it in the theological field

- Des volontaires pour la paix dans les Grands Lacs, Contribution prospective de l’« Initiative de Genève pour la paix dans les Grands Lacs », Eirene, 2005. 18.2. Concepts – definitions

- Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction, Malise Ruthven, Oxford University Press, 2007.

The first chapter of this book introduces fundamentalism in a direct journalistic style ap- proach, the perception of the phenomenon of fundamentalism today and the history of the term with examples

- Fundamentalism, Steve Bruce, Polity Press, 2008.

The first chapter of this book also reviews the origin of the term (p. 9) and the characteristics of the phenomenon of fundamentalisms (p.12). The second chapter examines the relation- ship between fundamentalism and modernization.

- Rethinking Fundamentalism in a secular age, R. Scott Appleby, dans Rethinking Secularism, Craig Calhoun, Mark Juergensmeyer, et Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 256.

This contribution to a book looks back at the findings of a major research project on funda- mentalism "the Fundamentalism Project" (TFP), particularly on the relationship between fun- damentalism and religion.

- The convergence of fundamentalisms and new political closures – What next in the struggle for pluralism?, Praful Bidwai, dans Development Dialogue n°52, what next, vol. 2, août 2009.

In this article, an Indian journalist discusses the emergence of fundamentalisms, including non-religious.

- Fundamentalism, R. Scott Appleby, Martin E. Marty, dans Foreign Policy, janvier-février 2002.

The leaders of a large project on Fundamentalism respond very briefly to "commonplace" on fundamentalism.

- Género y cultura: marcas de los fundamentalismos, Josefi na Hurtado Neira, Magdalena Valdivieso Ide, Con-spirando, Colección Nuevos Espacios, II / 2010.

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- Competing Political Science Perspectives on the Religion in Conflict, Stein Sabina A, in Religion in Conflict Transformation, Politorbis N° 52, 2/ 2011

This article discusses three theoretical perspectives used to conceptualise the relationship between religion and conflict: primordialism (clash of civilisations because the conflict), in- strumentalism (causes are material) and constructivism (causes are a construction between identity and factors materials).

- Fundamentalismus als patriarchalische Protestbewegung, Riesenbrodt Martin, J. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen, 1990.

- Les fondamentalismes, Mayer Jean-François, Georg Editeur, 2001.

- The Fundamentalist Mindset. Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History, Charles B. Strozier, David M. Terman, James W. Jones, Katherine A. Boyd, Oxford University Press, 2010.

- Terrorism, Identity and Legitimacy, The Four Waves theory and political violence, edited by Jean E. Rosenfeld, Routledge, Abingdon, 2011.

- Understanding Terrorism and Political Violence, The life cycle of birth, growth, transformation, and demise. Dipak K. Gupta, Routledge, Abingdon, 2008. 18.3. Instruments - methods

- Manual: 3 steps for working in fragile and Conflict-affected situations (wfcs), Esther Marthaler Si- donia Gabriel, Helvetas, 2013.

- Leitfaden für die praxisrelevante Reflexion der Rolle religiöser und kultureller Faktoren in Projekten der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, Brot für alle, DRAFT, 2014.

- Anhang zum Leitfaden für die praxisrelevante Integration von Religion und Kultur (R&K) in die Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, Brot für alle, DRAFT, 2014.

- Field guide: 3 steps for working in fragile and Conflict-affected situations (wfcs), Esther Marthaler Sidonia Gabriel, Helvetas, 2013.

- Fact Sheet Conflict Sensitivity, KOFF, 2012.

- Conflict Sensitivity Assessment: Methodology Note, KOFF, 2014.

- Guide pour une réflexion pratique sur le rôle des facteurs religieux et culturels dans les projets de coopération au développement, Pain pour le prochain, DRAFT, 2014.

- Développement et religion, Rapport final, Suites pratiques, méthodes et instruments, Anne-Marie Holenstein, DDC, 2009.

- Entwicklung und Religion. Schlussdokument. Folgerungen für die Praxis. Methoden und Instru- mente, Anne-Marie Holenstein, DEZA, 2009.

- Practitioner’s Guide: Do No Harm, GTZ-FRCS Project Team.

- Understanding Religious Fundamentalisms for Activists, Association for Women’s Rights in Devel- opment (AWID), 2014

- Religion in Conflict Transformation, Politorbis N° 52, 2/ 2011

- Bringing Inter-communal Cooperation and Religious Voices into Humanitarian and Development Policy, Katherine Marshall, United Nations Alliance of Civilizations, Working Paper, November 2011.

- The “Do No Harm” Framework for Analysing the Impact of Assistance on Conflict: A Handbook, Do No Harm Project (Local Capacities for Peace Project), Collaborative for Development Action, April 2004.

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18.4. Risks and potential of the exchange of personnel cooperation and worldviews

- Mediators, not combatants, Markus A. Weingardt, dans D+C, 10.10.2007.

- Rôle et signification de la religion et de la Spiritualité dans la coopération au développement, Do- cument de réflexion et de travail, Anne-Marie Holenstein, DDC, 2005.

- Rolle und Bedeutung von Religion und Spiritualität in der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, Ein Refle- xions- und Arbeitspapier, Anne-Marie Holenstein, DEZA, 2005.

- Religious Violence: The Strong, the Weak, and the Pathological, R. Scott Appleby, dans Practical Matters, Spring 2012, Issue 5, pp. 1-25.

- „Religion und Entwicklung“ – Wie weiter?, Joseph Estermann, RomeroHaus, Bethlehem Mission Immensee, août 2014.

- The Myth of Religious Violence, Secular Ideology and the Roots of Modern Conflict, William T. Cavanaugh, Oxford University Press, 2009.

- Religion und Politik - eine brisante Mischung, Afrika Bulletin, Nr 157, Feb./ März 2015.

- Religion, Politics, Conflict and Humanitarian Action Faith-Based Organisations as Political, Human- itarian or Religious Actors, Proceedings of the workshop, The Graduate Institute, Geneva, May 18– 19 2005.

- Measuring and Conveying the Added Value of International Volunteering, Benjamin J. Lough & Lenore Mat-thews, IVCO Forum 2013 Discussion Paper, International Forum for Volunteering in De- velopment.

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