UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:______

I, ______, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in:

It is entitled:

This work and its defense approved by:

Chair: ______

URBAN BALLPARK DESIGN: A HOLISTIC STRATEGY TOWARD VITALIZATION

A thesis submitted to the

Department of Architecture of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

in the Department of Architecture in the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

2004

by

Craig Penquite

B.S. Arch, University of Cincinnati, 2002

Committee Chair: Gordon Simmons Nnamdi Elleh Udo Greinacher

Abstract

Stadiums have an important function in the life of American cities, providing a social outlet for people as well as creating an image and sense of pride in the community. The impact of sport facilities on the urban fabric can be significant because of the importance of a sport franchise to the public. Sport facilities involve important urban design issues of land use, infrastructure, context and public use. The amount of space these facilities use, their urban impact, and the cost to the public in relation to how often they are used, are critical questions.

The social ritual of attending a sport event can be the design basis for integrating a stadium into the urban fabric in a way that vitalizes its surroundings. A space that promotes social interaction on a consistent level will create an ongoing social life beyond specific times of the day, month or year.

As more and more stadiums were built in the 1990s, city officials believed that such facilities would be catalysts for urban revitalization.

Whether or not this is true remains to be seen. Recently, stadium design has focused on creating a retro-style aesthetic as the means of integration, rather than examining more deeply ideas of context and connections of space that might prove more effective. Downtown stadiums have the opportunity to spur rejuvenation in an area, but the ability to sustain that energy once the newness is gone speaks to the enduring qualities of the architecture.

Inherent in the issue of downtown stadiums and revitalization are urban design concerns of context, infrastructure and circulation as well as economic issues and the social issues for which sports have become so popular in Western culture. Intensive research and design consideration of a combination of the physical, social and economic considerations may allow stadiums to have a greater positive impact on the downtowns they inhabit.

The fruition of the concepts of the thesis will be a Minor League

Baseball stadium for Columbus, Ohio. The ideas within this thesis are meant to be broad and not specific to one city, but applicable to cities in the United States. The design should be seen as a case study in which the ideas of the thesis are explored and put into action. Besides the stadium, the design will use a synergistic approach that will include accessory functions meant to supplement the stadium, attract people and create a viable area that sustains the excitement of the event on a regular basis.

Table of Contents:

Thesis Introduction …………………………………………….………… 2 History ……………………………..………………………….…….. 6 Critical Issues …………………..…………………………….….. 11 Physical ………………..…………………………….….. 12 Social ……………………………………………..…….… 21 Economic ……………………………………………….. 25 Integration ……………….….………………………….. 28 Experiences ………………………………………………………... 32 Thesis Precedents .,……………………………………………… 35 Background and Summary ………………………………….. 40

Design Program and Site Introduction …………………………………………... 46 Design Program General Information ………………………………. 47 Space Program ………………………………………. 48 Program History ……………………………………. 61 Program Precedents ………………………………. 64 Images ………………………………………………….. 70

Site General Description ……………………………….. 73 Site History ……………………………………………. 74 Detail Physical Analyses ………………………….. 76 Site Precedents ………………………………………. 81 Images …………………………………………………... 87

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………….. 91

1 Introduction

Throughout history people have competed in activities that

showcase strength, speed and skill. Spectators have gathered to support

their favorites and root against their opponents. Sport has a special place

in the culture of Western society; it embodies athleticism and fitness as

well as a means of social gathering. Architecture creates the stage on

which the performers compete and provides a place for spectators to view

the action in assembly with others. As the urban fabric of America has

changed, so have the urban design philosophies of sport facilities. When

people departed the city for the suburbs in mid-century, many of the

stadiums followed them. Today, as cities try to revitalize their urban

cores and bring people back into the cities, city officials have tried to

relocate sport facilities downtown to be catalysts for revitalization. The

issues at the heart of this thesis include the positive, generative urban

impact of these structures and how those facilities can be used year-

round.

In the past decade new sport stadiums have popped up in many Denver’s Invesco Field, 2001, football stadium cities in the United States; some cities have built more than one facility

within a span of three to five years. The ability of today’s structures to fit

into the urban fabric and deal with the automobile are major issues. The

public has been told that these facilities are necessary for their team and

Denver’s Pepsi Center, 1999, basketball their city to compete economically with other cities. A relatively and hockey consistent aesthetic has arisen, especially in baseball stadiums. The

designs of the structures of the 1990s are reminiscent of the facilities built

around the 1900s. Most of them are baseball “parks,” mainly

Denver’s Coors Field, 1999, baseball neighborhood structures that contain only one sport. But uniform

2

characteristics or criteria for the urban design of these facilities are still

lacking.

In addition to the physical elements of stadium design in urban

areas, there are issues that are less tangible. They include the social spirit

that produces urban vitality, the charged atmosphere that occurs during

sport events and provides an area with energy. Exploiting the social

aspects of sport and the urban design potentials can create a desired

outcome in which sport stadiums are used as an effective means for Crowd outside of stadium prior to the event revitalization.

Inherent in the topic of sport stadiums as a means of revitalization

is the economic impact of stadiums on a city and the realistic economic

expectations for a sport facility. Although the economics of cities in terms

of private versus public development goes beyond the field of

architecture, a general understanding of the economic forces and

strategies at work is essential. Recently the “trinity of synergy”1 –

entertainment, dining and retail – has been a trend for the economic

development of cities. The strategies of economic development of urban

Coors Field in Denver, Colorado has areas can merge with contemporary ideas associated with stadium design provided the centerpiece for Lower Downtown’s revitalization to help revitalize downtown areas.

The synthesis of these three areas, physical, social and economic,

should be considered by architects in the planning and design of sport

facilities. The concern at the core of this argument is how architecture

can exploit these issues in the design of a new stadium and its

1 Tim Chapin. “Urban Entertainment Centers as Economic Development.” American Planning Association. v. 65 n. 3. Summer 1999. pp. 339-340. 3 surrounding urban fabric—specifically a baseball stadium in downtown

Columbus, Ohio.

This document begins with an examination the history of sport facilities in past cultures—Egyptian, Mesoamerican, Greek and Roman, and extending into the recent past after the revival of the Olympic Games helped resurrect the idea of sport facilities as important civic structures.

The section finishes with a brief history of sport facilities in America, focusing specifically on baseball stadiums. This chronicles the changes that have occurred in stadium construction and the relationship of the structures to the city in which they were located.

The next section, Critical Issues, deals with the primary concerns of the thesis. Physical, social and economic aspects of sport facilities and cities as well as the integration of these issues are considered in this section. The Experiences section examines the social and cultural impact of baseball in America. It uses remarks from sport writers and broadcasters, poets, presidents and others to discuss the experience of going to the ballpark and attending a baseball game. Heaped in nostalgia, the section demonstrates the power of baseball on the culture of America.

Thesis Precedents examines buildings such as Guggenheim Museum in

Bilbao and Sydney Opera House for their iconic image that can be used to draw people to a city. Jacobs Field in Cleveland offers an example of a stadium that has been combined with other functions to create an entertainment district for the purpose of revitalizing an area of the downtown. Walt Disney World in Orlando is an example of a tourist city.

The final section of the thesis summarizes the key points and the design implications for the design for a stadium in Columbus, Ohio.

4

The Design Program and Site section introduces the design project, a minor league baseball stadium. The program includes the requirements for the stadium and other functions that will complement and enhance the drawing power of the facility. Major league and minor league stadiums that offer a variety of seating options and attractions are program precedents. Also, Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen and Walt

Disney World are examined as parks combined with entertainment functions.

The site in downtown Columbus, Ohio is in an area that is not densely built upon; it is characterized by surface parking lots. The history of the site and Columbus in general is reviewed as well as documentation of what currently exists on the site and the surrounding area. Cities that have recently built sport facilities in their downtown as a means of revitalization, such as Toronto, Cleveland and Denver, are the precedents for this section.

The primary design implications involve the incorporation of various functions that can support and enhance the stadium as a means to attract people to an area. The objective is to design an urban setting that augments the social aspects related to attending a sporting event.

Similarities and differences exist between stadiums of the past and present, but the importance of the spectator and the crowd have always been a major influence in the form of these structures.

5

History

Leisure time was limited in Egyptian civilization, and most

activities were directed toward physical development or religious

purposes. Sports were a sign of strength and power. They included

archery, swimming, running, boxing, stick fighting and weight lifting for

physical development and skill. They danced for religious purposes, and

played board and ball games for recreation.2 There is little evidence of

Egyptian facilities for sport activities; it is believed that the activities were

not confined to delineated spaces. The only example of an Egyptian sport Rendering of King Djoser’s complex, 2650 B.C. The open area to the left of facility is the track on Pharaoh Djoser’s (third dynasty) burial site on the pyramid would have been where foot races were most likely held. which the pharaoh performed the ritual run of his jubilee festival. 3

Mesoamerican civilizations played a ball game that can be dated

back to 1500 B.C. Ball courts and art work from these civilizations

provide evidence that the game was a ceremonial sport.4 The ball courts

were shaped like a capital “I” with parallel masonry walls enclosing a long

narrow playing alley that connected two end zones. Some hypothesize

Mesoamerican ball court at El Tajin, that there is a relationship between ball courts, surrounding buildings and Veracruz raised roadways, but further archeological research is needed to make

substantiated conclusions.5

2 Earle F. Zeigler, ed. A History of Sport and Physical Education to 1900. (Champaign, Illinois, Stipes Publishing Company, 1973). pp. 59-61. 3 Wolfgang Decker. Sports and Games of Ancient Egypt. (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1992). p. 22. 4 Jane Stevenson Day. “Performing on the Court” in The Sport of Life and Death: Mesoamerican ballgame. E. Michael Whitttington, ed. (New York, Thames &Hudson, 2001). pp. 65-66. 5 Eric Taladoire. “The architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame: An Evolutionary Perspective.” in The Sport of Life and Death: Mesoamerican ballgame. E. Michael Whitttington, ed. (New York, Thames &Hudson, 2001). pp. 97-115. 6

Greek stadia were opened-ended, U–shaped structures that were

free standing or built into the side of a hill.6 The early stadia provided

very little seating for spectators who, instead, stood on the embankments

that were created. The Greek stadiums were associated with religious

aspects of the society, originally being part of Greek sanctuaries and later Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens. Home of the first Olympics in 331 B.C. 7 it was restored for the 1898 Olympics being located near principal temples and altars. Events that occurred in

the stadia included foot racing, boxing, wrestling, pankration (a

combination of wrestling and boxing) and the pentathlon which included

discus, javelin, long jump, wrestling and stadion (a foot race). While

stadia contained human sports, the Greek hippodrome was used for

equestrian events.8 The hippodrome contained a U-shaped course and,

like Greek theaters, was built into the slope of a hill, allowing for rising Olympia stadium levels of seating for spectators.9 The Greek theaters and hippodromes

influenced the later designs of the Roman amphitheater and circus.

Roman amphitheaters were essentially two Greek theaters joined

together to create an ellipse. The elliptical shape allowed for seating tiers

to surround all sides of the arena area, providing clear sight for all

viewers.10 In ancient Rome, the Colosseum, the most famous of

amphitheaters, was a focal point in the city. It featured gladiator matches,

Amphitheater at Pompeii battle reenactments and executions, while promoting a ritual in which

people came together to cheer on the bloodshed and death of humans and

6 Geraint John and Rod Sheard. Stadia: A Design and Development Guide. (Oxford, Architectural Press, 2000). p. 22 7 David Gilman Romano. Athletics and Mathematics in Ancient Corinth. (Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1993). p. 1. 8 Ibid. 2 9 Geraint and Sheard. p. 4. 10 Ibid. 7

animals.11 Amphitheater structures were built throughout the lands of the

empire. D. L. Bomgardner comments “They [amphitheaters] provided a

luxurious focus for civic pride and inter-city competitiveness.”12 A

stadium as a source of civic pride is a notion that still exists in Amphitheater at Nimes contemporary society and will be discussed in later sections. The Roman

circus structures were influenced by the Greek hippodrome and were a

place for horse and chariot races. The structure had a U-shaped course

with seating tiers along the straight sides of the U.13

For the Romans “games,” called lundi in Latin, during the

Republican period were religious festivals, but later in Imperial Rome the Circus Maximus in Rome religious aspect was lost. The amount of time for these festivals was

determined by the Caesar during the Republican period and the Emperor

during the Imperial era. In 89 B.C the festivals occurred in 57 days out of

the year while in 354 AD it was a total of 177 days. The “games” were not

athletic events, but consisted primarily of theatrical performances with

chariot racing as the climax of the day.14 The games were held largely for

the “lower class” citizens of Rome and admission was free, paid for by the

Senate. During the Republic period, the lower class expected to be

entertained and used the games as an opportunity to voice concerns about

the state of the empire.15 The games were sponsored by the politicians

and were seen as way to obtain votes. Although votes were not needed

11 Ibid. p. 23. 12 D.L. Bomgardner. The Story of the Roman Amphitheater. (London and New York, Routledge, 2000). p. 61. 13 Geraint and Sheard. p. 5. 14 O.F. Robinson. Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration. (London and New York, Routledge, 1992). p. 160. 15 Jo-Ann Shelton. As the Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman Social History. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988). pp. 330-331. 8

during the Imperial period, the games kept people happy and discouraged

uprising against the Emperor.16

While the “games” were public events, gladiator fights were

privately funded spectacles, often honoring a deceased individual.

Although private events, the individuals who could afford these spectacles

were usually the empowered; they used the fights to please the lower

class.17 Jo-Ann Shelton speaks of the impact of the games on the public: Thumbs Down by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1872) is a depiction of a crowd at a “Public display of killing was a ritual that reconfirmed the power and gladiator contest moral authority of the Roman state.”18

After the fall of Rome, the new state religion, Christianity,

overshadowed sports and all other social activities. Geraint John and Rod

Sheard comment that “architectural effort was turned to the building of

churches rather than places of recreation and entertainment.”19 During

the medieval period entertainment involved religious plays that occurred

in the public squares. While competitions on foot or horseback, jousting

and archery were held in open spaces or town squares, over fifteen

centuries passed before a significant stadium was built. Much of the sport

that did occur was as a form of military training, knighting contests,

which were not specifically spectator events.20 With the return of the

Olympics in 1896, for which the Stadia of Athens was rebuilt from 331

B.C., spectator sport facilities were revived as a building type.21

16 Ibid. p. 333 17 Ibid. p. 349. 18 Ibid. p. 350. 19 Geraint and Sheard. p. 5. 20 Nicolaas J. Moolenijzer. “The Legacy From the Middle Ages.” in A History of Sport and Physical Education to 1900. Earle F. Zeigler, ed. (Champaign, Illinois. Stipes Publishing Company, 1973). pp. 238-246. 21 Ibid. p. 24. 9

The industrial revolution provided urban expansion. More people

lived in cities, with more discretionary income, expanded communication

and transportation and excess time that could be used for leisure.22

Sports again became an important leisure activity and eventually

stadiums were needed to house these activities. Most stadiums in the

early 20th century in America were built for two types of events: college Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut football or professional baseball. College football stadiums such as the

Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut were contained within the campus

and were a component in the life of the university grounds. College

sports, especially football, have a pageantry associated with it that has

many facets. There is the social ritual of attending a game. In the case of

football, every Saturday in the fall, college campuses are enlivened, not Stage set up for a college football pep rally only with students, but with the general public that comes out to root on

their team. This involves pep rallies, tailgating, marching band parades

and other activities that spur excitement for the attendees. Also, there is a

passion for the team from graduates that is deeper than that seen in

professional sports. People who have attended a school come back on

game days to visit their alma mater, visit old friends and watch “their

team” play. “Homecoming” is a prime example of this occurrence.

Professional sport stadiums, primarily baseball parks, were

located in urban areas because that was where the people were. The

ballparks were characterized as “neighborhood parks” because of how

they brought settings for play and leisure into the life of the city. The

Crosley Field in Cincinnati was an example of a neighborhood ballpark neighborhood supported the stadium, while the stadium often could

22 Douglas E. Bukowski. “Charles A. Comiskey: Baseball as American Pastime and Tragedy,” in The Human Tradition in Urban America. Roger Biles ed. (Wilmington, DE, Scholarly Resources Inc. 2002). 10

support the neighborhood by enhancing the neighborhood. “Wrigleyville”

in Chicago is an example of this. Built in a neighborhood in Chicago, the

stadium brought local restaurants, bars and other entertainment that

creates an exciting, viable neighborhood year-round.

Beginning in the 1950’s and continuing into the 1980’s, American

sport facilities paralleled the trends of society by moving to the periphery

of cities, surrounded by parking, thus demonstrating the increasing power

of the car in American culture. These facilities also promoted a routine of

Astrodome in Houston opened in 1965 driving to the game on the day of the event, attending the event and then

returning home. These areas were empty and lifeless a majority of the

time.23 Also in many places, such as Los Angeles and San Diego, people

left games early to avoid the worst auto traffic. One positive that occurred

was “tailgating” in the parking lots, which enhanced the social aspects of

the event. However, there are other means, such as picnic pavilions, that

could be incorporated to facilitate this activity. As American cities have

begun to look to curb suburban sprawl and for ways to rejuvenate the

cities and make their urban cores attractive to citizens, sport stadiums Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles have once again followed suit and begun to return to the city center.

Beginning around 1990, the trend of sport facilities returning to the

downtown has been promoted as a way to revitalize an urban area.

Critical Issues

“The city in its complete sense is a geographic plexus [network,

center of life], an economic organization, an institutional process, a

23 Benjamin G. Rader. Baseball: A History of America’s Game. Second Edition. (Chicago, Illinois History of Sport, 2002). 11 theater of social action, and an aesthetic symbol of collective unity.”24

This quote by Lewis Mumford suggests three areas of concern for cities: physical, social and economic. This section will examine the relationship of these three themes to stadiums and sports. Physical concerns encompass all areas of the built and natural environments including the existing fabric, infrastructure, natural features and urban space. The social aspects consider the impact and influence of stadiums on culture in

America and the place of sports in society. Economics takes into account the idea that stadiums are or can be financial developers and their role in the economic growth of cities. Within each of these categories, both stadiums themselves and broader planning issues will display current ideas and concerns for cities. Planning theory can be divided into three areas: policy making [related to social issues of cities], economic planning, and physical planning or urban design.

Physical Concerns

Sport facilities need a great deal of land to accommodate large numbers of people and are expensive to build and maintain. In many cases, the citizens have been responsible for the cost of the stadiums used by private sport franchises. Integrating sport facilities into an urban area involves parking and mass circulation, the playing field dimensions in relation to the street pattern of the city, and the visible qualities as an image for the city. These urban design issues have been important since

24 Lewis Mumford. “What is a City?” in The City Reader. Richard T. LeGates and Fredric Stout, ed. (London, New York, Routledge, 2000). p.94. 12

stadiums were first constructed and relate to the problems that exist in

designing any important building in a city.

As the American people have become more dependent on the

automobile, parking has become a greater urban design concern. The

need of sport facilities for a great deal of parking strongly impacts the

overall makeup of a city. As sport facilities move back downtown, the

subject of parking comes to the forefront. How a city handles its parking—

whether it is street level lots, parking garages, on-street parking or “park

and ride”—is a critical element in urban design. 25 The organization of

street traffic before and after events is important. Simon Eisner, Arthur

Gallion and Stanley Eisner comment on the dilemma of mass circulation

and transportation:

Within our cities we are confronted with a paradox. On the one hand is the struggle to design a circulation system to accommodate vast changes in the speed of transportation; on the other we search desperately for a place for these vehicles to come to a halt.26

When events are not being held, empty parking lots leave acres of desolate

paving within the urban fabric. Pedestrian and vehicular circulation both

need to be examined at various scales from the city to the structure itself.

The impact of the car on the city, from a congestion and parking

standpoint, is easily comprehended, but the effect of the automobile goes Milwaukee’s County Stadium was surrounded by parking lot that would be empty when events were not being much deeper. The automobile has negated much of the purpose for the held facilities traditionally located in the downtowns of our cities, such as train

depots, hotels and entertainment facilities.27 Many activities that were

25 John, Geraint & Sheard, Rod. Stadia: A Design and Development Guide. 26 Simon Eisner, Arthur Gallion and Stanley Eisner. The Urban Pattern. (New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993). p. 297. 27 Witold Rybczkynski. “The New Downtown” in The City Reader. Richard T. LeGates and Fredric Stout, ed. (London, New York, Routledge, 2000). p. 173 13

normally centered in the downtown have been pushed out to the

periphery of cities. J. B. Jackson makes this remark about the urban

impact of the automobile:

The automobile, the truck, the pickup, the van and minivan and jeep have been most effective in introducing a new spatial order. For what these vehicles contain (and distribute) is not only new attitudes toward work, new uses of time and space, new and more direct contacts with customers and consumer, but new techniques of problem solving.28

Jackson’s observation reminds us that the automobile has removed

certain functions from the city, thus creating a new way to consider urban

space. The creation of the suburban “strip” exhibits the power of the

automobile to define spaces as well as the movement of services away

from downtown. Traditional downtown activities — work, recreation,

shopping and community service — moved to malls at the city’s edges.29

The freedom that the car provides allows for numerous trips to whenever

we desire to go, but has done so at the expense of the urban fabric and the

life of cities.

Peter Calthorpe, a proponent of New Urbanism, reiterates these

ideas in discussing how the automobile has shifted the nature and

location of our work place and caused the displacement of activities in

urban areas.30 New Urbanism can be linked to Ebenezer Howard’s ideas

of the “Garden City.” Both are transit-oriented proposals that emphasize

the pedestrian over the automobile. Calthorpe and others aligned with Rendering of the Crossings Transit Oriented Neighborhood project by him, such as the new-traditionalists, promote ideas that discourage the Calthorpe & Associates unhealthy use of the automobile and try to encourage healthier human

28 Ibid. pp. 173-174. 29 Ibid. p. 174. 30 Peter Calthorpe. “The Pedestrian Pocket.” in The City Reader. Richard T. LeGates and Fredric Stout, ed. (London, New York, Routledge, 2000). p. 351. 14

involvement in everyday activities. Although these ideas have merit,

using them within the existing fabric can be difficult. The tenets of New

Urbanism, and as neo-traditionalism seem best suited for new

developments to improve suburban development rather then for existing

downtowns.

The size and shape of sport facilities are limited by the layout of

the playing fields and optimum seating arrangements. Football fields,

basketball courts and hockey rinks have nearly the same dimensions from

one facility to the next. Baseball parks have a little more leeway in the

field dimensions, but the overall size and shape is fairly well defined. Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts built in 1912 Along with field dimensions, there is an established orientation for

football and baseball fields that most stadiums follow. Typically football

fields are oriented so the long dimension of the field follows a north-south

axis, while in baseball the preferred orientation is one in which the batter

faces northeast or southeast. How the baseball configuration fits into a

street grid is an essential question. When ballparks were first situated in

the city they were designed to fit within the established street grid. This

often created irregular playing fields, which in turn could become design

opportunities that allowed for uniqueness, such as the famous case of the

short left field and the “Green Monster” wall at Fenway Park in Boston.

Phillip Bess says that “the street patterns and blocks give urban ballparks

Griffth Stadium fit into the existing their character.”31 Bess comments that suburban ballparks lack formal street pattern of Washingon D.C. constraints to guide the shape. As sport facilities head back to

downtowns, sites are often flattened to provide for the new stadiums.

31 Phillip Bess. City Baseball Magic. (Minneapolis, MN, Minneapolis Review of Baseball, 1989). p. 20 15

However, a better design opportunity exists: land shortage requires that

future sport facilities take advantage of the existing grid of the city as a

design constraint that can initiate a character for the facility directly from

the urban fabric.

The appearance of a built project is always important to architects,

but urban projects are not designed in a vacuum and must accept and

exploit the forces of the context in which the building will exist. This

should go beyond merely emulating the conditions that exist by invoking

nostalgia for the past as the primary means. In the article “Now Taking

the Field: Bold Stadium Designs,” Chris Hawthorne comments on recent

stadium aesthetics:

For more than a decade, what’s new in sports design has been what’s old – or at least old-fashioned. This is especially true for the dozen major league baseball stadiums that have opened since 1992. Their architectural formula has been simple and dependable: drape the thing in as many nostalgic touches as possible, then wait for fans to rush the turnstile.32

Hawthorne also mentions that the primary essentials of those stadiums

have stayed the same: “brick facades and old-fashioned signage; real grass

instead of peeling artificial turf; nooks and crannies and other imposed

eccentricities in the outfield.”33 The idea of nooks and crannies speaks to

the effects of the street grid on earlier ballparks that were mentioned Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin uses an aesthetic of brick and previously. Overall, Hawthorne criticizes recent ballpark design for being limestone similar to that of the buildings in the downtown, however the stadium is not downtown and is a universal aesthetic that is derived from nostalgia. The use of repeated surrounded by parking lots aesthetic elements for multiple ballparks goes against the idea of using

the specific context of an urban area for design purposes. Also, by using

32 Christopher Hawthorne. “Now Taking the Field: Bold Stadium Designs.” The New York Times. July 27, 2003. p. 1, 26. 33 Ibid. p. 26. 16

architecture of the past, these latest stadiums suggest that only through

nostalgia and copying of materials and other specific elements can a

facility correspond with an existing urban fabric. This inhibits a

contemporary architecture that goes beyond superficial means of

Chris Hawthorne of the New York connections and instead looks for sophisticated modes of integration Times comments that Cincinnati’s new ballpark is “the low point” of the recent through other design elements such as spatial relationships and mass retro trend associations. Although baseball is a sport that invokes a sense of

nostalgia, the retro ballparks often give an impression that the architects

are merely going through the motions of design.34

Sport facilities have an opportunity and a responsibility to the

urban society. Their visual qualities can create a structure that has the

potential to be an image for the city. This idea relates directly to

revitalizing downtowns. Cities need sport facilities to be lasting images in

order to sell, identify and differentiate the city from other metropolises,

just as Ben Van Berkel’s Eramus Bridge and Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain designed by Frank Gehry museum have become icons of European cities.35 Sport facilities in

America, because of their size and the cultural importance of leisure, often

create an image for cities. The importance of this image contributes to

revitalizing downtown areas and attracting tourism. The idea of stadium

as an image for a city will be mentioned further in the sections dealing

with social and economic issues. Eramus Bridge designed by Ben Van Berkel Various urban design concepts currently exist, ranging from New

Urbanism to Critical Regionalism. As previously mentioned, New

Urbanism looks to the Garden City as its example and tries to negate the

34 Ibid. pp. 1,26 35 Provoost, Michelle. The Stadium. The Architecture of Mass Sport. 2000. 17 impact of the automobile; it is a reaction against conventional suburban developments. The primary advocate of Critical Regionalism is Kenneth

Frampton of Princeton University. He used the term to “reject consumerist iconography masquerading as culture and to criticize the postmodernist reduction of architecture to the mere communicative or instrumental sign.”36 In essence, Critical Regionalism disapproves of the current globalization of architecture and looks for designs that use the vernacular character of a region. Although Critical Regionalism does not speak directly to ideas of urban patterns or forms for downtown areas, it does deal with extracting ideas from existing conditions which can relate to the idea of fitting into the existing fabric.

The ideas of Allan Jacobs and Donald Appleyard consider downtowns by taking into account the Garden City and CIAM’s Charter of

Athens as well as New Urbanism beliefs. Their essay “Towards an Urban

Design Manifesto” discusses the similarities between the Garden City and

Charter of Athens city, citing the creation of super-blocks, separate paths for people and automobiles, interior common spaces, housing divorced from streets and central ownership of land.37 The authors of the essay also consider the problems of modern urban design, such as poor living environments, loss of public life and placelessness, as well as goals for urban life. Their goals consider social aspects along with the physical and suggest a balance of these two themes. The essay concludes with a list of the five essential physical characteristics for central urban life: 1.) Livable

36 William J. R. Curtis. Modern Architecture Since 1900. (London, Phaidon Press Limited, 1996) pp. 636-637. 37 Allan Jacobs and Donald Appleyard. “Towards an Urban Design Manifesto.” in The City Reader. Richard T. LeGates and Fredric Stout, ed. (London, New York, Routledge, 2000). p. 493. 18 streets and neighborhoods; 2.) some minimum density of residential development as well as intensity of land use; 3.) integration of activities within reasonable proximity to each other; 4.) a man-made environment that defines public place; 5.) many separate, distinct buildings with complex arrangements and relationships.38

Ideas of livable streets and neighborhoods and close proximity of activities are similar to the ideas of New Urbanism. The ideas of increased density and intensity of the built environment were also considered by Richard Rogers and Richard Burdett in their article “Let’s

Cram More into the City.” The authors feel that the more activities that are moved from a town center, the less efficient services become and the subsequent low density allows for the automobile to take over pedestrian areas. For Rogers and Burdett, highly dense environments create cohesion, a sense of community, and the “potential to be ecologically sustainable, economically strong and socially inclusive.”39 Overall, Jacob’s and Appleyard’s five characteristics are aligned with other urban design ideas and provide a set of essentials for central urban life that covers both physical and social concerns.

Another model that can be used for examining, understanding and producing urban designs in downtowns considers the content of city image and physical form. In his essay “The City Image and Its Elements,”

Kevin Lynch discusses five physical forms associated with cities: paths

(movement through), edges (linear elements not used or considered as paths), districts (medium-to-large section of city and have identifiable

38 Ibid. pp. 497-501. 39 Richard Rogers and Richard Burdett. “Lets Cram More into the City.” in Cities and the New Millennium. Marcel Echenique and Andrew Saint, ed. (London and New York, Spon press, 2001). pp. 9-12. 19

characteristics), nodes (points with intended focus and may stand as a

symbol) and landmarks (external point of reference). 40 These elements

provide a way to rationalize the city as a group of forms. Paths and edges

offer a means of understanding the movement through and containment

of the spaces which are created and defined by districts, nodes and

landmarks.

In terms of sport facilities in urban centers, this model can easily

be a basis for design. Paths and edges are the existing infrastructure and

context that generate the spatial order for the downtown. A district can

be thought of as the area in which the stadium will be located. As the

focus becomes tighter, the stadium or facility, itself, can be thought as of

as the node and the intended focus and may serve as a landmark as well.

Lynch provides a way to begin comprehending the physical aspects of the

city. Recognizing the physical characteristics that contribute to the city

allows for connections to be made with social and economic aspects

associated with downtowns. Diagram adapting Lynch’s model to a grided city For Columbus, Lynch’s model can be seen rather clearly. The

edges of the urban area are created by the river on the west and interstate

highways on the north, south and east. The paths within the urban area

consist of the grid of the streets. For the project site the main paths are

Second, Front, High and Third Streets, which run north and south and

Fulton, Mound, Main and Towne, which run east and west. The district

consists of a six-block area that includes the river on the west and the

southern freeway. This method allows for clarification and understanding

40 Kevin Lynch. “The City Image and Its Elements.” in The City Reader. Richard T. LeGates and Fredric Stout, ed. (London, New York, Routledge, 2000). pp. 479-482. 20

of the site in which the stadium will be located. The project considers the

stadium as a node within the district contained by the defined edges.

Social Concerns

The stadium is a phenomenon of modern urban life. It is in the stadium rather than in city squares, the concert hall or the cathedral that we find the largest urban congregations, at pre-ordained times and at regular intervals, to witness sporting ritual and records. - John Bale41

Sport stadiums stimulate rituals involving the spectators and

performers. As Bale states, social rituals within a culture are seen

Crowd cheers on their team at a sporting event primarily in sports today, replacing religion, and the stadium is the home for this society. Evidence from both Mesopotamia and Egypt suggests

that sports did exist [wrestling and foot races] and that these were held

within a religious context.42 The concept of religion in ancient sport was

very common as a part of Greek and Mesoamerican culture as well. Greek

athletes used to dedicate their performances and victories to the god or

hero for which the contest was held.43 Mesoamerican ball games were

rituals to the gods for vegetation and, therefore, survival. The games also

were a symbol of power as emperors would play each other to determine

the fate of the empire.44

The Romans did not share the Greek’s interest in athletic contests;

most of their sport activity, such as boxing or wrestling, was done as

military training.45 At the Colosseum there were combats, not games.

The Colosseum was a place for the spectacular; a site of execution and

41 John Bale and Olof Moen, ed. The Stadium and the City. (Straffordshire, England, Keele University Press, 1995). p. 11 42 Romano. p. 12. 43 Ibid. p. 2. 44 Taladoire. p. 97. 45 Robinson. p. 165. 21

where men could overcome death. A gladiator could prevail by using

fighting skill as a demonstration of the Roman warrior, which also served

as reassurance of safety to the public.46 Also, the Colosseum could be

flooded to reenact naval battles. Overall, the events of the Colosseum

were seen as an expression of Roman citizenship relating to the social

aspects of the contests.

An important concept in dealing with sport stadiums concerns the

reasons for which a person attends an event. Some spectators flock there

for “sporting interests, some [for] a social reason, and in some people the Colosseum in Rome, 82 A.D. two interests are mixed.47 Understanding that people attend sporting

events for social purposes is an important realization. By using

knowledge of the users’ motivation, stadium designers can produce

architecture that accommodates appropriate and stimulating spaces for

interaction and cohesion. Consideration of the culture of cities can allow

for exploiting social issues for the benefit of the city. Arthur T. Johnson

speaks of a “nine-to-five” city in which most of the activity occurs Monday

through Friday daytimes. However, it is the activities after five that define

Tailgating is part of the social culture the “personality” of the city.48 Using the social aspects of sport can be a of sport, particularly football

way to enhance the personality of a city and create the atmosphere of

sport continuously as a means of creating vitality for an area. Combining

social aspects of dinner and a game, for example, encourages people to

remain in the city for the evening.

46 The Roman Arena: Innovation, Entertainment and Justice. Film. 47 John Geraint and Rod Sheard. Stadia: A Design and Development Guide. (Oxford, Architectural Press, 2000). p. 48 Arthur T. Johnson. Minor League Baseball and Local Economic Development. (Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1995). p. 174. 22

As mentioned previously, the image of a stadium is important from an iconic perspective, which was considered primarily in visual terms. However, the image created by a sport team and its stadium can have social implications for the culture of the city. Sport can contribute to a sense of identity and pride for a community. In speaking about the return of the NFL franchise Raiders to Oakland, Alameda County

Supervisor Don Pareda commented:

It provides a galvanizing effect for the community. It fuses an identity. It provides the community a separate and distinct interest which people share in common, and for us, in Oakland, that is very important because we have such a diverse community, socially, economically and ethnically. It provides a common reference for us and we know that that’s very valuable.49

John Michael Smith also considers the role of sport as a ritual that provides a sense of community. Smith states that public officials use the notion of “good for the city” to sell the need of a stadium to the public.50

Besides identity and pride, there is a sense of escapism created by sports.

Organized sport became popular in America during the 19th century.

Providing an escape and relief from reality was a motive that still exists today.51 The social issues of sport are not tangible concepts, but can often be understood and rationalized most clearly in terms of economics.

Within the social aspects of cities lies the reasoning for metropolises and how design might be used to enhance those behaviors.

Lewis Mumford looked at the city as a stage for the social drama that is life.52 This “stage” allows for social interaction to occur between

49 Costas Spirou and Larry Bennett. It’s Hardly Sportin’: Stadiums, Neighborhoods and the New Chicago. (Dekalb, Illinois, Northern Illinois University Press, 2003). pp. 26-27. 50 Jason Michael Smith. Professional Sport, Urban Redevelopment and Community Response: The Case of Cincinnati. Thesis. (Oxford, Ohio, University of Miami, 2001). p. 23. 51 Bukowski. p. 96. 52 Mumford. pp. 94-96. 23 individuals and groups and create a sense of community. Although there exist strong economic reasons for individuals’ need for the city, the social needs can weigh as heavily, and the two became blurred at times. There is a cultural consumption of activities, art, food, fashion, music and tourism that fuels the economy, but within such industries are ideas of increased culture and socialization.53 By bringing individuals together and providing areas for individuals to gather, whether for economic or recreational reasons, the city fosters a feeling of community and culture.

Therefore, it can be seen that all activities within the city have a social context that can be influenced by the surrounding environment.

The physical aspects of a city can create boundaries such as fences, gates and walls, but there are also social boundaries within the city such as predetermined working hours.54 In the essay “Why Are the Design and

Development of Public Spaces Significant for Cities?” A. Madanipour suggests that urban designers seek lively enclosures with various activities to bring people together. This idea of using a synergistic approach for activities as a way to attract people will later be discussed in further detail.

However, the importance of Madanipour’s essay is in the notion that bringing people together creates nodes of human activity that act as an infrastructure for social life.55

A connection can be made between Madanipour’s ideas concerning boundaries and nodes from a social perspective and Lynch’s model for imaging a city discussed earlier. This is important in

53 Sharon Zukin. “Whose Culture? Whose City?” in Readings in Urban Theory. Susan S. Fainstein and Scott Campbell, ed. (Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 2002). p. 325. 54 A. Madanipour. “Why Are the Design and Development of Public Spaces Significant for Cities?” in Designing Cities. Alexander R. Cuthbert, ed. (Malden, MA, Blackwell Publishers, 2003). p. 142. 55 Ibid. pp. 141-142. 24

understanding that a physical approach for urban design can also be used

in considering the social aspects of cities. Also, it is imperative to

understand that none of these concerns, physical, social or economic,

operate alone or within a vacuum, but instead constantly interact with

and influence the others.

Economic Concerns

With the surge of stadiums built in the last decade, economic

issues, and particularly downtown development, are a primary concern

when developing sport facilities in America. In response to the immediate

success of projects completed in the early nineties, such as Camden Yards

Oriole Park at Camden Yards in in Baltimore, Maryland and Jacobs Field in Cleveland, Ohio, cities Baltimore, Maryland adopted an “If you build it they will come” mentality toward economic

development. Costas Spirou and Larry Bennett speak of this idea:

Location, physical design, patterns of use and tenancy arrangement all play roles in determining economic outcomes. Unless sports facility projects are coherently situated within broader redevelopment plans, substantial positive impact may prove elusive. Building a ballpark and waiting for the people and their dollars to come is not a recipe for successful economic development.

Although sport stadiums can become a catalyst for economic

development, it is not a guarantee. Robert Baade found that there is no

documented support for the correlation between sports and job creation. Jacobs Field in Cleveland, Ohio Instead, sports realign economic activity within an urban center’s leisure

industry rather than adding to it.56 Studies of the economic viability of

stadiums, such as Baade’s, are done to see if the public should fund the

money for stadiums. Most conclude that the public should not do so,

56 Robert Baade. “Home Field Advantage?” in The Economics and Politics of Sports Facilities. Wilbur C. Rich, ed. (Westport, CT, Quorum Books, 2000) p. 75. 25 because of the lack of economic return. Overall the primary evidence suggests that stadiums are not successful as engines for economic development, but there is a possibility that placed within appropriate development logic, a stadium can assist in achieving progress.57

“City of leisure” has become a model of post-industrial urban economic development. There has been a shift from “high culture” events to playful activity and, therefore, a means of economic development in the city of leisure. Sports and recreation have become the latest candidates for highlighting urban life, bringing jobs back to downtown areas and invigorating people’s interest visiting and living in downtown areas.58

Despite the many negative statements about the ability of stadiums as effective economic developers, instances which have been positive are mixed-use projects that are dense and multipurpose, containing food, sports paraphernalia and non-sport entertainment. Charles Comiskey opened his stadium to the public for church functions, barbeques, picnics and fairs.59 Housing multiple functions and allowing for a wide range of activities that may attract a large range of people is the best chance for a stadium to have a positive economic impact on a city. John Hannigan speaks of four consumer activity systems—shopping, dining, entertainment and education/culture—which have created three new

57 Arthur T. Johnson. “Minor League Baseball:Risks and Potential Benefits for Communities Large and Small.” in The Economics and Politics of Sports Facilities. Wilbur C. Rich, ed. (Westport, CT, Quorum Books, 2000) p. 147. 58 Mark S. Rosentraub. “Stadiums and Urban Space.” in Sports, Jobs & Taxes. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimblast, ed. (Washington D.C., Brookings Institution Press, 1997). p. 179. 59 Bukowski. p. 96. 26

hybrids: “shopertainment, eatertainment and edutainment.”60 These

hybrids are examples of how synergies can be created. Using these

hybrids in conjunction with sport facilities could provide ways to

influence the development so as to create a positive economic outcome.

Associated with the “City of leisure” is the idea of the Tourist City.

As cities have become more globalized, they have searched for an identity,

Las Vegas is an example of a resort city a way to set themselves apart from other cities and attract people to visit

and hopefully work and live there. Therefore, cities have looked to

tourism as an economic strategy for marketing an image and investing in

infrastructure to support tourism.61 According to Dennis Judd, there are

three types of tourist cities: resort, historic and converted. Resort cities Charleston has taken a historic approach to market its city are built expressly for consumption by visitors and Las Vegas is an

example as is Myrtle Beach; some cities, such as Savannah, Georgia and

Charleston, South Carolina lay claim to a historic and cultural identity.

Converted cities are places of production that have had to carve out a

tourist space, such as Cleveland.62 As a tourist city, Columbus would be

most represented as a converted city. In terms of design, creating a place

that is able to attract people for activities other than the sporting event

could allow for a viable area.

Wholesaling, retail and manufacturing used to be located in the

center of cities. In the second half of the 20th century, these segments of

Cleveland is an example of a city that commerce moved from the core to the periphery, leaving cities looking for has converted from a place of production to an emphasis on tourism a replacement for the economic injury and social harm. Dennis Judd

60 John Hannigan. “Fantasy City: Pleasure and Profit in the Postmodern Metropolis.” in Readings in Urban Theory. Susan S. Fainstein and Scott Campbell, ed. (Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 2002). pp. 313-322. 61 Dennis R. Judd. “Promoting Tourism in US Cities.” in Readings in Urban Theory. Susan S. Fainstein and Scott Campbell, ed. (Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 2002). p. 278. 62 Dennis R. Judd, ed. The Infrastructure of Play. (New York, M.E Sharpe, 2003). p. 5. 27 comments on the importance of the physical qualities of the city in creating a tourist city for economic and social benefits:

Central cities possess unique characteristics that make them attractive locations for these activities [tourism/entertainment]. Cities are store houses and repositories of historic architecture, history, and culture. Tourism does not take place within facilities alone; it is also frequently focused on the city itself. Most suburbs cannot easily duplicate the ambiance of crowded city streets and waterfronts. Nevertheless, most cities may have opportunities to seek a specialized niche that emphasizes a unique identity, if they wish to do so.63

Economic concerns are intertwined with physical and social aspects of the city. Understanding the impact of these issues can allow cities to create areas that fuse the three aspects of concern, creating physically pleasing, socially inclusive and economically viable places.

Integration

Integration of all three areas — physical, social and economical — is an essential matter for sport stadiums. Overall, the question is, how does the sport facility fit in the life of the city? What is the role of the structure in the city? It can be the heart of the city with a pulse that is constantly animated, a place which attracts visitors from the local and regional communities, thus rejuvenating the downtown. It can also be an icon; a postcard image. What are the urban ramifications of a large number of people concentrated in one part of the downtown for a few hours a day, no more than two or three days a week? Is the building left vacant the rest of the time or can the space be made flexible to allow for other functions?

Another question related to the overall cohesiveness of the city is the lifespan of the stadium. Fenway Park in Boston, Wrigley Field in

63 Ibid. p. 72. 28

Chicago and Yankee Stadium in New York City are the oldest professional

sport facilities still in use in America. They were all built before 1923 and

continue to be fixtures in the urban fabric of their cities. Many of the

facilities built after 1950 have already been replaced; by next spring,

eighteen of the thirty major league baseball stadiums will have been put in Wrigley Field in Chicago was built in 1916 place since 1989. This trend is similar in professional football and

basketball; stadiums that have been replaced had a lifespan of fewer than

thirty years.64 Some of the stadiums on the periphery of the city were

replaced with a stadium located downtown to help revitalize a city.

Another important factor was that the thirty-year old facilities were

deemed unable to compete with newer stadiums in terms of luxury boxes,

size, amenities, technology and overall comfort. It is reasonable question

to ask how soon the current crop of stadiums will be replaced in their Yankee Stadium was built in 1923 and renovated in 1975 turn.

What are the ramifications for the urban structure and fabric if

facilities are recycled every twenty to thirty years? How could design

solutions be adaptable to future needs? The recent trend appears to be

one in which stadiums are used to sell the city but not sustain the city.

This research takes an in-depth look at the assumptions made about the

role of stadiums within an urban setting. What are the realistic

possibilities for sport facilities to rejuvenate a city and to maintain a

viable existence after the newness wears off? The new stadiums are sold

to the public as a need, a way to bring in jobs and create hotspots for the

downtown to attract citizens and tourists. The truth has been that the

64 Leventhal, Josh. Take Me Out to the Ballpark. 2000. 29 economic benefits to the public are often less than the cost, and the potential advantages lessen over time.65

Stadiums as a catalyst for revitalization are possible if the best policies from each of the three issues are used for the development. Mark

Rosentraub states:

In view of the importance society places on sports, it may not be far- fetched to hope that bringing sports teams back to downtown areas and building architecturally splendid facilities could change land-use or recreational patterns in an urban area.66

This statement emphasizes the idea that the cultural aspect of sport, and the importance of sport in society, can be used to rejuvenate the physical, social and economical aspects of a downtown.

Although stadiums produce little if any economic advantage to justify public spending, the cultural importance of major league sports in

American society may outweigh its economic significance as a business.67

Arthur Johnson’s approach advocates a stance in which the social aspects of sport are the justification; communities should not look for a one-to- one relationship with economics, but should instead consider quality of life. By advancing economic development through location (synergistic activity and infrastructure), enhancing the community (commitment to growth and quality of life) and quality of life (additional recreational amenities), stadiums are capable of being a successful commodity for a downtown area from a holistic approach.68

65 Noll, Roger G. & Zimbalist, Andrew. Sport, Jobs, & Taxes. 1997. 66 Rosentraub. p. 182. 67 Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimblast. “Economic Impact of Sports Teams and Facilities.” in Sports, Jobs &Taxes. Noll and Zimblast, ed. (Washington D.C., Brookings Institution Press, 1997). p. 56 68 Johnson. pp. 146-148. 30

Two methods have been offered by which stadiums can affect the

development of a downtown area: “domino” or “magnet.” 69 In the

domino effect, a stadium stimulates related facilities such as

entertainment, restaurants and bars, then retail, commercial or industrial

Diagram of “domino” effect activity and eventually residential. Or it can be a magnet in bringing

people from the outside, and the physical qualities and social alternatives

keep them there. The domino effect works from inside outward while the

magnet approach is outside inward. Both methods can have positive

effects on a city. The domino method is more a development strategy

while the magnet effect is a more economic approach that tries to attract

Diagram of “magnet” effect capital from outside sources.

An approach that fuses both of Rosentraub’s concepts could prove

most effective for a downtown. A possibility is to focus on a downtown

area and create a domino effect that can establish itself as a sustainable

area, which then can have a magnet effect of attracting people and

resources from other areas. By using a synergistic approach, the

Diagram of the combination of the effects downtown economy and the built environment can complement each

other and create a social atmosphere that is attractive to visitors.

The atmosphere that is created by sports—the excitement,

anticipation and community pride—can be a design tool for stadium

projects which are meant to be generators of revitalization. If a design

were capable of capturing and sustaining the atmosphere that exists at the

time of a sporting event on a regular basis, the area could become a non-

stop attraction.

69 Rosentraub. p. 181. 31

Experiences

The research for this thesis has focused primarily on baseball stadiums because of the differences in types of crowds and their behaviors for football and baseball. The method for research and design is to take a holistic approach and consider three main concerns related to stadium design: physical, economic and social issues. The physical aspect of the research has involved examination of both issues directly related to baseball stadiums as well as issues of urban design pertaining to concepts of downtown revitalization.

The economic research is substantial and has provided a lot of information about the positive and negative aspects of stadiums as a mode of downtown revitalization and the realistic economic expectations for these facilities.

The research of the social aspects related to the ritual of attending a sporting event and the importance of baseball on society have been most challenging. Very little has been published concerning these issues.

Instead current research focuses on the connection of sport and religion or the ritual of individuals who participate in a sport. However, much can be learned by examining the events, the anticipation and excitement, from our own experience. The memory of one’s first time to a baseball game, the sight, sounds and smells of the ballpark, the approach and first time seeing the playing field, the crowd’s enthusiasm and disappointment and the bonding of family, friends and fans are characteristics that go into the experience of attending a game. Many, athletes, coaches, writers among others have written or spoken on the social impacts of baseball and the experience of attending an event. Baseball is a link that connects; it

32 connects seasons, years and even generations. Donald Hall comments,

“Baseball is continuous, like nothing else among American things, an endless game of repeated summers, joining the long generations of all the fathers and all the sons.”70 Baseball can mark time, much as people say,

“I remember where I was when JFK was shot,” or, “I remember where I was when Bobby Thomson hit the his homer to win the pennant,” or recall

Carolton Fisk’s homerun in game six of the 1976 World Series or when

Cal Ripken Jr. broke Lou Gehrig’s record. Baseball links and marks events in the life of America and defines the normal cycles of nature.

Writer Thomas Wolfe speaks of the impact of baseball on America and how it can define seasons:

One reason I have always loved baseball so much is that it has been not merely “the great national game,” but really a part of the whole weather of our lives, of the thing that is our own, of the whole fabric, the million memories of America. For example, in the memory of almost every one of us, is there anything that can evoke spring — the first fine days of April — better than the sound of the ball smacking into the pocket of the big mitt, the sound of the bat as it hits the horsehide: for me, at any rate, and I am being literal and not rhetorical — almost everything I know about spring is in it — the first leaf, the jonquil, the maple tree, the small of grass upon you hands and knees, the coming into flower of April. And is there anything that can tell more about an American summer than, say, the smell of the wooden bleacher in a small town baseball park, that resinous, sultry and exciting smell of old dry wood.71

Spring training is the beginning a new season in which each team’s hopes for the upcoming season are as fresh as the breeze. It signals that Winter is almost over. Harry Caray states, "It’s the fans that need spring training.

70 Paul Dickson. Baseball’s Greatest Quotations. (New York, Edward Burlingame Books, 1991) p. 173. 71 Ibid. p. 479. 33

You gotta get ‘em interested. Wake em’ up. Let’ em know that their season is coming, the good times are gonna roll.”72

From a player’s perspective, W.P. Kinsella conveys Shoeless Joe

Jackson’s views on the facets of the game that make it memorable:

“I loved the game,” Shoeless Joe went on. “I’d have played for food money. I’d have played for free and worked for food. It was the game, the parks, the smells, the sounds. Have you ever held a bat or a baseball to your face? The varnish, the leather. And it was the crowd, the excitement of them rising as one when the ball was hit deep. The wound was like a chorus. Then there was the chug-a-lug of the tin lizzies in the parking lots and the hotels with their brass spittoons in the lobbies and brass beds in the rooms. It makes me tingle all over like a kid on his way to his first double-header, just to talk about it.”73

John K. Hutchens who wrote for the New York Times remarks on the relaxation of attending a game:

So, for an afternoon, I sit in pleasant surroundings, including the sun, and enjoy myself and my associates in the fraternity of fandom. As the game goes on I not only like it for what it is but I get to thinking of other games and other players, and I like that, too. Bobby Doerr goes back of second to rob Charlie Keller of a single to center, and I remember other great keystone sackers I have seen, Eddie Colllins and Gehringer and Hornsby, and so on around the diamond and through the day. I like the sudden, sharp yell of the crowd when a batter catches hold of one with the tying run at first, and the electric tension that goes through a park when a runner and an outfielder’s throw are staging a race for the plate. I like the peanut butcher’s yapping chant up and down the aisles. I like being for a brief while in a good-natured place that is a self-sufficient little world of its own. This can probably be called escapism. All right, then, it is escapism.

Baseball has been seen as a representation of America and the national pastime. Jacques Barzun’s famous quote speaks to this idea as he remarks, “Whoever wants to know the heart and mind of America had better learn baseball, the rules and realities of the game.”74 Many presidents have spoken of the significance of baseball in American culture. Herbert Hoover notes that, “Next to religion, baseball has

72 Ibid. p.74. 73 Ibid. p. 224 74 Ibid. p. 34. 34

furnished a greater impact on American life than any other institutions.”75

Having spent a summer attending a game in every Major League Baseball

stadium, I can speak first hand of the experience of attending a game.

Approaching the stadium and walking amongst fans always raises the

anticipation—the excitement of the unknown mixed with the common

characteristics of the game. Entering the stadium, seeing the green field

for the first time, grabbing a hot dog before the start and standing

amongst strangers for the Star Spangled Banner are as routine as a

grounder to short, but the anticipation of what might happen provides

renewed drama every summer evening.

The research that has been conducted to this point will be a

stepping stone for addressing the design problem. Through a synthesis of

the three concerns from the thesis - physical, social and economical - the

hope is to create a design that has a holistic approach toward integration

into an urban center.

Thesis Precedents

This section will examine high impact monuments as well as

examples that display concepts of the Leisure City and Tourist City. The

Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Sydney Opera House, St. Louis Arch,

Effiel Tower and Modern Art Museum in Milwaukee are all recognizable

images and can be seen as landmarks in Lynch’s terminology. The St.

Louis Arch and Eiffel Towers are symbols of their respective city; when

Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain one thinks of those cities one thinks of those structures.

75 Ibid. p. p. 187. 35

The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, designed by Frank

Gehry, was opened in 1997. Because the Guggenheim has become an icon

for this European city, it has revitalized the urban center of Bilbao and

created a tourist attraction. Bilbao was an industrialized city that fell into

decline during the 1960s and 1970s due to the failing industries of the city

– ship-making, iron and steel production and machine tools.76 The

Guggenheim provides the iconic image for a transformation from a city

dependent on industrialized markets to a tourist city, while still

conserving their past culture. Sergio Modigliani says that the

Guggenheim is a structure that pays respect to the culture in Bilbao and in

particular the industry of craftsmanship, stating, “For me, the new

Museum builds upon Bilbao's rich 19th and 20th century traditions of

Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain design and construction, launching them into the 21st century.”

The Guggenheim in Bilbao was part of an urban renewal scheme

along with other projects by “star” architects Sir Norman Foster, Santiago

Calatrava and Cesar Pelli.77 This idea of using “star” architects as a means

of marketing a city is similar to the Univeristy of Cincinnati’s approach for

marketing their campus. The reason for this is partly the sculptural

quality and the fact that it creates an architecture that is different from

what is around it as well as much of the architecture in the world. Yet a Santiago Calatrava’s Modern Art Museum in Milwaukee is meant to be large reason for the Guggenheim in Bilbao, and monumental buildings, an image for the city such as the Sydney Opera House and Calatrava’s Modern Museum in

Milwaukee, is the idea of the “postcard” image. Often the way in which

the world experiences these buildings is through the photographs in

76 Josph Giovanni. “The City: Bilbao.” Architecture. December 1997. p. 39-40. 77 Jean Paul Robert. L’Architecture D’aujourd’ hui. October 1997. n. 343 p. 44-66. 36

magazines, and therefore the image created influences the sense of

imagibility and monumentality attributed to the structure. The

Guggenheim has become the specific image of Bilbao, much like the Eiffel

Tower or St. Louis arch.

The Sydney Opera House offers another instance of an icon that

has become a representation of the city. Completed in 1973, the

sculptural shape was instantly seen as an image that transcended its

function. In the article “The Sydney Opera House: A Survivor,” Forrest

Sydney Opera house is a recognizable Wilson discusses that most of the population of Australia is highly image of Australia entrenched within a sports culture but the Opera House is able to succeed

despite that, and has become a symbol of Australia. Wilson states, “All

today’s packaged tourists need to see in Australia is the Opera House in

order to say they have been there.”78

The importance of these structures in term of this thesis is the

identifiable image created. In a time in which cities are becoming more

global, these images become more important in provide identity as well as

a sense of pride within the community. Stadiums and the sport teams

they house already create a sense of pride for a community because of the

importance of sports in American culture. However, stadiums have a

opportunity to create an image for themselves if they look at how other

structures have done it architecturally. Creating an identifiable image

would allow for a city to stand out from others and further enhance the

sense of pride and community.

78 Forrest Wilson. “The Sydney Opera House: A Survivor.” Architecture. September 1989. p. 110. 37

Another issue in this argument is how sport facilities integrate with the downtown area. Jacobs Field and the surrounding area in

Cleveland and Walt Disney World in Orlando will be examined for the purpose of considering Lynch’s concepts of districts and nodes. Jacobs

Field designed by HOK Architects was built in 1994. The stadium is located in the heart of downtown and was designed as a primary component, along with Gund Arena, of the new Gateway Sports and

Entertainment Complex.79 The physical qualities of the stadium are similar to that of Baltimore’s Camden Yards, using brick and steel as the principal materials on the exterior and creating an intimate ballpark setting that allows for social gatherings on the interior. Within the stadium exists a left field “home run porch” in which fans stand and gather in groups, an area behind center field that has picnic tables for fans to watch the game while enjoying their favorite ballpark food, and in right field is a playground for young fans where parents can watch the game while observing their children. These spaces, along with others such as a restaurant that looks out onto the field, create areas for socialization.

However, it is the conception of the stadium as a catalyst for development and the creation of an entertainment district that sets it apart from

Camden Yards and makes it a model for other projects.

When Jacobs Field was planned, the concept was not to revitalize the entire downtown area, but to focus on a smaller area that would spur future development similar to the “domino” effect. With the decision to build a new baseball stadium in the downtown already made,

79 John Leventhal. Take Me Out to the Ball Game. (New York, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2000). p. 57. 38

the city opted to add an arena to the project. This, along with shopping

and dining, created an entertainment district and help shift the vision of

Cleveland from a Rust Belt city to a city of leisure.80 Economically, it

appears that the impact of Jacobs field is more positive than negative,

although, like Camden Yards, quantifying the intangibles such as the

Cleveland’s baseball stadium was designed in conjunction with an arena amount of cross-over—the extent to which consumers for sport contribute to create a year round entertainment district to surrounding business is difficult.

As mentioned in the section on economic concerns, there is also

the question of whether the ballpark is merely a beneficiary of a realigned

economic activity. However, at the simplest level, the stadium has been a

success in applying all three of the primary concerns for stadiums. Ziona

Austrian and Mark S. Rosentraub comment on the impact of a facility’s

design to its overall impact: “Ballparks and arenas that are integrated into

a downtown area tend to attract more fans and create spillover effects.

Jacobs Field and Gund Arena were designed with that purpose in mind.”81

The importance of this example lies in creating a district in which

the stadium acts as a node. It represents a successful use of the

synergistic approach that is discussed within the Critical Issues section as

well as the ability of a city to use a sport facility to change their economic

focus.

Walt Disney World is the epitome of the tourist city. It combines

numerous forms of entertainment in a way that is enjoyable for an entire

Downtown Disney uses a synergistic family. Rod Sheard mentions, “Walt Disney proved for the first time that approach of retail, dining and entertainment to attract and satisfy the you could take a whole family to an event, either theme park or a sporting interests of visitors 80 Ziona Austrian and Mark S. Rosentraub. “Cleveland’s Gateway to the Future.” in Sports, Jobs &Taxes. Noll and Zimblast, ed. (Washington D.C., Brookings Institution Press, 1997). pp. 355-359. 81 Ibid. p. 380. 39

event, and entertain them in different ways for a whole day.”82 For

stadiums, this speaks to the idea of providing spaces or attractions for

various groups. If stadiums were designed with the whole family in mind,

the structures could be used by more people. Disney’s use of fantasy as a

way to entertain and educate is done so well that children, and adults, do

not realize that they are learning and the often outrageous prices for items

such as food are overlooked as part of “the Disney experience.” Disney is

a perfect example of the synergistic approach of shopping, dining and

entertainment as a means of attracting people. This is an excellent

example of the integration of physical, social and economic aspects for

Disney uses fantasy as a way to attract entertainment purposes and provides a model that could be used in other and entertain visitors entertainment situations, such as stadiums.

Background and Summary

A substantial amount of work has been published concerning the

physical and economic aspects of stadiums. Rod Sheard, a common

resource for the physical attributes of stadiums, provides an engineer’s

perspective. He focuses on issues of sight lines, circulation, safety,

technology and structure. A more limited range of research has

considered urban context and sport facilities. Phillip Bess has

contributed to the specific study of urban ballparks. City Baseball

Magic is a source that covers the history of urban ballparks, why ballparks

left the city, why they should return and offers a conceptual design for an

urban ballpark in Chicago. Despite the usefulness of Bess’s work, there is

82 Michelle Provoost, ed. The Stadium: Architecture of Mass Sport. (Rotterdam, NAI Publishers, 2000). p. 49. 40 not much else published on the subject. Instead, the urban concerns of stadiums in a city are grouped under the wider terms of urban design.

Although a general understanding of urban design issues is critical to the topic, specificity is lacking and makes direct connections difficult.

The most extensive work has concentrated on the economic impact of sports and sport stadiums. The boom of stadiums in the nineties left people looking for answers to justify the trend and the use of public money for funding. Robert A. Baade, Roger G. Noll, Andrew

Zimblast, Mark S. Roesentraub and Arthur T. Johnson have authored substantial research in the area and are the most often referenced.

Baade’s research has focused on whether or not it is justifiable, from an economic standpoint, for the public to finance sport stadiums. His research involves complex analyses of multiple factors to determine the impact of a stadium on economic development as well as the employment effect and the economic influence of minor league baseball. Baade’s research concludes that, in most cases, sports stadiums are not engines for economic development; rather than producing new economic sources, they only rearrange the dispersal of finances. Baade’s argument is solely economic and not intended to be a critique of stadiums. The other authors offer analyses similar to that of Baade, but reference his study as being the most concrete and quantitative.

Although Baade has written about minor league stadiums and their respective communities, it is Arthur Johnson who has contributed the most to this area. In Minor League Baseball and Local Economic

Development, Johnson explains that the effect of minor league baseball on the culture of a city is greater than economic development. The book

41 also gives case studies that show various levels of impact from minor league stadiums. Johnson does not see minor league stadiums as an engine for economic development, but does see the effect on the quality of life for a city as a positive on which development can be based.83

The social and cultural features of stadiums have rarely been considered. Work has been done related to the impact of sport on culture and society from a sociological perspective, but these investigations are primarily focused on the activity of sport rather than the environment in which the activity is performed. Benjamin G Rader’s book, Baseball: A

History of America’s Game, is a text book used for a class on the social history of baseball has become the primary source in the field. Another source for these issues has been Baseball as America: Seeing Ourselves

Through Our National Game. This book is a companion to the traveling exhibition of the same name that examined the parallels between

American social history and that of baseball. For the history of stadiums there are many books that give facts and descriptions of stadiums past and present. Two important sources in this research were Josh

Leventhal’s Take Me Out to the Ballpark and and Ron Smith’s, of the

Sporting News, The Ballpark Book: A Journey Through the Fields of

Baseball Magic. Both books examine in stadiums as monuments and provide background for my own analysis and knowledge. Sporting events as a form of ritual and how that ritual can be exploited and captured through design is an essential concern of this thesis. However, there has been no substantial effort in this area, and most research dealing with the

83 Arthur T. Johnson. “Minor League Baseball: Risks and Potential benefits for Communities Large and Small.” pp. 146-148. 42 ritual of sport deal primarily with the idea of sport as religion. That concept is not truly relevant other than in the analogy of sport to religion; the ballpark is considered the “cathedral”. Overall, there is a lot of written work about the engineering and physical design as well as the economic impact, but there is a gap in the social and cultural aspects of stadiums and the ritual of sport events in particular.

For the purpose of this thesis and design, the most important physical aspect is Lynch’s model for five forms of the city as a means of understanding the nature of the built and natural environment as a way to begin a project and an idea that can provide a foundation for the design process. The idea of an image for a city is essential to this query because it involves all three critical issues; physical, social and economic. In terms of social issues, the energy of the event or spectacle and how that might be able to be sustained during non-event times is a difficult task, but a goal nonetheless. Creating nodes of human activity as Madanipour suggests allows one to consider Lynch’s model not only in terms of physical environment, but also to translate it into social aspects. From an economic standpoint, the ideas of synergistic development and the

Tourist City are both concepts that involve the combining of elements to attract a great number and variety of people. By integrating the three aspects the hope is to create a place in Columbus that uses architecture to achieve a viable entertainment district that uses the baseball stadium as its primary attraction.

Issues of stadium and entertainment as a means of revitalizing a downtown area are the principle topics of this investigation. How architecture can exploit physical, social and economic issues in the design

43 of a new stadium and its surrounding urban fabric—specifically a baseball stadium in downtown Columbus—is the central question. The goal is a positive, generative urban impact of this design intervention and how these facilities can be used year-round. The thesis examines the ideas of sport facilities from three points of view: physical, social and economic.

These issues were considered individually and together in an overall urban design context.

Physical issues considered the stadium as an image, with the iconic potential of structures such as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao and the Sydney Opera House. Kevin Lynch’s approach to understanding the city, which uses edges, paths, districts, nodes and landmarks as spatial definers, was studied as a means to understand a city. This model can be applied to the design of sport facilities to further understand the relationship within the city. Lynch’s method also provided a process for examining the site in a way that creates a district in which the stadium acts as a node.

The social issues examined the reasons people attend an event— for the sport or for social purposes or a mixture of the two—and how that understanding might be exploited so as to appeal to and accommodate the greatest number of people. Also, sport facilities contribute to a city’s image of itself invoking a sense of civic pride and contributing to social interaction and a sense of community.

Most evidence points out that stadiums are not successful as engines for economic development. Instead they usually result in a realignment of economic activity. However, there are approaches that can be successful such as the city of leisure and tourist city which focus on

44 playful activities as a means of attracting people to the city. Overall, synergistic approaches that combine retail, recreation, dining and entertainment are seen as the most successful. By providing a wide range of activities designed along with the stadium the goal is to create an area that draws people at a consistent level.

A synergistic approach that looks at multiple attractions centered around a stadium as a means to attract people to an area for the purpose of revitalization is the principle design implication. The integration of these functions with the stadium and downtown area is the design problem that exists. The goal is to create a district in which the stadium acts as a focus and complimentary functions encapsulate and enhance the social aspects associated with going to the ballpark.

45

Program Introduction

The primary program of this project will be a minor league baseball stadium for downtown Columbus, Ohio, for their existing minor league franchise. Support facilities will be integrated into the design of the stadium: a museum/media collection, offices, shopping, restaurant, and fitness facility. The premise of choosing the program and site is to examine means in which a baseball stadium can mesh and interact with its surroundings and revitalize a downtown. The idea is to surround the main attraction, the stadium, with other related elements that can help support the life of the area in which the stadium is located. By providing programs that can have different time schedules than the stadium, the hope is to create a more viable area that is used on a more consistent basis than traditional stadium sites.

Currently, Columbus has an AAA Minor League franchise that plays at Cooper Stadium at the outskirts of the downtown, which has little connection with the city. Although the stadium is not in poor condition or need to be replaced, the city has considered building a downtown stadium to attract interest there, similar to the way in which the Nationwide Arena has been used to revamp its surroundings, now called the Arena District.

Since Columbus already has a minor league franchise with an existing fan base it can be assumed that the problem is not one of creating a stadium that attracts fans but creating a complex that can get fans to stay downtown. Another aspect of the project is to attract individuals who would not normally attend baseball games. Familiarity with the site led to choosing Columbus for the project since, an urban downtown was more crucial for the relationship to the thesis topic than any specific city.

46 The project ties directly into the thesis topic of urban design issues and how ballparks may be used to revitalize a downtown area. This project will provide the opportunity to explore through design the ideas that are researched in the thesis. Although the stadium is the primary functional program piece, the project will stress how the stadium and the components of the project that complement the related social aspects work together as a unit. The design problem is to fit the stadium into the pre-existing context while at the same time creating an individual identity for the district. Meshing a contemporary design with the existing fabric to integrate the two into a whole is the goal. Recently, stadiums that have been designed in downtown areas have merely copied the fabric of the surroundings to create the aesthetics of the buildings. The design should go beyond simply replicating an aesthetic to use other elements such as connections to the streets, massing and layout. The retro-style stadiums use an aesthetic of the past without much regard to the present. This design project hopes to examine ways to relate a contemporary aesthetic with its surroundings.

Facility Program

General Information

The primary component of the design is a stadium for a minor league baseball team that will be able to accommodate the needs of an

AAA franchise. Besides the stadium’s primary function to house seventy- two home games a year, other baseball events such as small local college games and state high school playoffs as well as non-sports related activities such as concerts and festivals could more fully utilize the facility

47 and attract more visitors. Other uses proposed for the site are office

space, a museum, indoor/ outdoor concert venue, movie theater

shopping, restaurants and a fitness center and other entertainment

attractions. These activities have to do with at least one of the two main

reasons for attending a baseball game. The first reason is an appreciation

and interest in sport and the other is the social aspects and interaction

connected with the events. Creating a complex that can have multiple

functions and activities as well as attract various groups of people at

different times is essential to the design goals.

Space Program

Stadium – The major spaces of the facility are the field, seating,

guest relations, restrooms, concessions, team services and parking. The

stadium will have a capacity of 15,000 and abide to the minimum

standards of the guidelines for Minor League Baseball stadiums as

required by Major League rules (Appendix I).

I. Field The complete field dimensions are specified in

Section 1.04 of the Official Baseball Rules. The major points of the

guidelines include distance of walls and orientation of the playing field.

According to the Official Baseball Rules, the distance from home base to

the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction on fair territory shall be 250

feet or more. A distance of 320 feet or more along the foul lines, and 400

feet or more to center field is preferred. The permanent wall or fence in

the outfield should be a minimum of eight feet high. The axis from home

Diagram of field dimensions plate through the pitchers plate to second base must be oriented east- northeast.

48 The batter’s eye is a backdrop in centerfield that is a solid dark monochromatic color. This prevents the batter from being distracted at the plate and allows for a contrast between the ball and the back drop that giving better visibility. The minimum dimensions of the batter’s eye are sixteen feet high by forty feet wide. For Class AAA facilities the lighting systems shall maintain a 100 footcandles average in the infield and 70 footcandles average in the outfield minimum brightness requirements after 100 hours of burning. The outfield wall or fence must be a minimum of eight feet high and a warning track material shall identify all zones within fifteen feet of all walls and fences. The warning track needs to provide significant, distinguishable change in surface type.

Sized Areas:

(2) Bullpens with two mounds @ 500 s.f. 1,000 s.f.

Each bullpen area should be located in foul territory down the base lines or behind the field wall. Each bullpen should provide a bench for 10 players phones connecting the bullpens to the dugouts.

(2) Player’s Dugouts @ 500 s.f. 1,000 s.f.

Each dugout should accommodate twenty-five to thirty personnel and have the necessary equipment specified in Major League rules.

Other components associated with the field such as playing surface, field grading and field equipment will comply with the standards given by the guidelines of Major League Baseball.

II. Seating There are three seating types: box, reserved and general admission. Other seating areas to be considered are luxury suites and a press box. Box seating is defined as a seat with arms and a back within an area that has extra space compared to the other seating areas.

49 Box seating is located at the field level usually between third and first base

and is the closest to home plate. Reserved seating is a minimum of bench

with a back and would be at field level along the outfield lines and behind

the box seats and be the second closest to home plate . General admission

requires only a bench. For comfort reasons a chair with a back will be the

same for both the reserved and the general admission areas. The general

admission area is the farthest from home plate and will be behind reserve

seats and in the upper tier. As mentioned in the guide lines, seating Diagram of seating layout distribution should be: box 25% capacity, reserved 25% capacity and

general admission 50% capacity. The spacing and layout of all seating,

aisles cross-aisles and concourses shall meet local, state and federal codes

concerning egress and ADA.

Seating Capacity Breakdown:

Box seating 2,750

Reserved seating 2,750

General admission

Lower tier and upper tier 5,500

Bleachers 2,000

Outfield “berm” 2,000

15,000

III. Guest Relations There shall be a first aid station during all

events as well as a centrally located “command post” for security. There

should be ten guest entries and ten ticket windows.

(3) Ticket offices @ 600 s.f. 1,800 s.f.

IV. Restrooms Total toilet room facilities will include sixty water

closets for women, seventeen water closets for men, sixty urinals for men

50 and fifty sinks for each sex. Drinking fountains will be provided within close proximity to the toilet room facilities. All facilities will meet local, state and federal codes as well as accessibility requirements.

(10) Ladies’ Rooms @ 300 s.f. 3,000 s.f.

(10) Mens’ Rooms @ 300 s.f. 3,000 s.f.

6,000 s.f.

V. Concessions For concessions 215 linear feet of counter space will be needed, which means nine stands. Each stand should allow

645 sq. ft for concession vendors. Storage space will be provided for concessions.

VI. Team Services The specific spatial aspects of the administrative area will not be broken down because it is unnecessary and some information is unknown. A gross square footage of 12, 500 will be allocated for team offices and will be developed as needed. Team facilities, clubhouse, shower and toilet facilities, training room, laundry facilities, equipment room and offices, will be designed to meet the minimum guidelines of Major League Baseball’s standards for minor league facilities.

The team facilities, clubhouse, spaces should be provided for both the home and visiting teams

(2) Batting cages / pitching cages 750 s.f.

(36) Lockers for players and coaches 2,160 s.f.

Shower facility 200 s.f.

Restrooms 400 s.f.

Player’s Lounge 1,000 s.f.

Weight room 500 s.f.

51 Trainer’s room 1,200 s.f.

Coaches offices 1,000 s.f.

A/V room – coaching 500 s.f.

Press Interview Room 750 s.f.

8,460 s.f. per team

VII. Media

Press Box 1,000 s.f.

(4)Camera Platforms @ 50 s.f. 200 s.f.

(1) Diagram of Stadium Program Main score board N/A

1,200 s.f.

VIII. Parking Major League Baseball’s regulations

recommend that all facilities provide public parking spaces at a ratio of

one space per three seats of total capacity and that such parking spaces

should be within a ten-minute walking distance of the stadium. However,

due to the downtown location of the site, zoning regulations do not

require any parking spots be provided. With these two ideas in mind, the

project will allow for a minimum of 1000 parking spots. Parking

structure(s) rather than on-site parking will be utilized in this project

because of space restraints and the already prevalent on-site lots in the

area. The parking garage will most likely be combined with other aspects

of overall program such as retail, offices or dining.

1,000 spaces @ 350 s.f. 350,000 s.f.

Entertainment This portion will consist of a

museum/media center, movie theater, concert venue and interactive

gaming and sports bar.

52 Museum/Media Center This facility will attract baseball fans as well as people with a general interest in baseball gained through media, such as newspapers, magazines, music, radio and video, throughout

America history. Baseball is a sport that elicits nostalgic emotions about the past of the sport as well as its place in the history of America. The concept is an interactive center with exhibits showcasing baseball’s media representation which will accommodate individual visitors and groups.

Some exhibits will be permanent, but a space for temporary exhibitions will also be incorporated. A library associated with this center is appropriate for individuals wanting to do research. The media center should have a close association with the stadium.

Entrance Spaces

Lobby 1,500 s.f.

(2) Restrooms @ 400 s.f. 800 s.f.

Coat closet/guest storage 150 s.f.

Commercial/retail 1,000 s.f.

3,450 s.f.

Administrative Spaces

Curator office (3 people) 150 s.f.

Staff offices (4 people) 100 s.f.

Conference room 250 s.f.

500 s.f.

Exhibit Spaces

Main space 7,000 s.f.

Exhibit storage and preparation 2,000 s.f.

9,000 s.f.

53 Auditorium

Seating 150 people 1,500 s.f.

Library 2,000 s.f.

Miscellaneous space

Janitor’s closet 50 s.f.

Shipping and receiving 250 s.f.

300 s.f.

Square footage 16,750

+15% Mechanical 2,500 s.f.

+10% Circulation 1,675 s.f. (2) Diagram of Museum program Total gross square footage 20,925 s.f.

Movie Theater A movie theater will provide

entertainment that will attract a variety of users to the site. The theater

will be small in size, only two theaters, would show first run films and

could team with the media center for special baseball presentations.

Entrance Space

Lobby 1,000 s.f.

Box office 300 s.f.

Customer Service 300 s.f.

Concessions 500 s.f.

(2)Public restrooms @ 400 s.f. 800 s.f.

2,900 s.f.

(2) Auditoriums 250 seats 5,000 s.f.

Theater Operations

54 Projection booth 600 s.f.

Film storage 200 s.f.

(2)Offices @ 200 s.f. 400 s.f.

Employee restrooms 300 s.f.

1,500 s.f.

Square footage 9,900 s.f.

+15% Mechanical 1485 s.f.

+10% Circulation 990 s.f.

(3)Diagram of movie theater program Total gross square footage 12,375 s.f.

Concert Venue This would provide another form of

entertainment to attract visitors to the area. It would feature small acts

for music and theater. The space should be flexible to accommodate

various events. Also, there will be a connection to the outside area with a

stage for outdoor performances.

Entrance Space

Lobby 1,000 s.f.

Customer service/staff 500 s.f.

(2) Public restrooms @ 400 s.f. 800 s.f.

2,300 s.f.

Concert Area

Viewing space - 300 people 3,000 s.f.

Performance space 500 s.f

Preparation 500 s.f.

Storage 300 s.f.

55 4,300 s.f.

Square footage 6,600 s.f.

+15% Mechanical 990 s.f.

+10% Circulation 660 s.f.

Total gross square footage 8,250 s.f.

Interactive Gaming Area This space would provide

simulation style games, arcade style games and carnival type games. This (4) Diagram of concert venue program space will involve indoor and outdoor spaces. The indoor spaces will be

electronic games that will be used year round while outdoor will have

carnival-like sport games played during fair weather. The games will

attract various age groups of visitors and be able to accommodate events

such as birthday, bachelor or office parties. A Sports bar will be part of

the space as well.

Gaming Area

The specifics and design of this area would be a project

unto itself. Therefore, 8,000 s.f. for the gaming area and 3,000 s.f. for the

restaurant will be allocated and it will be developed as needed.

Shopping and Restaurants – The exact number and square

footage will be based on the design and space needs. Approximately

15,000 square feet of retail and restaurant space will be provided. Site

layout will determine the amount of square footage required and whether

the facilities are free-standing structures or directly attached to the

stadium. Also, retail and restaurants will be integrated into the parking

garage. The shops and restaurants should offer diverse services to attract

a variety of people. Currently there are few shopping options located in

56 downtown Columbus, which is a statement of the power of the suburbs.

Although individuals have begun to move back downtown because of recent housing options, there is little shopping available especially retail spaces for basic needs. Therefore, the hope is that besides being a sports complex, this can be a social area with shopping opportunities for people to drive to and also to support the living needs of those already downtown. There will be four to five restaurants including the sports bar that is part of the interactive gaming area.

Fitness Center This is a component that is related to the stadium through the idea of fitness associated with sports. This element will help create a complex that focuses on athletics and social gathering. The facility will be used for the training and rehabilitation of players and will be open to the public for workout and fitness instructions.

This could give the area consistent usage since people workout at various times of the day and into the evening. The users of this will primarily be individuals who live in the downtown area and those who work downtown and might use it before or after work.

Entrance Space

Lobby/reception 2,000 s.f.

Conference center 3,000 s.f.

Café/restaurant 3,000 s.f.

Pro shop 600 s.f.

Staff area 1,500 s.f.

(2) Restrooms @ 400 s.f. 800 s.f.

Spa 400 s.f.

Juice bar 300 s.f.

57 10,800

Exercise Spaces

Gymnasium 8,000 s.f.

Aerobic room 2,ooo s.f.

Fitness room 6,000 s.f.

Fitness instructor office 100 s.f.

Natatorium 6,000 s.f.

Running track (1/8 mile) 6,600 s.f.

Handball/racquetball 6,400 s.f.

(8) Batting cages 3,000 s.f.

Climbing wall 300 s.f.

38,400 s.f.

Dressing Rooms

Men locker room 2,000 s.f.

Women’s locker room 2,000 s.f.

(2) Sauna @ 100 s.f. 200 s.f.

(2) whirlpool @ 100 s.f. 200 s.f.

(2) massage @ 100 s.f. 200 s.f.

4,600 s.f

Support Areas

First aid 100 s.f.

Laundry 100 s.f.

Gymnasium storage 600 s.f.

Aerobic storage 100 s.f.

Pool equipment and storage 800 s.f.

General storage 500 s.f.

58 2,200 s.f.

Square footage 56,000 s.f.

+15% Mechanical 8,400 s.f.

+10% Circulation 5,600 s.f.

Total gross square footage 70,000 s.f.

(5) Diagram of fitness center program Outdoor Spaces The design for this project will also

involve a park within close proximity to the stadium. The purpose would

be to provide green space for an area that sorely lacks it, offer a public

space for fans before and after events and present a space for the general

public to use on a daily basis, i.e. lunch hour or breaks. The specifics of

the design or elements are unknown and will hinge on connection with

the stadium as well as the other program spaces, especially the ones

requiring outdoor areas. One element that will be a part of this space will

be a water element that includes a wading pool. The wading pool will be

designed in a way that in winter months it may be used as a public ice

rink.

59 Program Diagram:

60 History

The history of stadiums was discussed in the previous section of the thesis so this section will focus on the history of ballparks. Elysian

Fields in New York was the first regular baseball field in 1846. As baseball became more popular, owners of fields which games were played began charging fans to watch and needed a way to keep out non-paying individuals from watching. Union Grounds in Brooklyn, the first enclosed ballpark, opened on May 15, 1962. Josh Leventhal, author of Take Me

Out to the Ballpark, says the stadium consisted of a “six foot high fence all the way around the field, wooden grandstand for ‘lady visitors’ and gamblers were regulated to a special section.”

84 The field belonged to William H. Cammeyer, who owned a ice- skating pond in Brooklyn. Benjamin G. Rader has this to say about

Cammeyer and the opening festivities:

Cammeyer proceeded to drain his pond, fill it with dirt, level the surface, and build a fence around the plot. To provide seating for some 1,500 spectators, Cammeyer nailed together long wooden benches. In one corner of the field he built a “commodious” clubhouse for the teams, and in another he erected a saloon to quench the thirst of fans. On opendding day, 15 May 1862, flags, Including the American flag and the pennants of local teams, hung loosely in the breeze, and a band played “The Star Spangled Banner.” Reflecting the high patriotic sentiments of the day, Cammeyer named his new field the “Union Grounds.”85

This led to the “enclosure movement” in which entrepreneurs began to build fences around the grounds so as to charge admission and started the change of baseball teams as social clubs to focusing on the skill of the players.86 In early stadiums it was common for fans to stand directly on the field in roped off areas in the outfield and along the foul lines. Richer

84 Leventhal. p.9. 85 Rader. pp. 20-21. 86 Ibid. p. 21.

61 fans could view games from their carriages parked in the outfield.87 These early facilities of 1860s and 1870s established many ballpark features such as reserved seating, luxury boxes, press box and Ladies Day. The stadiums were primarily constructed of wood, which caused problems of fires and structural collapse.88 This led to a need for new materials to create larger, safer and more permanent structures.

The need for new materials brought about an era of steel and brick or concrete structures. An increased popularity in baseball and especially ballparks brought about the “Golden Era” of the ballpark in the beginning of the 20th century.89 From 1909 to 1923, there were fifteen new ballparks built.90 At that time there were only sixteen major league teams.

Leventhal refers to the urban characteristics of these stadiums which created the character for most of the ball parks, idiosyncrasies caused by layout of city streets and the role of an integral part of the community.91

For the most part these stadiums were seen as part of the neighborhoods in which they belonged, an identity for the city and an attraction.

However, as America changed, new influences would challenge the ability of the ballparks of the “Golden Era” to continue to attract fans and meet new needs.

By the 1950s the impact of the car had began to displace people from inner cities, and baseball begun a dramatic transformation also.

Between 1953 -1961, six of the sixteen major league teams moved west.92

As much as the ballparks built at the beginning of the century were part of

87 Leventhal. p. 9. 88 Ibid. p. 10. 89 Ibid. p. 11. 90 Rader. p. 96. 91 Leventhal. p. 11. 92 Ibid. p.12.

62 the urban fabric, for the most part that fabric predated the dominance of cars. The ballparks did not have room for cars to park. Also, the ballparks in the early 20th century had small capacity which owners felt limited their fan base and therefore revenues. These two factors, the automobile and seating capacity were the primary influence on ballparks built from 1950 to 1980. Most ballparks were moved outside of the inner city where land was cheaper and there was more room to provide parking.

Rader says that these stadiums “stood alone, separated from all other structures by vast open spaces of parking lots, garages and access roads.93

Many people classify the stadiums of this period as “concrete doughnuts.”

They consisted of symmetrical fields, were round, usually built in suburban settings and were multi-use facilities.94 These stadiums provided unobstructed views due to their concrete structure and took account the needs of the contemporary fan, hence the amount of parking.

Besides the “concrete doughnut,” another innovation of this period was the creation of domed stadiums. In 1964, the Astrodome in

Houston was considered the “eighth wonder of the world.”95 The dome allowed for comfortable viewing in cold, wet or humid climates. However, everything in the dome seemed artificial; the grass, lights and air. The dome stadium lost its “futuristic” appeal quickly and many have been replaced by new structures, often structures that have retractable roofs to allow for more flexibility.

Oriole Park at Camden Yards started a boom of new ballparks when it opened in 1992. The ballpark has the charm and intimacy of older

93 Rader. p. 200. 94 Leventhal. p. 13. 95 Ibid. p. 14.

63 park and ties into its urban surroundings. The use of brick and steel started a “retro-style” trend that would be continued by the fourteen new stadiums that have opened since then.96 They commonly used elements similar to the older ball parks such as Ebbets Field, old

Comiskey Park, Fenway Park and Crosley Field in Cincinnati.

Program Precedents

The precedents in this section will focus specifically on baseball stadiums, analyzing two Major League Baseball stadiums, Pac Bell in San

Francisco and Comerica Park in Detroit, and minor league stadiums in

Louisville and Indianapolis. The focus will be on analyzing issues such as sightlines, seating options and amenities to study the performance of baseball stadiums from a functional sense. Also considered is a conceptual design for an arena in the future that combines multiple functions to create a facility that is capable of being a 24-hour venue.

Finally, Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen and Disney World will be considered with the idea of the design of entertainment areas in mind.

Pacific Bell Park designed by HOK, opened in 2000. The seats are near the action and provide sight lines directly toward the field of play.

The ballpark combines intimate setting with modern amenities.97 At Pac

Bell, it is said there is not a bad seat in the place. The sightlines for the stadium are well planned; action anywhere on the field can be seen from almost all seating areas.

96 Ibid. 15 97 Josh Levanthal. Take Me Out to the Ball Game. (New York, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2000). p. 115.

64 The different seating options give diverse vantage points and feel

of the game. The field level seats are close to the field, intimate, with

unobstructed views. The upper tier of seating is still close to the action

and allows a “birdseye” view of the field while giving spectators a

panorama of the harbor and water that is not available to field level

View from upper deck to “McCovey spectators. Pac Bell Park also has a bleacher section in left field. Cove” Although these seats are farther away from home plate, an advantage here

is that the action is usually coming toward you. Bleachers are a tradition

in stadiums (Wrigley Field’s “Bleacher Bums”) and are often the area in

which the “rowdy rooters” and “die hard fans” sit. In these areas the

social atmosphere is directly related to the game. The fans in this section

are often entrenched in the game and social interaction is mostly related Outfield bleachers at Pac Bell Park in San Francisco to it. Finally, the standing room-only section runs behind the bleacher

area and along the rest of the outfield. The San Francisco team sells out

regularly, so this zone is often filled with fans. They stroll around this

area, which has vendors, and congregate in groups to socialize while still

having the game in view. This allows individuals who are less interested

Standing room only area at Pac in the sport of baseball to enjoy the social aspects of the event. Bell Park Detroit’s Comerica Ballpark, designed by HOK Sport, opened in

2000. While the seating is not as intimate compared to many other

stadiums, including Tiger Stadium which it replaced, that have fans closer

to the playing field, the project is important because it takes social

amenities at the ballpark to a new level. While the seating configuration

is not as intimate as other stadiums of the same capacity, sightlines are Right field “Pepsi Porch allows for social gathering of visitors not obstructed and fans are seated facing the action

65 It is the non-seating, and often non-baseball, areas that make

Comerica an interesting example. The stadium has a promenade area in

the outfield similar to Pac Bell Stadium that allows for fans to move

around and socialize as well as watch the game. There is a pavilion area

behind right field that has vendors, open area and tables and seating so

that fans can gather in groups, enjoy a snack or beverage and still watch

the event. These two areas, the promenade and pavilion, are elements

that are common in the newer ballparks, which provide guests with Bier garten at Comerica Park various viewing options. But, it is other attractions that are located

underneath the stands that make the ballpark unusual. Besides the

normal restaurants/sport bars that are becoming common in today’s

Bier garten at Comerica Park stadiums, this ballpark also has a bier garten, Ferris wheel with cars that

are shaped like baseballs and a carousel with tigers, the team’s mascot,

located in the middle of a food court. These attractions create a festive Ferris wheel with baseball shaped cars feel that is carnival-like. The primary criticism of these attractions is their

location; hidden under the stands where fans using or with people using

them are unable to be seen and fans in the seats are unable to witness the

activities. The importance of the two examples, Pac Bell Park and

Comerica Park lie in what can be learned about seating varieties and

Carousel at Comerica Park entertains social attractions that can draw non-sport fans to an event for social young fans purposes.

Louisville and Indianapolis are both homes for AAA franchises

and have similar programs to this design project. Louisville Slugger Field,

designed by HNTB Architects, opened in 2000. The stadium can seat

over 13,000 fans in two decks of permanent seating, right field bleachers

and a left field grass “berm”. One of the interesting features of the

66 stadium is that it was integrated into an existing historic rail freight

depot. The late 1800s structure provided urban context and aesthetic

qualities to the design of the stadium. Also, the depot will provide 22,

000 square feet of retail shops and restaurants, besides housing team

offices. From a viewing standpoint, the varied seating types, including

Grass “berm” in left field with a concourse that goes around the outfield, provide fans with an

assortment of viewing options while maintaining sight of the event.

Another feature is the carousel that is located behind right field. Much

like the one in Detroit’s ballpark the carousel promotes a festive

atmosphere and is a favorite of young fans. However, the difference is

that in Louisville the carousel is visible from the stands, which allows for a

connection between the atmosphere of the event and the attraction. Renovated train depot at street edge Parents who are watching their children on the carousel are still able to

view the game. One criticism of the park is that the dark green, brick red

classic or old time aesthetic has become typical and lost its charm.

Although some of the aesthetic decisions, such as the use of brick, seem

justified based on the integration with the existing rail depot, other

details, such as iron detail above scoreboard that mimics near by bridges,

Carousel in right field appear to be merely nostalgic decoration.

Victory Park in Indianapolis was designed by HOK Sports and

opened in 1996. This stadium is considered “Best Minor League Ballpark

in America” by Baseball America and Sports Illustrated. The stadium

has a capacity of 15, 500; 12, 500 in permanent seating, 1,000 in

Victory Park looking into downtown bleachers and 2,ooo in lawn seating as well as 26 luxury suites, two party Indianapolis terraces, two suite lounges, a party deck and pre-game picnic area. The

lawn seating is an angled outfield berm, similar to Louisville’s, that spans

67 the entire outfield. The stadium also has a concourse that wraps around

the field. The stadium in downtown Indianapolis is part of their

revitalization efforts. The stadium is a boundary for a state park that has

cultural, recreational and educational attractions including the

Indianapolis Zoo, White River Gardens, NCAA Hall of Champions, Outfield “berm” Indiana State Museum, an IMAX theater and the Congressional Medal of

Honor Memorial.

These two stadiums, Louisville Slugger Field and Victory Field, are

examples of recent ballparks that have programs similar to this thesis

project. Both stadiums have similar capacity to that of the ballpark to be

designed and provide examples of various seating options, outfield

concourses and attractions. Ideas such as outfield “berms” create areas

that have a festival-like atmosphere and create a fan-friendly area.

Another aspect that benefits the program is the way that Indianapolis’s

stadium has been used as a catalyst for revitalization. The area in which

the stadium is located uses a synergistic approach of various recreational

and entertainment to attract people.

Arena 2020 is a conceptual design of architect Rod Sheard, which

is a mixed-use development that examines the idea of a sport and

entertainment facility as the focal point for urban revitalization.

According to Sheard, the project establishes links for renewal. Its multi-

functional event space surrounded by an urban park linked to support

Arena 2020, conceptual facilities and retail, commercial and accommodation facilities, creates a project, in downtown twenty-four-hour-a-day place. Sheard comments, “2020 is a functioning environment entity of city fabric where people can be seen every day of the week not

68 just on event days.”98 The concepts of a catalyst for revitalization

incorporate ideas expressed in this thesis. The idea of a multiplicity of

functions is similar the desired concepts of this program.

Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen and Disney World in Orlando are

parks that combine a variety of functions and attractions while Arena 2020 maintaining a connection with the natural environment. Tivoli Gardens

was opened in 1843 as a place of exotic gardens and elegant

entertainment. The gardens were founded by George Carstenen and

contained a bazaar for trading Danish and foreign products, concert

pavilion, theater for dance, fireworks, swings, merry-go-rounds, slides,

games, billiards, restaurant, coffee house and smoking salons. Tivoli has

evolved into an amusement park with rides such as roller coasters, but has

not lost its naturalistic feel. An original stipulation for the site was that

75 percent of the land be open space, and that remains in force. Tivoli

Gardens is a park with an urban setting that uses various forms of

entertainment to attract visitors.

Tivoli Gardens in Coppenhagen As already mentioned, Disney World is an example of the

synergistic approach that is often seen in examples of the Tourist City.

Like Tivoli Gardens, Disney World is a theme park. It uses various forms

of attractions that provide entertainment for a wide range of people.

Disney World seems to have something for everyone, which is a main

reason for its success. Its ability to entertain a whole family is a reason

that it should be considered within the realm of leisure places.

Tivoli Gardens and Disney World are amusement parks that

provide a wide range of entertainment to attract a wide range of people.

98 Rod Sheard. Sports Architecture. (New York, Spon Press, 2001). p. 212.

69 These examples stimulate the hope to create a synergistic area that not

only caters to sport fans but is a place for an entire family to come to and

enjoy. Also, these examples’ use of nature provides inspiration for the

handling of program.

Performance space at Tivoli Gardens Images

1. Diagram of stadium program

70

2. Diagram of museum/media center program

3. Diagram of movie theater program

71

4. Diagram of concert venue program

5. Diagram of fitness center program

72

Site

General Description

The stadium site is located in downtown Columbus, Ohio, two

blocks that are bounded by Mound Street on the south, Second Street on

the west, Main Street on the North and High Street on the East. Front

Street divides the site in half. Front Street will be closed to vehicular

traffic between Mound and Main Street. The block east of Front Street is Map of Columbus, downtown shaded currently occupied by surface parking. The block to the west of Front

Street is sparsely covered by four office buildings, a gas station and night

club. The blocks to the north will be considered for particular program

elements such as parking, offices and fitness center.

High Street offers the most complete streetscape, including

buildings with architectural value. The buildings to the south create a

visual wall due to their size and massing. The rest of the area, lacking in (1) Downtown Columbus site shaded – larger image in Images major design cues, consists of a “big box” storage facility, pub and other smaller buildings with various gaps at the street edge. A park one block

northwest of the site along the Scioto River offers an opportunity to create

a pedestrian connection from the river to the stadium. This could provide

more activity along the river and allow for spillover from events for both

locations. The major problems with the site include the limited built

context, the visual wall created on the southern edge of site and the fact

that the primary block itself may not be quite large enough to contain the

ballpark.

73 History

Columbus, Ohio was founded in 1812 and named the state capital in 1816. The city’s economy was primarily based on agriculture during its early years of existence. Later manufacturing of raw agricultural materials and forest products was small in scale, and the city was defined by its investment in transportation and governmental services. By the end of the Civil War Columbus had become predominantly a political and commercial center.99 With industrialization, transportation increased the regional markets and allowed for the development of a local iron and steel industry. Columbus’s central location in the state allowed for transportation routes to emerge. First came a feeder canal that connected

Ohio and Erie Canal, then a railroad from the east out to the west and eventually the automobile National Road that also stretched east and west.100 Timber resources allowed for buggy production in Columbus, which became one of the largest manufactures in the United States during

1890s. Throughout the development of Columbus, a diverse economy contained a mix of government, service, retail and manufacturing.101 An advantage of this has been that as certain industries have declined, such as heavy manufacturing, the city has still been able to sustain itself by relying on other areas of the economy. A negative factor of the diversity is that it has not allowed for an identity for the city.

Downtown has become a place to work but enjoys very little sustained activity outside the nine-to-five hours. The 2000 Census

99 Henry L. Hunker. Columbus, Ohio: A Personal Geography. (Columbus, Ohio State University Press, 2000). p. 51-52. 100 Allen Noble. Columbus History. (www.colscompact.com/columbus_history.htm).pp 1-3. 101 www.bobpritchard.org/facts.html

74 confirms that, in the metropolitan area, covering area of over 200 square

miles, large numbers of people live outside of the downtown area,

although many still work there. This has created a lack of urban activity.

An aerial view (figure 2) of the downtown drawn between 1860

and 1880 shows small structures on the primary site, most likely

residences and out-buildings. Sandborn map (figure 3) from 1887

confirm that the project area was primarily residential. There were store (2) Drawing of downton Columbus between 1860 and 1880 - larger image fronts along the High Street, a main road downtown. Other structures of in Part E importance include the County courthouse located at the southeast corner

of Mound and High Streets and a German church at the southwest corner

of Mound and High Streets. From the Sandborn map it appears that there

was light manufacturing on the south side of Mound Street, a tool

manufacturer and a plow manufacturer. The density of the area should be

noted. Although not heavily dense everywhere, there are areas of high

density along High Street and overall a density that no longer exists in the (3) 1887 Sanborn map of area - larger image in Part E area. Sandborn maps from 1921 (figure 4) shows that the overall makeup

up the area to be similar to that of 1887. The site was still primarily

residential, but also had small manufacturing in a shoe factory that

replaced a few dwellings and a print shop along High Street, which was

still principally offices and retail. Around the site, a major change was the

replacement of the German church with a filling station. Also, the Great

Southern Hotel at the southeast corner of Main and High Streets is

another difference from the 1887 maps.

(4) 1921 Sanborn map of area - larger A photo (figure 5) taken around 1960 shows only one structure on image in Part E the site, a two-story concrete block building that takes up a small corner

of the site, while the rest of the area is used for parking. One of the main

75 buildings in this area is the Franklin County Courthouse. The first

courthouse was built on the southeast corner of Mound and High Streets

in 1840. It can be seen in the early downtown maps. It was a two-story

Greek revival structure that was destroyed in a fire in 1879.102 A new

courthouse (figure 6) built in 1885 in the French Second Empire style was

demolished in 1974. Currently that site contains a structure that is an

annex to the present Franklin County Courthouse, which is located on the (5) Picture of downton Columbus around 1960 - larger image in Part E south side of Mound Street. Architecture: Columbus, compiled by the

Columbus Chapter of the American Institute of Architects, shows other

prominent buildings that no longer exist. The buildings were primarily

three-to-four-stories with brick walls. On the east side of High Street,

along the edge of the project site, buildings of this type still remain. They

will be discussed in the next section.

Detail Physical Analysis (6) Old Franklin County Courthouse built in 1885, demolished in 1974 The strongest natural feature is a public park along the river,

which runs along the western edge of downtown. Another small park

occupies the southeast corner of Mound and High Streets. It creates a

soft street edge for the concrete building and parking structure at this

location. The design project will try to make connections with the existing

park areas and bring more nature into the vicinity.

Columbus is located in the “Central Lowland of the Eastern

Midwest” and the climate has four distinct seasons. The winter and

102 Samuelson, Robert E., ed. Architecture: Columbus. (Columbus, Ohio, The Foundation of the Columbus Chapter of the American Institute of Architects, 1976). p. 216.

76 spring seasons are impacted by cold air masses from the northwest while summer and fall seasons have war air from the southwest.103

Also on the courthouse site are the Franklin County Hall of

Justice which was completed in 1973, county offices and a county jail. The

Hall of Justices is a ten-story building and the county offices building is a thirty-story structure. The actual courthouse is twenty stories. This creates a visual barrier on the south side of the project site. On the southwest corner of Front and Mound Streets is a three-story parking structure used by the adjacent county buildings. The block bounded by

Second, Main, Front and Mound Streets contains only a few small structures — a gas station, a two-story row house used as an office, a small newspaper office, and a night club on the Front Street side of the block.

On the northwest corner, two small office structures take up about a quarter of the block including parking. These structures would be torn down to make room for the stadium.

North of the project site is a six-story storage building that fills a quarter of the block. The only building on that side of a street is a two- story bar and restaurant. The southern half of the High Street block between Main and Mounds Streets is made up of commercial buildings built between 1875 and 1900. These structures, which have remained nearly unaltered, contain various offices and commercial space at street level and residential above. North of these structures is the most architecturally prominent building in the immediate surroundings. The

Great Southern Hotel was opened in 1897 to draw people from the Capitol

103 Noble. p. 1.

77 Square area north of the hotel. The building’s exterior is brick with ornate white terra cotta decorative features.

78

1 – Great Southern Hotel 1897 2 – Commercial buildings 1875-1900 3 – Park in front of County Courthouse Annex

4 – Franklin County Court Buildings 5 – Parking structure 6 – Law office 7 – Gas Station (not pictured) 79

8 – Newspaper building 9 – Lounge/Night club 10 – Office building

11 – Office building 12 - Apartments 13 – Law Office

14 – Storage building 15 – Storage building 16 – Restaurant/pub

17 – Parking structure 18 – Open green space 19 – Office building

80

20 – Old State Arsenal 1861 21 – Apartment building 22 - Park

23 – Office building 24 – Vacant parking structure

Site Precedents

The precedents in this section focus on urban sites that have been

revitalized by the addition of a stadium in the last fifteen years. The

stadiums to be analyzed are: the Skydome in Toronto, Jacobs Field in

Cleveland, Coors Field in Denver and Nationwide Arena in Columbus,

Ohio.

The Skydome in Toronto, opened in 1989, was designed by

Toronto architect Rod Robbie. Although it does not have the nostalgic

aesthetic that most ballparks have, it was the first to move back into

downtown. Originally the ballpark was proposed for the suburbs of

Image of Skydome in Toronto Toronto, but support for downtown development brought about the at night

81 decision to locate the stadium on closed railway lands in the city center.104

Other ballparks built in the nineties also re-used railway lands. By

locating the stadium downtown, Toronto was able to utilize unused land

in an area that had an established infrastructure. The location was also

adjacent to the convention center and close to the lake.105

Besides being the first baseball stadium to move downtown, it is a

good example of a synergistic approach to elements of a ballpark. The

inclusion of a hotel with seven restaurants and bars into the design of the

stadium created a multi-use facility. Bruce Kidd says about the Skydome:

The location has proved a great boon to the restaurants and bars in the area, and along with several theatres and the city’s premier concert hall has contributed to a lively year-round entertainment district.106

This can be seen as a source of tourism and a way to bring people back to

the city center. The stadium has an “arena” feel, especially when the

dome is closed, with a symmetrical field and astro-turf, and lacks the

charm of traditional urban ballpark. Since it is a multi-use facility also

used for football, concerts and other activities, it was designed to provide

the best overall seating arrangement for all these activities. The

conventional American ballpark may not be as appropriate for Toronto,

due to Canada’s lack of a real history of baseball and its cold climate.

Skydome and downtown Instead, it has benefited from its attraction as a culture and entertainment Toronto center.

As mentioned previously, Jacobs Field was combined with the

Gund Arena to create an entertainment complex that would have the

104 Bruce Kidd. “Toronto’s Skydome: The World’s Greatest Entertainment Center.” in The Stadium and the City. John Bale and Olof Moen, ed. ((Straffordshire, England, Keele University Press, 1995). p.181 105 Greraint and Sheard. p. 24. 106 Kidd. p. 184.

82 ability to attract people year round. The emergence of these two

structures brought about other forms of entertainment, such as small

concert venues, dance clubs, bars, dining and shopping. The project was

able to use a downtown that was being underutilized and create a new,

vital district that complements other revitalization efforts. Cleveland’s

successful project that focuses on recreational usage considers the site as

a district, a smaller area, and looks at the sport facilities as nodes that

attract people to the area to support the arrival of other businesses and

activities.

The Skydome and Jacobs Field provide examples of cities that

considered more than just the baseball stadium in their projects, which

provided a way to revitalize their downtown areas. Both used an

approach where the stadium is the node that will attract a lot of people at

specific times and supplement that with other functions so as to give

people a reason to stay, or another reason to come in the first place. Also,

the cities seem realistic about the amount of impact to expect, focusing on

creating a vital district within the urban center rather than hoping that

the stadium could revitalize an entire downtown.

Coors Field in Denver was opened in 1995, also designed by HOK

architects. It follows the mold established by Oriole Park at Camden

Yards and Jacobs Field. By this time the retro aesthetic had found

momentum and was defined by the use of materials. Brick with limestone

Coors Field in Denver, Colorado accents were used to establish the exterior fabric of the building along

with steel structural members, usually painted green. Although the

aesthetic has become typical of recent stadiums, for Coors Field the

surrounding context suggests this treatment. The massing of the building

83 and detailing matches the surrounding warehouse buildings in a former

railroad area.

Coors Field has been part of the revitalization of the adjacent area.

However, what makes Coors Field different from other developments is

that the area surrounding the stadium, Lower Downtown (LoDo), was

already experiencing revitalization prior to the stadium’s construction.107

Still, David Takesuye states the Coors Field has had an impact on the area,

“Lo-Do already had been on the rise for five years when Coors Field

opened in early April 1995, but the introduction of the ballpark

accelerated the growth that already had begun, and it has changed the

character of that growth somewhat.”108 From that standpoint the stadium

and the city’s development plans can be seen as working hand-in-hand for

Coors Field has become the center the revitalization of an area. piece of Lower Downtown’s redevelopment The importance of this example is the way that it meshes with the

old and new context of the area. Rather than being the centerpieces like

the Skydome and Jacobs Field are, Coors Field blends in with the existing

fabric of brick warehouses and train depots in the area.

Columbus’s Arena District opened in 2000 with Nationwide Arena

as the centerpiece of the synergistic neighborhood. The project was

approached as a catalyst for redevelopment.109 The arena features an

attached hockey practice facility that is also open to the public. Besides

the sport and entertainment facility, the area features office buildings, a

Nationwide Arena in Columbus movie theater, indoor/outdoor performance area, restaurants, residential

107 Ben Braun. “Sports Stadiums Downtown: Are Downtown Arenas Catalysts for Urban Revitalization?” Urban Land. v. 58. n. 9. September 1999. p. 144. 108 David Takesuye. “Coors Field: The Centerpiece of LoDo.” Urban Land. v. 59. n. 11/12. November/December 2000. p. 139. 109 Columbus Dispatch. September 3, 2000.

84 and green space. What makes this area different than other multi-use

vicinities is that the benefits of the new development have spread to other

areas. The new neighbor uses a synergistic approach with the

surrounding areas such as North Market and the Short North that has

enhanced those older neighborhoods by creating pedestrian connections

between those places. Overall, the project creates a new vital Crowd watches a concert in the Arena District neighborhood that has a positive effect on surrounding areas and liven the

downtown.

Columbus’s Arena District is a beneficial example because the

project used a primarily vacant site and created a new neighborhood that

not only is vital within its own limits but has enhanced the surrounding

neighborhoods. This is similar to the site chosen for the thesis design

project, which is for the most part vacant and is surrounded by existing

surrounding areas of prominence.

85 Images

1. Aerial of downtown Columbus, site shaded

86

2. 1860 – 1880 drawing of downtown Columbus, Ohio

87

3. 1887 Sanborn map

88

4. 1921 Sanborn map

89

5. 1960s photo of downtown Columbus

90 Bibliography

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