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Home , Borremose, Draped garment, Folk costume, Ings

CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC IN 313

CHAPTER X PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK

Unlike the early oak coffin burials which yielded several complete due to preserving properties in the oak and soil, none of the fragments excavated from graves are identifiable as garments. Our primary source ofIron Age material, therefore, is finds although we dare not assume that they are complete costumes. Indeed, they are more likely to be isolated garments because such special conditions have evidently prevailed. A number of items have been alone, and even when a garment is recovered together with a body it is not always clear whether it represents man's or woman's . Capes, long and short. One item of clothing is very predominant among bog finds, namely a short skin I), which seems to occur equally frequently together with bodies of either sex, and curiously enough several capes can be found with the same body. In Bauns~ Mose, for example, the body of a young man was recovered together with three capes, and in Karlby Mose four were found with one skeleton. Although accounts of the circumstances in which the body was found often lack important details, it is clear from several of them that the body in question was not clad in a cape but that the cape was wrapped round it, presumably to cover it. In 1942 a body was found in Daugbjerg Mose with pieces of skin cape, the with was at the feet of the corpse. In 1922 in Kayhausen2), , a body was recovered from a bog with feet tied together by the laces of the collar. Unfortunately, reports rarely mention which side of the skin faced outwards, whether the hair side or the reverse. However, the capes from Torsted, Eistrup, and one from R~nbjerg (retrieved in 1886) are all reported to have been found with the hair side inwards, and likewise a piece from Daugbjerg I (Find 14). To judge from photographs of the Roum cape in situ, the same seems to apply here too. The question, then, is whether this is coincidental or whether ancient customs have played a role; in the present context it should be remembered that in Bronze Age burials3) the deceased usually rested on cow's hide with the hair side upwards, and that when the skin was wrapped round the body this side was innermost4).

The shapes of Danish skin capes vary, Figs. 359-371 give the patterns of capes which are sufficiently preserved for drawings to be made.

In Group A (Figs. 359-362) all the pieces are symmetrical. There is either a kind of collar or yoke which runs in a straight line along the edge of the cape, regardless of whether it is made from one or several skins. The other pieces of skin more or less match each other in size and shape. 314 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH FROM AND BURIALS

Fig. 360 Fig. 359

Fig. 362 Fig. 361

) \0 Fig. 363 Fig. 364

Figs. 359-364. Skin capes from bogs. Skindslag fra mosefund. Fig. 359. Roum Mose, Fig. 360. True Mose, Fig. 361. Daugbjerg Mose, Fig. 362. Karlby Mose (D 4854), Fig. 363. Auning Mose, Fig. 364. Bauns(ll Mose (D 11103b). CHAPTER X. PREH1STORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 315

Fig. 365

Fig. 366b Fig. 367

Fig. 368 Fig. 369

Fig. 370 Fig. 371

Figs. 365-371. Skin capes from bogs. Skindslag fra mosefund. Fig. 365. (Find no. 4), Fig. 366a. Borremose (Find no. 4). Fig. 366b. Aardestrup Mose. Fig. 367. Bauns~ Mose (D 11103a), Fig. 368. Huldremose (C 3472), Fig. 369. Huldremose (C 3471), Fig. 370. Refstrup Mose (D 7994), Fig. 371. Haraldskjrer Mose. 316 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 372. Detail of skin cape closed at the neck. Borremose (Fig. 366a). Detalje af skindslag med lukket krave. Borremose (Fig. 366a).

In Group B (Figs. 363-368) the capes are asymmetrical with a yoke or collar. Group C (Figs. 369-371) differs in that the capes have neither collar nor yoke, but like Group B they are asymmetricaP). The capes in Group A have undoubtedly been worn symmetrically over the shoulders with the fastening in front. The garment found in Roum Mose (Fig. 359) has a neck opening of only c. 60 cm with intact lacing (Fig. 373). It is more difficult to decide the way the capes of the last two groups were worn. The diagrams, drawn as if the bare side of the skin faces outwards, show that the capes are not only asymmetrical but that the deepest slit for the neck opening if often to the right. In Group Bone of the best preserved examples, the cape from Bauns¢ Mose (D 11103, Fig. 367) is best worn with the deepe t part of the neck opening beneath the chin, and the straps and toggles of the fastening a little forward on the right shoulder; the right arm is kept free. The maximum height of the cape is at the back of the neck, and this compensates in some measure for the cape's uneven length which is less pronounced than in the diagram. The two Borremose capes (Figs. 365, 366a) are very similar but a -image of each other - one hangs lower to the right, and the other to the left. It is also evident that one cape is best worn when fastened on the right shoulder, while the other seems to have its fastening on the left. An arrangement which does not leave the right arm free would be impracticable. Perhaps the answer is simply that the capes were intended to be worn one on top of the other, in cold weather for example. An experiment has demonstrated that if the "woolly" cape, presumably lamb- or sheepskin is worn with the wool innermost, and the other cape (Fig. 365) of smoother, short haired skin is CHAPTER X. PREHlSTORJC COSTUME IN DENMARK 317

, f '

Fig. 373. Detail of skin cape with original lacing in position. Roum Mose (Fig. 359). Detalje af skindslag. Krave med bindebAnd i den oprindelige stilling. Roum Mose (Fig. 359). worn on top with the hair side outwards, the result is a harmonious combination with the fastening of both capes at the right shoulder. Arctic costumes are known with this combination of over and under furs6). Tn Group C the Refstrup cape (Fig. 370) and the Haraldskjrer cape (Fig. 371) are asymme- trical and very similar in pattern. Each could well be one half of a double arrangement. The way they were worn seems to be similar to that in Group B, viz. fastened on the right shoulder with the deepest part of the neck opening beneath the chin. The flaps at the edge below (e.g. to the left in Fig. 371) may have been an extra overlap. On the other hand, it is difficult to explain entirely satisfactorily how the Huldremose cape (Fig. 368) was worn. It fits best when fastened on the right shoulder and worn with the hair side inwards, but a paler piece of skin, inset in the upper part of the cape, is evidently a decoration, and therefore unlikely to be hidden. Fig. 438 shows another way in which it may have been worn with the pale skin showing. The capes vary individually, and it is not surprising that the way they were worn should differ. Capes of smooth, short haired skins are cut so that the hair smoothes downwards from the neck, as on the animal, thus making the capes as water-repellent as possible. The large amount of small pieces of skin is not presumably simply a sign of thrift but also of sensible and practical utilisation of material to hand. The skins must have been cut according to certain rules and then pieced together in the most suitable manner. For these Iron Age capes from bogs are by no means primitive, we can see by their details that they are extremely well made, for example the finely oversewn edges. (Figs. 289-291). The manner in which the capes were fastened varies, those from Daugbjerg and Roum 318 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 374. Toggle and strap on cape from Fig. 375. Leather and ring Fig. 376. Strap with Bauns~ Mose (Fig. 367). 1ft. on cape from Huldremose (Fig. toggle from one of the Rulleknap og strop pAslag fra Bauns¢ Mose 369). Karlby capes (D 4854). (Fig. 367). 1/•. BindebAnd og lrederring pA slag fra Rem med rulleknap pA et Huldremose (Fig. 369). af slagene fra Karlby (0 4854).

,------T------, t A [.: e I I : I I , I I 1 I

\ 0' l ) \ ; /

\', iii //1 ".... "'/' ( '.... ,., ",,"'/ ••••.••.,------~------~Co I D ••"''; \ Fig. 377. Pattern of Roman , with dotted line denoting the earliest shape. The unbroken line gives the shape of a laena (after Wilson). Fig. 378. Man's cape. Trindh~j. Early Bronze Romerske kappesnit. Den ydre stiplede linie viser Age. Length 243 cm, width 126 cm. den reldste form; den trette linie formen pAen Mandskappe fra Trindh¢j, lrengde 243 em, bredde laena (e. Wilson). 126 em. fEldre bronzealder. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 319

(Figs. 359, 361, 373) have lacing at the neck opening. The Hu1dremose cape (Fig. 375) has two finely worked leather rings with a thin thong through them for tying. A cape from BaunsjZl Mose has straps and toggles (Fig. 374), the latter made by rolling up a leather thong. The cape from Karlby Mose (Fig. 376) has a similar toggle. Fig. 365 shows a fastening where wooden pegs are passed through leather straps, and Figs. 366a, 372 illustrate a cape where the neck opening is fastened by . The BaunsjZl cape (Fig. 367) bears traces of eyelets for laces in the flaps below. Thus we have four different fastenings: lacing, sewing, tying, and toggles- either rolled or wooden pegs - through leather loops. The number of complete capes is not high, but the amount of skin fragments recovered from bogs although they cannot be more closely identified, show that skin garments were widely worn. German bog finds, unlike the Danish, have yielded little evidence of skin capes. A specimen from Kayhausen is very fragmentary, and the only other example with a bearing on the Danish material is a cape excavated in Ruchmoor7) together with the body ofa woman. Judging from a photograph published by K. Schlabow, however, the cape seems to bear no close resemblance to any of the Danish capes. It appears to be quite short, and the pieces of skin are in lengths that run from the neck to the bottom edge. In Denmark only the BaunsjZl cape has a similar pat- tern (Fig. 367). It is difficult to find parallels to the skin capes recovered from Danish bogs among other ancient sources. They have not evidently sprung from the kidney-shaped capes of the Danish

Fig. 379. Roman warriors wearing the sagum. Detail from the Trajan Column (after W. Froehner). Romerske krigere som b.erer sagum. Detalje fra Trajansliljlen (e. w. Froehner). 320 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

I ,I , \ \ ...... I I b ...... _-_ I I _ IL - ---MH --- __ ..-1 a b

Fig. 380. Hooded cape from Krogens MlillleMose, a: front, b: back. Fig. 381. Skin from Daugbjerg, find I. Hretteslag fra Krogens Mlillle Mose, a: forside, b: bagside. Skindhue fra Daugbjerg, fund I.

Bronze Age, nor the of classical antiquity in the East, although cloaks both long and short are depicted in various representations with fastenings either on the right shoulder or in frontS), but no other resemblance is apparent. It is obviously fairly difficult tojudge the cut ofa garment known only from pictorial representations. However, several specialists have supplemented their studies of Greek and Roman costumes by reconstructing these garments for actual wear. Margarete Bieber9) and Lillian M. Wilson 10) have carried out exhaustive research in this field, including descriptions of a number of cloaks and outer garments. Two main types appear to have been worn: a rectangular called by the Greeks, and by the Romans, a loosely . The cloak, sagum, worn by Roman soldiers, was also rectangular. None of these examples bears any resemblance to the Danish skin capes, although the sagum is discussed later in another context. The other type is approximately semi-circular or semi-elliptical (Fig. 377). The same pattern is found among certain types of toga and lacerna. These are unlike our Iron Age skin capes but, as already mentioned, they resemble m~n's capes recovered from Danish Bronze Age oak coffin burials (Fig. 378) - a similarity which indicates a common origin. On the other hand, no parallels to the trapezoid skin capes among the Danish finds have been found in material from classical antiquity. but a representation exists of two Germanic prisoners chained together and clad solely in short capes11). Caesar mentions (The Gallic War VI, 21) that the Germans wore skins and that much of their bodies was bare because their garments were so short. Tacitus (Germania 17) also mentions the skin garments of the Ger- mans, noting specifically that the men wore short capes. And it is precisely a garment of this type into which the comb of the Huldremose find was sewn. It is still difficult to decide to what extent skin capes are the result of foreign influence; or whether they are an indigenous Germanic costume. Climatic changes probably explain the striking difference in Denmark between the relatively light woollen capes of the Bronze Age oak coffin burials and the skin capes, worn in pairs, of the Iron Age. We have seen that garments are worn double in Arctic climates, but capes are conspicuously missing because in

really cold conditions they are simply too loose fitting and clumsy to handle12). The large rectangular textiles among the bog finds from Schleswig-Holstein 13) cannot in my opinion be compared with Danish skin capes. The papers published to date interpret the German textiles as man's cloaks on the basis of the writin'gs of Tacitus and other Roman CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 321 chroniclers - a theory which is uncertain as the archaeological material reveals no conclusive evidence. Large rectangularfabrics of this kind can be used in a variety of ways, for example as or blankets. In the Danish oak coffin burials they appear to have been used as the latter. The skilful execution of the large square textiles, notably for example the Thorsbjerg pieces with their wide tablet-woven borders, undeniably conveys the impression that the fabrics were intended to be seen. But when considering their shape and decoration it should be pointed out that a characteristic of tablet is that it can only be carried out along

Fig. 382. Hlad from the Mammen find (C 139). Viking Period. Hlad fra Mammenfundet (C 139). Vikingetid.

Fig. 383. (Schiness), knitted. Gavle Museum (12326). Pandeb~nd (Schiness), strikket. Gavle Museum (12326).

Fig. 384. Fillet of painted birch bark. (Varmland, Nordiska Museet). Pandeb~nd af birkebark med bemaling. (Varmland, Nordiska Museet). 322 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS straight edges, therefore the square shape of the garment is predetermined. Whether the square cloths are part of a male costume has not been fully established, although the Thors- bjerg textiles appear to be part of the male attire it need not always be the case, as the shape is equally practicable for both man's and woman's wear. In "Finnische Trachten aus der jiingeren Eisenzeit" the author, Hj. Appelgren-Kivalo, mentions that square shawls or cloaks were part of the Finnish woman's costume - in recent times it is true, but this does not detract from the idea of a garment that could be worn by both sexes. Roman pictorial representations, on the other hand, depict square cloaks, namely the sagum or sagulum worn by Roman soldiers. Lillian M. Wilson 14) considers this garment to be of Gallic origin, in any event it appears to have been widely worn. Several ancient chroniclers mention it, for example Tacitus writes that the German sagum was pinned together with a , or for want ofthis, a thorn. The sagum was worn either double or at any rate with a fold over the shoulders. Some soldiers are depicted on the Trajan column (Fig. 379), their cloaks are fringed below and are c. calf-length. The cloaks are tied in fr:ont at the neck, and the cloth is doubled over the left shoulder, the right arm is free. Lillian Wilson judges the length ofthesagum to be Ph of the height of the wearerfrom the ground to the neck. The textiles from the Schleswig bog finds are about 2 m in length, and the blanket (Fig. 48) from Vejen in Denmark is 2.02 m long and 1.53 wide - measurements which correspond well with the size of a sagum 15). In conclusion then, perhaps the most plausible theory is that the rectangular textiles recovered from bogs were primarily used as capes or mantles but could well have served as a covering at night. Their variety of uses is further discussed later on. HOODED CAPES Apart from skin capes big enough to cover most of the body, the bog finds have yielded a hooded garment meant to cover the head and shoulders. Only one garment of this kind has so far been recovered in Denmark; it came from Krogens M¢lle Mose and there was no indication whether it was a man's or a woman's garment. In situ the hair side of the cape faced inwards; the pattern (Fig. 380a-b) shows that the cut is fairly simple. The garment is closely related to the medieval hooded capes excavated at Herjolfsnes in GreenlandI6). However, the Krogens M¢lle has no long point reaching to the shoulders like the cloth liripipe hoods from and the hood of a man's garment from Bockstenl7) in . The closest parallels are a hooded cape from Skjoldehamnl8) in and a garment in the National Museum, Edinburgh. The hooded cape from Krogens M¢lle Mose reaches the of an adult unlike the Greenland specimens which are fairly short. A pollen analysis indicates that the Krogens M¢lle cape dates from the Middle Ages or late Iron Age. However, I feel that this dating is too late because textile finds excavated from the same site at the same time belong to the category I have termed the Huldremose group, which I consider to date from the early Iron Age at the latest. In any event there is no reason why the hooded cape should not have been worn in Denmark over a considerable span of time in . A relief carved on a sarcophagus shows that the ancient Romans wore this type of garment which they called cuCUllUSI9). The problem of its origin is not thereby solved. Gjertrud and Gutorm Gjessing20) discuss it during their treatment of the Lapp costume and illustrate that a hood was also worn as part of a short cape, and not only in conjunction with fur anoraks and the like. The specimen described by the Gjessings came from the Tschuktsch people and it seems very likely that the skin was worn with the CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 323 animal's breast and back on the shoulders, while the neck and head could be cut to form most of the hood, possibly bound round the edges to frame the face of the wearer. It is evidently fairly usual for fur Arctic garments to have hoods made from the neck skin as it continues up the back of the head, and primitive tend to wear animal skins so that the various parts of the skin correspond with those of the wearer21). Hooded capes have also been widely worn by the peasantry in a number of countries up to recent times, no doubt because ofthe protection they offer against wind and rain. C. von Linne describes22) seeing women wearing hooded capes of broadcloth in bad weather during his tra- vels in Lapland in 1732. As late as 19271. Manninen publishes a similar garment23) from Dagji). The most interesting example, though, is the one published by U. T. Sirelius24) from Russian Karelian in which the hood continues into a cape, falling in a point in front and behind which reaches to the waist, in each point is a strap through which a passes to fasten the cape. Moreover, Danish peasant costumes include hooded capes, the Danish Folk Museum (Third Dept. National Museum) has an example in its collections, likewise Niels Blicher25), 1795, mentions a district where old men wore red, brown or grey hooded capes, buttoned from the chin down over the chest. Guild laws, too, mention that craftsmen wore capes with hoods. For example, blacksmiths in Roskilde (1491) were required to remove their hoods when singing the praises of the saints26).

CAPS Only one cap has been recovered from a Danish bog, it was part of the Daugbjerg I find (Fig. 381), therefore probably a man's cap although it could well be worn by a woman. The cap is of skin with a slight point at the top, rather like the boss of a , but otherwise close-fitting.

HLAD The Mammen find of the Viking period yielded pennant-shaped with gold needle net- ting insets (Fig. 101) which were probably part of an ornamental headdress, although they are the subject of some discussion. J. J. A. Worsaae27), for example, interprets them as part of a silken belt - an unlikely explanation, as the material is too fine to bear the strain of being worn as a belt. Axel 01rik28) published a more feasible hypothesis in 1910, he considered that they were part of a or frontlet, a so-called hlad. The shape of the pieces supports this, because when the short ends join as shown in Fig. 382 some narrow horizontal in the padded borders harmonise, as if they were traces left by ties or some other form of fastening. In the same ends are also some stiffeners, probably whalebones, to keep the band upright - a necessity if it were worn as a circlet round the head with the padding over the forehead. The fabric is equally carefully finished on both sides, and likewise the gold tablet weaving. Among the textiles excavated from the Viking settlement of Birka in Sweden were traces of finely worked headdresses, and Agnes Geijer mentions the possibility that these are head- bands or broad circlets with streamers hanging behind29). Coins and pictorial representations show that this type of headdress was worn both in and Southern at the same period. In a bible which once belonged to Carl the Bald (d. 877) there is a picture of a man wearing a headband tied at the nape of the neck, and on an ivory relief depicting Emperor Otto I with consort and child, all three figures have . The Empress also wears a , a 324 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURJALS

,_ ...•, / \ / I \ / I I , I I , I \ , , I \ I \ I I I I I I I I ,I \ I '---'" I o o MH MH

Fig. 385. from Fra:er Mose (7141-42). Fig. 386. Shoe from Daugbjerg Mose. Sko fra Frreer Mose (7141-42) . Sko fra Daugbjerg Mose.

,.,.- . I I , x '. ".-- . ,. '. , \ ,. ! iI ,I / ; . I I . I I • I \ . \. ,/ \ \, 1 1 I I I \ '•... ,I

•.. 91.::.TTl,. ------~ Fig. 387. Shoe from R~nbjerg Mose (D. 10161). Fig. 389. Diagram of the R~nbjerg Mose (D. 2625 g). Sko fra R13nbjerg Mose (D. 10161). Rids af poncho fra R13nbjerg Mose (D. 2625 g). CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 325 square worn diagonally so that one of the points rests on the top of her head and the opposite one hangs midway down the back. She is clad in a loose garment with very wide sleeves trimmed at the wrists with wide bands, probably either sewn or woven. In A. Olrik's opinion the origin of the headband should be sought for within the Roman Empire, and in classical antiquity the Greeks also wore this type of headdress - to name but one example: the statue of the charioteer in Delphi has a headband which is very reminiscent of the Scandinavian hlad30). Both folk etymology and folk tradition show that the hlad survived in the North into historic times; indeed in places headbands have been worn as part orthe woman's costume until very recently. In shape the headband in Fig. 383 in Gavle Museum, Sweden, closely resembles the Mammen specimen in Denmark. It is knitted in beautiful colours, with a bright red ground and pattern in , black and aquamarine. The Nordiska Museet in Stockholm has a great number of headbands made from a variety of materials: white cotton, linen, black satin, horse- hair, bead , broadcloth, and birch bark (Fig. 384). The shape varies considerably, sometimes straight and rather narrow, or broad and straight; some headbands have rounded ends, others have a convex curve along one edge. Their width varies from 3 to 16 cm, but the average is c. 8 cm, and usually the greatest width is where the band rests on the forehead. The length varies between 31-55 cm, but the average measurement is midway between these. The bands are lengthened with narrow laces for tying or they bear traces of ties. By laying the Mammen pieces flat on a piece of paper and drawing their contours in unbro- ken lines, i.e. reconstructing the outline when fragmentary, it is possible to gain an impression of the Mammen hlad's length and I estimate this to be about 110-120 cm, the broadest part of the band would then be 55-60 cm long and the ends c. 30 cm each for fastening together. These measurements correspond well with those of the Swedish hlads mentioned above. We know that in some districts in Sweden the hlad was occasion<;tllygiven by a master to his servants as a reward for loyal service. Sigfrid Svensson3\) records that the ancient term hlad is still used in an abbreviated form as "la" in several places in Norway, in and in parts of Sweden, although the word is, used to describe slightly different pieces, sometimes a circlet and sometimes the streamers at the back ofthe headdress. This is interesting, because accord- ing to Hjalmar Falk32) the word hlad (Old Swedish ladh, Old Danish lad) originally described both the tool- the tablet loom - and the product woven with it. The two Mammen bands have tablet weaving in gold and threads, they are otherwise made of silk taffeta with insets of gold needle netting; this combination would be aptly described by the terms gold-hlad and silk-hlad. In more recent times we find headbands in the folk costumes of , and the Slavonic and Balkan cou~tries33), moreover the East European in sprang (Figs. 273-275) which have a band twisted round a wooden ring betray some similarity to the Scandinavian head- band. The folk costumes of Bohemia and the Tyrol have headbands of black velvet, and a similar type was worn in Scania, Sweden. The bridal costume in both Norway and Sweden had a black band called pandebort, and in Danish borde34) was a term used to describe a certain band used in the bridal headdress of the Falster district35).

SHOES have been found in three bogs, namely Frreer, Daugbjerg and R¢nbjerg, and there was once some form of with the Kragelund find but this has not survived. The cut of a shoe is not sufficient to tell us whether the shoe has been wor!! by a man or a woman, however 326 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

it is on record that the R¢nbjerg shoes found in 1921 were worn by a c. 30-year old male corpse. The Daugbjerg shoes are likewise assumed to be man's shoes, whereas according to the finder of the Fneer shoe36) it was worn by a woman, and this is presumably correct judging from the fine little foot inside it37). The patterns of the shoes (Figs. 385-387) are clearly similar, and therefore represent the same type of shoe, i.e. a hide shoe consisting of a piece of skin folded round the foot. The skin is shaped for the heel, and has a flap to fold over the instep and toes, the gathered edges of the shoe are secured by laces. The R¢nbjerg and Fneer shoes have an indentation by the toes; the Daugbjerg shoe is cut out where the other shoes have their flaps (stippled lines in the diagrams). It is difficult to date these shoes by comparing them with other primitive types of shoe, because simple hide shoes have been worn in many parts of the world up to the present day. I have seen a pair of shoes from Iceland which are more primitive than our prehistoric exam- ples. They each consisted simply of a piece of skin with a drawstring arrangement round the edge with which the shoe was kept on the foot. An Icelander tells me that hide shoes have to be sewn when wet, and then put on the feet wet in to obtain the correct shape. And if these shoes become stiff and uncomfortable they can be softened in water again and reshaped38). Gudmund Hatt writes about Peruvian shoes39) of raw lama hide wrapped round the foot when wet and folded over the toes. There are numerous recent references from many countries about hide shoes; for example 1. Manninen's account of hide shoes in Estonia40), and Sigfrid Svensson's41) reports from Sweden, Norway, and elsewhere. The widespread use of hide shoes of this kind through the ages excludes a close typological dating of the Danish prehi- storic hide shoes. A pollen analysis of the shoe from Arnitlund (Fig. 388) dated it to the Celtic Iron Age42). The shoe leather is cut into fine strips over the vamp - a method even more sophisticated in the extremely beautiful shoes from Thorsbjerg Mose and the Hanoverian bog finds which are generally viewed by archaeologists to be Roman influenced and to date from the Migration Period. The shoes from Frreer Mose and Daugbjerg Mose, judging from the textiles recovered with them, are older than the Roman Iron Age; the shoes of the R¢nbjerg find are probably part of the older group. Therefore, it is not inconceivable that all the shoes from Danish bog finds are more or less contemporary, and, as we have seen, fairly similar.

HAND WEAR The mitten from Asle Mose, Sweden43) (Fig. 347), dated to the Iron Age by Swedish archaeo- logists, is the oldest and best preserved item of hand wear to be recovered in . It is especially interesting because it is made in the looped needle netting technique. No similar item has yet been found among prehistoric Danish bog finds, although in an oak coffin burial at Guldh¢j dated to the early Bronze Age, a woollen fragment originally thought to be the point of a shoe is most likely the end of a mitten.

PONCHO A textile among the R¢nbjerg Mose finds looks like a torn sack at first glance and not in any way striking, but it is in fact a garment (diagram Fig. 389) although whether that of a man or a CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 327

Fig. 388. Shoe from Arnitlund. (Haderslev Museum). Sko fra Arnitlund. (Haderslev Museum).

woman remains uncertain. An examination has established that it is a poncho, a type of gar- ment which, in its simplest form, consists solely of a piece of skin or cloth with a hole in the middle for the head, the garment falls over the shoulders and covers the chest and back of the wearer44). The cloth is rectangular and folded across the middle, therefore the length of the garment is half the length of the cloth. It once had seams up the sides and the arms of the wearer passed through slits on each side where the seams ceased. The opening for the head has been made by means of two weft threads, one from each side, which turn in the middle of the web and return to their respective selvedges. The turning wefts make a vertical slit with a selvedge that needs no hemming or finishing. It is a simple and attractive solution with parallels in ethnographical material, for example in the collections of the National Museum in Copenhagen, where some South American ponchos45) have slits for the head woven in this manner. Gudmund Hatt46) writes that the poncho constituted one of the most important items of clothing in Ancient . Two lengths of cloth were usually seamed together lengthways, the seam running down the middle of the garment leaving a slit midway for the head. An Egyptian with a vertical slit for the head, dated to about 1250 B.C., is of the same type, and a number of Egyptian of the Roman Period have round neck openings with a slit down the front47). As a garment the R!lJnbjerg poncho is curious because of its irregular width, it is also a curiously woven textile in that some extra warp threads have been added to give the poncho extra width across the shoulders (see Figs. 144,389). An addition of this kind is more likely to be intentional rather than a correction, and the general impression is that the weaver has been inspired by a preconceived model. Unfortunately no Danish sources contribute to a solution of the problem. In ethnographical literature, though, there are two references to garments in other parts of the world which resemble the R!lJnbjerg poncho. One is the short poncho worn by the Finnish Vogul and Syrjan hunters48). It is open down the sides but two long bands at the corners below in front are tied like a belt round the waist of the wearer. The garment is wider 'across the shoulders, the surplus width hangs over them; the material is leather or broadcloth partially covered with leather. Hunters in North have worn a similar poncho but of strong linen. The second garment to resemble the R!lJnbjerg poncho is a special type of which occurs among finds from Arica on the coast of Peru49). It consists of a piece of cloth folded across the middle, the neck opening is a vertical slit, and slits are left in the side seams for the arms. The shape of the garment is very distinctive because the shoulder line is curved. If spread out flat the shape would be hammock-like. An example illustrated by Carl Skotts- 328 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 390. Male figure in a close-fitting trousered costume. Gundestrup Cauldron. Mandsfigur ifl'lrt smevre benklreder. Gundestrupkarret.

berg50) is 192 cm wide at the top, only 90 cm along the lower edge, and 88 cm in height. The width thus decreases more than a metre by a gradual reduction in the number of warp threads. Unfortunately no detailed description of the technical characteristics is given, but be this as it may, the garment from Arica is a very accomplished piece of work with which the clumsy R¢nbjerg poncho cannot compete. However, the very difficulties which the Danish weaver set in the way for herself by increasing the width of the textile, indicate that an existing model had animated her efforts. The R¢nbjerg poncho belongs to the group of garments which are finished products when taken from the loom, and I return to this group in the following. Unfortunately, the R¢nbjerg poncho cannot be satisfactorily dated.

MEN'S CLOTHING Into the category of male garments fall items of clothing which have in all likelihood been worn by men.

TROUSERS Although the ancient Greeks knew that the Medes, Persians and Scythians51) wore , they did not adopt them as part of their costume, and in pictorial representations depicting trouser-clad figures, this garment distinguishes the Barbarians from the Greeks. The Romans were also aware of the existence oftrollsered garments but did not incorporate these into their clothing until the times of the early Empire. And when Tacitus (Chap. 17) mentions the close- fitting costume of the Germans, it was presumably with the long Germanic trousers in mind (cf. J. Br¢ndsted)52) often portrayed in Roman . However, the fallen German warriors shown in a Roman relief (Fig. 394) appear to be wearing fairly loose trousers. None of the more recent bog finds in Denmark have contained a pair of trousers, therefore we still have to rely on the finds recovered at an earlier date from South Jutland and North German bogs, i.e. Thorsbjerg, Damendorf, Daetgen and Marx-EtzeI53). The rich votive offering from Thorsbjerg in Angel yielded two pairs of trousers but only one pair (Fig. 391) is well preserved. In the best pair one of the trousers legs is torn off halfway down, the other terminates in a sort of foot not unlike the modem romper for babies. The pattern for the top of the foot (Fig. 392) is almost wing-shaped. There is a seam

f CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 329

lengthways along t.he sole from the toe, about the middle of the arch a gore is inserted which broadens out towards the heel, making a rounded shape and room for the heel (Fig. 393). A narrow band joins the foot to the leg. The full length ofthe garment is a good metre, the width of the leg, on the other hand, is minimal, only c. 30 cm at the calf; the waist measures about 1 m. A trapeze-shaped piece is let into the seat, and in front a narrow -shaped inset runs from the crutch up the front of the trousers and dividing the waistband. Six straps are sewn onto the waistband for holding a belt. Strangely enough these straps are made of roughly cut strips of cloth with neither seam, border, nor any other form offinish. The wrong side of the waistband faces outwards, perhaps because the waistband was folded over when worn, to conceal the belt and belt straps (cf. Fig. 394 showing the fallen German warriors with trousers). As shown by the pattern, the cut of the trousers is carefully calculated and cannot be described as primitive, while the material is Fig. 391. Trousers from Thorsbjerg exceptionally well woven in fine broken Mose (after C. Engelhardt). lozenge twill - indicating that the wearer was Brog fra Thorsbjerg Mose (e. C. Engelhardt). not in humble circumstances. The trousers from Damendorf in South Schleswig (Figs. 396,397) are also a fine piece of clothing. The similarity in principle between them and the Thorsbjerg pair is very apparent although some pieces are unfortunately mis- sing. For instance, the lower parts of the legs are torn away and it is impossible to judge whether these once terminated in stocking feet (Fig. 398). Moreover, a V-shaped piece is mis- sing from the oval opening in front, the edges have the reverse side of the material facing outwards. Perhaps the piece was intentionally removed as there are otherwise no signs of wear. An inset from crutch to waist is unlikely but the trousers have a trapeze-shaped piece in the seat. MH 70 20 JO ';0 .,0 The cloth is now golden brown, it is beauti- , , , , , fully woven in broken lozenge twill - a fact Fig. 392. Diagram for the Thorsbjerg which could well date it to the Migration trousers. Period. Diagram af bukser fra Thorsbjerg. 330 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 393. The foot of the Thorsbjerg trousers. Foden til bukser fra Thorsbjerg.

However, a pair of trousers from Daetgen Mose in Holstein (Fig. 399-401) are not of striking quality, in fact their appearance is undistinguisQed both as regards cloth and cut and in addi- tion to this, their condition is mediocre. The Daetgen trousers, though, are interesting. The principal and biggest piece is cut in one, the legs are divided up to the crutch. The large piece is folded in such a way that the seams run along the inside of the legs, the lower part of which each terminates in a slit 17-18 cm in length. The waist is made wider by the insertion of two fairly large, unidentical panels. However, the separate piece for the seat links the Daetgen trousers to the two pairs just described. The closest parallel is probably the trousers recovered in a find from Marx-EtzeIS4). Judging from the diagrams and notes in H. Hahne's report, the chief constituent is again one large piece of cloth split up to the crutch. The sides of the large piece are folded inwards, making the legs, and the seat piece added from the waist is to give sufficient room for the body. The full length of the garment is given as c. 85 cm and the waistband c. 130 cm. These four pairs of trousers are the oldest known examples to date to have been found in Northern Europe. Already in 1914 Gudmund HattSS) described the Thorsbjerg trousers as leggingbrogen because he considered them to have originated from two separate for the legs which were extended upwards and seamed together in the crutch (perhaps sometimes attached to a triangular forming the crutch piece). But because the Daetgen and Marx-Etzel trousers, as we have seen, are each cut from a single piece of cloth, with a short seam in front, and seamed up the inside of the legs, they cannot in my opinion be legging . That they are mutually the same type of trousers is obvious. A closer study of garments worn in polar regions gives a closer understanding of the development of trousers. Gudmund Hatt, in his doctoral thesis entitled "Arktiske Skind- dragter", describes a child's legged garment from the TschuktschS6) (Fig. 421) which he con- siders to stem from an ancient shape. It has probably evolved from the custom of simply CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 331 wrapping an entire skin round the body and then attempting to shape it so that it made a warm and fairly comfortable piece of clothing. In Fig. 402 we see that the part which has comprised the back and haunches of the animal, forms the lower part of the child's garment, in this case the trousers. It is shaped simply by a lengthwise slit up the middle of the bottom edge and an additional gusset (ki) - in other words, the same cut as the Daetgen trousers. The child's garment is made from reindeer calfskin, a skin garment for ·an adult would demand a skin which is correspondingly larger and even then it could well be too short and necessitate some form of leggings. Another possibility is to use the entire skin as trousers. I am not convinced by G. Hatt's opinion that legging breeches are the forerunners of the combined one-piece garment5?). In cold climates all parts of the body have to be protected, and once the advantages of closed garments are appreciated, it is equally important to shape the upper garment as well as the lower garment. Neither do I consider that the triangular cloth for the crutch was necessarily worn with leggings and trousers of this type, because a gusset to allow room for movement must have been a simple necessity. A gusset like this in the child's garment was probably added because the smallness of the skin made an inset necessary to obtain a better fit. The trouser opening was closed by a flap (kl) constituting a separate piece of kin sewn behind but tied in front. As soon as cloth could be produced to required widths it became possible to make comfortable trousers with a wide waist. The medieval trousers from

Skjoldehamn58) in Norway, for example, with a waist measurement of 130-140 cm illustrate the idea, and although these trousers are otherwise not similar to those discussed here, they are equally primitive in many ways. An interesting of the Daetgen trousers is that the cloth from which they are cut need not be particularly wide because the trousers have a gusset to give them shape. This may well be a relic from the times when all garments were made from skins. Costume traditions

Fig. 394. German warrior with bare back and special sleeves. Fig. 395. Kneeling young germanic warrior His trousers are wide and the waist-band is turned over (after wearing trousers with a rounded area on E. Petersen und A. von Domaszewski, PI. 77 A). the front. (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris). Germaner med bukser med ombllljet linning. Han har nlilgen ryg og Kn

Fig. 396. The Damendorf trousers, front. Fig. 397. The Damendorf trousers, back. Bukser fra Damendorf, forside. Bukser fra Damendorf, bagside.

obstinately survive, as we have seen from a number of examples, long after the original reason for their existence has slipped into oblivion. Skin trousers from East Greenland also show that the type of pattern discussed here could be adapted while remaining basically the same (Fig. 402), the diagram of the trousers of polar bear skin from Angmagssalik demonstrates an improved cut; in the present context it is interesting to note that in East Greenland, too, a shirt- like garment of polar bear skin has been worn, similar to the upper part of the Tschuktsch child's costume and the of half a skin (forepart)59). This does not seem to be coincidental because it indicates that the two Greenlandic garments were once cut from one and the same skin, but were later divided for practical reasons. Again making it unlikely that these trousers should have developed from leggings. Therefore, in the present chapter half skin trousers (cf. half skin ponchos)60) is the term used to describe garments which appear to' have evolved from one skin. G. Hatt writes (Skinddragter, P. 147)that: "the cut seems partly dependent upon the material. If the trousers are of sealskin they usually have a median seam but if they are of polar bear skin they are often cut in one piece, therefore their cut differs CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 333

f"· -_ c=:::::S====?; ':, ~. r.bT .: \ : ,, . '. ,.•... .•...... • :- ...'

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Fig. 398. Diagram for the Damendorftrousers. Fig. 399. Trousers from Daetgen, front. Diagram af bukser fra Damendorf. Bukser fra Daetgen, forside.

o 10

Fig. 400. Trousers from Daetgen, back. Fig. 40 I. Diagram for the Daetgen trousers. Bukser fra Daetgen, bagside. Diagram af bukser fra Daetgen. 334 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

MH Fig. 402. Pattern of man's trousers of polar bear skin from Angmagssalik, Greenland. M~nster til mandsbrog af isbj~meskind fra Angmagssalik.

Fig. 404. Loincloth or from Daugbjerg (Find no. 15). 1/15•

LrendekIrede eller sk~rt fra Daugbjerg (Fund nr. 15). 1/15.

Fig. 403. Stunthose from North Jutland knitted in 1941. Stullthose fra Nordjylland, strikket i 1941. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME lN DENMARK 335

somewhat from the usual Eskimo costume in that the trousers have no seams behind but are seamed with a median seam in front, with another seam up each trouser leg on the inside"61). G. Hatt also mentions that a pair of musk-ox skin trousers from King William's Land has the same shape (viz. made from a large skin)62). The cut is also found in trousers worn among the North-West Denee, and Hatt publishes the pattern of man's trousers from the Thnaina Indians on the Kenai peninsula - the latter with long legs which terminate in stocking feet of skin63). So-called langbrog have been worn by the Lapps in Jamtland a generation ago, these trousers are of the same type64).

LEG WRAPPINGS AND LEGGINGS A couple of German bog finds have produced pieces of cloth which are some kind of leg wrappings. H. Hahne considers the strips from Obenaltendorf65) to be knee wrappings, and those from Bernuthsfeld Mose66) wrappings for the legs below the knees67). No counterparts to these pieces have been recovered among Danish finds, but the Daugbjerg find II contains two fabrics found in situ round the legs of the body (Figs. 19-20). These evidently represent extremely primitive leg wrappings, they are not shaped in any way, they are simply wound round the legs. Similar wrappings have been worn in the Amur and Pueblo regions in North America68). A pair of leg wrappings in the ethnographical collections of the National Museum, Copenhagen, are part of a woman's costume from Formosa69). Knitted leggings, so-called stunthoser, were also worn recently in Jutland. Despite their dif- ferences these variations are analogous to the Daugbjerg II wrappings. There is no doubt that these items are rooted in ancient tradition; for example, a male figure depicted in the bible belonging to Carl the Bald has bare toes while the feet and lower legs from the instep upwards are covered with cloth held in position by narrow bands, with another band at the knees much in the same way as that in recent folk costumes. To my mind there is little doubt that leg wrappings have been independent items of clothing. The stunthoser (Fig. 403) worn in Jutland70) cover the instep and terminate in a point at the toes where they are attached by means of a loop to the second toe. The strap under the instep is preferably of sheepskin71). The only shaping of stunthose is simply to decrease a few stitches for the piece covering the top of the foot. Folk costumes in various regions incorporate leggings which finish at the ankle. I. Manninen from illustrates a kind of cloth wrapping72) which is cylindrical, as well as leggings made in looped needle netting - a technique which appears to be extremely old. It was evidently used to make items which would now be knitted. I. Manninen writes that the origins offootless in looped needle netting are undoubtedly medieval, but we have demonstrated that both from a technical point of view and as an item of clothing, it could well date back to prehistoric times.

KIRTLES, TUNICS, AND The Daugbjerg II find also yielded a skin garment which diverges from all the others because it is almost rectangular in shape (Fig. 404). It resembles the loincloth of the Bronze Age man's costume, and it is a matter of judgement whether to call it a kind of skirt or . If worn from the waist the skin reaches below the knees, if wrapped round the chest, level with the armpits, it reaches approximately to the knees. The latter method seems to be the most natural way of wearing it. It may have originally had a strap or straps to keep it up with, but nothing definite 336 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

can be deduced because the top edge is damaged. However, eyelets down the side edges show that these were intended to be tightly laced together. Danish Iron Age finds add very little to our knowledge of the prehistoric in Northern Europe but the bog finds from Schleswig-Holstein and Germany must be briefly touched upon in this context. Two sleeveless from Marx-EtzeF3) and Obenaltendorf'4) respectively are characterised by their simple shape. The Marx-Etzel kirtle is a rectangular piece of cloth folded so that the seam runs down one side of the garment with a slit left at the top for one arm; on the opposite side a vertical slit has been cut in the cloth for the other arm. Along the upper edge are seams which would fall over the shoulder of the wearer and in the middle is a slit for the head. The Obenaltendorf kirtle is dated to c. 200 A.D. on the basis of another object in the find, a hulla. It is made on the same principle as the kirtle from Marx-Etzel except that the side seam is slightly oblique, therefore the width of the top and the bottom is not identical: in other words, a tentative effort to shape the garment. A sleeved tunic in the Reepsholt bog find from East Friesland (Fig. 405) is in many ways unique. It cannot be archaeologically dated but H. A. Potratz75) who has published it; puts the date to sometime during the first two centuries A.D. The tunic, however, reveals details from which we may draw certain conclusions. For example, the in the garment lengthwise is Z-spun, but both Z -and S-spun across its width - a combination which produces a special effect. The textile thus resembles Danish specimens which appear to date to between the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D. The shape of the Frisian tunic has been decided on the loom, i.e. one sleeve was woven first in the required width: the wefts at the middle were woven into a rela- tively narrow section of the warp. After the completion of the sleeve the wefts were then worked through the entire face of the warp, the breadth of which corresponded to twice the height of the finished garment. The second sleeve was then woven in the same manner as the first. The finished garment was seamed down the sides and along the sleeves. A slit was left at each side at the bottom of the tunic to allow greater freedom of movement; a narrow slit in the middle of the fabric sufficed as the neck 'opening. There is no mention of woven gores or crossing wefts in the description of this tunic, we may therefore assume that these are absent. On the' other hand, a trimming of narrow cords is discernible round the neck opening, over the shoulders, and elsewhere, which seems to be four-thread tablet weaving with cording. This is an ornament which has parallels in many Iron Age textiles, for example those from Corselitze and Thorsbjerg. Although it is not possible to narrow down the dating of the Reepsholt tunic by means of the tablet-woven trimmings, a dat- ing to between the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D. is feasible, and corresponds with the dating of textiles with patterns found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. H. A. Potratz evidently judges the garment to be a local product on the grounds that the wool is of the same quality as that from sheep in the same districts to this day. But one feature strikes me as significant when considering the origins of the garment: its shape. It falls into the category of tunic well known among late Egyptian finds76) sometimes called cross-tunic, and closely related to a liturgical , the dalmatica. As we have seen, the method of making the tunic is relatively unusual, and it is unlikely that the idea should spring up independently in two regions at the same time. Questions of origin have not yet been answered; something about its shape and the way it is made may indicate that forerunners of the type were of some kind of - a tempting guess which leads our thoughts to Central Asia77). A cross-tunic thought to date to the 2nd century A.D. was CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 337 excavated in Palmyra78), it is considered the earliest known example of the type. A sleeved tunic from Tut'ankhamun's tomb (c. 1350 B.C.), however, demonstrates that the type with sleeves is far older, although in this case the tunic was not woven in the shape of a cross because the sleeves are of a different material to the rest of the garment79). But the proportions of the tunic are interesting, and the fact that the complete garment resembles a cross-tunic. The body consists of a square piece of cloth, most likely woven in one piece and then folded across the shoulder line before the seams up the sides were sewn. Its length from the shoulders is 113.5 cm, its breadth 95 cm, and the length of the sleeves 36 cm, viz. its full width from sleeve edge to sleeve edge would be 167 cm. The central part would have covered the body and some of the upper arm, whereas the sleeves have reached below the elbow, possibly as far as the hands. To my knowledge the measurements of Egyptian cross-tunics are slightly less across the shoulders, however the Frisian garment (Fig. 405) has a slightly larger measure- ment, the tunic body being 115cm wide, and a total "span" from sleeve edge to sleeve edge of 182 cm. What is really surprising is that a well-built man measured by myself spanned 154 cm from wrist to wrist, probably an above average measurement. Thus the Reepsholt garment, like the Egyptian one, must have had a number of folds over the lower arm. The over long sleeves of Oriental and Asian costumes80) are details which often recur in representations depicting European clothes. For example, Adolf Goldschmidt's "Die Deutsche Buch: malerei"81) has several illustrations showing people wearing tunics with fairly narrow sleeves which fall in folds round the lower arms. PI. 53 in his book shows striking examples ofthis type dated to the close of the 9th century A.D. There is also a tunic with very wide sleeves. At all events the Reepsholt garment conveys the impression of being an alien item of cloth-

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umge.naht" Fig. 405. Tunic from Reepsholt Mose (after H. A. Potratz). Tunika fra Reepsholt Mose (e. H. A. Potratz). 338 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS ing transplanted to Northern Europe. A loose tunic is also more appropriate for a warm climate, whereas cold weather necessitates garments which fit well, and of the Danish prehis- toric garments fOr the upper part of the body, all are fairly close-fitting with the exception of two items, namely a woman's garment of skin (Fig. 435) from M13gelmose, and the poncho from R13nbjerg Mose (Fig. 389). The former had to be pulled over the head which may explain its loose shape. The R13nbjerg poncho, as we have seen is a rectangular piece, woven to measure on the loom, folded in half across the middle. It is 91 cm wide, and reaches to about the elbows on an adult. To return to the cross-tunic and its origins, it appears that scholars agree that a sleeved tunic was worn by the Romans c. two hundred years after the beginning of the Christian era. However, a cross-tunic cannot be proved with absolute certainty because from pictorial representations and we are not able to distinguish between sleeves woven in one with the tunic and sleeves which are put in afterwards. No examples have survived intact in . The details and construction of tunics are best illustrated by the Egyptian material, and this indicates that the cross-tunic has predominated, partly because it occurs more frequently among finds, and partly because it is richly decorated with intricate ornament. It is indeed very likely that the Romans conveyed the from one end of their far-flung possessions to the other, or influenced their neighbours. From Roman portrayals of the subjugated peoples within the Empire, for example on the Marcus column (Fig. 406) the impression is that male Germans frequently wore a tunic-like garment reaching to the knees, and with long sleeves. It fitted very loosely, and was belted at the waist which bloused the top; the side seams were sometimes slit at the bottom. In this context it is interesting to note that a find from Martres de Veyre in published by M. A. Audollent82), who considers it to date from the 1st or 2nd century A.D., contained a sleeved garment in one piece which appears to be a cross-tunic. The width across the should-

Fig. 406. Germans in loose-fitting sleeved tunics. Detail of the Marcus Column (after Johannes Bryjndsted). Germanere ifl1lrtIl1lstsiddende rermetunikaer. Detalje fra Marcussl1ljlens relief (e. Johannes Brl1lndsted). CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 339

ers plus the sleeves amount to 170 cm, the height from shoulder to bottom edge is 125 cm, to which has to be added a fold 8 cm deep. The total length of the cloth is therefore 2.66 m which corresponds fairly well with the measurements of the Egyptian cross-tunic83). The garment is woollen, woven in repp, and generally reminiscent of woollen Egyptian textiles oflate classi- cal antiquity. On the other hand, the texture of the Martres de Veyre garment bears little resemblance to the Frisian cross-tunic, their presumed similarity is purely one of shape. Textile finds in Scandinavia do not as yet give much direct information as to whether the tunic has played an important role in the man's costume of prehistoric times in the North. Pictorial representations, though, indicate that this was perhaps the case; for example, Sune Lindqvist84) has discerned some male figures on Gotland picture-stones wearing loose, sleeved, knee-length garments resembling the classical antique tunic. In addition, in Carl the Bald's bible a man is depicted wearing a fairly loose closed shirt beneath a cloak. The shirt is belted at the waist and just covers the knees, it appears to have a slit at each side. These features are in close harmony with the tunics under discussion. This type of garment may be a shirt pulled over the head called kolten, worn here and there in Scandinavia by peasants and

fishermen until recently. Sigfrid Svensson85) published a photograph of a man wearing it; the sleeves seem to be wide and the armholes are unshaped, the side seams likewise appear to be straight up and down. There are two long sleeved shirts among German bog finds. The one recovered from

Bernuthsfeld Mose86) has fitted sleeves, and judging from H. Hahne's illustration the added sleeves have straight seams. But the garment is made up of so many patches that it is difficult to decide what pieces constitute the pattern. It is 105 cm in length, and the span from to wristband is 175 cm, the chest measurement is only 60 cm. In other words, it is a fairly c1ose- fitting garment, the rather long sleeves have presumably been folded back in cuffs. The second shirt is from Thorsbjerg87), and thought to date from the Migration Period. It is well preserved and must have been an exceptionally fine and carefully made garment. The shirt consists of four pieces of cloth, and has two ornamental bands at the lower edges of the sleeves. The front piece is 86 cm long and the back piece 90 cm. It is 56 cm wide at the tablet- woven band trimming the lower edge of the back piece. The neck opening is about 3-3yz cm deeper in front than behind, and about 26 cm long across the shoulders, although the latter is not absolutely clear due to damage. The sleeves are taken across the loom, thus ensuring a maximum utilisation of the product; the loom width constitutes the length of the sleeves, demonstrated by selvedges at the armhole and at the wrist. The span of the costume, then, has been c. 162 cm. The sleeves are slightly shaped by folding the material so that a slight curve is formed at the top of the sleeve, the seam of which meets the back piece c. 7 cm below the shoulder seam. The sleeves are not either shaped below by cutting, instead their width is maintained to a little way beyond the elbow, after which the material is taken in and seamed, at the wrists the measurement has decreased to 18 cm. It is generally assumed that the Thorsbjerg shirt was worn outside the trousers. This may be correct, but it is doubtful whether it resembled the Reepsholt tunic and the loose garments worn by German warriors in Roman reliefs. Indeed, two different shirts were probably worn by men, the loose garment closely related to the dalmatica, and the closer fitting type whose origins are difficult to define, although on the Celtic Gundestrup bowl (National Museum, Copenhagen), for example, dating from shortly before the birth of Christ, we see male figures clad in what appear to be short, close-fitting shirts. 340 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

\ \, \ \ \ \ \ \ \ , ,.•..;) ...-'

Fig. 408. Medieval kirtle from Herjolfsnes, Greenland, (after Poul N~rlund). C. '120. Fig. 407. Shirt from Thorsbjerg (after C. Engelhardt). Middelalderkjortel fra Herjolfsnes (e. Poul N~rlund). Skjorte fra Thorsbjerg (efter C. Engelhardt). Ca. '120.

MEDIEVAL KIRTLES Three kirtles remain to be described, all three are textiles from bogs, Kragelund, Moselund and RjI)nbjerg, and all are dated to the Middle Ages. This dating is based on their striking similarity to the exceptional costume finds excavated in 1921 by Poul NjI)rlund at the Norse settlement site of Herjolfsnes in Greenland88). On the basis of comprehensive European material NjI)rlund dates the Herjolfsnes costumes to the 14th century, probably the second half of the century. The most characteristic feature of the Greenland kirtles is the deep gores inset in the middle at the front and back, as well as at the side seams (Fig. 408). The front and back pieces of the kirtle continue to the shoulders; there is no belt. The lateral gores extend to the armholes, whereas the front and back gores evidently finish at the waist. Some of the Herjolfsnes garments have a number of gores at the sides and are therefore quite full. The front and back pieces are joined by sloping shoulder seams which follow the shoulder line when the garment is worn. The armholes are well-shaped to correspond with the high shoul- der seam of the sleeves. The sleeves increase in width at the elbows to give the arms full free- dom of movement. At the wrist the sleeve is too narrow for a hand to pass through - in the Middle Ages, too, it was customary to have slits for the hands which were sewn together once the garment was put on, the seam being unpicked when the garment was taken off. The kirtle from Moselund (Fig. 409) most closely resembles the Greenland kirtles, with the same well-shaped armholes and sleeves shaped to correspond with them at the top, while the opening at the wrists is very narrow. It has also sloping shoulder seams, and there are inset gores by the side seams which extend to the armholes. In the middle at the front and back are also gores, but with a slit below - a practical detail should this relatively long garment be worn when riding. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 341

0'

I

Fig. 409. Man's medieval kirtle from Moselund (C 5238-39). Middelalderlig mandskjortel fra Moselund (C 5238-39). 342 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

'0

Fig. 410. Fragment of kirtle from Rlilnbjerg Fig. 411. Kirtle from Kragelund Mose, c. 1130. Mose (D 2625 a-e). (After Paul Nlilrlund). Fragment af kjortel era R~nbjerg Mose (C. 2625 a-e). Kjortel era Kragelund Mose, ca. 1130, (e. Poul N~rlund).

The R¢nbjerg fragment (Fig. 410) although severely damaged is identifiable with the other kirtles of this group. On the other hand, the Kragelund kirtle (Fig. 411) is complete but in spite of certain similarities its pattern reveals essential differences when compared with the kirtles discussed in the above. The lateral gores, for example, are shorter, extending only from hem to waist. The shape of the sleeves is entirely different, and the neck opening is pointed both back and front. It is here we find a resemblance to the poncho, in that the middle panel is in one piece back and front without shoulder seams - a poncho built out by the addition of lateral gores and sleeves. The Kragelund kirtle89) closely resembles a Norwegian kirtle from Skjolde- hamn90), and is also similar to a man's costume from Bocksten91) in Sweden, although in this latter case, a slight shaping of the upper edge of the sleeve can be discerned; the central panel is in one piece without shoulder seams and the gores are shallow. In the present context, a child's tunic from Egypt92) (Fig. 412) is interesting because the same details are to be found: gores from waist to hem, straight shoulder line and sleeves fitted without a shaping seam. It probably represents the type of tunic from which the alba evolved, a liturgical vestment of the Christian Church, and no doubt a garment which has influenced secular costume in Europe as Christianity spread. Fig. 413 gives the pattern of an alba from Castel S. Elia near Nepi in the Roman Campagna. J. Braun93) describes it together with four others of the same origin: the width of the front and back varies between 80 and 115 cm, and the length of the sleeves from 66 to 73 cm. The similarity to the Kragelund garment is striking (Fig. 411), even certain details in the sleeves of both costumes resemble each other. The Kragelund kirtle is only c. 65 cm across the shoulders and the length of the sleeves is about the same. There is an even greater resemblance between the alba and the Skjoldehamn kirtle, and particularly with the latter's matching shirt which does not appear to have had centre gores. The kirtle is 95 cm wide across the shoulders and the shirt 90 cm, both these measurements are noticeably large as Gutorm Gjessing points out94). CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 343

The R¢nbjerg fragment (Fig. 410) obviously provides little information, also as regards its classification as a woman's or man's garment, and the chances of making such an identifi- cation would be slight even if the piece were larger. For Poul N¢rlund writes that the garments from Herjolfsnes95) were virtually identical for both sexes, even with the help of skeletal remains it was extremely difficult to differentiate between men's and women's kirtles. And Gutorm Gjessing's illustration of the man's costume from Skjoldehamn shows that the over and under garments are here very similar. A woman's shift (Fig. 414) now in the collections at the National Museum, Copenhagen, from the island of Als, is cut very much like the garments under discussion and there is no doubt that it is closely related to the medieval kirtles. At the same museum is also the of a shift96) (Fig. 415) which has a centre panel in one piece like the garments from Bocksten and Skjoldehamn.

Fig. 412. Egyptian tunic with sleeves sewn in. (Staatlische Museen, Berlin, No. 9935). IEgyptisk tunika med tilsyede rermer. (Staat!. Mus., Berlin, No 9935). 344 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 413. Alba from Castel S. ELia (after J. Braun). ALba fra Castel s. Elia (e. J. Braun) .

..- /

oMKI$ Fig. 414. Woman's shift with lateral gores from Als, Denmark. C. 1/20. (Dansk Folkemuseum). Kvindesrerk med sidekiler. Fra Als, ca. Iho. Dansk Fig. 415. Short bodice (oplod) from Als. Ca. 1/20. Folkemuseum. Oplod fra Als, ca. Iho.

WOMEN'S CLOTHING The clothes examined in the following pages give the impression that they are women's garments but, as we have seen, it is far from always certain whether a given item represents part of a man's costume or pal1 of a woman's.

CAPS Two cap-like nets have been recovered from Danish bogs. The exquisite net popularly called "Queen Gunhild's " because it is presumably part of the Haraldskcer find97) has earlier been published in detail, and in the present book a description of the way it has been made is given in Chapter VIII under" Sprang". The net is fragmentary, therefore the way it was worn remains in doubt. Unfortunately, too, the second cap - part of the Arden find - made in the same technique, had slipped from the woman's head, and when taken from the bog it was simply a compressed lump. It proved to be relatively undamaged, and after cleaning and conservation it seems as though the curve for the crown was made by pulling in drawstrings at the nape of the neck (Figs. 15, 16). Some idea of the way these nets were worn could well be given by the very attractive worn by two women spinning in a Greek vase painting (Fig. 124). Moreover, the period may chronologically coincide with that ofthe Danish from bogs. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 345

Fig. 416. Woman's poncho from Skrydstrup. Early Bronze Age. Kvindeponcho fra Skrydstrup. JEldre bronzealder.

Fig. 417. Diagram for woman's poncho from Skrydstrup, c. 1/10. Diagram for kvindeponcho fra Skrydstrup, ca. '/10.

,.., - - - -.t,..a.a.dre!. ------~_.- - - r~------

Fig. 418. Woman's poncho from Borum Esh~j, c. 1/'0. Kvindeponcho fra Borum Esh~j, CL=J L_JL J CJ ca. '/'0. 346 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

______- - ---=:=--_-:...-_-_-=--_-=--=---::::;:;:»------'lI

, , , , l ------I \ Fig. 419. Woman's poncho from Egtved, c. 1/10. Kvindeponcho fra Egtved, c. 1/,0.

o

MH Fig. 420. Diagram of the forepart of a polar bear skin with pattern of the man's from Angmagssalik superimposed shows how closely the dimensions correspond. C. 1/15. Rids afforparti afisbjprneskind. Heri indlagt mpnster, der viser, hvor npje stprrelsesforholdene i en mandstrpje fra AngmagssaJik svarer til materialet. Ca. 1/15.

In any event the Danish specimens are an of the highest quality accomplished with considerable technical skill. Finds from the Viking Period at Birka, Sweden, likewise demonstrate that great efforts were made to produce attractive headgear. Women are also 98 depicted with their hair up, for example in a textile from the Oseberg ship-buriaI ), and a

silver figurine from Oland99). CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 347

b

.Fig. 422. Diagram of the upper half of the pattern Fig. 421. Tschuktsch child's garment in Fig. 421, taken as the basis of a half-skin (after G. Hatt, pI. XIII). poncho. Tschuktschisk barnedragt (e. G. Hatt, pI. Rids af overdelen af ml'lnstret i Fig. 421, taget som XIII). grundlag for en forskindsponcho.

UPPER GARMENTS In his pioneering treatise entitled" Arktiske Skinddragter" published in 1914, Gudmund Hatt wrote a section on "The Poncho and Related Shapes"lOO). I quote the beginning: "The term poncho, stemming from Spanish South America, will be used here to describe all garments of the poncho shape. In its simplest form a poncho is a piece of textile or skin with a hole in the middle for the head, thus causing the poncho to rest on both shoulders and cover the chest and back." Many examples will be given in the following pages of garments with characteristics akin to the poncho though without being one hundred per cent similar. Because Gudmund Hatt's definition is wide enough to embrace variations, the term poncho is used in the present volume to describe garments of this kind for which no other really descriptive name exists. As far as Danish prehistoric woman's garments are concerned it includes three examples from the early Bronze Age: Skrydstrup, Borum Esh~j and Egtved (Figs. 416-419), each of which is a textile with a hole in the middle for the head, and with sleeves in one with the body piece. Already in 1935 Dr. H. C. Broholm put forward the theory that Danish Bronze Age garments were descended from skin clothing, he supported this by pointing out that the overlapping rough edges of seams and absence of turned down edges were characteristic of skin sewing, and not particularly suitable for woven fabrics which frayIOI). Broholm referred to a number ofHatt's observations in connection with Arctic costume, as well as two garments from the Tschuktsch: a woman's costumel02) and a child's garment103). Hatt also discusses a man's polar bear skin costume from Angmagssalikl04) (Fig. 420). The child's garment from the Tschuktsch is cut from a reindeer calfskin (Fig. 421). A fold along a horizontal line r.e - {e gives the sleeves and shoulders, the neck skin r falls down the back as a centre panel. The square flap n is free on three sides, caused when the neck skin was cut, the flap is used either as the back piece of a hood or as a high collar. When the bottom part of the skin is folded vertically twice at b - b the two tubes below form two rudimentary trouser legs. The neck opening is wide enough for a child to pass through. Combined one-piece costumes of this kind have also been worn by women in certain Arctic districts, as well as hunting costumes for special hunts in the old days. G. Hatt considers these points to indicate 348 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

+ 0 Ry'l

o ------u------...----->.... ¢ ~ I 0 I:> I I I I I I I + 0 MH MH Fig. 423. Upper half of the garment in Fig. 421, Fig. 424. The transposition of material in a half-skin conceived as a separate article of clothing. To be folded poncho. No neck flap and additions to the side pieces as denoted by dotted lines and symbols. (hatching). Overdel af dragten fig. 421, trenkt som selvstrendigt Ompostering af materialet i en forskindsponcho. Halsflappen k1redningsstykke. Foldes efter signaturer. fjemes, og sidefll'ljene l'lges med de skraverede partier.

that the shape is an extremely ancient one105). The diagram (Fig. 422) reveals the original shape of the upper skin in spite of the man-made pattern. If the skin were horizontally divided into two near the middle, the result would be two garments which we are accustomed to see separately, therefore their typological relationship is not usually perceived. The lower part has been discussed in the section on trousers (P. 332). The upper part of the skin, though, makes a kind of poncho which I will call half-skin poncho, comprising the forepart of an animal's skin. If we manoeuvre a little with the pattern by taking the upper part of Fig. 421 as our point of departure (Fig. 422), and then fold it according to the Tschuktsch method, see key (Fig. 423), the result is that the hairs of the skin are in the right direction down the front and along the sleeves but reversed on the neck skin down the back. Ifwe cutoff the neck skin,divide it in two, and move the two pieces to each side of the body, the result is a pattern like the diagram in Fig. 424. The shape is thus the pattern of the Danish Bronze Age ponchos. The diagram (Fig. 420) gives the outline of half a polar bear skin with the pattern of the garment from Angmagssalik marked in. The neck skin of polar bear skins need not be used in this way, as skins of such a size are large enough in themselves. As far as large skins are concerned, it would also be dif- ficult to get the right proportions and sleeve length as well as the hairs in the right direction, if another part of the skin were used for these half-a-skin garments. Fig. 425 shows the outline of a roeskin with an upper garment of random measurements marked in according to the principles under discussion 106). In practice I found that the parts of the skin where the incisions are to be made for the sleeves and body, were rounded and full because it was the skin of the animal's upper forelegs at the axillae and difficult to spread out flat; these points are indicated by wavy lines. The triangles in the diagram signify the spots where this tendency is most pronounced - an excess of almost 10 cm of skin can be cut away in a segment at each side without otherwise disturbing the pattern. In other words, what appears to be a carefully calculated cut is actually a practical arrangement because of the nature ofthe skin. It must also be added, that the skin of an animal at just these points is less hairy than else- CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 349

Fig. 425. Diagram of a roe skin with the pattern of a half-skin poncho superimposed, c. 1/10. Rids af rtldyrskind med indlagt mlilnster til en forskindsponcho, ca. 1/10.

Fig. 426. Diagram of half-skin ofa stag with superimposed pattern in principle of the Skrydstrup poncho (Fig. 417), C. 1/10• Rids af forskind af kronhjort. Hen indlagt et mlilnster, der principielt svarer til Skrydstruptrliljens, Fig. 417, ca. 1/10. 350 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS where and can be removed with advantage. Again with reference to this diagram (Fig. 425), we may assume that each of the areas indicated by a circle has had an influence on the pattern because it would be natural here to let a sleeve finish in a curve below the elbow. The patterns of the Esh~j and Skrydstrup ponchos (Figs. 417,418) have a similar curve where the upper arms would be, but the feature is absent in the Egtved poncho, perhaps the most "degenerate" because of its regular shape. The Skrydstrup poncho has embroidery on the upper arm, perhaps the relic of a decorative detail camouflaging a gore in the skin to give it extra width, where otherwise a natural reduction occurs as the skin narrows downwards over the animal's forelegs. Fig. 426 shows the sleeves of the Skrydstrup poncho in relation to the forequarters of a red deer. The dotted lines give the extent of the embroidery, and the unbro- ken contours show how narrow these should" be to fit into the size of a skin. The distance between the two outlines demonstrates the necessary increase in width 107). The Tschuktsch garments are evidently an important source of information on the analogies between material and pattern. Hatt mentions a worn by men 108) with a number of details which are characteristic of the poncho pattern. The neck opening is cut in the middle of the skin, the narrow end, the neck, is at the back, while the rear (hindquarters) covers the chest and is so wide that it wraps round the sides of the wearer and covers part of the back. The same skin extends as sleeves, making the greater part of these, and seamed along the under-side. The neck flap of the reindeer skin is presumably the centre panel at the back. In other words, the adult garment has the same pattern as the upper part of the child's costume (Fig. 421). We have seen in the preceding pages how closely different details in these costumes conform with the shape and other properties of the hide of the animal; Hatt is undoubtedly correct when he repeatedly emphasises that the skin costumes of primitive peoples tend to be worn so that the skin corresponds to the human anatomy, viz. forequarters to shoulders, etc. 109) One may well ask how much of an animal's hide can be kept in its natural shape if it is to provide a suitable, fitted garment that is comfortable to wear. The following quotations from two Russian writers are taken from Hatt's bookIIO). Sljunin writes: "The pattern is extremely original and basically very simple, that is to say, a reindeer skin including forelegs, the skin of the latter makes the garment's sleeves, while the rear quarters are cut off level with the pelvic vertebrae; in order to give freedom of movement triangular gussets are inserted. Similar gussets are inserted by the armholes ... The sides and the back are fitted with the help of slits at the waist and wrapped round the body from the back. The Tunguskan people do not like loose clothes." The second Russian, Sjeroschjevski writes: "A close study of the Tunguskan costume (which is identical with the Jukagirian costume) is, I think, of much inter- est when considering the evolution of costume. Its shape has always impressed me by its elegance. And on closer acquaintance I am convinced that this elegance is not the result of any sophisticated tailoring. To the contrary, the Tunguskan costume is surprisingly simple. The caftan is nothing but a whole reindeer skin, the skin of the forelegs has been skinned like stock- and used instead of sleeves. The inset pieces under the armholes and at the sides, and the gussets behind, presumably evolved from the patches inserted as repairs to the skin due to wear. It is possible, too, that the skin was worn wet the first time and then rubbed soft after taking the shape of the body. They now sew their costume from cured skins" 11 I). Hatt, however, rejects the descriptions of the two Russians and puts forward the theory that the Tunguskan people of prehistoric times must have worn a reindeer skin as a loose and that the later garment evolved from this. He qualifies these remarks by pointing out that tanning or curing a skin with legs would be difficult. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 351

Fig. 427. Pattern of a Lamutic caftan (after G. Hatt). M~nster til lamutisk inderkaftan (e. G. Hatt).

+

Fig. 428a. Diagram of a Lamutic caftan, hatching indicates where the animal's elbows would be. (Ethnographical Dept., National Museum). Rids af lamutisk . Skraveringerne angiver beliggenheden af dyrets albuer.

Fig. 428b. Tucker for Fig. 428a. Brystdug til fig. 428a.

-

Fig. 429. Half-skin poncho opened by the removal of the hatched area. - Forskindsponcho som trenkes 1\.bnetved, at det Fig. 430. Fig. 429 folded. skraverede parti fjernes. Fig. 429 sammenfoldet. 352 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 43Ia-b. Calfskin with uncut foreleg skin as sleeves, and head skin as hood. Dreng iflilrt kalveskind, hvori de uopsktlrne forbenshuder danner rermer. Dyrets hovedhud er arrangeret som hrette.

I for my part must add that shaping skins to some extent through wear and for a definite purpose, is not an unknown phenomenon. There are several examples among shoes from Danish bog finds in which the hide has been shaped on the foot and therefore not flat. Some caution is called for on the question of tanning I 12). To avoid being too t.heoretical I carried out an experiment with a calfskin - being the easiest type of skin to acquire in Denmark. The calfskin, with attached uncut foreleg skins, was tanned in the usual way, and a boy put it on with the sole addition of a belt. The result is shown here, and illustrates that a skin can be worn with the leg skins as sleeves. In Figs. 431a-b the neck and head skin is pulled up into a kind of hood, although this arrangement is not entirely satisfactory because the chest opening is too large, due to the limited distance between the forelegs of an animal, the chest skin is consequently narrower than the skin of the back, whereas human beings are more or less equally broad across the chest and back. As a result, it is necessary to cut a neck opening in the shoulder area of the skin and allow the neck flap to fall down over the opening (Figs. 432a-b). Thus in one skin there is enough material to cover and envelop a person far more comfortably and warmly than ifit were worn as a loose mantle. It is CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 353

Fig. 432 a-b. Calfskin where the uncut foreleg skin constitutes the sleeves. A slit, forming neck opening, is cut in the shoulder area, the garment thereby becomes a poncho. Dreng iflJrt et kalveskind, hvori de uopsk1irne forbenshuder udglJr rermer. I dyrets skulderparti er sk1iret en slidse, der danner halsudskrering, s1iledes at dragten bliver en poncho. quite instructive, moreover, to see that such a relatively insignificant part of a skin as the neck flap should play such an important role in the garment as whole. The pattern given in Fig. 427 is Hatt's basic shape of the Tunguskan caftan which he consid- ers to have evolved from a simple rectangular cape, not from the costume described by the two Russians. However, it is remarkable that both the sleeves and body are the forepart of a reindeer skin folded on the same principle as the front half-skin poncho, to me this indicates a very close link between the Tunguskan and Tschuktsch costumes. I believe that Hatt's interpretation springs from a misunderstanding, because he writes that the neck opening is made by cutting away the neck flap. Yet we have seen that when the flap is turned, its hairs are in the wrong direction, thus it is more practicable to cut it out and turn it round so that the hairs are in the right direction. That this has been done is indicated by the costume (Fig. 428a) worn by the Lamutic people. The garment has a tucker (Fig. 428b) which at first glance appears to be an accessory, but it is presumably basically a protection against the cold. It is very likely that tuckers of this kind found in a number of folk costumes, and often decorated with special care, are descended from the neckskin of animal hides. The caftan in Fig. 427 demonstrates 354 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS that the natural shape of the skin has been utilised in the same manner as the garments under discussion. The hairs are in the right direction, i.e. smoothing downwards; the hatched patches signify the thin hair at the animal's elbowsl13). The gussets in the sides and beneath the armholes betray the costume's similarity to those described by the Russians, and the cuts through the sleeves may be considered a logical improvement to the fit of the garment. The front part of the skin is stiU worn over the shoulders because it is the maximum width of the hide; it is no great evolutionary jump to improve the fit by cutting through the sleeves. That a skin continued to be worn with the back and forelegs making up the shoulders and sleeves is natural, because it is the widest part. There is indeed much to be said in favour of the Russians' descri ption. To close the circle we will return to H. C. Broholm 114) and his theory put forward in 1935 that a number of the costumes from the Bronze Age oak coffin burials in Denmark are derived from skin garments. For example, the bands sewn round the bottom edge of all the upper gar- ments worn by women are considered to be reminiscences of details in skin garments. Likewise, I consider the gussets beneath the armholes of women's garments to have the same origin as they serve no purpose otherwise in the woman's poncho.

Fig. 433. Bass drummer of the band of the Royal Marines. He wears a poncho of tiger skin. Neck opening in the shoulder area of the animal; forepaws and head hang down the drummer's back. Other regimental drummers wear tiger or leopard skins (cf. Fig. 434, the Tuguskan shaman). Bastrommeslager fra Royal Marines Band, brerende poncho af tigerskind. Halshullet ligger i dyrets skulderparti; forpoter og hoved hrenger ned pA soldatens ryg. Andre militrere trommeslagere brerer tiger- eller leopardskind, (sm!. shaman fig. 434.) CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 355

d e e MH Fig. 434. Tunguskan shaman wearing a skin terminating in paws and claws (after Witzen II, p. 663). Fig. 435. Woman's skin garment. Mi?lgelmose Tungusisk shaman if\2irten dragt af dyreskind og med (16316), c. 1/20. benbeklredning sluttende i dyrepoter (e. Witzen II, s. 663). Kvindedragt af skind. M\2igelmose (16316), ca. 1120.

The kind of garment represented by Danish Bronze Age ponchos appears to be long-lived: a piece of clothing worn by women until recent times in East Europe is mentioned in the great work on Slav folk by K. Moszynski 115) published in 1929. It is called gunia and is with- out doubt a relic ofthe primeval kind, the gunia from Podhale in is worn with the seams across the breast.

OTHER GARMENTS OF SKIN The woman's garment from M~gelmose (Fig. 435) differs significantly from the items of cloth- ing described in the preceding pages. It comprises six fairly large pieces of skin and two small gussets. Four pieces make up the body, and two pieces the yoke and sleeves; the gussets are inset where the sleeve seams meet the side pieces. The six large pieces give the impression of being cut from six back skins. The whirls of hair on the two upper pieces are on a median line lengthways. The hair on the lower part smoothes in the right direction, i.e. downwards, and that ofthe sleeves smoothes from the neck opening outwards along the sleeves, which are akin to the raglan type. Dnfortunately the shape of the sleeves takes us far afield in our search for comparisons. A fur shroud 1(6) from the Korjaks not only has the sleeve and shoulder in one piece, but both sleeves are made from one and the same skin split down the middle (along the spine). The pieces are then turned in their respective directions, and there appears to be no seam along the inside of the sleeves. The front and back of the garment below the shoulders and sleeves evidently constitute one skin each. Hatt considers that the fur shroud is closely related to a costume worn by the women of the Cree Indians in America 117). The latter is a skirt which reaches to the armpits and held up by cord shoulder straps: "the matching sleeves are separate 356 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

and are pulled on much as leggings; they are 1- J open below the elbow, and above they are pul- led right up to the neck so that they presumably covered the shoulders. This type of garment may have been even more widespread as a woman's costume among the Amerindians." The Ethnographical Department of the Na- tional Museum, Copenhagen, has a costume in

Fig. 436. Short linen bodice (op/od) from Scania (after S. its collections which corresponds fairly closely Svensson). with this description 1 18) (cf. pattern Fig. 437). Oplod af lrerred fra Sk1l.ne(e. S. Svensson). The Naskapi garment has raglan sleeves, and the body is of two pieces of skin, the front and back of the garment; Hatt describes it119) as a "skirt prolonged upwards", a type of ancient origin. The Danish M~gelmose garment is made up of four pieces of skin to which the sleeves are sewn, and therefore differs slightly from the two garments just described, but the three are undoubtedly related to each other. I think it is likely that they represent, as it were, a split type in that the tubular lower part of the fur shroud and the M~gelmose garment have sleeves as an integral part of their pattern, whereas the Naskapi lower garment survives as a separate piece, "the prolonged skirt", without having fitted sleeves. Other sources record a fairly widespread custom of wearing separate sleeves, for exam- ple among the Cree, Saulteaux, Ojibwa and Naskapi in North America; the sleeves were pulled up each arm and fastened over the shoulders by means of a flapI20). In addition, some extremely short upper garments, almost more like a couple of sleeves, were quite preva- lent. K. Moszynskil21) publishes diagrams of two examples, and he mentions women's tops in Persia. and which are so small that they only partly cover (sometimes not at all) the breast. And, moreover, he describes a garment worn by men and women in South and South-East Asia which is a similar kind of top. A very close parallel far nearer Denmark is the Seaman oplod, a bodice, published by Sigfrid Fig. 437. Woman's skin garment from the Naskapi l22 Indians (Ethnographical Dept., National Museum). Svensson, Sweden ), which approximates a Kvindedragt fra Naskapi Indianeme. poncho type (Fig. 436). The oplod was worn CHAPTER X. PREHTSTOR1C COSTUME IN DENMARK 357

Fig. 438. Checkered skirt and skin cape from Huldremose (c. 3473 and C. 3472). Ternet sk~rt og skindslag era Huldremose (C. 3473 og C. 3472). 358 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

with a lower garment suspended by shoulder straps, i.e. a "prolonged skirt" as described by G. Hatt. Admittedly, we cannot argue convinc- ingly in favour of the Scanian top as a deriva- tion of a pair of sleeves, but if we search for its prototype among skin garments certain condi- tions have to be taken into consideration, the primary one being the size of available skins. If an oplod is made in one piece with sleeves long ··········_········_·_····131 c."", ...••••••.• - •.•••••• __ ..•••• __ ••••••.• - •.• - •••••.• enough to reach the wrists, the span or width Fig. 439. Checkered skirt from Huldremose (C 3473). Ternet sk\3rt fra Huldremose (C 3473). cannot be less than about 150 cm, this would necessitate using a skin in the polar bear cate- •...··.. · 132..'" ...... • gory (cf. Fig. 420). However, if the course of development has evolved from two separate items merging into one, the explanation is more likely to lie in the transition from one material to another, in other words: from skin to fabric. Textiles are versatile, they can be woven to the lengths required and cut as needed with no "hair direction" to consider. Several scholars are inclined to believe that there is a link between the ponchos of the Danish Bronze Age and the Scanian oplod. I am unable to support this view because I con- sider that the shape of the ponchos from our Bronze Age oak coffin burials has evolved from the forepart of an animal skin. In this context it is perhaps of interest to note y the use of separate sleeves as a supplement to both man's and woman's , although no archaeological finds of this kind have been re- Fig. 440. Tubular-woven fabric from Huldremose (D 3505). covered in Denmark, or identified as such. But Rundvrevet t\3jstykke fra Huldremose (D 3505). separate sleeves were evidently worn by the Germans, as represented in Roman reliefsI23). Notice the fallen warrior (Fig. 394) with a naked back but folds of fabric over the arms 124). That women wore these sleeves is shown in Fig. 446, and that the tradition has survived until recent times is borne out by Max Tilke's account of the separate sleeves worn by the Russian women of Archangel with their 125) 126). MH. Fig. 441. Tubular-woven fabric arranged as a (after M. Bieber's experiments). Rundvrevning arrangeret som peplos (e. M. Biebers rekonstruktion). CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 359

Fig. 442. Detail of the Gundestrup cauldron. Women wearing one-piece garments (after J. Br¥lndsted). DetaIje af Gundestrupkarret. Kvinder iflilrt heldragter (e. J. Brlilndsted).

SKIRT AND Among the Iron Age textiles recovered from Danish bogs are three large pieces whose shape can best be described as cylindrical. Two of the textiles are part of the Huldremose find, one of which is a checkered cloth (Fig. 29 and Figs. 438,439) with one intact transverse border, and one cut transverse border (discernible in the seam of the garment). This textile appears to have been intended for a skirt while still on the loom because one selvedge- at the waist- has a spec- ially made border (Fig. 30), acting as a kind of waistband in which there are the remains of thin leather thongs, presumably a drawstring arrangement for keeping the skirt up at the waist or just over the hips. The length of the skirt is 87 cm, thus the bottom edge would have been either mid-calf or just above the ankles, depending on the way the garment was worn. The second piece from Huldremose (Fig. 440) is a tubular textile complete from the loom: the indisputable evidence of this being that all four selvedges are preserved intact. The same applies to the third textile (Fig. 62), its finding place, though, is unfortunately undocumented. The two latter textiles were set up on the loom and woven specifically into what we will call "tubular-woven garments" 127). The way these textiles were worn has led to much conjecture. The measurements of the two latter examples are such, one is 137 cm in height (as a cylinder), the other 168 cm (Fig. 440), that they are unlikely to have been worn as . Even on a tall woman the shortest cloth would reach from the armpits to the ground, and the longest would also cover her head. Moreover, the average height of women in the Iron Age128) was only 159.5 cm, and with this in mind all thought that the two larger textiles were used as skirts can be abandoned. The ques- tion, then, is how were these tubular-woven garments worn? Grave finds have not unfortunately included any textiles of a similar kind as no inhumations have yet been found in Denmark from the span of time between the late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Roman Iron Age. Other types offinds from graves are the alternative source of information on possible changes in the woman's costume. Already in 1922 G. Girkel29) wrote that La Tene Period ornaments indicate a change of costume to a type needing several 360 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 443a-b. Tubular-woven dress from Huldremose arranged as a peplos. Rundvrevning fra Huldremose arrange ret som peplos.

fibulae. Sune Lindqvistl30) advanced the theory in 1944 that a new form of woman's costume was introduced as early as the late Bronze Age: a square piece of cloth held up over the should- ers with the help offibulae. And in 1942 Poul Nlilrlund131) when treating evidence of woman's costume among Danish prehistoric finds pointed out that "the most important part of the costume worn by women in Ancient has been a very long textile, sometimes longer than the wearer was tall, fastened on the shoulders so that its excess length fell freely back and front like a cape: apeplos of the type portrayed on statues of from classical antiquity." CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 361

Fig. 444 a-d. Doric peplos. Figure on mirror-handle (Dept. of Antiquity, National Museum). Dorisk peplos. Figur pfl hflndtag til spejl (Nationalmuseets Antiksamling).

Dr. H. C. Broholm answered my query whether Danish brooches and fibulae indicated a change of costume as follows: "Grave finds from the Danish late Bronze Age contain no evidence of a new woman's costume fastened on each shoulder. In a 4th period grave132) two fibulae were found together with a sword, therefore the grave must have been that of a man. Other graves from the same period and likewise one from the 5th period containing a pair of fibulae are man's graves. Hoards with miscellaneous woman's ornaments give no indication of the late Bronze Age costume because the number of fibulae varies to such an extent. Neither do the earliest Iron Age graves give any clear indication. The oldest Iron Age burial in Denmark contained two identical iron fibulae, it is the oft-mentioned urn burial from Ulbjerg parish, Rinds herred (33). Similar pairs offibulae are not unusual among German burials from the La Tene Period. In Silesia a Celtic inhumation contained a female skeleton with a pair of fibulae on the shoulders which were probably to fasten a garment" 134). Large with spiral or disc-like heads occur among Danish finds from the close of the Bronze Age. They are presumed to have been used for fastening open garments135), but they do not tell us much about the garment itself. Far more important in this respect are two women, clad in long , depicted on the Gundestrup vessel. In the opinion of a number of experts this famous silver cauldron was probabLy made by CeLtic craftsmen in the south-east region of the lower Danube. It is dated to the 1st or 2nd century B.C.136). One of the plates beneath the rim shows two women (Fig. 442)137), both wear sleeveless one-piece dresses with a slightly shaped neck opening in front. One of the dresses is belted and not full length, while the other seems to be longer and unbelted. Both appear to be fastened at the shoulders, and the women's arms protrude through unfashioned slits. The two complete tubular-woven garments under discussion are eminently well-suited for wearing in the same way. The smaller of the two (Fig. 62), 137 cm in length and 240 cm in cir- cumference, could easily be arranged by fastening at the shoulder by means of a pair of pins in 362 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 445. Germanic women wearing dresses fastened at the shoulders. Marcus Column. Afbildning af germanske kvinder if~rt kjoler, der er ophreftede p1'lskuldrene. Marcus-s~jlen. the upper border. The large Huldremose textile (Fig. 443a-b), 168 cm in length and 264 cm in circumference, could be worn in the same way if20-30 cm of the excess material were to fall in .a fold down the front and back. And some of the material could be pulled up over a belt if necessary, giving a bloused effect138). The pins would in each case be fastened in the manner shown in the diagram (Fig. 441), making three openings, the middle one being for the neck, and the other two for the arms. It is also an easy matter to regulate a fastening like this to make the front edge wider, with the result that the neckline in front would be deeper and fall in decora- tive folds over the breast. The garment bears a striking resemblance to the closed Doric peplos, a square piece of cloth wrapped round the body with a fold at the neck and shoulders giving a cape-like effect; pins or fibulae in pairs divided the opening into three for the neck and CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 363

armsI39). The large Huldremose tubular textile arranged in this way (Fig. 443a) becomes a harmonious gown, thereby solving a puzzle which has preoccupied many scholars (cf. Fig. 443b). The fact that the Doric peplos could be either open or closed is not without interest in con- nection with the Huldremose gown. We have seen that numerous prehistoric textiles reco- vered in Denmark give the impression of having been woven as tubular products, after which the locking thread or stick was removed and the textile spread out flat. We know, too, that some primitive peoples produce tubular-woven cloth with a similar warping arrangment, and that the flat product represents the secondary form while the tubular product is the primary one, and that textiles woven like this are worn either way according to taste. Thus if the Huldremose textile had come to us as a square cloth, it would have presumably been identified as a blanket or cape, although it could equally well be worn as an open gown 140). In any event, it is worth bearing in mind that the open type may well have been worn in Denmark too. There seems to be proof that a woman's dress, fastened at the shoulders, was worn in regions between Greece and Scandinavia in antiquity, for example numerous tombstones with reliefs from Pannonia and Noricuml41) show examples; a particularly clear representation on a tombstone (Fig. 447) in the Klagenfurt Museum 142) depicts a woman with a looking-glass in one hand and a box in the other. She wears a dress and an over-gown, the dress is more or less ankle-length but the over-gown is somewhat shorter. The costume has a belt at the waist with long ends terminating in tassels. At each shoulder is a large fibula of the type called the

Pannonianflilgel (wing) fibula 143). Judging from the folds at the neck and shoulders the fibulae appear to fasten the over-gown, evidently a peplos-like arrangement. The broad bands round the wrists may be the cuffs of sleeves, but they are more likely to be metal bracelets - an opinion held by German archaeologists it seems, because on the cast taken of the tombstone the bands, fibulae, mirror, box and belt are all painted the same colour. The woman's rounded

Fig. 446. Germanic women wearing dresses with loose sleeves. Marcus Column. Germanske kvinder i dragter med l(ilserermer. MarcUS-S(iljlen. 364 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

arms are well modelled yet the possibility that the dress had narrow sleeves cannot be entirely excluded although the costume gives the impression of being sleeveless. The special fibulae narrow down the dating of this tombstone and several others mentioned in the following. According to Oscar Almgren these fibulae date from the first two centuries A.D.; they occur very rarely in North Europe, he mentions only five examples from North Germany and . None have been found in Denmark. A costume similar to the one on the Klagenfurt Museum's tombstone is depicted in two sepulchral reliefs from CzakvarI44). One is fragmentary in that the top of the woman's figure is missing, but the dress and over- gown, together with the belt, are visible. In the second relief even the wing fibulae can be seen at the women's shoulders. Similar shoulder ornaments of exaggerated size are depicted on a family tombstone from Q- Buda with the figures offour women. All four are wearing a "double" costume consisting of a full-length dress and a shorter over-gown. Fairly wide sleeves are discernibleI45). The latter

detail is also found in a relief from Czakvarl46) depicting the busts of three people - presumably a man, his wife and daughter. The wife wears a pair of huge wing fibulae at the shoulders, K. Balint suggests that they fasten her long sleeved tunic. An interpretation which seems unlikely as fibulae pinned to a tunic fulfil no practical purpose because a tunic is simply pulled on over the head, and fibulae at the shoulders would be an impediment. However, all these examples depict the peplos-like over-gown we have seen on the Klagenfurt tombstone, and the fibulae have in all likelihood fastened this. As archaeologists consider these tombstones to be Roman influenced one would expect to • find echoes of Roman costume on the figures, yet this is not the case as far as the woman's costume is concerned. At any rate G. Behrens does not think so, for example he writes the following about the Klagenfurt stone. "So unromisch wie die ganze Gewandung des Mad- chens ist auch die Mode der zwei grossen Fibeln auf der Schulter. Schon dieses Beispiel zeigt, dass das Vorkommen von Fibeldarstellungen auf Grabsteinen in erster Linie von der der betreffenden Gegend in einer bestimmten Zeit abhangig ist." The relationship, however, between these female garments and their Scandinavian parallels to the Doric peplos cannot be ignored. The following brief description of woman's dress in Ancient Greece is based on Margaret

Beiber's exhaustive study147). The classical Greek woman's costume is often portrayed on statues, reliefs and vase paint- ings, and it falls into three major items of clothing: peplos, chiton and himation. The peplos is a square piece of cloth about 3 m long and 2 m wide; the length of the weft threads decides the length of the garment, and the warps give the width of the garment. The textile may be seamed to make it tubular, or be left open down one side, viz. no seams. The upper edge is folded over to give a cape-like effect which varies in length. The garment is sometimes worn with one or two belts over which the fabric is pulled to give a bloused effect and draped in decorative folds. A belt is not always worn. The peplos is fastened by pins at each shoulder; it is usually of wool- len cloth and may be worn alone although it is often worn together with the chiton underneath. Like the peplos, a chiton may be one piece of material, but it may also be made oftwo identical pieces. In the latter case probably because linen has been used: a fabric which was woven in narrower widths than woollen cloth. The measurements of chitons vary considerably, they are sometimes less than those of the peplos, however if the chiton is provided with mock sleeves made by a series of gathers down the arms the size of the chiton is greater than that of the peplos. Greek women knew how to drape their chitons in numerous attractive ways so that CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 365

the basic shape of the garment was camouflaged beyond recognition. In its simplest form it closely resembles the peplos and experts are forced to admit that sometimes the difference between the two garments is imperceptible. It must also be added that the fold of the peplos at the shoulders is sometimes pulled up over the head. The cloak, himation, also a square piece of cloth, is worn in all manners of ways. The size varies greatly, from a small to a square the size of a peplos. The striking feature of all three garments is that they share a basic shape: a rectangle. In other words, the costume of Greek women was a combination of garments that came straight from the loom, yet which nevertheless could be worn with the greatest versatility, either simply or intricately draped. One may conclude that it would have been advantageous to produce fabric with four selvedges like the flat tubular-woven textiles (i.e. after removing the lock) from Danish prehistoric times. The over- worn by the women depicted on the Pannonian tombstones are fastened at the shoulders in very much the same way as that of the peplos, but they are shorter and a long full dress is to be seen beneath them, this under-gown appears to be depicted both with and without sleeves. We must now return to Northern Europe in our search for women's costumes with the same basic shape as the classical Greek costume worn by women. The scraps of clothing from pre- historic burials in Denmark cannot unfortunately be used as a primary source of comparison because they are very fragmentary. A book published in 1909148) by Axel O. Heikel describing the folk costumes of the East Baltic countries, however, contains some sources which are of interest in the present context. As late as in the 19th century in Finnish Karelian and Inger-

Fig. 447. A woman wearing a dress Fig. 448. Hurstut fastened at the shoulders with wing garment. (After U. T. fibulae. Pannonian tombstone. Klagenfurt Sirelius in C. Museum (after I. G. Behrens). Blindheim's Afbildning af kvindekjole opheftet pll skuldrene reproduction) . med flugelfibulaer. Pannonisk gravsten. Museet Hurstut-kjole. i Klagenfurt (e. J. G. Behrens). 366 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 449. Suggestions for how women's was worn in the Roman Iron Age (after H. Norling-Christensen). Forslag til anbringelse af smykker fra Romersk Jemalder (e. H. Norling-Christensen). manland, dresses were worn by women which consisted of a rectangular piece of cloth (the Hurstut garment, Fig. 448) held up by shoulder straps. Dresses of this kind comprised two separate pieces of fabric which were worn one on top of the other so that the material of one covered the side-opening of the other, neither had seams. A. O. Heikel had a feeling that these folk costumes betrayed an ancestry back to the costumes of Ancient Greece, and he repeat- edly points out their similarity to the chiton; he does not evidently differentiate between the chiton and the peplos. Heikel's observations are undoubtedly correct because the basic elements are rectangular pieces of cloth 149). The similarity is further emphasised by the shawl of the Baltic costume which is also rectangular. Finnish and Latvian scholars have since treated source material demonstrating that the costume type is fairly widespread both in time and place in the Baltic region 150). Of great interest are the remnants of clothing recovered from Finnish Iron Age graves and thought to be traces of similar garments. The front and back fastened somehow in front at the shoulders by means of bronze oval brooches from which a pendant ornament sometimes hungI51). These brooches represent a type often found in Danish and other Scandinavian burials of the Viking Period. The rich, homogeneous collection offinds excavated from the cemetery of the Viking settle- ment in Birka has caused Agnes Geijerl52) to compare it with finds from Finnish prehistoric burials, as well as other Baltic sources, which in turn enables her to shed light on certain highly significant features of the woman's costume in Scandi navia during the Viking Period. Scraps CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 367 of cloth or straps are often found in the oval Viking brooches. Sometimes the straps are of two different kinds of fabric, as though a double arrangement of shoulder straps was worn. The straps must have been attached to the top of the gown, two short in front and two long at the back, fastened together in front, only rarely are the brooches pinned to the top edge of the cloth itself. Agnes Geijer has also found traces of a pleated under-gown in five instances, evidently a long garment. No belts have been recovered but ornamental chains, sometimes with small items hanging from them, were attached to the oval brooches 153). Judging from con- temporary representations the Birka dresses were worn with a short shawl folded in a triangle (Birka III, Pl. 38,3 from Tuna); it may have been a fur cape because a number of Viking finds in Sweden and Denmark have contained scraps of quality fur. An impression of the woman's costume of the Viking Period is given by the Oseberg tapestry (Viking IV, P. 112). The over-gown is fairly long, and the lower edge is cut so that it falls in points at each side, and these almost reach the ground. Sometimes, long fairly full sleeves are worn. The over-gown has the appearance of being divided in front, at any rate a different panel offabric can be seen down the front154). It may be an under-gown or shift, this would harmonise well with Agnes Geijer's observations about pleated garments sometimes excavated with the Birka dresses, for they are carefully made although worn as under-gowns, and we may assume they were meant to be seen. Those engaged in researching the woman's

Fig. 450. Europa on the bull. The dress is fastened with large needles on the shoulders. (After Furtwangler und Reichhold). Europa pll tyren. Dragten er frestnet pll skuldrene med store stangnllie. 368 MARGRETHE RALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 451. Women dressed in a one-piece garment, Sarajevo 1930. (Ph. H. C. Broholm). Kvinder ifIJrt heldragt, Sarajevo 1930. (R. C. Broholm foto). costume of the Viking Period have found some portrayals which indicate that women wore several layers of clothing and that these were intended to be seen at the same time155). The costumes depicted on Gotland picture-stones are not particularly easy to define as they are rudimentary, and they date from a slightly earlier period. However, there is no doubt that one or two of them show a woman's dress with a long and a short over-gownI56). Costumes shown on bracteates, too, are difficult to discern because of their miniature scale, yet the impression is given of women wearing some sort of draped garment, possibly compris- ing several layers of fabric. Very little is known about the costumes worn by women during the Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe, and until the stone carvers of Gotland began to carve human figures on their stones there is not much evidence. Tacitus (Germania, Chap. 17) writes: "Women's garments are not unlike the clothes of the men except that women quite often wear a linen over-gown which they decorate in reddish-purple; they do not let the material of the upper garment provide sleeves, but have bare arms above and below the elbow, even the closest part of their breasts are uncovered here" 157). Although a description of the Germans, it is possible that the main characteristics have also applied to women's dress in Denmark. Unfortunately no graves have yielded more than scraps of textiles in spite of inhumations appearing to be as frequent as during the Roman Iron Age in this countryI58). Archaeologists have found a few inhumations with skeletons where ornaments and fibulae are in situ; it is the number and position of the fibulae that is important in the present context. In the grave of a woman two identical fibulae are usually found, one on each side of the throat at the collar-bonet59). More rarely 2 + 1 or 2 +2 fibulae are found, in which case two are still worn near the shoulders, and one or two lower down the breast. The well-known find from Juellinge is a fine example of a richly equipped woman's grave from the Roman Iron Age160) with two pairs of fibulae. The CHAPTER X. PREH]STOR]C COSTUME IN DENMARK 369

Fig. 452. Woman in one-piece garment, Sarajevo 1930. (Ph. H. C. Broholm). Kvinde j heldragt, Sarajevo 1930. (H. C. Broholm foto). upper pair evidently fastened a garment at the shoulders, but the lower pair is more problem- atic. H. Norling-Christensen161) in his study of women's ornaments in the Roman Iron Age considers the lower set of fibulae, sometimes attached to each other by means of a string of beads, to be a purely decorative arrangement (Fig. 449). But to me it seems equally feasible to imagine that the lower fibulae fulfilled a practical purpose, possibly in connection with an item of clothing not always worn, and obviously not simply part of the burial costume. It is inter- esting to note, too, that their position more or less corresponds with the large tortoise-shaped bronze brooches of the Viking dress. Norling-Christensen also writes that these sets of orna- ments lasted until the close of prehistoric times: "The shape of fibulae and beads obviously changes, but their concept and the way they were worn lasted for one thousand years." A characteristic which presupposes a certain kind of costume. Nothing is known about when the custom of fastening a dress with straps like braces over the shoulders was adopted, but the general opinion is that brooches were still occasionally pinned directly to garments in the Vik- ing Period. I think that shoulder straps were a natural solution to a practical problem because the extensive use of fibulae during the Roman Iron Age must have had its disadvantages: constantly sticking pins into the same spot of cloth must have been very destructive in the long run. Yet admittedly the change meant pinning an extra accessory - shoulder straps - at the front and back of the dress, and the change appears to have occurred over a relatively long span of time. Other interesting alterations of costume have presumably taken place which may perhaps be revealed through future research. To move back in time, we may well ask whether the female costume of the early Bronze Age has a bearing on the tubular Huldremose gown. The little poncho reachingjust below the waist (Figs. 416-419), found in Bronze Age oak coffin burials, has already been mentioned several times in the present chapter. In the Egtved grave it was found with a short cord skirt which, 370 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURJALS

Fig. 453. Woman in mourning wearing a hoike from the Rostock region. Note the strange Fig. 454. Girl from Jutland. Notice the curious arrangement over the forehead whereby the pouching of the garment at the waist. Is this hypja or pleats are gathered (after Westphalen: kilting? (After Westphalen: Monumenta, 1739). Monumenta, 1739). Jysk pige. Mrerk den aparte foldning afWjet om livet; erdet Kvinde fra Rostockegnen i slilrgedragt, hoike. hypja eller killing? Bemrerk det ejendommelige arrangement over hovedet, hvor de mange dybe lreg samles. judging from traces in other inhumations, must have been very widespread. However, this kind of skirt was not found together with the two well preserved ponchos from Skrydstrup and Borum Esh¢j, here instead two large seamed pieces of fabric were recovered, the purpose of which has been the subject of some discussion. The Skrydstrup fabric is c. 4 m wide and].45 m long, while the Borum Esh¢j fabric is 3.30 m wide and 1.20 m long. Obviously the tubular dress from Huldremose and the Egtved costume are not alike, nor does the former bear any resemblance to the two fabrics from Skrydstrup and Borum Esh13j which were accompanied by poncho-type , apparently making a garment like a tubular dress pinned at the shoulders superfluous. Neither ofthe large pieces of cloth from Skrydstrup and Borum have the right size for wearing like the Huldremose dress. Margarete Bieber puts the average size of a peplos at 3 m in circumference and 2 m in length. The circumference is particularly significant because the length can be adjusted by increasing or diminishing the cape-like fold at the shoulders and/or with the help of a belt. A width of 3 m corresponds to about double the distance from wrist to wrist of an adult woman. Even if a little of the cloth were used at the shoulder fastenings, and as folds at the neck, the gaps for the arms would be of maximum size (cf. Fig. 440, where the width is only 2.64 m). An attempt to make the 4 m wide "Skrydstrup skirt" into a peplos is hampered by the difficulty of placing the fourth and last metre, because the openings for the arms would in this case approximately reach the knees! Another point is that Danish Bronze Age fabrics are all of thick, fulled cloth - heavy and bulky - whereas though experts maintain that the peplos of Ancient Greece has been of wool, CHAPTER X. PREHISTOR1C COSTUME lN DENMARK 371 pictorial representations give the impression that the fabric was fairly soft and easily draped about the body. And likewise, more intricately draped garments give the impression of being of light fabrics which could be generously used without appearing clumsy. There is no doubt that the proportions of the Huldremose gown suit the quality of cloth woven in Denmark in the Bronze Age.

Some scholars162) explain the large textiles from oak coffin burials as " over skirts", regardless of the fact that they are closed with a seam; as we have demonstrated that both open and closed dresses may well be related, I will in the following test the wrap over theory on the basis of the size of the textiles and the combination of garments. To take the Egtved skirt first, it measures 1.50 m along the top edge, and can thereby be wrapped twice round the body. But this arrangement is only practicable when a skirt or gown is short, if long the decreased width would make movement difficult. The Ethnographical Department in the National Museum, Copenhagen, has some wrap over skirts which can only be wrapped one and a halftimes round the wearer. A similar arrangement in the case of the Skrydstrup skirt would result in the fabric having to be wrapped five or six times round the lower part of the body.

Fig. 455. Amager women dressed inj¢b (after Elna Mygdal). Amagerkvinder if\2lrtj\2lb. 372 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Various kinds of wrapped costumes are known, and some of them are of interest in the pre- sent context. For example, Max Tilh~ has published a Tunesian garment worn by women 163) which is fastened in front at the shoulders with pins. The illustration shows an arrangement using a fairly large amount of fabric, therefore the Tunesian method may perhaps be trans- ferred in principle to the Skrydstrup skirt. There are, however, two drawbacks: firstly, the with long narrow sleeves, and lower edge reaching to below the waist, worn in the Bronze Age, would not be particularly suitable worn with a garment like the Tunesian one. Secondly, woman's ornaments found in the oak coffin burials would not harmonise with this type of costume. From the viewpoint of costume typology, open and closed garments not only appear to be related, but in Denmark the impression remains that prehistoric folk had both usages in mind during the making of the fabric. The question of' 'wrap over" clothing among Danish prehis- toric material is an open one, but comparisons cannot be entirely satisfactory because a closed gown with a closing seam will not ultimately be able to follow all the evolutionary phases of an open wrapped garment. In other words, a typological schism occurs at some point which in my opinion tells against the hypothesis that the so-called "Bronze Age skirts" with their closing seam fall into the category of "wrapped costumes". On the other hand, have Danish Bronze Age skirts been worn in such a way that they needed no pinning? And if so, would this allow enough room for an item of clothing on the upper part of the body (e.g. the Skrydstrup costume). A belt could be used, and if we imagine "the skirt" belted, i.e. the piece of cloth held at the middle round the body by a belt, the excess cloth above the belt could be pulled up over the shoulders at the back and in front allowed to hang in a fold. A garment like this is still worn, Fig. 451 shows two Muslim women photographed by Dr. Broholm in 1930 in the market square at Sarajevo. The figure with her back turned clearly has a belt round the waist; the lower part of her long one-piece garment corresponds to an ordinary skirt, while the piece above the belt is drawn up to cover the head. The second woman, facing the camera, evidently holds the front opening together with her hands and has gathered the piece in front up to her chin. Fig. 452 shows a third woman wearing a similar garment, this time seen from the side. It is evidently a garment that is widespread in the East, Max Tilke 164) gives an illustration of a street costume worn by Muslim women which resem- bles the Sarajevo garments, unfortunately there are no measurements. However, he gives us the measurements of a kind of cloak for street wear used by Persian women: the so-called tschad or hyad, a rectangular piece worn so that it is open down the front; a cord at the top corners runs crosswise over the breast and behind the neck of the wearer. Some of the excess material makes part of a -like arrangement for the head. The measurements of two examples are given: width 260 cm, length 172 cm - width 230 cm, length 200 cm. But are there valid grounds for the inclusion of these garments in a study of Danish prehis- toric textiles? An item of clothing found among Danish folk costumes tempts one to answer 'Yes' 165). It is a garment calledj¢b, and may be described as the upper piece of a skirt that was worn as mourning and for church-going in Amager and Sams¢ as recently as 1870166) (Fig. 455). The way the j¢b was worn completely corresponds with the top part of the Muslim women's garments. Although here it must be added that thej¢b is not in one piece with the skirt, but the division may have come about as a later, practical arrangement. Twoj¢h from Amager in the collections of the Danish Folk Museum (3rd Dept., National Museum) are respectively 270 cm and 255 cm wide and 114 cm and 102 cm long. A gathered skirt from Sams¢ is 297 cm in circumference and 99 cm long. The skirts worn with the Amager j¢b are CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 373

Fig. 456. Represents probably women in mourning Fig. 457. Scotsmen wearing the belted plaid. procession. Rock carving from Kivik, Scania. 1743. (After C. P. Lawson). Forestiller antagelig kvinder i s~rgeprocession. Hellenstning fra Skotter if~rt "the belted plaid«. 1743. Kivik, SkAne. about 1 m long, therefore the combined measurements ofthej¢b +skirt are about 200-214 cm. The Amager costume, though, has a special arrangement at the lower back which takes up some of the fabric. Another characteristic ofthej¢b is that the edge resting on the forehead has some folds which make a kind of hood, the effect is emphasised by a couple of pleats under the chin. The edge ofthej¢b below, afairly large triangle, is caught up in front, thus using a consid- erable part ofthe width - all in all the opening down the front is much less than the full circum- ference of thej¢b. Dare we assume that this garment has deep roots in Scandinavia? There seems to be no firm evidence, nor is there any to disprove this assumption. Elna Mygdal writes that the custom of drawing the outermost skirt over the head as a sign of mourning has been fairly widespread in Denmark, for example in Lres~, Fan~, Drej~, and the district of Yarde. Not long ago Danish countrywomen gathered up their outer skirts in a moment to cover their heads during an unexpected shower. U. T. Sirelius gives the following account from the northern district of J66skes h.erred in Finland: "In rain and bad weather the h.urstut was spread over the head, in this way the harvesters kept their shoulders dry." 167) We have already seen that the hurstut dress is related to the peplos. I have had the opportunity of examining the famous stone tomb in Kivik, south- easterly Scania, which dates from the early Bronze Age. The thought struck me that the curiously hooded figures carved on two of the slabs (nos. 7 and 8) could well be interpreted as women wearing costumes of the peplos type with the fold pulled over their heads (Fig. 456). 374 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

According to the Flateyjarb6k !68)Olav Tryggvason wore a red' 'silkihjup" during the battle of Svold in 1000 A.D., and this may indicate that thej¢b (hjup) has once been worn by both sexes in Scandinavia like the chiton in Ancient Greece. Hjalmar Falk!69) evidently considers the word hjupr to be of purely Norse origin, but A. Bugge!70) writes that hjupr was not a Norse word until the Viking Period. It is his opinion that the etymology of the word comes from the Icelandic hylle, a pall or shroud, and a cloth wrapped round the wearer. In Nynorsk: hypja = a pouch, a fold in a garment used for carrying things in!7!). With all these considerations put forward, it would indeed be tempting to interpret Danish Bronze Age "skirts" as the same garments as those worn by Muslim women. I carried out an experiment which showed that it is possible to arrange the Skrydstrup skirt so that it can be worn with a belt. If we calculate that c. half the length of the fabric was below the waist, i.e. a length of73 cm, the garment would reach about 10cm below the knee, whereas the upper half would reach up over the shoulders, though with barely sufficient fabric to allow for pulling round the head. On the other hand, the width of 4 m remains inconvenient, even after banish- ing from the mind all thought of what is and what is not pleasing to the eye. The fact remains that the width of the garment is too great and the length is too little. The following illustrates the proportions of the Bronze Age pieces and the other garments under discussion: length width Skrydstrup skirt 145 cm 400 cm Borum Esh~j piece 120 cm cm Hyad 172 cm 260 cm Hyad 200 cm 230 cm Peplos c. 200 cm 300 cm Amager j¢b 114 + c. 100 cm 270 cm Amager j¢b 102 + c. 100 cm 255 cm Gathered skirt from Sams~ 99 + c. 100 cm 297 cm Tubular textile from Huldremose 168 cm 264 cm Tubular textile, finding place not known 137 cm 240 cm

Thus, the result is not unfortunately very convincing as far as the Bronze Age pieces are concerned. But the proportions are not unsuitable for the tubular-woven textiles, and we have already seen that a peplos corresponds with the combination: j¢b +a skirt, in that Greek women pulled the fold of their peplos over their head on certain occasions. The relationship between the Muslim and the Greek costumes is evident.(See also Fig. 457). We may then ask whether other ways of wearing these textiles are to be found? The Greek costume is the expression of a highly developed civilization. Yet how would a primitive people wear a correspondingly simple garment? Erland Nordenski6ld describes seeing a woman's garment called a tipoy among some South Amerindian tribes. It resembles a sack open at both ends and worn so that the upper edge at the back rests on the shoulders, while the fabric in front falls in folds, making a kind of sling in which the woman would carry her baby. Nordenski6ld 172)writes that the garment was of normal length (Fig. 458) for daily wear, but that on festive occasions a very long dress was worn, folded double. The latter is a point of enormous interest to our deliberations on Danish tubular-woven textiles, but he does not unfortunately go into any greater detail. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 375

Fig. 458. Chane woman carrying a child in her tipoy (after Fig. 459. Chane woman dressed in a tipoy E. Nordenskiold) (after E. Nordenskiold). Chanekvinde brerende el barn i sin tipoy. Chanekvinde ifllJrltipoy.

Nordenskiold publishes the photograph of a Chane woman (73) wearing the garment only fastened over her left shoulder, and in a series of drawings he demonstrates the widely varying proportions of the tipoy, showing that apart from being worn as a dress, some sizes were well suited for ordinary skirts and for , occasionally so narrow that the term "band" is more appropriate. The range of uses includes, for example, a sling for carrying babies, or for a broken arm, and probably other uses of which Nordenskiold was unaware. The heart of the matter is that a tipoy can be tubular-woven (Fig. 459) and spread out flat if desired, when completed, by the removal of the cord lock joining the two transverse edges. The textile then has four selvedges - an advantage ifit is to be a garment. Open dresses wrapped evenly round the body so that one vertical edge overlaps the other are also 'known in South America. For example, Max Tilke pictures an Araukan woman clad in achamal, no seams and a peplos-like costume arranged with the help of belt, and fastened at one shoulder. Tilke compares the chamal with a garment depicted on the classical statuette of a Germanic woman, known as "Thusnelda" 174). According to Gosta 'Montell, Araukan women wore large mantles, a garment supposed to have its origins among the Indian civilizations of PeruI75). The pre-Columbian woman's costume in Peru comprised two mantles, the most important of which was worn next to the body, sometimes the only item of clothing. It was simply a rectangular piece offabric, with no opening for the head; Montell writes that it was: "wrapped round the body from the armpits downward, the edges were then pulled up over the shoulders and secured by pins. In spite of 376 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS one edge (down the side) somewhat overlapping the other, the costume parted slightly when the woman walked so that one leg was visible. Now that they are Christian the dress is seamed down the side." It is said that the women sometimes tightened the cloth to some extent in order to look smart and sometimes used two belts instead of one. The second mantle, accord- ing to the same author, fell from the shoulders and was so long that it concealed the feet. Another source, though, describes it as occasionally reaching only the small of the knee, or even less. It was presumably worn as a decorative over garment, removed when working or indoors. These garments were often of rich and finely woven fabrics. Both garments required considerable pinning, and shawl pins are among the most usual small finds recovered during excavations at Peruvian sites, these pins are either of gold, silver, copper or bronze. Therefore, it looks as though square or rectangular pieces offabric have served as garments in South America among Indian tribes in varying cultural stages, and that in Peru the custom goes fairly far back in time. These garments have been worn both open and closed, and they were worn in various ways. It is very reminiscent of the combination found among East European folk costumes, in which square fabrics, both large and small, are incorporated and worn with great variety, for example as kerchiefs for the head, as shawls, or wrapped round the upper part of the body; fastened in front, or at both shoulders, or on one shoulder on the same principle as the Greek chlaina 176). They may also be worn as skirts, a particularly interesting example is given by 1. Manninen 177), who shows a woman wearing a short skirt with a front opening, over a light shift. They are also used as loincloths, even as a kind of trousers: the Indian dhotil78) is an example of "wrapped" trousers, and in the old days Scotsmen sometimes arranged their as , originally no doubt a kind of wrapped trousers. Already in 1842 J. S. Stuartl79) pointed out the relationship between the Scottish costume and the ancient Indian and Greek wrapped garments (Fig. 457). Scania, a Danish province until the mid-17th century, also has a tradition in which square pieces of fabric are used in manifold ways. In his book on Scanian folk costumes, Sigfrid Svensson gives a detailed description of items of clothing which he calls: handklade, armklade and hyeklade 180). The size of the square pieces and materials vary a great deal. They were worn as neckerchiefs -halsduk, nasduk, and as a head covering in times of both festivity and mourning. Svensson considers that the armklade, later virtually a decorative detail of the costume, has an ancient ancestry back to a primitive mantle much like the origins of the Scot- tish plaid and Spanish , i.e. a garment belonging to the group of unsewn fabrics under discussion (cf. Fig. 465 showing a woman with an oblong cloth suspended from her belt). This brings us to rectangular textiles recovered from Danish bogs which have not yet been examined as articles of clothing in the present chapter. Pieces with all four selvedges intact and thus not fortuitous remnants of larger pieces, their shape and size being predetermined. The pieces are as follows: Checkered scarffrom Huldremose (Fig. 31), 137 cm long, 49 cm wide, fringes at each end. Plain blanket from Durup (Fig. 5b), 147-170 cm long, 70-90 cm wide, fringes qn all four edges. Checkered from Arden (Fig. 14), 137 cm long, 56 cm wide, fringes at each end. Piece of cloth from Arden (Fig. 12), made of two lengths seamed down the middle, 274 cm long, and 40-50 cm wide respectively, no fringes. There is no report about the latter three textiles from the time they were recovered to indicate how they were used, but the Huldremose scarf is described as lying near the neck CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 377

Fig. 460.

, I

Fig. 461.

Fig. 464.

Fig. 462.

Fig. 463.

Figs. 460-464. Late Bronze Age fibula and pins. Pladebpjlen1\1 og stangn1\Je fra bronzealderens slutning. 378 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS region of the corpse, held together by a of pointed bird's bone; it was presumably for wrapping round the neck. The other textiles were perhaps worn as skirts, or wrapped round the upper part of the body. The longer piece from Arden could indeed be worn wrapped round the body and would even reach as far as the shoulders. There may well have been numerous ways of wearing these rectangular pieces. It is at any rate certain that rectangular items of clothing were worn in the early Iron Age in Denmark. The next question is whether they were also part of the late Bronze Age costume. Finds have not shed any light on this but there is indirect evidence that changes in costume were taking place at that time181), for example deposits from the final period of the Bronze Age contain large, coarse pins which have undoubtedly been used to pin clothing with. They come in a variety of shapes and must have been very decorative182). Judging from their distribution among Bronze Age finds, they have not apparently been worn in pairs183). One of the more ornate examples is the double fibula (Fig. 460) which presumably culminates the line of development. It is noteworthy because it has a fairly pronounced curve, making it particularly suitable for following the curve of a shoulder: a most appropriate ornament for pinning a rectangular over garment, or a costume fastened at one shoulder. To return to the tubular garments recovered from Danish bogs, i.e. tubular-woven textiles not spread out flat. One may well ask what has inspired them. My deliberations on the subject have led me to conclude that one dares not assume that they evolved locally here or that they derive directly from the female costume of the early Bronze Age. The technical differences between the early Bronze Age oak coffin textiles and the Iron Age bog textiles are so great that a chasm separates them. As I have tried to show in the preceding chapters, the textile crafts in Denmark appear to have received important new impulses from abroad at the transition between the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. The tubular garments are also undoubtedly a result of these impulses. Archaeologists have established that influences both from the west, and the east or south- east, reached Denmark during the late Bronze Age, and that the latter evidently came first to Jutland by way of the river Elbe184). The span of time between the close of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Roman Iron Age is marked by the culture of the Celts - the all dominant culture north of the . It is parti- cularly the phase known as La Tene, called after the locality in where it was first identified 185),which spread through most of Central and Northern Europe, extending from the British Isles to the Black Sea and from North Italy to Scandinavia. It naturally influenced our early Iron Age culture, as borne out by the artefacts of east and west Celtic origin which have been found among Danish prehistoric materiap86). That impulses from Celtic regions had an impact on our textiles is therefore extremely likely, but still an assumption because no firm evidence has yet been forthcoming. Bog finds in Holland, and may one day answer the question of west Celtic influence. We are better informed about east Celtic impulses. The burial forms of the late Celtic period in Denmark were still exclusively cremations; these have been divided by Johannes Br¢nd- sted, into three main groups one of which is located in North Jutland and characterised by an eastern influence. The map on P. 14 shows that, apart from Jutland, few bodies have been recovered from bogs. Likewise, grave finds from this period are poorly represented in the rest of Denmark 187).Therefore, it is no coincidence when the Huldremose group of bog bodies and textiles, in my opinion the oldest, should be found mainly in North Jutland with Himmerland as its centre. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 379

When we remember, then, that remnants of twill cloth from the late Bronze Age188) have been recovered in Klein Rossen in Saxony and Salzkammergut in , it is tempting to surmise that the great weaving novelty, twill, reached Denmark from the south-east. Our tubular-woven dress leads us in the same direction. We have already seen the harmonious effect of a fastening at each shoulder, we know that shoulder fibulae occur in women's graves in Silesia. Reliefs on Pannonian tombstones also depict a woman's costume similar to the Huldremose dress, and the same costume is depicted on the silver bowl from Gundestrup (considered to be Celtic craftsmanship). Yet it does not go without saying that the costume originated with the Celts. Br¢ndsted shows that Celtic art was to some extent inspired by Greece, and the similarity of the female costume to the Doric peplos gives the impression of being a loan, either from the Greeks or from a common source. How can we account for the fact that such closely related garments as tubular-woven dresses have been worn both in Europe and South America? Is it more than a coinci- dence when garments, which are basically square pieces of cloth, occur among peoples of different race and culture? To me the material suggests that they are all descended from a basic shape which has evolved parallel with the rudimentary poncho shapes, and which has been equally widespread.

Fig. 465. Woman from the Ditmarshes, Friesland, wearing a hooded cape and an oblong piece of fabric at the waist, as well as two skirts (after Westphalen: Monumenta 1739). Kvinde fra Ditmarsken brerende hretteslag, langagtigt t\1ljstykke ved breltet samt to sk\1lrter. 380 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Heddle frame from Falster. (Danish Folk Museum). Vrevespjreld fra Falster.

Notes

I) N0rlund: KI

12) There are examples where skin capes are worn in hot climates. A. Junger (PI. 7, Kleidung und Umwelt in Africa, Leipzig 1926) shows a photograph of two men of the Wandorobbo tribe wearing skin capes similar to those of the Danish bog finds. A curious oblique cape is worn by Tscherkassian men. - Nicolais Wit- zen: Noord en Oost Tartarye II, P. 555, and A. Byahn (Illustrierte Volkerkunde Ill, Fig. 262) illustrate an Armenian clad in a skin cape similar to the Danish ones. 13) C. Engelhardt: Thorsbjerg Mosefund, 1863, P. 18. - Johanne Mestorf: 42. Bericht, Pp. 11,24 and 30. - (Same author: 44. Bericht. Pp. 34-36). R. Stettiner: Brettchenwebereien. Pp. 35 and 46. 14) Lillian M. Wilson: Op. cit., P. 104. 15) Vivi Sylwan: Woollen Textiles, P. 95. Finds dated to the first centuries A.D. One cape wrapped round a body in a Lou-Ian grave measures 2 x 1.50 m. 16) Nl<)r1und: Herjolfsnes, Pp. 151-173. - Klrededragt, Pp. 42-46, Figs. 30,40. 17) A. Sandklef: The Bocksten Find. Acta Ethnol. I, 1937, P. 27, Figs. 24, 25, 26. 18) G. Gjessing: Skjoldehamndrakten. Viking II, 1938, P. 40, PI. VII. 19) Lillian M. Wilson: The Clothing of the Ancient Romans, P. 92, Fig. 56. 20) Gjertrud and Gutorm Gjessing: Lappedrakten. Inst. f. sammenlignende Kulturforskning, C IV-2. 1940. P. 59 ff. and Fig. 20. - W. Bogoras: The Chukchee, Mem. of the Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist. Vol. XI. P. I, 1904, P. 243, Fig. 175. 21) Hatt: Skinddragter. P. 68. 22) t. von Linne: Resa till Lapmarken 1732. Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien V., 1913, P. 204. 23) Eesti Rahva Muuseumi Aastaraamat, [II, Figs. 1[[, 112, 115. P. 490. 24) U. T. Sirelius: Uber einige Traggerate und Umschlagetucher bei den finnish-ugrischen Volkern. Finska fornminnesfOren. tids. XXVI, Fig. 40. Cf. same author: Journal de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne, 1916, XXXI, PI. XV. ·25) Niels Blicher: Topographie over Vium Prrestekald. 1795. Edited by S~ren Vasegaard, 1924, P. 125. - L. M. Wedel: Bonde Practica [821, P. 68. - Erich Reutzich's family history, page 201 (Thott 8°, 432, Royal Library, Copenhagen) shows a liripipe hood c. 1625. 26) C. Nyrop: Fra Danmarks reldste Lavsskraaer. Aarb. f. dansk kulturhist. 1892, P. 73. 27) Worsaae: Aarb~ger 1869, P. 209. 28) Axel Olrik: Danmarks Heltedigtning II, 1910, Pp. 32-35,55-56. 29) Birka III, Pp. 142, 146 and 155. 8 pairs of tag ends were probably worn with the hlad, and the ones found near the hands or hips in the Mammen burial were probably wristlets. 30) For example as illustrated in Margarete Bieber: Griechische Kleidung, PI. XVII. 31) Sigfrid Svensson: Sk~nes Folkdrakter, P. 153. 32) Hjalmar Falk: Altwestnordische Kleiderkunde, 1919, P. 114 and 32; translated by A. Olrik as pyn/ebaand - ornamental band, sno,. - cord. 33) K. Moszynski: Siavernas Folkkultur. Stencilled edition 1936, Pp. 214-15. - Cf. D. Zelenin: Russische (Ostslavische) Volkskunde, Slavischer Grundriss. 1927, Abb. 249, PI. 3. 34) Ellen Andersen: Folkedragten i Danmark. Fra Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1939, P. 77. 35) 1. S. M~ller: Folkedragten i Nordvest Sjrelland, Pp. 93, 192. 36) Antiquarisk Tidsskrift. 1843-45. P. 22. Other publications about prehistoric shoes: AnnaleI' 1842-43, P. 176; C. Engelhardt: Thorsbjerg Mosefund, P. 19, PI. 3: 1. Mestorf: 44. Bericht, P. 51; H. Hahne: Moorleichenfunde, PI. XVIII and PI. XIX; N~r1und: Klrededragt, Pp. 56-6l. 37) After C. Engelhardt: Jernalderens Gravskik i Jylland. Aarb~ger 1881, P. 180. The point of a hide shoe was found in a Viking Period burial at Hvileh0j, thought to be a woman's grave. 38) With acknowledgments to Mrs. Rakna Heise, Icelandic born, for this information. For more details cf. Tidsskrift for lndustri 1903, No.9. Fig. 77. 39) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 162. 40) 1. Manninen: Eesti Rahvariieta Ajalugu, Eesti Rahva Muuseumi Aastaraamat Ill, 1927, P. 505 and Fig. 456-469. 41) Sigfrid Svensson: Traditioner i nordisk bondedrakt. Pp. 144-146. 42) Skrydstrupfundet, Pp. 86-87. 43) Holger Arbman and Elisabeth Stromberg: Aslevanten. Nordiska Museets och Skansens Arsbok 1934, P. 67 If. 44) Margrethe Hald: The Nettle as a Culture Plant. Folk-Liv. 1942, PI. 10. Poncho fra Caingang Indianerne. - The Ethnographic Dept. ational Mus. Copenhagen also owns two ponchos from the Lengua Indians: Mus. o. H [533-34. - Cf. Gosta Montell: Dress and Ornaments in Ancient Peru, Fig. 90, and "KH:idedrakten i Inca-riket vid tiden for den spanska erovringen", Ymer 1927, Figs. 2 and 3. 45) Some experts term a garment a poncho only when it is open down the sides, and use the term "shirt" as soon as the sides are closed, i.e. C. Skottsberg: Notes on the Old Indian Necropolis of Arica. Geogr. fOren. i Goteborg, III, 1924, P. 62. However, the term generally covers a wider range. 382 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

46) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 49. - E. Nordenskiold: An Ethnogeographical Analysis. Comparative Eth- nographical Studies. I, P. 102, Fig. 26. 47) M. Hald: Ancient Textile Techniques in and Scandinavia. Acta Arch. XVIII, 1946, Pp. 52 and 64. 48) Hatt. Skinddragter, P. 53, PI. 2 and 3. - U. T. Sirelius: Uber einige Traggerate und Umschlagetlicher bei den finnish-ugrischen Volkern, Finska fornminnesforen. Tidskr. XXVI, P. 50 ff. and Figs. 34-37. 49) Gosta Montell: Dress and Ornaments in Ancient Peru. P. 169, Fig. 82. The author gives no date for the garment but it is described in the period immediately preceding the Incas. 50) Carl Skottsberg: Notes on the Old Indian Necropolis of Arica. Meddelanden fran geografiska foreningen i Goteborg, III. 1924, Fig. 19. - Gosta Montell: Op. cit. Fig. 82, P. 169. 51) Cf. illustrations in H. Weiss: Kostiimekunde, 1860, Figs. 214and 215. K. Moszynski is of the opinion that trousers are of Asian origin: Siavernas Folkkultur II, Svensk Stencil Ed. P. 243. 52) J. Br\''lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid III, P. 83. 53) C. Engelhardt: Thorsbjerg Mosefund, P. 18and PI. II. -J. Mestorf: 44. Bericht, P. 19. - Same author: 42. Bericht, Pp. 20,22,29 and 30. - Stettiner: Brettchenwebereien, P. 30, PI. II. - H. Hahne: Moorleichenfun- de, P. 15. - P. N\'lrlund: Klrededragt, P. 36 and Fig. 32. 54) H. Hahne: Moorleichenfunde, B. No. VI, PI. II and VI. 55) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 151 ff. 56) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 209, PI. XIII 5-6. 57) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 213: "It is very likely that the oldest one piece garment comprised an animal skin." 58) Gutorm Gjessing: Skjoldehamndrakten, Viking 1938, P. 49. 59) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 101 and PI. VII-2. National Museum, Copenhagen. No. L.d. 64. 60) See Fig. 421. 61) National Museum, Copenhagen. No. L. 5014. 62) Hatt: P. 147, Universitetets Etnografiske Museum, Oslo. 63) Hatt: P. 147, PI. XI - 10. 64) Cf. "h6ibukse", Brage Irgens Larsen: Middelaldersk klrededragt, 1937, Pp. 16-17. 65) H. Hahne: Moorleichenfunde, P. 36 and PI. XVII, 1-3. 66) H. Hahne: Moorleichenfunde. P. 54 and PI. XXXII and XXVIII-2. - F. Balodis (Det aldsta Lettland, 1940, Pp. 204 and 206) mentions leg wrappings richly decorated with bronze ornament in a 13th cent. find from Dundaga. 67) Heikel: Volkstrachten. PI. XXVIII-IS. 68) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 173. 69) Mus. no. C 3845 b. Measurement 37 x 30 cm. 70) Knitted by Helene Andersen from Ranum c. 1941. Until about 1925 this type of legging was worn by her sons each summer. 71) Karen Thurborg: Det gamle Harbo\'lre, 1928, P. 106, describes leggings with a strap under the instep, and likewise in Denmark" Bidrag til Kundskab om de danske Provindsers nrervrerende Tilstande, Ringk\'l- bing Amt 1833", P. 224, mentions that leggings were worn by both sexes as part of their everyday costume. Other sources: L. M. Wedel: Bondepractica, 1821, P. 68. - Niels Blicher: Topographie over Vium Prrestekald, 1795, published by S. Vasegaard, 1924, P. 120. 72) I. Manninen: Eesti Rahva Muuseumi Aastaraamat III, Figs. 431 and 436. - K. Moszynski: Kultura Ludowa Slowian, 474. - Heikel: Volkstrachten, PI. XXVIII, Fig. 21 shows a legging with a strap beneath the instep. - Blatter f. Kostiimekunde, PI. 35 and 150 illustrates men's leggings from the Tyrol and , and likewise an ancient Greek with legging-like garment, PI. 155. 73) Hahne: Moorleichenfunde, P. 14 and PI. I, Abb. 1 and 2; PI. VI, Abb. 3, 4 and 9. 74) Hahne: Moorleichenfunde, P. 32 and PI. Ill, ill. XVI, Abb. 1 and 2; PI. VII, ill. XX, Abb. 3 and 4. 75) H. A. Potratz: Da Moorgewand von Reepsholt, 1942, P. 26. 76) Margrethe Hald: Ancient Textile Techniques in Egypt and Scandinavia. Acta Arch. XVII, 1946, P. 67 ff. 77) A felt tunic illustrated by Max Tilke called "Tschopus" from the south-east is not without interest in this context: Orientalische KostUme in Schnitt und Farbe, Fig. 60. - C. G. Feilberg: Contribu- tions to the History of Some Oriental Bazaar Crafts. 1941, P. 70 ff. 78) G. M. Crowfoot and N. de Davies: The Tunic of Tut'ankhamun. The Journ. of Egyptian Archaeology XXVII, 1941, P. 114.- R. Pfister: Les Textiles du Tombeau de Toutankhamon. Revue des Arts Asiatiques XI, Fasc. 4. 79) Information kindly provided by Grace M. Crowfoot. 80) Max Tilke: Orientalische KostUme in Schnitt und Farbe, P. 17, PI. 42. Same author: Entwicklungsge- schichte des orientalischen KostUms. Pp. 70,71, Nos. 18and 45. A sleeved Egyptian tunic from the Sixth Dynasty (2500-2300 B.C.) is pleated and likewise its sleeves. The pleating of the sleeves is fairly fine by the shoulders, but deeper towards the hands. - E. Riefstahl: Patterned Textiles in Pharaonic Egypt. Brooklyn Mus. 1944, P. 8, Fig. 7. CHAPTER X. PREHISTORIC COSTUME IN DENMARK 383

81) A. Goldschmidt: Die Deutsche Buchmalerei. Vol. I, 1928, PI. 53 ff. Garments with sleeves falling below the elbows in folds are often depicted in medieval representations. Cf. Miniaturen aus Handschriften der Kgl. Hof -und Staatsbibliothek in Miinchen, no. I, Das sogenannte Evangeliarium Kaiser Otto's III, PI. 28. The figures of Salome, her mother and the king and executioner wear garments with pleated sleeves; cf. PI. 21,32,35,42. - A. O. Heikel publishes a recent example, a folk costume with prolonged sleeves: Die Volkstrachten in den Ostseeprovinzen. 1909, II, P. 4, Fig. 5. - Cf. Bull. of the Metropolitan Mus. of Art, 1931,P. 177, woman's upper garment from India with very long sleeves with slits across for the hands (I7th century). 82) M. A. Audollent: Les Tombes Gallo-Romaines a Inhumation des Martres-de-Veyre, Memoires des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres XIII, P. 275 ff. PI. 9. 83) Margrethe Hald: Ancient Textile Techniques in Egypt and Scandinavia. Acta Arch., Vol. XVII, 1946, Figs. 16-19. 84) Sune Lindqvist: Gotlands Bildsteine, I, P. 77, PI. 137-138. Alskog Tjangvide, P. 121, dated to the 8th cen- tury. 85) Sigfrid Svensson: Traditioner i nordisk Bondedrakt. Nordisk Kultur XV: B, 1941, P. 125, Fig. I. Cf. D. Zelenin: Slavischer Grundriss, P. 226, Fig. 158 (a Gouvian peasant who appears to be wearing a Iwlt). 86) Hahne: Moorleichenfund, PI. 3-4, XXX-XXXI, P. 51. 87) C. Engelhardt: Thorsbjerg Mosefund. 1863, P. 18, PI. I. - Njijrlund: Klcededragt, Fig. 23. 88) N0rlund: Herjolfsnes. Same author: Viking Settlers In Greenland. 1936. Cambridge Univ. Press, Lon- don. - Klcededragt, P. 34. 89) N0r1und: Klcededragt, Fig. 28. 90) G. Gjessing: Skjoldehamndrakten. Viking 1938, P. 39, Fig. 2. 91) A. Sandklef: The Bocksten find. Acta Ethnologica I. 1937, P. 36, Fig. 31. 92) In the Staat!' Mus., Berlin, (No. 9935). According to information from the museum in 1937, the tunic was first considered to be Coptic, but later because of its cut thought to be from Antinoe. Its date is uncertain but the garment is considered to be an early type. Technical details of the fabric from which the tunic is made resemble that of Danish bog textiles, for example the turns and crossing of the wefts. Cf. Acta Arch. XVII. 1946, P. 77. 93) J. Braun: Die Iiturgische Gewandung. 1907. P. 75, Fig. 28. 94) G. Gjessing: Skjoldehamndrakten. Viking 1938, Fig. 2 and P. 44. - Max Tilke has published a man's kirtle from in Orientalische Kostiime in Schnitt und Farbe, P. 28 and PI. 102, with added sleeves, gores from the waist to the hem give fullness. 95) Poul N0rlund: De gamle Nordbobygder ved Verdens Ende, 1934. P. 104. 96) The owner said that the bodice was intended for a nursing mother and was worn with a skirt or under skirt kept up by straps or ties over the shoulders. 97) H. C. Broholm and Margrethe Hald: To sprangede Textilarbejder. Aarb0ger 1935, P. 42. 98) Bjjijrn Hougen: Viking IV, 1940, P. 105. Fig. 7e. 99) Illustration in Birka III, PI. 38, NO.4. - N0rlund: Klcededragt, Fig. 49. 100) Gudmund Hatt: Arktiske Skinddragter. 1914, P. 49. 101) H. C. Broholm: Danske Bronzealders Dragter, Pp. 328-329. 102) Hatt: op. cit., P. 60, PI. II 3-4. 103) Hatt: op. cit., P. 209 & PI. XIII 5-6. 104) Hatt: op. cit. P. 101 & PI. VII - 2. No. LD. 64. 105) Hatt: op. cit. P. 213 conjectures on the mystical cult values of wearing an animal skin much in the same way as when it was part of the animal. 1(6) I chose a roeskin because it corresponds in size to red deer, both species roamed Denmark in the Bronze Age, and the latter appears to be the right size for cloth garments found in the oak coffin inhumations. 1(7) Max Tilke: Orientalische Kostiime in Schnitt und Farbe. PI. 7 & 8 show that similar sleeve ornament was widespread and although varied it is unlikely to hav.e evolved fortuitously. - Same author: Ost- europaische Volkstrachten in Schnitt und Farbe. 1925. PI. 2 ff. 1(8) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 59, (No. 20, II) in Musee d'Anthropologie, St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). 1(9) Hatt: Skinddragter. P. 66. 110) Hatt: Skinddragter. Pp. 119-122.

III) G. Hatt (Skinddragter, P. 129) refers to C. F. Lyon (Private Journal during the recent voyage of discovery under Captain Peary. 1824, P. 312) who mentions a sort of "an open deerskin with sleeves", worn by the Inglulirmiut Eskimos over their outer furs, although it was largely used as a rug but not widely even then. G. Hatt asks whether this is perhaps the last relic of a garment evolved from the cape formerly widespread in North America. In my opinion. though, it is more likely to have been a relic of the skin garment with sleeves from the forelegs described by the Russians. - K. Birket-Smith (The Caribou Eskimos II, P. 176) mentions John Smith who described a curious bearskin costume worn by the 384 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Susquehes. The man's head passed through the neckskin of the bear and the animal's ears were attached to the man's shoulders, while its nose and teeth hung down his chest. Here, too, is a similarity to a poncho of the kind where the neck slit is not in the exact centre of the horizontal fold. While on the subject of whole skins and how they may be worn, Fig. 433 shows a drummer in the band of the Royal Marines wearing a tigerskin, the head and forepaws of the animal hang down his back. The neck opening is cut in the shoulders of the skin. Other British regiments have the same tradition, and one cannot resist wonder- ing where the custom has come from. - Cf. skins worn ceremonially among the Inka, Gbsta Montell: Dress and Ornaments in Ancient Peru, Pp. 205-207, and Elizabeth Riefstahl, Brooklyn Mus. 1944, Fig. 47, leopard skins worn by Egyptian priests. 112) Hatt: Skinddragter. In the chapter on tanning (P. 18ff) the author mentions that skins are not stretched by identical methods everywhere; sometimes the skin is dried before being prepared, e.g. among the Tun- guskan people; elsewhere, among the Eskimos for example, the skin is stretched out during the last phase of the curing. The skins of small animals are often pulled offin one piece and used uncut, after drying with the hair side inwards over a special drying frame. The most important part of the treatment is scraping to remove subcutaneous tissue and break down fibrous patches. There is no doubt that skins are pliable enough to lend themselves to fairly vigorous shaping. 113) G. Hatt mentions garments of reindeer skin in which the least satisfactory areas of the abdominal skin are cut away due to being too thin and liable to stretch. The question is whether a reindeer skin is too narrow to be worn by an adult without added to. The width of a reindeer hide at the chest is 80 cm (a specimen at the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen), and an Eskimo garment (Arktiske Skinddragter, P. 91) made from the hide of a full grown reindeer measures 1.20 m at the bottom, presumably the circumference of the abdomen. This garment is not unlike the types under discussion, in that the back skin passes under the armpits to the front, but the front panel is made up of various pieces of different skin to give the garment extra width and close it. G. Hatt notes that thi~ garment is not derived from a cape but from the shape of the skin. The Thnaina Indians likewise wore a similar closed garment of reindeer skin (Skinddragter, PI. X-5), an inset piece of skin is seen down the front, very reminiscent of the tucker worn loose by the Tun- guskans under their upper garment. 114) Danske Bronzealders Dragter, Pp. 328-29. Cf. Skrydstrupfundet, P. 103 ff. and an answer to Agnes Geijer, same, P. 105. 115) K. Moszynski: Slavernas Folk Kultur. Swedish translation. B. 1. section 455, 1936, Fig. 396. 116) Hatt. Skinddragter, PI. III 1-2 and Pp. 64-65 and 216. 117) Hatt: Skinddragter, Pp. 58,65,239. 118) Photograph in K. Birket-Smith: Kulturens Veje I, 1941, Fig. 122. 119) Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 216. 120) Indian Notes. Vol. VII, P. 453. In reality a parallel to the sleeve wrappings of the man's costume in Jut- land up to recent times. 121) K. Moszynski: Siavernas Folkkultur, stencilled edition P. 235 and Fig. 385-3, and 395 in the original edi- tion. 122) Sigfrid Svensson: Skanes Folkdrakter, Pp. 115-121 and Fig. 117. 123) After E. Petersen & A. Domaszewski, 1896, PI. 77a. 124) Max Tilke: Die Marcus Saiile, 1896, PI. 87. 125) Same author: Oesteuropaische Volkstracht, Berlin 1925, P. 32, No. 87. 126) Man's sleeves mentioned specially in the list of woollen goods by the Danish author Sten St. Blicher: Vi- borg Amts Beskrivelse, 1839, P. 158. 127) Only the Huldremose textiles have a number: Mus. no. D 3505. 128) H. A. Nielsen: Aarb0ger 1915, P. 355. 129) G. Girke: Die Tracht der Germanen, 1922, P. 107. 130) Sune Lindqvist: Bronsalderns gator, P. 80. Same author: Svenskt forntidsliv, P. 103. 131) N0r1und: K1

skin cape from HuJdremose. In principle tubular-woven garments could easily be worn without belts. - Cf. Lillian M. Wilson: The Clothing of the Ancient Romans, Fig. 88, showing a peplos without a belt. 139) Margarete Bieber: Griechische Kleidung, P. 12, Fig. 15 c and d, and PI. I-II. - Franz Studniczka: Bei- triige zur Geschichte der altgriechischen Tracht (1886), P. 12, Fig. 4-6. 140) Margarete Bieber: op. cit. P. 13-20, PI. I-I and PI. II-I showing the open peplos. 141) Kindly brought to my attention by Professor Ole Klindt-Jensen. 142) J. G. Behrens: Fibel-Darstellungen auf romischen Grabsteinen. Mainzer Zeitschr. XXII, 1927, P. 51, Fig. I. 143) O. Almgren: Nordeuropiiische Fibelformen. Mannus Bibl. No. 32, 1923, P. 108, Fig. 238, PI. XI. 144) K. Balint: R6mai Koemlekek A Dunantulr61. Archaeologiai Ertesito, XXIII, 1903, P. 227, Fig. 2, P. 229, Fig. 4. My thanks to Georg Kunwald for his translation. 145) E. Desjardins: Monuments Epigraphiques du Musee National Hongrois 1873, PI. 36, No. 220. 146) K. Balint: op. cit., P. 233, Fig. 9. - Czakvar is c. 50 km west of Budapest. 147) Margarete Bieber: Griechische Kleidung 1928. - Same author: Entwicklungsgeschichte der griech- ischen Tracht 1934. 14H) Heikel: Volkstrachten, P. 9ff. 149) Cf. Heikel: op. cit., P. 9-17. - S. Svensson: Skanes folkdriikter, P. 118. 150) U. T. Sirelius: Suomen kansanomaista kulttuuria, II, Figs. 484-86. Swedish edition, II, P. 146. - Theodor Schwindt: Aus dem Eisenalter und spiiteren Zeiten Karelens, Finska fornmin. foren. tidskr. X1I1, 1893. P. 194 ff. - Hjalmar Appelgren-Kivalo: Finnische Trachten der jiingeren Eisenzeit. - Tyyni Vahter: Der spiiteisenzeitliche Mantel im Ostbaltikum. Congressus Secundus Archaeologorum Balticorum. 1930, P. 283 ff. - Fr. Balodis: Det iildsta Lettland, P. 205 ff. 15l) Cf. Th. Schwindt: op. cit., Fig. 258-265, 374-76, showing two brooches fastened directly onto 2 borders. 152) Birka 111, P. 152 ff. 153) A pair of oval brooches from Tranebjerg on the island ofSams~ (Mus. No. C 20588-98) have remnants of straps attached. For Norwegian material cf. Charlotte Blindheim: Vernesfunnene og Kvindedrakten i Norden i Vikingetiden. Viking IX, 1945, P. 143 f. and PI. X. Braces-like straps holding up a garment seem fairly widespread in Scandinavia. 154) Folk costumes often have a dress which is divided in front, and experts tend to believe that this is a relic of the Renaissance costume. However, it is not only in relatively isolated areas in Scandinavia that this detail has been found among folk costumes within living memory; K. Moszynski (op. cit., P. 226) has traced it in large areas of East and South-East Europe, from Silesia to and within the USSR. He considers that it would be fruitful to search for related garments in Asia, e.g. in the Himalayas. It is with- out doubt a primitive item of clothing which in fact belongs to the group we are dealing with in the present chapter. We may well ask whether it is not more likely that the Renaissance woman's costume represents a renewal of an ancient costume. 155) Birka III, PI. 38. - B. Hougen: Osebergfunnets billedvev. Viking IV, PI. VII. The custom of wearing several skirts at the same time, arranged so that all were visible is known until recent times in the folk costumes of a number of countries. In Amager, Denmark, the skirts were called "step-skirts" (E. Mygdal). It may be a relic of the skin dress, too narrow to wrap round the body (cf. neck flap and tucker, Fig. 428a-b). On Pannonian tombstones women wear two layers of "skirts". 156) Sune Lindqvist: Gotlands Bildsteine I. 1941, P. 81. Cf. same author: Svenskt forntidsliv, 1944, P. 117. 157) J. Br~ndsted: En Oldtidsforfatter under ark~ologisk Kontrol. Tilskueren, 1935, P. 185 fT. ISH) J. Br~ndsted: Danmarks Oldtid III, P. 146 ff. 159) Hans Norling-Christensen: Skr~beshave-Fundet. Winther Festskrift 1938, P. 119. 160) Sophus Miiller: Juellingefundet, P. 17 and PI. I and III. 161) Hans Norling-Christensen: Une Trouvaille de Parures de l'Ancien Age du Fer Romain faite a Vester Mellerup, Vendsyssel. Acta Arch. 1942, P. 332 ff. 162) N~r1und: KI~dedragt, P. 12 and 51. - Charlotte Blindheim: Vernesfunnene og Kvindedrakten i Norden i Vikingetiden. Viking 1945, P. 161. 163) Max Tilke: Entwicklungsgeschichte des orientalischen Kostiims, P. 38, Fig. 53. 164) Max Tilke: Entwicklungsgeschichte des orientalischen Kostiims, P. 52-53. - G. Dalman: Arbeit und Sitte in Paliistina, V, Fig. 106, Pp. 322-323, and A. Jiinger: Kleidung und Umwelt in Africa. Inst. f. Volker- kunde, I, R. 8, PI. 6 II. Cairo women in street clothes. 165) Henny Harald Hansen: Den jugoslaviske Haremsdragt, Nyt Tidsskrift for Kunstindustri, 1945, H. 8, P. 92. - Cf. Elna Mygdal: Amagerdragter I. P. 90, after Karl Hiiberlein: Trauertrachten auf d. Insel Fohr, Zeitschr d. Vereins fiir Volkskunde XIX (1909), P. 263. - F. Justi: Hessische Trachtenbuch, 1905, Pp. 8,41 and 61. 166) Elna MygdaJ: Amagerdragter I, P. 21 ff., 88 ff. and 94. A number of experts have published studies of garments similar in varying degrees to thej¢b, for example Sigfrid Svensson: Skanes Folkdriikter, 1935. 386 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

272 ff. - Cf. G. Buschan: Il1ustrierte Volkerkunde. II, 1926. Pp. 546-47; PI. XXI shows mourning shawls from Fohr, Fig. 326 a cloak from Ireland. At the beginning of the 20th century in a mantel/ina was worn by peasant girls to conceal their faces, and this was seen in in the street in 1960. The custom of covering the head when in mourning appears to be widespread both in time and place. According to Lillian M. Wilson the Romans drew their togas up to cover the head when participating in sacrificial and religious ceremonies ("The Clothing of the Ancient Romans", P. 42). - Margarete Bieber has illustrations of Greek gravestones with depictions of women with their heads veiled, sometimes with the fold of their peplos. In Villa Albani, Rome, a relief shows Orpheus and Euridice, the latter with head veiled with the fold of her peplos, perhaps a token of mourning or burial custom. 167) U. T. Sirelius: Folkliga Kultur. Stencilled edition. II, P. 146 ff. A woman's cape with sleeves hanging down the back was worn c. 80 years ago in Kaukalo, and is known from Setukesian, Estonia and Dvinska Karelian. 168) Flateyjarb6k I, P. 481. 169) Hjalmar Falk: Kleiderkunde, 1919, P. 169 ff. In the Danish Als dialect a jacket is calledjohhe. 170) A. Bugge: Vesterlandenes Indflydelse paa Nordboerne.95, P. 149. 171) This corresponds with the costumes of classical antiquity where folds served as pockets. 172) E. Nordenskiold: The Changes in the Material Culture of Two Indian Tribes Under the Influence of New Surroundings. Comparative Ethnographical Studies II, 1920, P. 59 ff. Figs. 20, 21,22, Map 7, P. 67. Same author: Comparative Ethnographical Studies I, 1919, P. 96 ff, and 107. 173) E. Nordenskiold: Comparative Ethnographical Studies II, P. 10, Fig. 2. 173) Max Tilke: Entwicklungsgeschichte des orientalischen Kostiims, P. 39, Fig. 54, 55. - Girke: Die Tracht der Germanen, PI. 57a. 175) Gosta Montell: Kladedrakten i Inca-riket vid tiden for den spanska erovringen. Ymer 1927, H. 2. P. 113.- Max Uhle mentions that the Araukan women wore a shawl with their dresses which was wrapped round the neck and shoulders, and fastened with pins. Women of the Chibchas tribe (Pachacamac, 1903, P. 89, Note 15) wore similar shawls. - A. Hinger: Kleidung und Umwelt i Afrika. Inst. f. Volker- kunde, I. R., 8, 1926, PI. 5, I and II, mentions that the women of some African tribes wear a cloth from armpit to ankle, without a belt and apparently without pinning at the shoulders. - The Javanese is a similar garment. 176) A. O. Heikel: Volkstrachten (1909), PI. XVII & XVIII. Part I, P. 40, PI. VII ff. - VIII. Part II, Pp. 1& 3, et a!. - Cf. Margarete Bieber: Griechische Kleidung, PI. 44,3. 177) A. Manninen: Geschichte der estnischen Volkstracht, Eesti Rahva Museumi Aastaraamat III, 1927, P. 251, Fig. 230. Cf. K. Moszynski: Siavernas Folkkultur II, P. 229 on the distribution and use of small rect- angular cloths in the Slav folk costumes of both men and women. He compares the Estonian shawl with the Scottish plaid because of its shape and the fringes along the transverse edges. Scottish women have also worn long round their heads. 178) G. Hatt: Skinddragter, P. 213. 179) J. S. Stuart: Vestiarium Scoticum (1842), Pp. 28-29. - Max Tilke: Entwicklungsges. des orient. Kostiims, Pp. 34 and 63. - Same author: Orient. Kostiime, PI. 94. - Cf. F. T. Kelly: A Short History of Costumes and Armour. 1931, Figs. 5-7. 180) Skanes folkdrakter, P. 262. 181) Sune Lindqvist: Svenskt forntidsliv, 1944, P. 103. 182) J. Brl'lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid II, Pp. 215,243. - Cf. H. C. Broholm: Danmarks Bronzealder IV (1949), PI. 26-27. 183) Sophus Miiller: Bronzealderens Kunst, P. 38, Fig. 131. 184) Brl'lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid II, P. 248. 185) De forhistorske Tider i Europa II, P. 303. - Brl'lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid III, Pp. 11-12. 186) Brl'lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid III, P. 102. 187) Brl'lndsted: Danmarks Oldtid III, Pp. 22, 39. 188) Gertrud Sage: Gewebereste auf vorgeschl. Eisengeraten in Schlesien. Altschlesien 1932, P. 82.