An Environmental Profile of the Loddon

View from Mount Alexander looking East, May 1998.

Interim Report March 1999

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch CONTENTS

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………………….. 1 2. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………….. 4 Part A Major Physical Features of the Region

3. GEOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………………………… 5 3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 3.1.1 Location ………………………………………………………………………………………... 5 3.1.2 Diversity of Landscape ……………………………………………………………………….…. 5 3.1.3 History of Non-Indigenous Settlement ……………………………………………………………. 5 3.2 TOPOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6 3.2.1 Major Landforms ………………………………………………………………………..………. 6 3.2.1.1 Southern Mountainous Area …………………………………………………………….…………..…. 6 3.2.1.2 Hill Country …………………………………………………………………………………….…….………. 6 3.2.1.3 Riverine ………………………………………………………………………………………….……………. 6 3.2.1.4 Plains …………………………………………………………………………………………….….……….. 6 3.2.1.5 Mallee …………………………………………………………………………………………….….………. 7 3.3 GEOLOGY …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8 3.3.1 Major Geological Features …………………………………………………………….………… 8 3.3.2 Earthquakes …………………………………………………………………………………….. 10

4. CLIMATE ……………………………………………………………………………… 11 4.1 RAINFALL …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. 11 4.2 TEMPERATURE ……………………………………………………………………………….………. 12 4.2.1 Average Maximum and Minimum Temperatures …………………………………………….………… 12 4.2.1 Temperature Anomalies ………………………………………………………………….……… 13 4.2.3 Global Influences on Weather…………………………………………………………………….. 13 4.2.3.1 El Nino………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….. 13 4.2.3.2 La Nina ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….. 14 5. RIVERS AND BASINS ……………………………………………………………………………….. 15 5.1 MAJOR RIVER BASINS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 15 5.2 VARIATION IN RIVER FLOWS……………………………………………………………………………………. 16

Part B Environmental Factors Affecting Health And Well Being

6. MINING PRACTICES….……………………………………………………………………………… 17

6.1 PAST MINING PRACTICES………………………………………………………………………………. 17 6.1.1 Arsenic……………………………………………..………………………………………………………. 17 6.1.2 Antimony…………………………………………..………………………………………………………. 18 6.1.3 Mercury……………………………………………..……………………………………………………… 18 6.2 Current Mining Practices..………………………………………………………………………………. 19 7. LAND USE……………….……………………………………………………………………………… 20 7.1 IRRIGATION FARMING…………………………………..………………………………………………………. 20 7.2 INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE……………………………..………………………………………………………... 21 7.3 BROAD ACRE FARMING…………………………………..……………………………………………………… 21 8. LAND DEGRADATION….…………………………………………………………………………….. 23 8.1 TYPES OF EROSION…………………………………..…………………………………………………………… 23 8.1.1 Sheet Erosion……………………………..………………………………………………………………… 23 8.1.2 Gully Erosion…………………………………..…………………………………………………………… 23 8.1.3 Wind Erosion…………………………………..…………………………………………………………… 24 8.2 SALINITY…..…………………………………..………………………………………………………………….. 24 8.2.1 Deep Lead Salinity……………………………..………………………………………………………….. 24 8.2.2 Dryland Salting…………………………………..………………………………………………………… 26

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 9. WATER CONTAMINATION……………………………………………………………………………. 27

9.1 WATER QUALITY..………………………………………………………………………………………. 27 9.2 WATER BORNE DISEASES……………..………………………………………………………………………….. 27 9.3 ALGAL BLOOMS..……………………………………………………………………………………..…. 28

10. BUILT INFRASTRUCTURE…………………………………………………………………………… 30 10.1 TRANSPORT…………………………………..………………………………………………………………….. 30 10.1.1 Roads……………………..……………………………………………………………………………..… 30 10.1.2 V/Line…………………………..…………………………………………………….…………………… 31 10.1.3 V/Line Buses……………………..……………………………………………………………………….. 32 10.1.4 Private Transport……………………..…………………………………………………….…………….. 33 10.2 COMMUNICATION…………………………..…………………………………………………………………… 34 10.2.1 Newspapers………………………………..………………………………………………………………. 35 10.2.2 Radio Stations………………………………..……………………………………………………………. 36 10.2.3 TV Stations……………………………..…………………………………………………………………. 36 10.2.4 Mobile Phones…………………………………..………………………………………………………… 37 10.2.5 Internet Services……………………………..……………………………………………………………. 37 10.2.6 ISDN/OnRamp Access Points…………………..………………………………………………………… 37

APPENDICES…………………………..…………………………………………………………………………… 38

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch List of Figures

1. Mount Macedon from the North, May 1998 ...... 6 2. Remnant Mallee Vegetation near (Buloke Shire) June 1998 ...... 7 3. Hanging Rock the remnants of Volcanic Cone, May 1998...... 8 4. Geomorphology of Loddon Mallee Region ...... 9 5. Epicentres and Intensities of Earthquakes in and near LMR 1950-1997 ...... 10 6. Average Rainfall in 1961-96 ...... 11 7. Average Maximum and Minimum Temperature and Rainfall for Victoria 1900-1995 ...... 12 8. Annual Mean Temperature Anomalies for 1910-1996 ...... 13 9. Variation in Southern Oscillation Index 1993-1998 ...... 14 10. The at , May 1998 ...... 15 11. Salt Harvesting near , May1998...... 15 12. Kangaroo Lake: Part of the Lake System North of Kerang, May 1998 ...... 16 13. Calcined Pyrites Sand Dump near Green Street, Eaglehawk, May 1998 ...... 17 14. Fosterville Heap Leach Pad, June 1998 ...... 19 15. Broad Acre Boom Spraying, Near Swan Hill, May 1998 ...... 20 16. The Waranga-Western Channel at , May 1998 ...... 20 17. Piggery near Leitchville, May 1998 ...... 21 18. Grain Handling Facilities at Elmore, May 1998 ...... 21 19. Landuse in the Loddon Mallee Region ...... 22 20. Severe Gully Erosion near Wedderburn, May 1998...... 23 21. Loddon Deep Lead ...... 24 22. Salt Effected Trees near Kerang, May 1998 ...... 24 23. Water Table Heights in the Murray Goulburn Irrigation System 1990 ...... 25 24. Water Table Heights in the Murray Goulburn Irrigation System 1994 ...... 25 25. Major Dryland Salinity Areas for Loddon Malleee Region in 1997 ...... 26 26. Giadia & Cryptosporidium in Water ...... 27 27. Algal Blooms Reported 1928 to 1995 in Loddon Mallee Region ...... 29 28. Loddon Mallee Region Highways ...... 31 29. V/line rail transport network ...... 32 30. V/Line Regional Bus Routes ...... 33 31. Regional Daily Newspapers with Circulation Area, October 1998...... 35 32. Regional Weekly Newspapers, October 1998 ...... 36 33. Coverage from the ABC FM Radio Transmitters in the LMR, October 1998 ...... 37 34..Coverage from the TV Transmitters in the LMR, October 1998 ...... 38

List of Tables 1. The major river systems in the Loddon Mallee Region ...... 16 2. Mercury concentration in the water of several streams in Loddon Mallee Region ...... 18 3. Mercury concentration in Stream Sediments ...... 18 4. Algal alert levels and actions ...... 29 5. Cyanobacterial toxins ...... 29 6. Method of travel to work in LMR ...... 33 7. Accident involving injury, for the period 1991-1995 by LGA ...... 33

List of Appendices 1. Newspapers in the Loddon Mallee Region ...... 38 2. Regional Internet Providers and Service Coverage ...... 39 3. Water -borne Diseases ...... 40 4. Household type by family by Number of Motor Vehicles for Lodon Mallee Region 1996 ...... 41 5. Method of Travel to Work for Employed Persons by Sex for the Loddon Mallee Region1996...... 41

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1 Executive Summary 1.1.3 Earthquakes The Environmental profile of the Loddon Mallee The epicentres of several earthquakes of Region (LMR) has been developed to inform the magnitude 4 to 5 have been located in the region strategic planning processes of the Department. over the past fifty years. The risk to our The Environmental Profile includes the natural population is relatively small and should be and the built environments. The natural addressed through building codes to minimise environment includes the topography, geology the danger of structural collapse. and climate of the region. The built environment includes land use, land degradation, mining activity, contamination of natural systems and 1.2 Climate built infrastructure. Transport issues are of vital concern to the community and to service 1.2.1 Rainfall providers. The physical infrastructure, such as The annual rainfall determines the type of roads and railways, are part of the transport agriculture in the region, except where there is equation. The telecommunications infrastructure irrigation. In the south of the region, the average in place in the region includes radio, television annual rainfall ranges from 800 to 1,100 and telephone transmissions. millimetres. In the hill country, it is between 600 and 800 millimetres and in the north, the average annual rainfall is between 200 and 625 1.1 Geography millimetres. Large volumes of irrigation water Victoria is the smallest mainland state of are transported to the region from high rainfall Australia, occupying just 2.6% of Australia’s areas outside the region. total land mass area, but with 24% of the population (4,422,124 people) in 1996. The 1.2.2 Temperature Loddon Mallee Region covers 26 % of the land The climate of Victoria and particularly the LMR area of Victoria and in 1996 had 6.3 % of the is characterised by extremes in temperature. State’s population (279,444 people). and its surrounding district often record The Loddon Mallee Region has a diversity of the maximum temperature for Victoria on any landscape types, from the given day. The highland areas of Macedon in the south, to the deserts of the north. The Ranges Shire, on the other hand, are subject to early development of agriculture and gold winter extremes of frost and occasional mining were the dominant themes of early non- snowfalls. There are health and safety hazards indigenous settlement led to the establishment associated with both these extremes of of many of the larger towns of the region. temperature. 1.1.1 Topography 1.2.3 Temperature Anomalies The topography of the region falls into five major Since 1900, there has been a rise in the annual land forms: (1) the southern mountainous area mean temperature in Australia of about one of volcanic origin); (2) the hill country (north of degree Centigrade. This may reflect global the Great Dividing Range); (3) the riverine areas warming or a long term cyclical temperature (including the Loddon, Campaspe and Murray effect. Rivers); (5) the plains country (north of 1.2.4 Global Influences on Weather ); (6) Mallee area ( low rainfall). The term El Niño Effect refers to the extensive 1.1.2 Geology warming of the central and eastern Pacific every three to six years that leads to a major shift in Terrestrial and marine sediments are the weather patterns across the Pacific. The Southern dominant rock units in the northern and central Oscillation Index (SOI) is an empirical measure parts of the region. South of Bendigo, the granitic of barometric pressure differential that has been outcrops were formed by erosion following found to correlate with El Niño weather effects. igneous activity deep below the surface millions Prediction of longer term weather patterns such of years ago. Ground water recharge in these as El Niño may lead to better outcomes for areas is a major contributor to elevated salt levels agriculture in LMR, as these cycles are better in the region. understood. Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 2

1.3 Rivers and Basins 1.5 Land Use 1.5.1 Irrigation Farming 1.3.1 Major River Basins Irrigation farming is a major feature of There are five major river basins which affect agriculture in the Loddon Mallee Region. It the Loddon Mallee Region. The largest of these accounts for 8.9 percent of land used for is the Murray- system which agricultural activities. Large numbers of bounds the northern edge of the Loddon Mallee irrigators are involved in viticulture, fruit and Region and is the longest river system in vegetable growing. The largest of these is Australia, draining much of inland , growing, with 1,530 establishments in the region. and Victoria. There were also 1,460 dairy farms in the region 1.3.2 Variation in River Flows in 1996. The maximum annual discharge of the major 1.5.2 Intensive Agriculture rivers in the region can exceed the annual Pigs, poultry and eggs are intensively farmed average by up to four times. In times of extreme in the region, often in large modern facilities. rainfall, flood mitigation works may be These industries are both capital and labour ineffectual and severe flooding may result. intensive, as is the subsequent processing of their products. The production of grain crops in the region 1.4 Mining utilises 49 percent of the agricultural land. Large quantities of poultry food are produced in the 1.4.1 Past Mining Practices region from local grain and imported additives. Arsenic, antimony and mercury are by-products of the extraction and processing of gold ore. Arsenic 1.6 Land Degradation To date there have been no reports of arsenic- 1.6.1 Types of Erosion related health effects in people living in areas Sheet, gully and wind erosion reduce with mine tailings. agricultural capacity and are usually caused by the removal of plant cover and past mining Antimony activity. There is no evidence of ill-health effects in people exposed to low doses of antimony in soil and 1.6.2 Salinity drinking water. Two main types of salinity occur in the Loddon Mercury Mallee Region. The first is caused by deep lead discharge into the alluvial plains in the north of Gold mining activity in the region has the region. In these areas, the water table rises contributed far more mercury to streams and to within two metres of the surface. High water lakes than the geological processes of the recent tables may threaten the economic viablity of past. Human poisoning with mercury is often irrigation farming. Strategies to improve the the result of eating fish or molluscs contaminated situation include: improved drainage systems, with methyl mercury. ground water pumping into evaporation basins and large scale planting of trees in the ground water recharge areas in highland areas of the 1.4.2 Current Mining Practices region. Ground water levels in the area Dust produced by mining in the region, have been falling in recent years. particularly in open cut situations, can contain The second main type of salinity is Dryland levels of toxic metals which can effect salting, which occurs on the lower slopes of hills surrounding properties? and in drainage depressions and is more common in the southern half of the LMR. Dryland salinity is often associated with subsequent gully erosion.

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1.7 Water Contamination 1.8.4 Communication In the late 1980s, rural residents downstream Newspapers from the major reservoirs in the region were The Loddon Mallee Region is serviced by 18 alerted to the dangers of toxic blue green algal local newspapers, ranging from daily papers in blooms present in their water supply. More the major provincial centres to local government recently, Giardia lamblia and associated bacteria area wide papers published on a weekly or have been identified in the region’s water monthly basis. All of these papers has high levels supplies. However, regional water supplies of local content and is printed locally. currently meet the Australian Drinking Water Radio Guidelines. The majority of the region has FM radio coverage, except for the far west area of the Rural 1.8 Infrastructure . 1.8.1 Road Transport Television The Loddon Mallee Region has an extensive Television in the region is transmitted from road network. The long distances between transmitters located at Mt Alexander, Goshen centres and the extensive road network make the private car the preferred mode of transport and Yatpool. for most people. Because of the upgrading of Mobile Phones the , a number of towns in the Both analogue and digital services are available Macedon Ranges and Mt Alexander Shires are in the Loddon Mallee Region. The analogue being by- passed. This change in the traffic flow service is being replaced by the digital service in and around these towns may significantly and is due to be phased out by 2000. Most towns affect the levels of population and the economic in the region are covered by both services. conditions in these centres. Internet 1.8.2 V/lineTransport The Internet is already a well established The frequency of passenger services to the information access point for many home region has recently been upgraded. The computers and this trend is likely to accelerate. economies of scale gained by using the rail Affordability usually dictates that internet network to transport grain, produced in the service providers, point of presence be located north and west of the region, limit the use of the in the local call area. Few people in the region road network for this purpose. V/Line bus would be outside local or community call services are closely integrated with rail based distance from an Internet service provider. passenger services. Many of the smaller towns which were in the past serviced by rail now have a V/Line bus service. 1.8.3 Private Transport The level of motor vehicle ownership in the region reflects the dependence on motor transport, with 35 percent of households having one motor vehicle, 51.5 percent having two or more, and 8.5 percent (8,059 persons) not having a vehicle. One parent families have a lower level of motor vehicle ownership with 24.5 percent having no motor vehicle, 55.9 percent having one vehicle, and 27 percent having more than one vehicle. Persons with no motor vehicle, particularly those not living in regional centres, are at a disadvantage with regard to transportation. The methods used by people to get to work also reflect this dependence on private transport. Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 4

2 Introduction Enviromental, Demographic and Socio- With so much environmental data now Economic Profiles of the Loddon Mallee Region available, especially from the Internet, the (LMR) have been developed to inform the challenge is to select the most appropriate data strategic planning processes of the Department. sets and display them in the most appropriate Data for the Environmental Profile relate mainly ways. The selection of areas of the physical to the physical environment and are selected to environment to include in this report has been show how these factors may affect the health dictated by the availability of region specific and well being of the people in the region. information. It is anticipated that this Environmental Profile will develop over time as The Loddon Mallee Region covers an area other data sources become available. . slightly larger than a quarter of Victoria and comprises a landscape of particular diversity, with Mallee deserts in the north-west, irrigation dairy farming in the north-east, the mountainous Great Dividing Range in the south and the riverine plains of the Murray River on the northern boundary of the region

The Environmental Profile includes the natural and the built environments. The natural environment includes the topography, geology and climate of the region. The built environment includes land use, land degradation, mining activity, contamination of natural systems and built infrastructure. With large distances between services in rural areas, transport issues are of vital concern to the community and to service providers. The physical infrastructure, such as roads and railways, are part of the transport equation. Information about many health issues and services is already available to most who know where to look. The telecommunications infrastructure in place in the region includes radio, television and telephone transmissions. The coverage provided by these services is included to show who in the more remote parts of the region have access to these forms of communication.

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Part A Major Physical Features of the Region 3 Geography 3.1.3 History of Non-Indigenous 3.1 Geographical features Settlement The early development of agriculture and gold 3.1.1 Location mining shaped the region, with most major towns forming around the gold mining industry. Bendigo, the major regional centre, came into Victoria is the smallest mainland state of existence when gold was discovered there in Australia, with an area of 227,600 sq km. 1851 and gold mining remained the principal Although it covers only 2.6% of Australia’s total local industry for half a century. There were land mass area, in 1996 Victoria had 24% of the few natural resources which would have population (4,422,124 people). The Loddon otherwise have made Bendigo the natural site Mallee Region covers 26 % of the land area of for a major regional centre. Other major towns Victoria and in 1996 had 6.1 % of the State’s such as Maryborough and Castlemaine also population (269,191 people). developed during the goldrush of the 1850s.

Bendigo’s water supply was problematic from the outset as the catchment areas were distant 3.1.2 Diversity of Landscape from the city. Shortage of surface water for processing the ores was a problem throughout The Loddon Mallee Region comprises a wide the history of the goldfields. An estimated diversity of landscape types. These range from 778,000 kg of gold was produced within the the rolling plains of the grain growing areas, and region up until large scale mining ceased in 1914. sand dunes of the Mallee track to the hill country of the southern part of the region. Granitic Towns along the Murray River developed as the mountains and remnant volcanic cones form the principal trading routes into the interior of the backbone of the Great Dividing Range which country, before the development railways. Swan dominates the southern half of the region. Flood Hill was settled as it was one of the few places plains dominate the landscape in the riverine the River Murray could be forded. The opening areas in the north of the region. The dune of the Mallee to settlers in the 1880s, irrigation formations of the Mallee are a veneer of wind schemes in the 1890s and the soldier settlement blown sands covered with bushy eucalypts schemes following the 1914-18 war, all which give that part of the region its name. contributed to the development of agriculture in the region. The diversity of landscape and weather pat- terns in the region dictated much of the ini- These government funded schemes initially tial settlement, which occurred primarily created numerous relatively small property along permanent water courses. Agriculture holdings in the northern part of the region, but within the region is a reflection of this di- many were not economically viable, resulting versity of landscape and rainfall, despite the in the amalgamation of many of the properties major irrigation works in the north of the in the closer settled areas. Population levels in region. the irrigated areas of the region are relatively high compared to areas of dryland farming.

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3.2 Topography 3.2.1 Major Land Forms 3.2.1.3 Riverine

3.2.1.1 Southern Mountainous Area The region’s main rivers, the Campaspe and The major land forms in this part of the region Loddon, flow north into the Murray River which are the mountains and remaining granitic cores is the major feature in the North of the region, which dominate the southern half of the region. forming the northern boundary of the region The granitic cores are the remains of volcanic The , which forms part of the action which occured approximately 370 million western boundary of the region, terminates at years ago at least 1,000 metres below the surface Lake Bael Bael, west of Kerang without joining of the earth. Erosion since that time has removed the Murray River. The diversion of water has covering sediments and left areas of granitic made it possible for irrigated agriculture along rock which are the dominant features of that the length of the Murray. The flow of each of landscape. Volcanic action in the past 10,000 the river systems is controlled for both flood years is also common with areas of and mitigation and water supply reasons. Despite volcanic cones evident in the southern part of the construction of many weirs and dams on the region. these rivers much of the region is still subject to severe flooding. Figure 1 Mount Macedon from the North, May 1998

Mt Macedon is an example of the granitic remnants which make up the majority of highland areas in the region. 3.2.1.2 Hill Country 3.2.1.4 Plains Much of the area in the Shires of Macedon The plains area of the region is situated be- Ranges , Central Goldfields , Mt Alexander, and tween the hill country in the south and the the , could be best Mallee in the north. The landscape is charac- described as hill country. This landscape is now terised by little variation in surface topogra- dominated by mixed farms of relatively small phy. Remnant vegetation is found mainly in area. Livestock raising is the primary occupation road reserves and watercourses. This area is in the rural areas of these southern Shires. In very productive as the flatness of the land- the past, much of this landscape was dominated scape suits broad acre cropping and includes by Box Ironbark forests. many of the irrigation areas in the region. Variations in agricultural activity are largely During the goldrush in the 1850s, large areas of dependent on the availability of irrigation these forests were cleared for both fuel and pit water and soil type. props. Agricultural development since that time has cleared many of the remaining forest areas on private land. Regrowth of Box Ironbark forest has mainly occurred in State Forest and mining reserves. The hill country is primarily sedimentary in origin. The intrusions then metamorphosed the making it hard and brittle. Subsequent differential erosion formed areas of raised hills. Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 7

Figure 2 Remnant Mallee Vegetation near Culgoa (Buloke) June 1998

3.2.1.5 Mallee Much of the mallee scrub which covered the north-west of the region was progressively cleared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for broad acre cropping. Large areas of Mallee vegetation have been preserved within the national parks in the region.

The Mallee area comprises 20% of the State and is bounded by the state borders of New South Wales and . This area, varies from 100 m to 50 m above sea level in the north of the Region, with little variation in rainfall or topography. Much of the Mallee is covered with aeolian (wind blown) deposits, ranging in height from 2-10 metres. These dunes cover a series of NNW bearing set of ridges, which were formed as the sea retreated from the area approximately 1.8 million years ago.

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3.3 Geology 3.3.1 Major Geological Features Gold is closely associated with these metamorphosed which due to the heat Tertiary terrestrial and marine sediments are the of the granitic intrusion, are subject to intense dominant rock units in the northern and central folding, faulting and cracking. Gold bearing parts of the Loddon Mallee Region. These material was then deposited in the deformed sediments were originally created deep beneath metamorphosed sedimentary rock. The Bendigo the surface of the . Major earth movements area is host to one of the richest goldfields in then tipped these sediments vertically, aligned the world. Many of the southern and central in a north-south direction. The landscape of the areas of the region are also richly endowed with Loddon Mallee Region is a product of deep gold bearing rock. erosion over a long period of time. Volcanic activity has in the recent past (4.6 The granitic outcrops which are found million years-to the present) occurred in the distributed throughout the Loddon Mallee southern part of the region. Extrusive lava flows Region formed hundreds of millions of year ago. (basalt) and vulcanism can be seen particularly Igneous activity at least 1000 metres below the to the south of Castlemaine. These lava flows surface formed granite monoliths, such as Mt covered many stream beds, and early sediments. Alexander near Castlemaine. Subsequent long Vocanic cones dominate much of the landscape term erosion has removed the covering rock. The in the south of the region and vary in age, but heating effect of these granitic intrusions on the some have erupted in the past ten thousand sedimentary rock which is the main rock type years. in the region, formed metamorphic aureoles (areas of super heated sedimentary rock). Changes in sea level have occured following the Metamorphic aureoles, while limited to the area retreat of glaciation at the end of the last Ice Age surrounding granitic intrusions, have a approximately 10,000 year ago. A 60 metre rise disproportionate effect on regional water tables. in sea level at that time created Bass Strait and Ground water recharge, which causes major separated Tasmania from the Australian salting in the region, is largely the result of mainland. This change in sea level, while not removing the tree cover from these areas. directly affecting the Loddon Mallee Region had the impact of decreasing the total land area of the by approximately the current area of .

Figure 3 Hanging Rock, the remnants of a volcanic cone, May 1998.

Hanging Rock represents the remnants of the a volcanic eruption 6 million years ago which has been deeply eroded.

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Figure 4 Geomorphology of the LMR

Adapted from , Geomorphic units pp406 Volcanic activity was the main determinant of Saline ground water discharge has also created the underlying geology of the southern part of areas known as Boinkas consisting of gysum the region. The extensive deposits of alluvial flats, salt lakes, and associated sand and clay plains and wind blown sediments created the deposits current morphology (form) of the northern part of the region. Sediments deposited over millions of years cov- ered old river beds. The porous nature of the Wind blown sediments, or dunes, are gener- sands and gravels in these underground river ally formed in times of low rainfall when lakes, systems (deep leads) allows highly saline wa- river systems, and soil binding plants dry out. ter beneath the ground surface to move from This allows prevailing winds to form dune sys- the higher altitude areas in the south of the re- tems, usually at right angles to the prevailing gion to lower areas in the north. wind. This type of landscape is particularly no- ticeable in the Hattah National Park in the Ru- The changes in geomorphology in the region are ral City of Mildura. in large part a reflection of the changes in cli- matic conditions. Glaciation and subsequent Lakes and inland seas were also a feature of droughts with associated dune systems form- northern Loddon Mallee Region in the past. ing during ice ages. Monsoonal weather patterns These lakes were formed when major river sys- and depositation of large volumes of fine silts tems were dammed by faulting across their in sedimentary plains and in lake bed clays length. The water levels in these lakes have occured during warmer/wetter times. changed with climate.

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3.3.2 Earthquakes Earthquakes of relatively low magnitude have An earthquake near Newcastle in 1989 caused occurred in the region in the recent past. the greatest economic loss of any single natural However, the effects of earthquakes over disaster in Australia’s recent history and resulted geological time have resulted in large scale in 13 deaths and 140 serious injuries. In the past, changes to the landscape. For example, the much larger earthquakes have occurred in formation of the Mt Camel range in the east of Australia, but not near population centres. the Region has divided the Campaspe and Urban populations in Loddon Malee Region are systems into separate at risk but the level of risk is relatively small. catchments. This extends across the Murray One way to mitigate the damaging effects of River as far north as the . earthquakes is by improving building codes, to Lakes formed behind this fault when the original minimise the risk of structural collapse. drainage pattern was disrupted. Much of the flat landscape to the north-east of the region was Where there are large numbers of older homes formed when such lakes evaporated during of high heritage value, changes to the building periods of drought. The area around Corop in code may have little if any effect on the safety the east of the region is illustrative of such lake of people residing in those homes. remnants, now filled by water from irrigation.

In more recent times, monitoring of earthquakes by the Australian Geological Survey Organisa- tion, has increased awareness of the risk of earthquakes and other types of earth movement, such as landslides.

Figure 5 Epicentres and Intensities of Earthquakes in and near the LMR 1950 to 1997

Source: Adapted from information from Geological Survey website http://www.agso.gov.au/geohazards/grm/aboutgrm.html

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4 Climate The open plains to the north of Bendigo have a lower annual average rainfall of 250 to 625 mm. Climatic information is based on the This gradually decreases in the direction of amalgamation of weather information from Mildura and the Murray River. many weather stations. By statistical analysis of a large number of weather stations it is Much of the agriculture in the Loddon Mallee possible to show trends for larger areas such as Region depends on seasonal rainfall, despite a state. Climatic information crosses regional, the availability of irrigation and stock and state and national boundaries. domestic water supplied by local water authorities. Large volumes of irrigation water are transported to the region from high rainfall 4.1 Rainfall areas outside the region. This transfer of water In the southern part of Loddon Mallee Region, supports the economically important much of the area is more than 200 metres above horicultural, viticulture, fruit-growing and dairy sea level, with an average annual rainfall industries in the region. ranging from 800 to 1100 mm. The effect of the As well as having agricultural effects, the high higher altitude is reflected in lower level of variability in climate, can become an temperatures and the likelihood of heavy frosts, issue for the urban areas of the region. Water heavy rain and occasionally snow falls. storages in the region allow for water to be stored from seasons of high rainfall to cover shortfalls The hill country between the Great Divide and in drier seasons. The low rainfall associated the open plains in the north of the Region is with the last El Niño event, has lowered the characterised by a moderate average annual protection which these storages usually provide. rainfall of between 600 to 800 mm. Figure 6 Average Annual Rainfall in Victoria 1961-1990

Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/cgi_bin_scripts/annual_rnfall.cgi

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4.2 Temperature

Figure 7 Average Maximum and Minimum Temperatures and Rainfall for Victoria 1900-1995

Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/bmrc/mrlr/nnn/victoria.gif

4.2.1 Average Maximum and Minimum Temperatures The climate of Victoria, and particularly the The highland areas of the Macedon Ranges Loddon Mallee Region, is characterised by Shire, on the other hand, are subject to winter extremes in temperature. Mildura and its extremes of frost and occasional snowfalls. Icy surrounding district often records the maximum temperatures in the Macedon area can lead to temperature in Victoria on any particular day. difficult driving conditions and increased risk Relatively warm winter temperatures in the of motor vehical accidents. Despite the lower northern part of the region tend to increase the winter temperatures experienced in the southern number of retirees who reside in the northern parts of the region, these areas are increasingly part of the region, particularly in the major towns becoming dormitory suburbs for the with medical facilities along the Murray River. metropolitan area.

Tourism in the northern part of the region is also a factor in the utilisation of medical facilities. High temperatures, particularly over extended periods of time, may contribute to health issues around heat stress for the elderly and the very young.

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4.2.2 Temperature Anomalies Figure 8 Annual Mean Temperature Anomalies for Australia 1910-1996

Source:http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/change/amtemp.shtml

Figure 8 shows the change in average annual A second application noted that rainfall had been mean temperature anomalies for Australia since extremely erratic and variable, and that high 1900. There was a variation of about 0.4 degrees winter temperatures were causing the yield of before 1950, but since then there appears to have some grain crops to drop dramatically. been a general rise in the annual mean anomality temperature of almost one degree. Whilst it is 4.2.3 Global Influences on Weather too early to be sure this is not just a cyclical 4.2.3.1 El Niño variation, world wide evidence supports the theory of the “Global Warming” effect. The term El Niño refers to the extensive warming The influence of global climate change may of the central and eastern Pacific every three to appear remote to Loddon Mallee Region, six years that leads to a major shift in weather however, agriculture in the region is primarily patterns across the Pacific. In Australia dependent on the weather. Crops and animals (particularly Eastern Australia), El Niño events raised in the region are particularly suited to the are associated with an increased probability of current environmental conditions. Predictions of drier conditions. global climate change indicate there may be Changes to the atmosphere and ocean dramatic shifts in rainfall patterns and storm circulation during El Niño events include: intensity, along with a more general temperature • Warmer than normal ocean temperatures increase. across the central and eastern tropical Pacific An example of how such changes could effect Ocean the region, is illustrated by a number of recent • Increased convection in the central tropical applications for exceptional circumstances, on - the focus of convection behalf of the regions farmers to the Federal migrates from the Australian/Indonesian region Government. One application cites the following eastward towards the central tropical Pacific reason for the application, “The frost on 28 of Ocean. October 1998 was so severe to cause an estimated • Weaker than normal (easterly) trade winds. 260 million dollars loss.” •Low (negative) values of the Southern Oscillation Index.

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Figure 9 Variation in Southern Oscillation Index 1993-1998

Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/glossary/soi.shtml

Australia has one of the most variable rainfall Water quality also suffers, and toxic algae climates in the world. Over the long term we outbreaks may occur. Plants and animals are also have about three good years and three bad years threatened. Bushfires and dust storms often out of ten. These fluctuations have many causes, increase during dry times. Conversely there but the strongest is the climate could be an increase in arbo virus infections phenomenon called the Southern Oscillation. during flood years due to increased mosquito This is a major air pressure shift between the numbers. Asian and east Pacific regions - its best-known extreme is El Niño. 4.2.3.2 La Niña The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is an In mid 1998 there was a major change in the empirical measure of barometric pressure SOI, from extremely negative to positive values. differential that has been found to correlate with This indicates that a La Niña event will dominate El Niño weather effects. Monitoring changes in weather patterns for the rest of this year and the SOI may help to detect an El Niño event possibly the next, representing a 180 degree and forecast its duration. turn-around in weather conditions worldwide, A greater understanding of El Niño has as the global effects are almost the mirror image improved the ability to predict seasonal rainfall of El Niño. and help authorities and individuals with early drought warnings. During climate extremes, The effect of the La Niña in the Loddon Mallee whether droughts or flooding rains, those on Region, in 1998-99 has been an increase in the land feel it most. Agriculture suffers first and average humidity, and more “tropical” most severely, yet, eventually everyone feels conditions and heavy thunder storms. It is the the impact. Drought disrupts cropping unpredicability of the climate at present which programs, reduces breeding stock, and is a cause for concern. Cropping in the region threatens permanent erosion of the capital and depends on farmers being able to predict with resource base of farming enterprises. Declining some degree of certainty the weather conditions productivity affects rural Australia and the for the coming season. national economy. The risk of serious environmental damage, particularly through vegetation loss and soil erosion, has long term implications for the sustainability of our agricultural industries.

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5 Rivers and Basins

Figure 10 The Murray River at Swan Hill, May 1998

5.1 Major River Basins

There are five major river basins which affect The rises in the south of the the Loddon Mallee Region. The Murray-Darling Loddon Mallee Region, between Daylesford and River system which bounds the northern edge Lexton. Much of the catchment has been cleared of the Loddon Mallee Region is the longest river for agriculture and consequently high levels of system in Australia and drains much of inland dryland salinity are found downstream. Water Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. from the Catchment is transferred to the Loddon River as waste water The Goulburn River system forms part of the placed in the Bendigo Creek after supplying the north-eastern boundary of the region and it needs of Bendigo. supplies much of the water to irrigate the northern districts of the region. Stock and Irrigation water transferred from the Murray Domestic water for much of the Mallee sub- River and Goulburn River systems, along with region is taken via the Warranga-Western stored Loddon River water, is used to irrigate Channel from the Goulburn River system. much of the northern end of the Loddon River system, adding to already high regional water tables and subsequent salting of agricultural land. Figure 11 Salt Harvesting near Kerang, May 1998.

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The Campaspe River is extensively harvested 5.2 Variation in River Flows for water for domestic, irrigation and recreational use. There are a number of The variation in annual discharge by the major reservoirs on this river system, the largest of rivers in the Loddon Mallee Region could of which is the Eppalock Reservoir. Eppalock and concern in the future. In years of above average other reservoirs supply water to regional towns flows, this can lead to flooding particularly along and to the Bendigo urban area. watercourses and flood plains. Many of the major towns and cities in the Loddon Mallee The Avoca River, which flows from the south Region are built on these rivers. The flood western boundary of the region to the Kerang mitigation works, construction of dams and Lakes never reaches the Murray River. The weirs along these rivers have, at least in part, system of lakes which are the termination of the minimised the effects of such flooding. In times Avoca River are an important habitat for of extreme rainfall, however, these flood migrating water birds. These lakes also offer the mitigation works may be ineffective. Table 1 opportunity for water based recreation. The shows that, since recording began, regional Avoca River system is very saline, particularly rivers can carry up to 4 times their average at its termination. annual flows.

Figure 12 Kangaroo Lake: part of the lake system north of Kerang, May 1998.

Irrigated agriculture in the North of the region In years of extreme drought the situation is highly dependent on flows in the Goulburn particularly for the Campaspe River system, River system. In October 1998, Goulburn River could be critical. The minimum flow of the storages were at extremely low levels and con- Campaspe River can be less than two percent of sequently there were restrictions placed on the the average. use of irrigation water. Despite heavy rains in The Campaspe River supplies the City of Greater the Goulburn River Catchment in November Bendigo, and towns in the central and southern 1998, storages are currently close to minimum Loddon Mallee Region. Minimum flows in any levels. of the river systems could also have a negative effect on irrigated agriculture despite, water transfers from outside the Loddon Mallee Region. Table1 The Major River Systems in the Loddon Mallee Region River Length Annual Discharge (Megalitres) (km) Average Maximum Minimum

Loddon 392 186,000 461,000 36,200 Avoca 269 47,600 129,000 3,480 Campaspe 245 203,000 886,000 2,830 Goulburn 563 1,680,000 5,930,000 228,000

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Part B Environmental Factors Affecting Health and Well Being

6 Mining Practices 6.1 Past Mining Practices Figure 13 Calcined Pyrites Sand Dump near Green Street, Eaglehawk, May 1998.

6.1.1 Arsenic There are a number of calcined pyrites sand Research to find a link between Arsenic and dumps in the region. Assays have found arsenic vascular disease has recently been completed at in these dumps at extemely high levels. Monash University. However, despite a small Following an incident when caged dingoes died elevation in vascular disease in areas with high after eating mine tailings at Chewton, the issue arsenic levels, no causal link was found. of arsenic contamination was brought to the attention of the public. To date, there have been no reports of arsenic- The health effects of arsenic are related to the related health effects in people living in areas amount of free arsenic and the duration of with mine tailings. ingestion by the body. Large amounts taken in over a short period of time can cause severe The Environmetal Protection Authority has health effects or even death. Medium amounts regulations controlling the use of tailings sands taken over a long period of time can cause health containing more than 30 ppm arsenic. Written effects, which include: approval from the authority must be obtained to sell or transport arsenical sands. Informed • Skin changes, such as light and dark spots, consent must be obtained by the original thickened skin on palm, soles of the feet, and supplier and every subsequent user to show that trunk. the recipient understands the nature and limited • Damage to heart, blood vessels, nerves, liver approved uses of these sands. and kidneys. • Some types of cancer: cancers of the skin, liver, bladder, kidney and lung.

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6.1.2 Antimony 6.1.3 Mercury Other heavy metals which are considered Gold mining activity in the region has environmental health hazards include mercury, contributed far more mercury to streams and antimony and lead. All are also found in lakes than the geological process in the recent relatively high concentrations in gold producing past. Mercury is used in the recovery of gold areas, particularly in mine tailings dumps. These from a slurry of crushed ore and water. The metals are also in the surrounding soils both slurry is passed over copper plates coated with naturally occurring and as a result of the mercury, which forms an amalgam with the mobilisation of the metals during large scale gold. In this process some of the amalgam, mining. including the mercury, is lost.

Antimony is found naturally occurring in soil If mercury enters waterways or tailings dams and in tailings sands as a result of mining. little will be dissolved in the water. Mercury The health effects of antimony at high doses tends to bind with organic particles and settle include: out as sediments. Microbiological processes can • Lung disease, breathing problems, then transform mercury into methyl mercury, an organic form of the element, which is more • high blood pressure, heart irregularities • reproductive problems. toxic than the metallic form. Aquatic organisms accumulate mercury compounds. Metallic and inorganic mercury are quickly eliminated, while There is no evidence of health effects in people methyl mercury is retained. Some exposed to low doses of antimony in soil and plants can also take up mercury, blue-green drinking water. Antimony can have beneficial algae being particularly effective in this regard. effects when used for medical reasons. Poisoning with mercury is often the result of Antimony was mined in the region at eating fish or molluscs contaminated with Costerfield, however, this mine is not presently methyl mercury. operating.

Table 2: Mercury concentration in the waters of several streams in Loddon Mallee Region

Stream Site Location Median Maximum Campaspe River Rochester < 0.05 6.20 Campaspe River Redesdale < 0.05 0.40 Loddon River Appin South < 0.05 37.00 Loddon River Newstead < 0.05 11.00 Avoca River Yawong <0.05 21.00

Mercury concentration in the waters (mg/cubic metre) of several streams in Victoria, 1984-1989. Detection limit 0.05 mg/cubic metre.

Table3: Mercury concentration in Stream Sediments Location Stream 500m u/s 50m u/s 50m d/s 500m d/s unnamed 0.07 0.02 0.09 0.06 unnamed 1.50 0.13 0.06 0.07 Lauriston Coliban R. 0.03 0.13 <0.02 0.22 Chewton unnamed 5.60 5.60 0.25 0.44 Maryborough McCallum Cr 0.22 1.80 2.20 2.20 Maldon Tarrengower <0.02 0.04 0.32 0.17 Bendigo Bendigo Cr 0.25 0.35 0.43 0.53

Mercury concentration in Stream Sediments (dry mass;<63 um fraction) (ug/g) near abandonded and operating stamping batteries (u/s=upstream, d/s=downstream). Detection limit 0.01 ug/g.

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6.2 Current Mining Practices A range of mining projects is currently being Dust produced by mining, particularly in open undertaken in the region. In the southern part cut situations can contain levels of toxic metals of the Loddon Mallee Region, gold mining is which can affect surrounding properties. The the predominant extractive industry, whilst in DHS Public Health and Development Division the north of the region, salt, gypsum and responds to complaints from the public and has crushed rock for road gravel are the main a more general role in monitoring any health extractive industries. risks.

Modern open cut mining technologies are being Environmental Effects Statements are required used in the region to extract gold. Using the for major mining proposals. The Department of example of the Perseverance mine at Fosterville, Human Services, Public Health and a weak solution of cyanide is sprayed over large Development Division has the role of identifying heaps of gold ore and the solution is collected at public health issues in relation to such projects the bottom of the heap on an impervious layer and to bring such issues to the attention of the of clay or plastic. The cyanide solution is then parties. treated to extract the gold and the cyanide solution is re-used. This modern method of extraction lowers the cost of gold extraction and makes gold mining viable even with relatively low concentrations of the metal.

Figure 14 Fosterville Heap Leach Pad, June 1998

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7 Land Use Figure 15 Broad Acre Boom Spraying, Near Swan Hill , May 1998.

7.1 Irrigation Farming Irrigation farming is a major feature of Much of the horticulture in the Loddon Mallee agriculture in the northern part of the Loddon Region depends on irrigation water for survival. Mallee Region. It accounts for 8.9% of the area Despite only representing 2.5 % of agricultural of agricultural establishments. The use on laser activity, large numbers of people are involved leveling of irrigation land has reduced the cost in viticulture, fruit and vegetable growing. The of irrigation through better use of water for largest component of these industries is grape pasture and crop production. At the same time, growing with 1,530 (18.2 %) of the agricultural reduced water use helps to minimise the establishments in the region, with an average negative impact of irrigation on water tables. size of only 25.5 Hectares

The irrigation and “stock and domestic” water There are 1,460 dairy farms in the region, supplied by the Waranga-Western Channel is occupying 6.8 % of the farm area in the region. essential to the continued viability of broad acre This industry relies on irrigation in order to have farming in the west of the region and irrigation consistent milk production. Campaspe Shire has in the district. The large scale movement 900 dairy farms followed by 384 in the of irrigation and drinking water across Gannawara Shire and 110 in Loddon Shire. catchments in the Loddon Mallee Region creates Many of the smaller towns in irrigation areas both positive and negative effects on the region. have dairy processing plants as major employers.

Figure 16 The Waranga-Western Channel at Bears Lagoon, May 1998.

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7.2 Intensive Agriculture Figure 17 Piggery near Leitchville, May 1998.

Intensive agriculture, such as pig production, is Two types of poultry production take place in an economically important industry in the the Region, for meat and eggs. Each takes up Loddon Mallee Region. The area used for pig 0.1% of the area used for agriculture in the production, however, is only 0.7 % of the area region. There are a total of thirty eight such used for agriculture in the region. The number establishments in the region with twenty three of pigs in these establishments is often far being primarily for egg production and fifteen greater than the human population in the for the production of meat. Fourteen of these are surrounding area. Effluent from these operations in the City of Greater Bendigo. This industry is is controlled at the planning permit stage of capital and labour intensive, as is the later development. processing of these products in the region. Large quantities of poultry food are also produced in the region from local grain and imported 7.3 Broad Acre Farming additives.

Figure 18 Grain Handling Facilities at Elmore, May 1998.

The production of grain crops in the Loddon Victoria produces about 400,000 tonnes of pulses Mallee Region requires 49% of the agricultural (field peas, chickpeas, lupins, faba beans, lentils land. Victoria’s cereal grain crop goes mainly to and vetch) annually, with a gross value of domestic markets, but also to major export production of over $100 million. Traditionally, markets in , the Middle East and the Pacific. the bulk of the pulses harvest was destined for The gross annual value of cereal production in stockfeed, but more recently overseas markets Victoria is approximately $600 million. Each have been developed for human consumption. year, Victoria produces about 2.3 million tonnes Large quantities of grain are also used in the of (10-year average). The annual region’s intensive agriculture industry as stock production of is about 1.3 million tonnes, feed. of which 30 to 35 per cent is of malting quality and the rest is animal feed.

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Fig 19 Landuse in the Loddon Mallee Region.

Broad acre Cropping Horticulture Pasture, Dryland Pasture, Irrigated Public Land Remnant Mallee Vegetation

Produced by: Primary Industries Business Information Section (March 1997) Adapted for DHS by LMR Planning Branch, Regional Data Unit.

Source:http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/property/maproom/landuse/lnd-indx.htm

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8 Land Degradation 8.1 Types of Erosion 8.1.2 Gully Erosion

Land degradation is evident throughout the Gully erosion usually takes place in the lower region. This erosion is almost entirely due to post slopes of hill country where accelerating water European settlement. cuts through unstable soils. It is often initiated by increased salinity which causes plant cover 8.1.1 Sheet Erosion to die off, leaving exposed soil to be washed away by heavy rain. Gully erosion is also caused Sheet erosion takes place generally on sloping by early mining activity which physically cut land due to the action of rainfall and the low through the alluvium in creek beds, leaving deep ability of the soils to absorb the rainfall or run gullies which have since eroded further off (infiltration capacity) and it reduces upstream. agricultural production through loss of topsoil and nutrients. It also increases the chances of flash flooding through sedimentation of downstream water courses and loss of water- absorbing plant cover. Over-grazing compacts the soil and exacerbates sheet erosion by removing the plant cover.

Figure 20 Severe Gully Erosion near Wedderburn, May 1998.

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8.1.3 Wind Erosion 8.2 Salinity Wind erosion occurs where the force of the wind is greater than the cohesion of the soil. The 8.2.1 Deep Lead Salinity extensive cropping and removal of plant cover, particularly following ploughing, allows strong Salinity caused by regional water tables such as winds to carry soil many kilometres. Severe dust the Loddon Deep Lead is a major issue for storms were once common in the Mallee. In the agriculture in the region. Deep lead discharge 1982 drought, significant wind erosion took into the alluvial plains in the north of the region place in the Loddon Mallee Region with some causes the water table to rise to within two areas losing up to 50mm of topsoil, or up to 700 metres of the surface. Water rises by capillary tonnes, per hectare. action, then evaporates and concentrates salt at Figure 21 Loddon Deep Lead the surface, causing the root zone of plants to be affected by dissolved salts. This ground water can have a higher salt content than sea water. Damage to surface plants then leaves the soil susceptible to other forms of erosion. In the long term, lakes, water courses and tree Durham Ox cover are severely affected by high water tables. Strategies to improve the situation include: improved drainage systems, ground water pumping into evaporation basins large scale planting of trees in the ground water recharge areas in highlands of the region On farm reuse of irrigation water. Bendigo The effect of these remediation strategies has caused ground water levels in the Echuca area to fall in the period 1990-1994 (see fig 23,24). Maryborough The issue of drainage of irrigation areas is of particular importance in relation to local ground water levles. When the irrigation areas of the region were set up earlier this century, drainage channels were planed, but due to cost considerations, that work was not done. Figure22 Salt affected trees near Kerang, May 1998

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Figure 23 Water Table Heights in the Murray Goulburn Irrigation System 1990

Figure 24 Water Table Heights in the Murray Goulburn Irrigation System 1994

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8.2.2 Dryland Salting Dryland salting occurs on lower slopes of hills Salinity is symptomatic of a problem in the and in drainage depressions and is common in water balance of the environment. The salt in the southern half of the Loddon Mallee Region. soil is naturally occurring. Following land clear- Removal of deep-rooted tree cover on hill sides ing, the natural mechanism of evaporation from allows the percolation of saline water which then deep rooted trees is disrupted. This causes an comes to the surface further down the slope, often accumulation of groundwater down stream. may kilometres away. In areas with deeply When saline groundwater evaporates, it leaves fractured rock, for example Big Hill, south of behind an accumulation of salt. Dryland salin- Bendigo, this process is greatly accelerated by ity is often associated with later gully erosion. the porosity of the rock.

Figure 25 Major Dryland Salinity Areas for LMR in 1997

Source:http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/catchmnt/conditn/salinity/dryland.htm

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9 Water Contamination 9.1 Water Quality 9.2 Water Born Diseases The quality of the Loddon Mallee Region water Giardia lamblia, and associated bacteria supply is subject to much public discussion. In (Appendix 4) were identified in August 1998 in the late 1980s, rural residents downstream from Sydney (NSW) water supplies. These the major reservoirs in the region were first contaminants have, in the past, been found in alerted to the dangers of toxic blue-green algal regional water supplies, however, at this time blooms present in their water supply. Warnings regional water supplies meet the Australian were issued that neither people nor stock should Drinking Water Guidelines. drink the water (even boiled water), or swim in identified contaminated waterways. Signs were erected on the banks of major reservoirs and Figure26 Giadia & Cryptosporidium in Water waterways and articles appeared in both regional and local newspapers. Stock and domestic river and stream diverters were warned by letter.

Over the past two decades, the rate of environmental degradation and decline in water quality due to increased incidences of salt loadings, nutrients and pathogens throughout the Loddon Mallee Region has initiated extensive research. As a result, documentation and mapping of the region’s geology, soils, vegetation cover, biota, topography and hydrology have taken place, in conjunction with identifying and measuring the decline in soil and water quality. Published reports commissioned by various State and Federal Government Departments in consultation with community organisations include recommendations to retard further soil and water degradation. Despite the greater public awareness, further protection is necessary for regional waterways and reservoirs. The quality of the region’s water Source: Molecular approaches to environmental Micro- supply continues to be an issue. biology pp 197. Regional water supplies are filtered and chemically treated to remove harmful pathogens and bacteria. Despite the efforts of water supply authorities to provide palatable and potable water, a growing number of people within the region are opting to purchase bottled water. Much of this water for bottled water comes from springs located in headwaters outside the region.

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9.3 Algal Blooms Microcystis and Anabaena are the most common Toxins are produced by some common bloom forms of blue green algae in Victorian water forming algae, which can cause illness, supplies. Algae are present in all water supplies, including liver damage, gastroenteritis and eye however, but become toxic in high and skin irritations. Blue- green algae toxins can concentrations (see table 4). be harmful if consumed in sufficient quantities.

Figure 27 Algal Blooms Reported 1928 to 1995 in LMR

Source: http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/catchmnt/conditn/streams/algal.htm

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Table 4 Algal Alert Levels and Actions

Alert Level Description Action 1 Algal counts are 500-2,000 cells/mL Increase water testing frequency to monitor development of possible bloom 2 Algal counts reach 2,000 - Confirm species intensive monitoring 15,000 cells/mL and the agal species recommended, consult health agencies. is toxic Operation changes needed to decrease likelihood of supply contamination. 3 Algal counts are in excess of 15,000 Toxicity testing is performed and users cells/mL and the bloom is widespread notified of toxic status. Water authorities in the waterbody should switch to alterative supplies. Treat the water with activated carbon to reduce level of toxins to less than 0.1 ug/L

Source: Biological Quality of Drinking Water, DNRE Victoria 1996, pp15 DNRE

Table 5 Cyanobacterial Toxins

Toxin Organism Effects Significance for Public Health Hepatotoxins Microysis Hepatoenteritis Chronic liver damage (microcystin) Anabaena Liver damage

(nodularin) Nodularia Tumour growth Possible promotion of liver damage and skin tumours (cylindrospermopsin) Cylindrospermopis Cyclotoxic, liver Liver damage, gastro- and organ damage intestinal tract damage.

Neurotoxins Anabaena Neuromuscular Low risk of acute (alkaloid) blocking agent. poisoning. Acute poisoning no known sub-acute or PSP symptomatic in animals chronic effects. includes muscle tremors, Anabaena circinalis staggering, paralysis, neurotoxin is the same respiratory arrest. as PSP toxins produced by dinoflagellates Endotoxins Most Gastroenteritis Contact irritation and (LPS) cyanobacteria Skin,eye irritation reactions from bathing Lipopolysaccharide Skin rashes and other aquatic Allergic reactions recreation

Source: Biological Quality of Drinking Water, DNRE Victoria 1996, pp18 DNRE

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10 Built Infrastructure

10.1 Transport 10.1.1 Roads The LMR has an extensive road and rail network The region is well served by an extensive system The long distances between centres and the of highways based on the original trade routes extensive road network combine to make the pioneered during the gold rush of the 1850s. All private car the preferred mode of transport for the highways except the Calder Highway are most people. The DOI/HACC Transport two lane roads. The Calder Highway, linking Strategy 1998 highlights the issues for Melbourne and Bendigo, is currently being Department of Human Services clients without upgraded to a four lane divided highway over private transport. For longer journeys there are much of its length. The upgrade of the Calder passenger rail and public bus services which Highway will lead to a number of towns in cover the majority of regional centres. Macedon Ranges and Mt Alexander Shires being by- passed. This change in the traffic flow in and around these towns may have significant effect the level of population and economic conditions in those centres.

Figure 28 Loddon Mallee River Highways

Source: CDATA 96

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10.1.2 V/Line Networks The V/Line passenger rail network connects the The V/Line freight network has been developed Greater and major regional primarily to transport grain produced in the towns in Mt Alexander and Macedon Ranges north and west of the Loddon Mallee Region. Shires with Melbourne, using a Sprinter train This network for grain distribution has service at speeds of up to 130 km. These services numerous weighbridges and storage facilities are provided on a regular basis from 6 AM at distributed along the railways. The use of the approximately hourly intervals until 6 PM in the road network to transport grain from the region evening on weekdays. Less regular services is limited at this time due to the economies of operate outside these times. scale involved in using a rail network. Transport Passenger rail services to the North of Bendigo of grain within the region for stock feed are more limited. There is one train service from primarily uses the road network. Swan Hill and Echuca per day to Bendigo. Other regular passenger services operate from Mildura, Swan Hill, Echuca, , Barham, Maldon and Maryborough using contracted private buses.

Figure 29 V/Line rail transport network

Source: Compiled by DHS Loddon Mallee Regional Data Unit from V/Line timetables.

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10.1.3 V/Line Bus Services

Figure30: V/Line Regional Bus Routes

Source: Compiled by DHS LMR Data Unit,V/Line “Victoria’s North” timetable 1998

V/Line bus services are closely integrated with rail based passenger services. The combination of the two modes of transport gives passengers the ability to travel between regional centres at least on a daily basis. Despite the differences in route between rail and bus services many of the smaller towns which were serviced by rail in the past, now have a V/Line bus service.

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10.1.4 Private Transport. The long distances between centres in the The high level of use of private motor transport Loddon Mallee Region, and the widely is reflected in the numbers of casualty accidents distributed agricultural holdings require the in the region population to have an easily accessible mode of transport. As a consequence there is a high level of dependence in the Loddon Mallee Region on private motor transport. Table 7: Accident involving injury, for the period 1991-95 by LGA. The level of motor vehicle ownership in Loddon Mallee Region, reflects this dependence on LGA Fatal Serious Other motor transport, 35% of households have one injury injury motor vehicle, 51.5% have two or more, but 8.5 Buloke 4 62 62 % (8059 persons) do not have a vehicle. One Campaspe 34 197 315 parent families have a lower level of motor Central Goldfields 10 65 96 vehicle ownership: 24.5 % have no motor vehicle Gannawarra 12 81 81 55.9% have one vehicle, 27 % have more than Greater Bendigo 37 420 1022 one vehicle. Loddon 18 101 96 For lone person households, 13.4 % have no Macedon Ranges 23 187 385 vehicle, 61.2 % have one vehicle, 12% have more Mildura 17 240 419 than one vehicle (see appendix 5). Persons with Mount Alexander 12 109 174 no motor vehicle, particularly away from Swan Hill 9 125 187 regional centres are at a particular disadvantage with regard to transportation. Note, this is the number of accidents not the Table 6: Method of travel to work in Loddon number killed or injured. Mallee Region Source: http://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/road%5Fsafe/ Transport mode Males % Females % acc%5Finfo/crashstat/crshmain.htm

Public transport 0.80 0.95 Taxi 0.16 0.21 Car (driver) 60.59 53.99 Car (passenger) 5.40 6.96 Worked at home 10.97 12.19 Walked to work 6.69 6.17

Source: CDATA96 table B21, method of travel to work by sex

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10.2 Communication Communication in the Loddon Mallee Region Internet access, while in the early stages of is of importance both in emergency situations development in the region, is of particular and for the day to day running of business and importance as business, educational and the community. Local papers give the governmental services are increasingly provided opportunity for complex information to be made via the Internet. Provision of affordable access available to the public, and for the public to bring to such services is currently an issue to remote the attention of the community to issues of rural residents of the region, the internet service concern. Television in the region has a state or provider (ISP) charges and STD telephone national orientation, with only 30 minuets local charges put an extra economic burden on the news being shown per day. Radio both public use of internet technology as compared to a and privately owned has the ability to person living in urban areas. immediately deal with breaking news, talk back radio has the capacity to bring issues of public ISDN data links are of increasing importance to concern to the attention of the community. the region, as it is such links which allow for services such a tele-medicine, video The provision of access to mobile phone services conferencing and high speed data transfers to has the capacity to link individuals distant from take place, modern technology is particularly landlines with the community. This is of dependent on such high speed links. particular importance in emergency situations. The extension of the coverage of digital mobile phones is of importance in this region as many parts of the region are away from major highways and major towns and are currently unserviced.

Figure 31: Regional Daily Newspapers with Circulation Areas, October 1998

Source: Compiled from data collected by DHS LMR, Regional Data Unit. Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 35

10.2.1 Newspapers

The Loddon Mallee Region is serviced by The population of the region is served by 13 eighteen local newspapers, ranging from daily weekly newspapers. The majority of these are papers in the major provincial centres to local locally owned and operated. Since the area papers published on a weekly or monthly amalgamation of local government areas, the basis. Each of these papers has a high level of number of local weekly papers has decreased. local content,and is printed locally, creating both For example Loddon Shire had three weekly local employment, and oppertunities for papers before amalgamation,and now only one business and community groups to paper, the Loddon Times, services the entire Shire. communicate with local people. The weekly papers while servicing only small The Bendigo Advertiser covers the majority of the local areas are usually free to consumers, the southern and central parts of the region, with publishers depending almost entirely on The Daily being distributed across the advertising revenue for survival. Each of these population centres in the Mildura area. The papers has local focus and could provide a News which is published outside the opportunity for dissemination of information region covers the Campaspe Shire west of the from regional agencies, and also provide a Northern Highway. The thri-weekly Echuca feedback mechanism for gaugeing local feeling Riverine Herald, and the Swan Hill Guardian are about current issues. each published Monday, Wednesday and Friday.

Figure 32: Regional Weekly Newspapers, October 1998

Source: Compiled from data collected by DHS LMR, Regional Data Unit.

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 36

10.2.2 Radio Stations

The majority of the region has FM radio coverage At night, AM radio transmissions from both except for the far west area of the Rural and elsewhere can be received Mildura. The radio transmitters used by the throughout the region. ABC Regional radio commercial FM stations are placed adjacent to produces programs with local content at set the ABC transmitters and have similar area times during the day. Commercial FM radio coverage. There is some AM radio coverage stations are found in the major regional centres, transmitted from Melbourne which can be as are tourist information FM radio stations. received in the south of the region during the day.

Figure 33: Coverage from the ABC FM Radio Transmitters in the LMR, October 1998

10.2.3 TV Stations Television in the region is transmitted from the The television stations in the region take their transmitters located at Mt Alexander, Goshen programing from national networks. There is and Yatpool. These transmitters give coverage one half hour daily news program dealing with of the majority of the region a part from the west local affair which is transmited at 6 pm on WIN of Mildura Rural City and southern Buloke Shire. television.

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 37

Figure 34: Coverage from the TV Transmitters in the Loddon Mallee Region, October 1998

10.2.4 Mobile phones Remote rural users are at a severe disadvantage Both analogue and digital mobile phone services being charged at time based STD rates for the are available in the region. The analogue service phone line and also for the ISP connection. is in the process of being replaced by the digital service and is due to be phased out by 2000. The The On-Line Government 2001 Initiative will range of coverage of digital phones is markedly make that much more data available via the smaller than the coverage of the existing analog Internet and the DHS Regions are already network. Consequently, rural users have exploring the possibilities through the DHS managed to delayed the phase out of the analog Intranet. A list of local ISPs is attached as network by 12 months to take advantage of new Appendix 3. digital transmision technology. Despite this much of the region away from highways and major towns has limited or no mobile coverage. 10.2.6 ISDN/OnRamp Access Departmental after hours services have been Points fitted with radio communications to overcome The ability for both the public and private sector issues around lack of coverage. to access high speed data and telephone links is an important part of the development of modern 10.2.5 Internet information transfer. Telstra’s new digital The Internet is already a well established OnRamp ISDN service offers higher speed for information access point for many home and data transfer than analogue modems, however business computers and this trend is likely to users must be within 6 km of the exchange or accelerate. With many Internet Service Providers repeaters are required at extra cost. Most (ISPs) at national, state and local level from exchanges in rural Victoria have the capacity for which to choose from, affordability (costs per ISDN services. ISDN services allow the use of hour) dictates that the ISP access point must be video conferencing equipment, which could be within a local call area, to minimise the cost of used for distance education, tele-medicine and the phone call to connect to the ISP. tele-conferencing. Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 38

Appendix 1

Newspapers in the Loddon Mallee Region

Name of Paper Area of Distribution Regularity of Distribution

Bendigo Advertiser Greater Bendigo, Campaspe, Loddon, Mt Alexander, Central Goldfields, Gannawarra Daily Bendigo Gazette Greater Bendigo Weekly Buloke Time Birchip, , Donald, St Arnaud, Bi-Weekly Castlemaine Mail Castlemaine, Maldon, Mt Alexander Shire Weekly Eaglehawk Times Eaglehawk Monthly Echuca Riverine Herald Campaspe Shire, Moama (NSW). Mon, Wed, Friday Kyneton Guardian Macedon Ranges Shire Weekly Loddon Times Loddon Shire Weekly Maryborough Advertiser Maryborough, Central Goldfields Weekly McIvor Times Heathcote, Mia Mia, Toolleen, Pyalong, Costerfield Weekly Midland Express Mt Alexander Shire, Macedon Ranges Shire Weekly Northern Times Kerang , Gannawarra Shire Bi-Weekly North West Express , Northern Mallee, Murrayville, Weekly Sentinel Robinvale, Manangatang, Euston (NSW), Boundary Bend Weekly Sunraysia Daily Mildura , Robinvale, Wentworth (NSW) Daily Swan Hill Guardian Swan Hill Rural City, Southern NSW Mon, Wed, Friday Tarrengower Times Maldon Weekly Times Ensign Sea Lake, Wycheproof, Birchip Weekly

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 39

Appendix 2

Loddon Mallee Region, Internet Providers and Service Coverage.

Internet Provider Coverage

Big Pond Bendigo, Mildura, remote access plan using 019 number Australia wide $14 per month 2 hour free Mildura Net / Murray. Net Mildura and surrounding area. Lime Ave Mildura VIC 3500 Ruralnet Annuello, Bannerton, Barham, Bendigo, Birchip, Boort, Broken Hill, Boundary Bend, Langtree Ave Mildura VIC 3500 Buronga, Cardross, Charlton, Colignan, Cockburn, Cohuna, , Curlwaa, Dareton,Donald, Euston, Gol Gol, Irymple, Kerang, Korong Vale, ,Lalbert, Leitchville, Mildura, Manangatang, , Myall, Nangiloc, Nichols Point, , , Ouyen, , , , Red Cliffs, Rupanyup, Robinvale, St Arnaud, Swan Hill, Tol Tol, Ultima, , Waitchie, Wakool, , , Wentworth, Wemen, Wycheproof, Yelta, NetConnect Bendigo Kyneton, Castlemaine, Heathcote, Gisborne, Bridgewater, Kilmore, Riddles Creek, Mitchell St, Bendigo, VIC 3550 Inglewood, Maldon, Goornong Campaspe Internet Rochester, Echuca and the Campaspe Region 58 Kerford rd Rochester DISK - O - TECH Goornong, Rochester, Heathcote, Bridgewater, Maryborough, Dunolly. Bendigo VIC 3550 Hi Tech.net Maldon, Castlemaine, Bendigo 452 Hargreaves St Bendigo VIC 3550 Mostly Music Bendigo 28 Strath Village Bendigo VIC 3550 Rivernet Solutions Rochester, Echuca, Kyabram, Rushworth, Lockington, Colbinabbin, Elmore, Rochester VIC 3561 Tongala Tennyson, Shepparton, Tatura, Undera, Nathalia, Mathoura, Womboota, Gunbower, Picola, Dingee, Bendigo, Strathfieldsaye, Goornong, Harcourt, Maldon, Marong, Bridgewater Electronics Doctor Swan Hill and districts Curlewis St Swan Hill VIC 3585 Nyah District T.V. Service Swan Hill, Nyah Rutherford St Swan Hill VIC 3585 Southern Star Communications Kyneton, Woodend Evans St Sunbury VIC 3429 Maryborough Net Connect Maryborough RMB 1465 Maryborough VIC 3465 Aussietech On Line Ruralnet provider Wedderburn Calder Hwy Wedderburn VIC 3518 Diesel Internet Bendigo, Harcourt, Heathcote, Echuca, Mathoura, Gunbower, Kyabram, Murchison, 68 Pall Mall Bendigo VIC 3550 Numurkah (03) 54411166 Mcpherson Media Echuca, Kyabram and surrounding areas Nixon St Shepparton VIC 3630 (03) 5831 6517 Ozland Mildura, Irymple, Red Cliffs, Merbein, Wentworth, Buronga and Gol Gol. SA based provider with Vic presence

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch 40

Appendix 3

Water-borne Diseases Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia (intestinalis) is a protozoa, that moves with the aid of five flagella. Giardiasis is the most frequent cause of non-bacterial diarrhea in . Human giardiasis may involve diarrhea within 1 week of ingestion of the cyst, which is the environmental survival form and infective stage of the organism. Normally illness lasts for 1 to 2 weeks, but there are cases of chronic infections lasting months to years. Chronic cases, both those with defined immune deficiencies and those without, are difficult to treat. Infectious Dose - Ingestion of one or more cysts may cause disease, as contrasted to most bacterial illnesses where hundreds to thousands of organisms must be consumed to produce illness. Giardiasis is most frequently associated with the consumption of contaminated water. Cool moist conditions favor the survival of the organism. Giardiasis is more prevalent in children than in adults, possibly because many individuals seem to have a lasting immunity after infection.About 40% of those who are diagnosed with giardiasis demonstrate disaccharide intolerance during detectable infection and up to 6 months after the infection can no longer be detected. Lactose (i.e., milk sugar) intolerance is most frequently observed. Some individuals (less than 4%) remain symptomatic more than 2 weeks; chronic infections lead to a malabsorption syndrome and severe weight loss. Chronic cases of giardiasis in immunodeficient and normal individuals are frequently refractile to drug treatment. Flagyl is normally quite effective in terminating infections.

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Appendix 4 Household Type by Family Type by Number of Motor Vehicles for Loddon Mallee Region 1996 Number of motor vehicles 0 1 2 3 4 not stated total One family household - Couple family with children 406 6,212 17,7825,711 2,895 681 33,687 Couple family without children 619 8,094 11,4232,281 753 660 23,830 One parent family 1,186 4,954 1,712 495 187 313 8,847 Other Family 104 308 284 125 63 63 947 Two & three family household 20 100 169 158 110 21 578 Lone person household 5,267 12,159 1,979 351 194 1,562 21,512 Group household 288 814 1,301 408 127 143 3,081 Not classifiable: Visitors only 166 798 264 63 32 127 1,450 Other Not classifiable 3 16 7 0 0 681 707 Total 8,059 33,455 34,9219,592 4,361 4,251 94,639 Percentage 8.52% 35.35% 36.90%10.14% 4.61% 4.49% 100%

Source CDATA96 Table B29 Appendix 5 Method of Travel to Work for Employed Persons by Sex for Loddon Mallee Region 1996 Male Female Persons

One method only:

Public Transport 485 435 920

Taxi 97 96 193

Car, as driver 36,622 24,662 61,284

Car, as passenger 3,266 3,178 6,444

Motor bike/motor scooter 708 64 772

Bicycle 1,254 211 1,465

Other 1,225 227 1,452

Walked only 4,042 2,819 6,861

Two methods:total 680 368 1,048

Three methods:total 64 42 106

Worked at home 6,630 5,566 12,196

Did not go to work 4,180 6,871 11,051

Not stated(a) 1,191 1,139 2,330

Total 60,444 45,678 106,122

Source CDATA96 Table B21

Loddon Mallee Regional Planning Branch