DOCSLIB.ORG

Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems White paper Abstract Hydrail and hybrid railway equipment and systems have the potential to transform the fossil-fueled, legacy railway infrastructure and make important contributions to the reduction of harmful emissions around the globe. However, adopting hydrogen power as an energy source in railway systems introduces a number of potential safety issues that can place entire communities at risk. In this white paper, we’ll review the safety issues associated with hydrail and hybrid railway equipment and systems and discuss how risk assessment practices can help increase both safety and reliability. TÜV SÜD Contents INTRODUCTION 3 WHAT ARE HYDRAIL AND HYBRID RAILWAY EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS? 3 WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF HYDRAIL AND HYBRID RAILWAY EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS? 4 WHAT ARE THE SAFETY ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH HYDRAIL AND HYBRID SYSTEMS? 5 WHY IS A RISK ASSESSMENT IMPORTANT? 5 WORKING WITH TÜV SÜD 6 SUMMARY 6 About the TÜV SÜD experts Dr. Ing. Jürgen Heyn Department Manager and Lead Assessor for Fire and Worker Safety, Emergency and Rescue Concepts, TÜV SÜD Rail GmbH, Business Unit Rolling Stock Dr. Jürgen Heyn has been with TÜV SÜD for nearly 20 years and is an accredited expert on fi re prevention, fi re analysis, evacuation and emergency rescues in connection with railway systems, holding several certifi cates. Previous to his current role as Department Manager for Fire and Worker Safety within the Rolling Stock Business Unit at TÜV SÜD Rail in Munich, Dr. Heyn has served as the Head of Business Development and as a key account and project manager for railway systems. During his career, he has led multiple railway projects and has also been involved in the assessment of hydrogen systems and lithium-ion batteries for traction in railway applications. Tolga Wichmann Senior Assessor for Fire and System Safety, Rolling Stock, Systems and Components TÜV SÜD Rail GmbH, Business Unit Rolling Stock Tolga Wichmann brings more than a decade of railway vehicle engineering experience to his role as Senior Assessor for Fire and System Safety as well as rolling stock components and systems at TÜV SÜD Rail. Prior to joining the company in 2018, Tolga held several positions within the railway manufacturing industry, where he focused on fi re performance and safety and eco-design issues on projects throughout the EU and Asia. Mr. Wichmann holds EBA accreditation as an assessor for preventive fi re safety, evacuation, rescue and fi re incident investigation, and since 2014 has been actively involved in the development of EN 45545, the EU standard for the fi re protection of rolling stock. 2 Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems | TÜV SÜD Introduction As countries around the world hydrogen and battery power are strive to reduce carbon emissions rapidly becoming the preferred power that contribute to environmental technology for use in both existing Strict safety degradation, governments are giving and planned railway systems. At the considerations increased attention to fossil fuel same time, because of the potential alternatives to power the public dangers associated with the use of and robust safety transportation infrastructure, hydrogen, manufacturers of so-called assessments are including rail and bus systems. For hydrail and hybrid railway equipment more than a decade, rechargeable and systems must include strict safety important to identify lithium-ion batteries have fueled considerations in their development potential areas of the growth of electrically powered process and should conduct a robust automobiles and trucks. But safety assessment to identify and risk. hydrogen-based equipment and address specific areas of risk. hybrid equipment combining What are hydrail and hybrid railway equipment and systems? Hydrail is a neologism, representing storage system (hybrid equipment) generate the required energy for the combination of the words can be powered electrically with operation on non-electrified tracks. “hydrogen” and “railway.” The rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, Hence, depending on the solution, term is used in conjunction with or with hydrogen and a fuel cell or a hybrid railway system can also be any new railway equipment or a hydrogen combustion engine to a hydrail railway system. system utilizing hydrogen for the storage or generation of electrical or mechanical energy for propulsion and auxiliaries. This includes equipment such as high-pressure vessels, fuel cells and hydrogen combustion engines, and may also include rechargeable lithium-ion batteries for buffering the electrical energy that is generated. A hybrid railway system is any kind of modern railway vehicle with a conventional power supply, e.g., with a pantograph, that makes use of an energy storage system for bi-modal operation on electrified and non-electrified tracks. The energy TÜV SÜD | Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems 3 What are the advantages of hydrail and hybrid railway equipment and systems? Hydrail and hybrid railway systems generated by rechargeable lithium-ion They can operate on the same rail offer several important advantages batteries, making it ideal for traveling infrastructure as conventionally over those powered by either long distances or moving heavy loads. powered trains without the need for electricity or diesel fuels. Pure track or switch upgrades or changes. electric hybrid vehicles are highly An alternative to hydrogen fuel cells Further, hydrail and hybrid systems all efficient and can eliminate the need is a hydrogen combustion engine. but eliminate the work and the cost for additional refilling infrastructure Hydrogen combustion engines required to install additional overhead if their batteries can be recharged on produce mechanical energy that wiring to expand existing electrically existing electrified tracks. However, can be used to generate electrical powered train networks. These total travel distance is dependent energy similar to that produced by benefits also translate into fewer upon the number of installed conventional diesel power packs. interruptions in train service that batteries, which can be comparably These engines are existing diesel would be required to retrofit existing low due to space and weight engines that have been converted into infrastructures. constrains. hydrogen gas combustion engines, thereby eliminating all emissions Hydrail equipment was first deployed Hydrogen fuel cells generate electric in accordance with EU standards. in Germany in 2018. A number of power by passing hydrogen through While hydrogen fuel cells require countries, most notably the United a special membrane that produces an highly purified hydrogen to ensure Kingdom, are moving forward with electrical current without the need a long operating lifetime, hydrogen plans to deploy hydrail equipment in for combustion. As a result, hydrogen combustion engines can utilize a the next few years as a replacement fuel cells produce power with no larger range of hydrogen purities. for aging diesel-powered equipment. measurable emissions of carbon or Still other countries are actively any substances other than water Another potential advantage of exploring the potential benefits of vapor, resulting in a zero-emission, hydrail and hybrid equipment over hydrail equipment and systems in zero-carbon fuel. And power conventional diesel and electrically helping them to meet commitments generated by hydrogen fuel cells has powered railway technology is under the 2016 Paris Accord on a higher energy density than that the lower cost of deployment. climate change. 4 Assuring the Safety of Hydrail and Hybrid Railway Equipment and Systems | TÜV SÜD What are the safety issues associated with hydrail and hybrid systems? Regardless of how they are powered, flammable source of fuel that can must be resistant to potential damage rail transport equipment and systems easily combust when improperly resulting from train crashes and are vital to the safe and efficient stored or handled. Similarly, collisions. And response protocols to movement of passengers and freight rechargeable lithium-ion batteries emergency situations must reflect the in most parts of the world. The rail are susceptible to thermal runaway unique nature and dangers associated industry has been a leader in its focus when punctured or overcharged, with these alternative fuels. on safety, with train travel second leading to fire or explosion. Even when only to air travel in having the lowest handled properly, poorly designed or Unfortunately, industry standards incidence rate of fatalities per billion poorly manufactured batteries can addressing these safety concerns passenger kilometres. These and easily overheat, resulting in the same are not keeping pace with technology other statistics reflect the industry- outcomes. developments. For example, although wide belief that safety is a critical standards exist that apply to the use concern in the design, development Therefore, any equipment intended of hydrogen fuel in industrial pressure and operation of trains and train to store or handle these alternative systems, there are no standards at equipment. fuel sources must be designed to present that address safety issues address the specific risks associated specific to the use of hydrogen fuel When it comes to hydrail and hybrid with their use. For example, onboard cells in railway vehicles. Further train equipment and systems, storage systems must
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Innovative Technologies for Light Rail and Tram: a European Reference Resource
    Innovative Technologies for Light Rail and Tram: A European reference resource Briefing Paper 6 Hydrail - Hydrogen Hybrid and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems September 2015 Sustainable transport for North-West Europe’s periphery Sintropher is a five-year €23m transnational cooperation project with the aim of enhancing local and regional transport provision to, from and withing five peripheral regions in North-West Europe. INTERREG IVB INTERREG IVB North-West Europe is a financial instrument of the European Union’s Cohesion Policy. It funds projects which support transnational cooperation. Innovative technologies for light rail and tram Working in association with the POLIS European transport network, who are kindly hosting these briefing papers on their website. Report produced by University College London Lead Partner of Sintropher project Authors: Charles King, Giacomo Vecia, Imogen Thompson, Bartlett School of Planning, University College London. The paper reflects the views of the authors and should not be taken to be the formal view of UCL or Sintropher project. 4 Innovative technologies for light rail and tram Table of Contents Background .................................................................................................................................................. 6 Innovative technologies for light rail and tram – developing opportunities ................................................... 6 Hydrail Trams ..............................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Piedmont Service: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotive Feasibility
    The Piedmont Service: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotive Feasibility Andreas Hoffrichter, PhD Nick Little Shanelle Foster, PhD Raphael Isaac, PhD Orwell Madovi Darren Tascillo Center for Railway Research and Education Michigan State University Henry Center for Executive Development 3535 Forest Road, Lansing, MI 48910 NCDOT Project 2019-43 FHWA/NC/2019-43 October 2020 -i- FEASIBILITY REPORT The Piedmont Service: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotive Feasibility October 2020 Prepared by Center for Railway Research and Education Eli Broad College of Business Michigan State University 3535 Forest Road Lansing, MI 48910 USA Prepared for North Carolina Department of Transportation – Rail Division 860 Capital Boulevard Raleigh, NC 27603 -ii- Technical Report Documentation Page 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. FHWA/NC/2019-43 4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date The Piedmont Service: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotive Feasibility October 2020 6. Performing Organization Code 7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No. Andreas Hoffrichter, PhD, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2384-4463 Nick Little Shanelle N. Foster, PhD, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9630-5500 Raphael Isaac, PhD Orwell Madovi Darren M. Tascillo 9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) Center for Railway Research and Education 11. Contract or Grant No. Michigan State University Henry Center for Executive Development 3535 Forest Road Lansing, MI 48910 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered Final Report Research and Development Unit 104 Fayetteville Street December 2018 – October 2020 Raleigh, North Carolina 27601 14. Sponsoring Agency Code RP2019-43 Supplementary Notes: 16.
    [Show full text]
  • Comparison of Hydrogen Powertrains with the Battery Powered Electric Vehicle and Investigation of Small-Scale Local Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Energy
    Review Comparison of Hydrogen Powertrains with the Battery Powered Electric Vehicle and Investigation of Small-Scale Local Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Energy Michael Handwerker 1,2,*, Jörg Wellnitz 1,2 and Hormoz Marzbani 2 1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Ingolstadt, Esplanade 10, 85049 Ingolstadt, Germany; [email protected] 2 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, School of Engineering, Plenty Road, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Climate change is one of the major problems that people face in this century, with fossil fuel combustion engines being huge contributors. Currently, the battery powered electric vehicle is considered the predecessor, while hydrogen vehicles only have an insignificant market share. To evaluate if this is justified, different hydrogen power train technologies are analyzed and compared to the battery powered electric vehicle. Even though most research focuses on the hydrogen fuel cells, it is shown that, despite the lower efficiency, the often-neglected hydrogen combustion engine could be the right solution for transitioning away from fossil fuels. This is mainly due to the lower costs and possibility of the use of existing manufacturing infrastructure. To achieve a similar level of refueling comfort as with the battery powered electric vehicle, the economic and technological aspects of the local small-scale hydrogen production are being investigated. Due to the low efficiency Citation: Handwerker, M.; Wellnitz, and high prices for the required components, this domestically produced hydrogen cannot compete J.; Marzbani, H. Comparison of with hydrogen produced from fossil fuels on a larger scale.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogen Trains – an Effective Alternative to Rail Electrification?
    HYDROGEN TRAINS – AN EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE TO RAIL ELECTRIFICATION? Tuesday 22 May 2018, Edinburgh Conclusions Hydrogen is increasingly being used as an energy vector in transport. The Workshop examined these applications and looked at the use of hydrogen, fuel cells for trains as an alternative to electrification. The Workshop concentrated predominantly on regional trains and drew attendees from the hydrogen and rail industries in roughly equal numbers. Policymakers from different tiers of government were also represented. Some participants came from mainland EU and Canada but the majority of participants were from the UK. Policy Developments • Alternative solutions to diesel trains are needed so that the rail sector can comply with energy and environmental policies and decarbonise the rail network. • The European Commission will continue to encourage cleaner fuels, both through "carrots" such as funding for research (including the Fuel Cell Hydrogen Joint Undertaking which is 50% funded by EU money) and "sticks" such as legislative requirements for clean fuels infrastructure • The UK Railways Minister has challenged the rail industry to look at the way in which diesel only trains can be removed from operation by 2040 as part of a wide challenge to reduce carbon emissions and improve air quality across the rail sector. • In response to the Minister’s challenge, a Task Force has been set up with Malcolm Brown (Chief Executive, Angel Trains) as Chair. It will report back to the Minister in Autumn 2018. • There is no one size fits all when the UK Government looks at alternatives to diesel. Considerations such as affordability and Value for Money will be important considerations.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogen As a Fuel for Gas Turbines
    Hydrogen as a fuel for gas turbines A pathway to lower CO2 www.ge.com/power/future-of-energy Executive Summary In order to combat man-made climate change, there is a global need for decarbonization,* and all sectors that produce carbon dioxide (CO2) must play a role. The power sector’s journey to There are two ways to systematically have operated on fuels with at least 50% decarbonize, often referred approach the task of turning high efficiency (by volume) hydrogen. These units have gas generation into a zero or near zero- accumulated more than one million operating to as the Energy Transition, carbon resource: pre and post-combustion. hours, giving GE a unique perspective is characterized by rapid Pre-combustion refers to the systems and on the challenges of using hydrogen as deployment of renewable energy processes upstream of the gas turbine and a gas turbine fuel. resources and a rapid reduction in post-combustion refers to systems and processes downstream of the gas turbine. GE is continuing to advance the capability of coal, the most carbon-intensive The most common approach today to its gas turbine fleet to burn hydrogen through power generation source. Based tackle pre-combustion decarbonization is internally funded R&D programs and through on our extensive analysis and simple: to change the fuel, and the most US Department of Energy funded programs. experience across the breadth talked about fuel for decarbonization of the The goals of these efforts are to ensure power sector is hydrogen. that ever higher levels of hydrogen can be of the global power industry, GE burned safely and reliably in GE’s gas turbines believes that the accelerated GE is a world leader in gas turbine fuel for decades to come.
    [Show full text]
  • Conversion of a Gasoline Internal Combustion Engine to a Hydrogen Engine
    Paper ID #3541 Conversion of a Gasoline Internal Combustion Engine to a Hydrogen Engine Dr. Govind Puttaiah P.E., West Virginia University Govind Puttaiah is the Chair and a professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at West Virginia University Institute of Technology. He has been involved in teaching mechanical engineering subjects during the past forty years. His research interests are in industrial hydraulics and alternate fuels. He is an invited member of the West Virginia Hydrogen Working Group, which is tasked to promote hydrogen as an alternate fuel. Timothy A. Drennen Timothy A. Drennen has a B.S. in mechanical engineering from WVU Institute of Technology and started with EI DuPont de Nemours and Co. in 2010. Mr. Samuel C. Brunetti Samuel C. Brunetti has a B.S. in mechanical engineering from WVU Institute of Technology and started with EI DuPont de Nemours and Co. in 2011. Christopher M. Traylor c American Society for Engineering Education, 2012 Conversion of a Gasoline Internal Combustion Engine into a Hydrogen Engine Timothy Drennen*, Samual Brunetti*, Christopher Traylor* and Govind Puttaiah **, West Virginia University Institute of Technology, Montgomery, West Virginia. ABSTRACT An inexpensive hydrogen injection system was designed, constructed and tested in the Mechanical Engineering (ME) laboratory. It was used to supply hydrogen to a gasoline engine to run the engine in varying proportions of hydrogen and gasoline. A factory-built injection and control system, based on the injection technology from the racing industry, was used to inject gaseous hydrogen into a gasoline engine to boost the efficiency and reduce the amount of pollutants in the exhaust.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogen for Railway Traction
    HYDROGEN FOR RAILWAY TRACTION Andreas Hoffrichter Research Associate Birmingham Centre for Railway Research and Education University of Birmingham, UK Toronto: Ryerson University. 11th of June 2013 Outline Current railway traction Well-to-wheel analysis results Prototype locomotive Hydrogen Pioneer Performance modelling with computer simulation Present Railway Traction The majority of railway traction vehicles employ electric motors Energy to the traction motors is supplied either through wayside infrastructure (electric) or an on-board diesel-alternator set (diesel) At a global level, approximately 70% of railway energy for traction is supplied as diesel while 30% is provided by electricity. BUT varies significantly with region, e.g., 100% of railway network electrified in Switzerland, whereas 0% electrified in Canada (mainlines only) Railways are typically the largest single energy consumer in a country, e.g., for electricity in Germany and the UK, for diesel BNSF in the USA Problems Facing Diesel Traction Point-of-use emissions and overall Greenhouse Gas emissions Uncertainty about economical diesel supply Traditional solution: Electrification. BUT: • Large investment in infrastructure required • Visual impact of wayside infrastructure Alternative to Diesel traction required, other than electrification Reasons for Hydrogen Abundant Non-toxic Not a greenhouse gas Various feedstocks Combustion product with oxygen is water Can reduce greenhouse gas emissions Does not require wayside infrastructure For railways: Combines the advantages of diesel and electric traction and avoids most disadvantages: autonomous operation without emissions at the point-of-use while allowing a feedstock mix Hoffrichter, A., Miller, A., R., Hillmansen, S., & Roberts, C. (2012). Well-to- Wheel Analysis for Electric, Diesel and Hydrogen Traction for Railways.
    [Show full text]
  • THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY. a Non-Technical Review
    Hydrogen holds out the promise of a truly sustainable global energy future. As a clean energy carrier that can be produced from any primary energy source, hydrogen used in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to be the answer to our growing concerns about energy security, urban pollution and climate change. This prize surely warrants For more information, contact: THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY the attention and resources currently being UNEP DTIE directed at hydrogen – even if the Energy Branch prospects for widespread 39-43 Quai André Citroën commercialisation of hydrogen in the A non-technical review 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France foreseeable future are uncertain. Tel. : +33 1 44 37 14 50 Fax.: +33 1 44 37 14 74 E-mail: [email protected] www.unep.fr/energy/ ROGRAMME P NVIRONMENT E ATIONS N NITED DTI-0762-PA U Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2006 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme. Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogen-Rail (Hydrail) Development
    H2@Rail Workshop Hydrogen-Rail (hydrail) Development Andreas Hoffrichter, PhD Burkhardt Professor in Railway Management Executive Director of the Center for Railway Research and Education [email protected] H2@Rail Workshop, Lansing, MI March 27, 2019 Contents • Current rail energy consumption and emissions • Hybrids • Primary power plant efficiencies • Hydrail development • Past and on-going research - 2 - Michigan State University, 2019 Current Rail Energy Efficiency and GHG DOT (2018), ORNL (2018) - 3 - Michigan State University, 2019 Regulated Exhaust Emissions • The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has regulated the exhaust emissions from locomotives • Four different tiers, depending on construction year of locomotive • Increasingly stringent emission reduction requirements • Tier 5 is now in discussion (see next slide) • Achieving Tier 4 was already very challenging for manufacturers (EPA, 2016) - 4 - Michigan State University, 2019 Proposed Tier 5 Emission Regulation • California proposed rail emission regulation to be adopted at the federal level (California Air Resources Board, 2017) - 5 - Michigan State University, 2019 Class I Railroad Fuel Cost 2016 (AAR, 2017) • Interest from railways in alternatives high when diesel cost high, interest low when diesel cost low • When diesel cost are high, often fuel surcharges introduced to shippers • Average railroad diesel price for the last 10 years ~US$2.50 per gallon (AAR, 2017) - 6 - Michigan State University, 2019 Dynamic Braking • Traction motors are used as generators • Generated electricity is: – Converted to heat in resistors, called rheostatic braking – Fed back into wayside infrastructure or stored on-board of train, called regenerative braking • Reduces brake shoe/pad wear, e.g., replacement every 18 month rather than every18 days (UK commuter train example) • Can reduces energy consumption.
    [Show full text]
  • An Overview of Hydrogen As a Vehicle Fuel
    Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5511–5528 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser An overview of hydrogen as a vehicle fuel H. Fayaz a,b,n, R. Saidur a,b, N. Razali a, F.S. Anuar a,b, A.R. Saleman a,b, M.R. Islam b a Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia b Centre of Research UMPEDAC, Level 4, Engineering Tower, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia article info abstract Article history: As hydrogen fuel cell vehicles move from manifestation to commercialization, the users expect safe, Received 24 December 2010 convenient and customer-friendly fuelling. Hydrogen quality affects fuel cell stack performance and Received in revised form lifetime, as well as other factors such as valve operation. In this paper, previous researcher’s development 1 June 2012 on hydrogen as a possible major fuel of the future has been studied thoroughly. Hydrogen is one of the Accepted 4 June 2012 energy carriers which can replace fossil fuel and can be used as fuel in an internal combustion engines and as a fuel cell in vehicles. To use hydrogen as a fuel of internal combustion engine, engine design should be Keywords: considered for avoiding abnormal combustion. As a result it can improve engine efficiency, power output Hydrogen and reduce NOx emissions. The emission of fuel cell is low as compared to conventional vehicles but as Vehicle fuel penalty, fuel cell vehicles need additional space and weight to install the battery and storage tank, thus Engine increases it production cost.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogen – Fuel of the Future Or Just Hot Air?
    September 23, 2020 Hydrogen – Fuel of the Future or Just Hot Air? Hydrogen Series – Part 1 SUMMARY Hydrogen – not for the first time – is currently a hot topic in the energy sector, with advocates promoting it as the fuel of the future, capable of addressing critical sustainable energy challenges. Governmental policies aimed at supporting a hydrogen economy are gaining momentum, and companies are starting to greenlight innovative projects that could dramatically change the energy landscape. In this two-part series, we will look at (1) the basics of the hydrogen market, recently announced high- level government hydrogen policies and barriers to adoption; and (2) key market players and the industries where investment opportunities are likely to arise, along with what government support might be necessary to facilitate the investment needed to achieve the targets embedded in the high-level government policies. A. INTRODUCTION TO HYDROGEN Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, is not found naturally in its pure form on Earth in significant quantities. Instead, it is found bound to other elements such as oxygen (e.g. to make water, H2O) and carbon (e.g. to form organic compounds, including fossil fuels). When we refer to hydrogen for use as a fuel, we are referring to pure hydrogen (H2). Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by weight; however, it also has the lowest energy content by volume when in gaseous form. Critically, pure hydrogen emits no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions during combustion. B. USES OF HYDROGEN – PRESENT AND FUTURE Hydrogen is currently predominantly used in industry as feedstock: it plays a fundamental part in the production of ammonia for fertilisers and the production of methanol for polymers.
    [Show full text]
  • Beyond Road Vehicles: Survey of Zero-Emission Technology Options Across the Transport Sector
    WORKING PAPER 2018-11 Beyond road vehicles: Survey of zero-emission technology options across the transport sector Authors: Dale Hall, Nikita Pavlenko, and Nic Lutsey Date: July 18, 2018 Keywords: Zero-emission vehicles, aviation, maritime, off-road, rail 2018 INTRODUCTION related to these modes for 2018 and pro- jections for 2060.2 In total, transport rep- Electrification continues to make resents about 25% of global greenhouse 30% strides in the passenger vehicle market, gas emissions from fossil fuel combus- representing more than 1% of global tion; this share is expected to increase sales and up to 40% of sales in leading as the power sector decarbonizes.3 As markets in 2017.1 Enabled by falling shown, whereas road vehicles are the 47% battery prices and increasing invest- largest sources and have received the ment from traditional and new vehicle 10% most attention, one-fourth of trans- manufacturers, this trend represents port CO emissions (2.2 gigatonnes) an opportunity to dramatically reduce 2 are attributable to maritime, aviation, 10% greenhouse gas emissions in the trans- and rail—a share projected to grow in port sector. Policymakers continue to the coming decades. Although light- 3% encourage a shift toward zero-emis- duty vehicle emissions are expected to 2060 sion vehicles through CO regulations, 2 peak around 2020 under this scenario, consumer incentives, and investment 41% maritime and aviation emissions are pro- in associated infrastructure. jected to rise through 2030 as a result of Although road vehicles currently rep- increasing demand and slower efficiency resent about 70% of transport green- improvements. This figure does not take 20% house gas emissions, other forms of into account the additional impacts of transport—including aviation, maritime, and off-road vehicles—are substantial 2 Using the 2-degree scenario from International Energy Agency, Energy technology emissions sources and are expected to perspectives 2017 (June 2017); www.iea.
    [Show full text]