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The Faith, Innovation, & Mystery of (1809-1849}--Revised Fall 2018 Reading Packet Session 2: Oct 22, 6:30-8 p.m. repeated Oct. 23, 9:30-11 a.m.

“Even in the grave, all is not lost.’ --Poe, Pit & the Pendulum

[Poe Portrait and Signature. The portrait is based on a daguerreotype taken just before Poe’s (1849). The signature comes from am 1844 Poe letter now in the Huntington Library (California).] 2ND Session Readings 0. Overview 2nd Poe Session…………………………………………………………………1 1. Poe: England and Middle Years………………………………………………………1-2 2. Poe, first American Literary Critic………………………………………………….2-3 3. Rossetti, Blessed Damozel: Selections & Comment………………………….3-6 4. Poe, : the Poem, Definitions, Comment……………………………6-8 5. Rachmaninoff, The Bells (Op. 53)……………………………………………….....8-9 6. Readings & Selection on, Poe’s Poem …………………………..9-12 7. Poe Poem, Ianthe in ………………………………………………………….12 8. Poe & his angry Biographer Rufus Griswold…………………………………12-13

Reading 0. Session 2 Overview. In this session, we continue our exploration of the “Poe we know” and the Poe we don’t know.” The readings begin with an account of Poe’s life from 1815 (his childhood in England) through 1836 (his departure from West Point). We then turn to Blessed Damozel, a sequel to written by English Daniel Gabriel Rossetti right after he read The Raven. The Rossetti poem focuses on the celestial ’s lament for her grieving mortal lover. We will also explore 3 poems by Poe: The Bells and its impact on Russian composer Rachmaninoff; Al Aaraaf inspired by the Holy Quran and a Supernova; and the love poem To Ianthe in Heaven. We’ll conclude with a discussion of the vicious and influential Poe biography published by Rufus Griswold immediately after Poe’s death.

Reading 1. Young Poe in England and his Middle Years (1815-1836) England and , 1815-20. In an effort to improve his business prospects after the War of 1812, John Allan, Poe’s foster father, moved his family to England. Before taking up residence in London, the family spent several months visiting John’s relatives in Scotland (Irvine and ) and touring . Poe would later recall and use his childhood memories of Scotland and Scottish writers Burns and Sir . Poe was quite taken with both writers. Below is a little about both and their influence.

(1759-1796) spent almost 2 years in Irvine (1781-1782), then a thriving seaport. 30 years later when young Poe visited that city, Burns was a legend; his and exploits were still recited. An impressionable 10-year-old Poe would spend the entire summer of 1819 in Irvine, reading the poetry of Burns.] Burns’ influence is evident in Poe’s love poetry.  Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). When the Allans arrived in Edinburg Scott was the toast of the town. He had published the first of his Waverly novels in 1814 and would publish 7 more, including Rob Roy (1817) and (1820) before the Allan family returned to Richmond. It’s generally acknowledged that Poe’s creation of is modeled on Scott’s “mild-mannered and dangerous-other” Rowena in Ivanhoe.

Schooling in England. From age 6 to age 9, Poe was a boarder at the Misses Dubourg School in Chelsea where he had the “privilege” of sleeping separately from the dormitory. He then spent 2 years as a student at the Reverend John Bransby's school in the small village of Stoke Newington (London) where he was very much an outsider. He did not sleep in the dormitory, and the other boys made fun of his accent even though Poe’s French surpassed those of older students.

Return to Richmond. Due to the difficulties John Allan was having with his London contacts, the Allen family returned to Richmond in 1820. Poe began a reading regime that included poets as well as classical figures. At age 15, he wrote Al Aaraaf his first poem. To his foster father’s credit, John tried unsuccessfully to have the poem published.

Poe’s First Love and the University of Virginia. In 1825, 16-year-old Poe and 15-year-old (known as “Elmira”) became engaged much to the consternation of Elmira’s father, who later burnned all of Poe’s letters to her.

(Sarah) Elmira Royster Shelton (1810-1888). When 18-year-old Poe learned of Elmira’s marriage, he was heart-broken. Her marriage was not a happy one. She and her husband had 4 children; only two of whom lived beyond infancy. At his death, she and her children inherited $100 thousand with that the money would go elsewhere if she remarried. After the death of his first wife Virginia, Poe renewed his relationship and then his engagement to the widowed Elmira; however, he fell ill and died before they could marry. We will focus on Elmira’s later life and her continuing love for Poe in our 3rd Poe Session.

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The University of Virginia began admitting “young gentlemen” in 1825. Having received a considerable fortune willed him by an uncle, John Allan arranged tutoring to prepare Poe to enter the University in 1826. Although Poe did well academically, his foster father became frustrated with what he perceived as Poe’s lack of direction. As a result, he decided not to give Poe sufficient funds to cover all of his costs. Poe had no recourse but to turn to gambling that led to even greater debt. Following examinations in December 1826, an angry Allan withdrew Poe from the University and brought him back to Richmond, leaving his debts in Charlottesville unsettled.

Poe explained that had not been happy at the University. His poverty had made him an outcast: “I could associate with no students, except those who were in a similar situation with myself – although from different causes – They from drunkenness and extravagance – I, because it was my crime to have no one on Earth who cared for me, or loved me” (1831 Letter to John). Poe returned only to find that his beloved Elmira had become engaged to an older man.

Move to , Enlistment in the Army, and Transfer to West Point. Although he remained in contact with his foster mother until her death, he decided to break off any relationship with John Allan and moved to Boston. Using the name “A Bostonian,” he published and other Poems (1827), a collection of 7 brief, lyrical poems, but the book didn’t sell.

Unable to support himself, Poe enlisted in the U.S. Army on 1827 under the name "Edgar A. Perry.” He was stationed at Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island, Charleston, S.C., a location he used as the setting for his story “The Gold Bug.” He then served at Fort Monroe in Hampton, VA. Despite having been promoted to sergeant major, Poe felt useless. In a December 1828, he wrote a letter to his foster father asking for his help in getting him released from his 5-year Army commitment. He explained his conviction that "the prime of my life would be wasted" in the army. He threatened to take "more decided measures if [his father] refused to assist” [him]. Two months later (February 1829), Francis Allan died; Poe was devastated by her death. Two years after her death,

1829 Publication of Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems. Even with the death of his foster mother and his dissatisfaction with West Point, Poe managed to publish a 2nd poetry collection; this one carried his full name. An earlier collection that used many of the same poems was publishes anonymously, identifying the author only as “A Bostonian.” New to this 2nd collection was Al Aaraaf, a very long poem Poe had written at age 15. The poem is based on stories from the Quran and tells of the afterlife in a place called Al Aaraaf. The poem is uneven and difficult to follow, but it has an intriguing spiritual framework. You’ll find a discussion of Al Aaraaf later in this reading packet.

Poe and West Point. John Allen recognized Poe’s strong connection to his wife and reached out to him. Through his contacts, John arranged Poe’s admission to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. Poe attended West Point from 1830 until 1831. He thrived academically, but he felt isolated and useless and struggled with financial problems. He wrote to Allan that West Point “does not suit a poor man.” Poe’s solution was to stop attending classes and to boycott the required chapel attendance. He was court-martialed and expelled in 1831. Irritated beyond measure, John Allan disowned Poe. Almost immediately after Poe left West Point, his brother Henry died of tuberculosis.

John Allan disinherits his foster son. The Poe and John Allan relationship became more complicated when John remarried 2years after his first wife’s death. The new Mrs. Allan had no use for Poe. Poe also made injudicious remarks about his foster father’s excessive drinking. When Allan heard, he severed his relationship with Poe. Although Poe made sincere efforts toward reconciliation, Allan would have nothing to do with him. When Allan died in 1834, he left his wealth to his new wife and their 3 sons. Poe was not mentioned in the will.

Reading 2. Poe: America’s First Literary Critic Poe is the first major American critics; in fact, his work as a magazine editor and critic brought him to the attention of American readers. He wrote almost 1,000 , reviews, articles, columns, and critical notices that appeared in magazines, newspapers, and annuals. He was the first to propose setting standards against which a literary work could be measured. He also created his own vision of what constituted good literature by studying writers that ranged from Greek writers Plato and Aristotle to 17th C. English author of Paradise Lost John Milton and 19th C. English Romantic poet .

Poe believed his role as a critic included exposing poor writing and demanding that American writers meet higher standards. His critical reviews often included a detailed technical analysis of the author’s work, and his observations ranged from pointing out grammatical errors to exposing faulty logic. He also believed that the work should be evaluated on its worth and that the author’s background or social status was irrelevant.

Poe’s biting wit, evident in blatantly honest assessments of authors, earned him the nickname “Man with a Tomahawk.” Here’s an example from Poe’s review of George B. Cheever’s Commonplace Book of . [[Note: Cheever (1807-1890) was born in Maine and was a Congregational minister, who wrote religious tracts and created one of the first American poetry anthologies.]

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The Reverend George B. is….known…as the editor of "The Commonplace Book of American Poetry," a work which has at least the merit of not belying its title. It is exceedingly commonplace….The selections appear to me… injudicious, and have all lean toward the didactic…The verses which I have seen attributed to him are undeniably mediocre. Here are a few other Poe assessments of much better-known 19th C. American authors: 1-2. Praise for (1804-1864, author of The Scarlet Letter) and James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851). Poe was the first critic to recognize the talents of Hawthorne and Cooper. When Poe read Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans (1836), he immediately wrote Cooper asking him to contribute to , the literary magazine Poe was editing. He made the same offer to Hawthorne after reading one of his short stories. 3. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882). Poe was thoroughly unimpressed with Longfellow, calling him “the GREAT MOGUL of the Imitators, and insisting that Longfellow was guilty of “the most barbarous class of literary robbery.” 4. (1803-1882). Believing that Emerson “was a mystic for mysticism’s sake,” Poe dubbed Emerson “the jingle man” and considered Emerson’s poetry awkward and silly.

Internet Sources: The (Poe Historic Site in Philadelphia Pa), Wikipedia, Stacy Conradt (Smart Shopping), and Poe Society of .

Reading 3. Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1881) (3A) Sequel to Poe’s Raven: Blessed Damozel (1850 Poem and 1875 Painting) [Note: Blessed Damozel is a dramatic lyric poem presented in 24, 6-line stanzas. To save space, I’ve presented each stanza in paragraph form, using dashed (--) to show the line breaks. The poem primarily describes the Damozel and Heaven. However, the Damozel herself speaks as does the lover. Rossetti uses quotation marks for the Damozel’s speech; he encloses the lover’s speech in parentheses. I’ve also used italics. You’ll find definitions of unfamiliar words in the body of the poem. My analysis comment follows the poem.]

British poet and painter, Rossetti conceived the idea for Blessed Damozel (and his later painting with the same title and subject) after reading Poe’s The Raven (1845), a wildly popular poem about a scholar’s mourning the death of his beloved Lenore. The scholar is seeking reassurance that he and Lenore will be together in heaven, but that reassurance never comes. [Note: We discussed The Raven during our first Poe session. If you weren’t able to attend that session or to do the reading, I’ll be glad to send you a copy of the poem and the related comment. Just email me.]

Rossetti was so obsessed with The Raven that his earliest artwork focused on interpretive pencil and ink drawings of the poem. One sketch has spirits and specters swirling around the Raven narrator; another shows a wispy procession of lovely, child-like girl angels materializing out of the air. A third has the narrator grasping his head in grief and madness. In 1847, Rossetti decided to write a sequel to The Raven, insisting that “Poe had done the utmost that it was possible to do with the grief of a lover on earth, and so [I] determined to reverse the conditions, and give utterance to the yearning of the loved one in heaven."

Rossetti’s Blessed Damozel--a poem of beauty, romance, and faith--focuses on Lenore, who is now in Heaven. In creating the poem, he mirrored his beliefs that religion, emotion, and romance are the proper subject of a natural art. Rossetti invests the poem with the atmosphere of a medieval romance; as a result, he uses a number of archaic words and phrases.

(3B) Summary of the Poem. The poem opens with a description of a young woman who, leaning out from heaven, is holding lilies in her hands. She is breathtakingly beautiful but also melancholy. It soon becomes clear that she left someone on Earth. Her grieving male lover also speaks in the poem. His lines are written in first person and placed inside parenthesis. They yearn for one another across the extraordinarily vast expanse between the “ramparts” of “God’s house” on which she is leaning and Earth where her lover resides.

The damsel expresses her conviction that God will bring them together. She then imagines that joyous time. When her beloved arrives in heaven, she will show him all there is to see. They will meet the Virgin Mary, and she will introduce them to Christ who will bless their love. Finally, the two will be able to live in the peace and solitude they did not experience on Earth. Even with this dream, she is separated from her lover. As the poem ends, the damsel breaks down,

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crying. Somehow her lover “hears” her tears. And the poem ends. The Rossetti poem inspired Claude Debussy's La Demoiselle élue (The Chosen Unmarried Woman 1888), a cantata for two soloists, female choir, and orchestra. (3C) Rossetti Poem: Blessed Damozel (Poem: 1847) 1. leaned out --from the gold bar of Heaven; --Her eyes were deeper than the depth --Of waters stilled at even; --She had 3 lilies in her hand, --And the stars in her hair were seven.

[Define: 3 Lilies=Christian Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); 7 Stars=the 7 handmaidens of Artemis, who become the constellation Pleiades and a reference to Revelations 1:16: In his right hand he held seven stars, and from his mouth came a sharp, two-edged sword, and his face was like the sun shining with full force.]

2. Her robe, ungirt from clasp to hem, --No wrought flowers did adorn, --But a white rose of Mary's gift, --For service meetly worn; --Her hair that lay along her back ---Was yellow like ripe corn.

[Define: Ungirt=free flowing, no belt or girdle; Wrought=embroidered; Meetly worn-= appropriately worn.].

3 Her seemed she scarce had been a day --One of God's choristers; --The wonder was not yet quite gone --From that still look of hers; --Albeit, to them she left, her day --Had counted as ten years.

4. (To one, it is ten years of years. --. . . Yet now, and in this place, --Surely she leaned o'er me—her hair --Fell all about my face. . . . Nothing: the autumn fall of leaves. --The whole year sets apace.)

5. It was the rampart of God's house --That she was standing on: --By God built over the sheer depth --The which is Space begun; --So high, that looking downward thence-- She scarce could see the sun.

6. It lies in Heaven, across the flood --Of ether, as a bridge.--Beneath, the tides of day and night --With flame and darkness ridge --The void, as low as where this earth --Spins like a fretful midge.

[Define: Ether=the immaterial substance of space; Midge=Tiny insect.]

7. Around her, lovers, newly met -- 'Mid deathless love's acclaims, -Spoke evermore among themselves -- Their heart- remember'd names; --And the souls mounting up to God --Went by her like thin flames.

8. And still she bow'd herself and stoop'd --Out of the circling charm; --Until her bosom must have made --The bar she lean'd on warm, --And the lilies lay as if asleep --Along her bended arm.

9. From the fix'd place of Heaven she saw - Time like a pulse shake fierce --Through all the worlds. Her gaze still strove-- Within the gulf to pierce--Its path; and now she spoke as when--The stars sang in their spheres.

10. The sun was gone now; the curl'd moon -- Was like a little feather --Fluttering far down the gulf; and now-- She spoke through the still weather. --Her voice was like the voice the stars--Had when they sang together.

[Define. Curl’d = Crescent Moon. In upcoming verse 11, the lover is speaking.

11. (Ah sweet! Even now, in that bird's song,--Strove not her accents there, --Fain to be hearken'd? When those bells --Possess’d the mid-day air, --Strove not her steps to reach my side -- Down all the echoing stair?)

[Note. He senses that his beloved is yearning for him as he hears her voice in the song of a bird. He remembers the mid-day bells and the sound of her footsteps as she descends to reach his side. In verses 12- 23, the young woman speaks. Definition: Fain to be hearkened’d: old language for gladly to hear. In Verses 12-23, the Damozel describes what she will share when her beloved is with her in heaven.]

12. "I wish that he were come to me, -- For he will come," she said. --"Have I not pray'd in Heaven?—on earth, -- Lord, Lord, has he not pray'd? --Are not two prayers a perfect strength?--And shall I feel afraid?

13. "When round his head the aureole clings, --And he is cloth'd in white, --I'll take his hand and go with him-- To the deep wells of light; --As unto a stream we will step down, -- And bathe there--in God's sight.

[Define: Aureole=halo.]

14. "We two will lie in the shadow of--Occult, withheld, untrod, --Whose lamps are stirr'd continually -- With prayer sent up to God; --And see our old prayers, granted, melt--Each like a little cloud.

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[Define: Occult, withheld, untrod= the young woman imagines being with her lover in a secret place totally alone with no passersby.]

15. "We two will lie in the shadow of --That living mystic tree --Within whose secret growth the Dove -- Is sometimes felt to be, --While every leaf that His plumes touch --Saith His Name audibly.

[Define: living mystic tree=the Tree of Life while the Dove represents the Holy Spirit. In upcoming verse 16, the Damozel speaks.

16. "And I myself will teach to him, -- I myself, lying so,--The songs I sing here; which his voice Shall pause in, hush'd and slow, --And find some knowledge at each pause, --Or some new thing to know."

17. (Alas! we two, we two, thou say'st! -- Yea, one wast thou with me--That once of old. But shall God lift --To endless unity --The soul whose likeness with thy soul--Was but its love for thee?)

18. "We two," she said, "will seek the groves --Where the lady Mary is, --With her five handmaidens, whose names --Are five sweet symphonies, --Cecily, Gertrude, Magdalen,--Margaret and Rosalys.

[Define: the Lady Mary=the mother of Jesus. Each of her 5 attendants is a composition of service, artistry, and eternal beauty like a full orchestral symphony. In the next verse, these 5 weave the robes for the newly reborn.]

19. "Circlewise sit they, with bound locks--And foreheads garlanded; --Into the fine cloth white like flame-- Weaving the golden thread. --To fashion the birth-robes for them--Who are just born, being dead.

20. "He shall fear, haply, and be dumb:--Then will I lay my cheek --To his, and tell about our love, -- Not once abash'd or weak: --And the dear Mother will approve --My pride, and let me speak.

[Define: dear Mother=Mary, Mother of God.]

21. "Herself shall bring us, hand in hand,--To Him round whom all souls --Kneel, the clear-ranged unnumber'd heads --Bow'd with their aureoles:--And angels meeting us shall sing --To their citherns and citoles.

Define: Citherns= (pronounced sid-derns): -a 16th -17th C. stringed instrument similar to a lute; citoles=another 16th C. instrument shaped like a guitar.

22. "There will I ask of Christ the Lord --Thus much for him and me:—Only to live as once on earth-- With Love,— only to be, --As then awhile, forever now --Together, I and he."

23. She gazed and listen'd and then said, -Less sad of speech than mild,— "All this is when he comes." She ceas'd.-- The light thrill'd towards her, fill'd --With angels in strong level flight.--Her eyes pray'd, and she smil'd.

In verse 24, the lover speaks, remembering his beloved’s smile. He somehow understands she is weeping. The poem concludes with the lover’s hearing her tears.

24. (I saw her smile.) But soon their path --Was vague in distant spheres: --And then she cast her arms along --The golden barriers, --And laid her face between her hands, --And wept. (I heard her tears.)

(3D) Damozel Summary and Comment. The Damozel leans out from a golden banister on the outermost boundary separating heaven from space. Her eyes are deeper than the bottom of still waters. In one hand she holds 3 lilies attesting to her purity and the nearness of the Christian trinity of God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). In her hair are the 7 stars that constitute the Pleiades constellation [Note: The link to the 7 stars confirms that the Blessed Damozel is a virgin as were the 7 young daughters of Atlas and Pleione in , who became attendants to Artemis, the goddess of virginity. After the 7 died, they became stars in heaven.] The Damozel's simple robe has no embroidered flowers. The only adornment is a single white rose, a gift of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Recognition of the Damozel’s faithful service to Heaven. The Damozel feels as though she has not been in the celestial realm no more than a day. But to her family and her lover feels as though 10 years have passed since they last saw her. As he about her, he thinks he feels the softness of her hair fall about his face. Alas, though, it is nothing but the fall of the autumn leaves as time moves on.

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She stands on a rampart built by God around heaven. So high is this place that when she looks down, through the great void of the universe, she can hardly see the sun. This rampart lies between space and the inner regions of heaven. Below the rampart, the tides of day and night ebb and flow, lapping at the boundaries of the universe and at the earth, which is spinning like a nervous insect. Around the damozel stand lovers, newly united in heaven, greeting each other. Other souls are just now rising to heaven, like "thin flames." But the damozel continues to look down into the vastness of space, yearning for her earthbound young man. She sees time raging on ineluctably as the sky darkens and a crescent moon appears. She speaks: I wish that he were come to me / For he will come.

When he does arrive someday in a white robe with a halo around his head, they will go hand-in-hand into heaven and bathe in the wondrous light of God. There, in that holiest of shrines, where prayers from earth reach God, they will see their old prayers, granted, melt away like little clouds.

They will lie in the shadow of the tree of life, where the Holy Spirit—in the form of a dove—sometimes alights and every leaf speaks His name. She then will teach her beloved the songs that she sings, and he will pause as he sings to absorb The knowledge that they contain. The young man on earth wonders whether God will invite him to enjoy endless unity with his beloved. The damozel, meanwhile, says that after her beloved arrives in heaven they will visit groves where Mary abides with 5 handmaidens who weave golden threads into white cloth used to make the robes of the newly dead born into eternal life.

The damozel will speak with pride of her love for the young man, and Mary will approve and will take them to the place where all souls kneel around God while angels sing and play their stringed instruments. The damozel will then petition Christ to allow her and her young man to live forever together, united in love. All of which she speaks will come to pass, she believes. The young man imagines he sees her smile. When she casts her arms down on the golden banister and weeps, he hears her tears. Internet Sources: cummingsstudyguides.net; Wikipedia; Poeanalysis.com; Shmoop.

Reading 4. Poe, The Bells (1849) with Definitions and Commentary (Published in Sartain’s Union Magazine, May 1848 after Poe’s death)

1. HEAR the sledges with the bells -- Silver bells!--What a world of merriment their melody foretells! How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle - In the icy air of night! While the stars that oversprinkle-- All the , seem to twinkle With a crystalline delight -- Keeping time, time, time, -- In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells --From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.

2. Hear the mellow wedding bells -- Golden bells! -- What a world of happiness their harmony foretells! Through the balmy air of night--How they ring out their delight! From the molten-golden notes, -- And all in tune, What a liquid ditty floats -- To the turtle-dove that listens, while she gloats -- On the moon! Oh, from out the sounding cells, -- What a gush of euphony voluminously wells! -Of the rapture that impels -- To the swinging and the ringing -- Of the bells, bells, bells, Of the bells, bells, bells, bells,-- Bells, bells, bells -- To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells !

3. Hear the loud alarum bells --Brazen bells! -- What tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells! In the startled ear of night -- How they scream out their affright! Too much horrified to speak, -- They can only shriek, shriek, -- Out of tune, In a clamorous appealing to the mercy of the fire, -- In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic fire, Now -- now to sit or never, -- By the side of the pale-faced moon. Oh, the bells, bells, bells! -- What a tale their terror tells -- Of Despair! - What a horror they outpour -- On the bosom of the palpitating air! Yet the ear, it fully knows, -- By the twanging, -- And the clanging, -- How the danger ebbs and flows ; Yet, the ear distinctly tells, -- In the jangling, -- And the wrangling, -- How the danger sinks and swells, By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the bells --Of the bells - Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells -- In the clamour and the clangour of the bells!

4. Hear the tolling of the bells --Iron bells! -- What a world of solemn thought their monody compels! How we shiver with affright -- At the melancholy meaning of their tone! For every sound that floats -- From the rust within their throats-- Is a groan. -- And the people --ah, the people --They that dwell up in the steeple, -- All alone --And who, tolling, tolling, tolling,

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In that muffled monotone, --Feel a glory in so rolling --On the human heart a stone -- They are neither man nor woman --They are neither brute nor human --They are Ghouls: -- And their king it is who tolls; -- And he rolls, rolls, rolls, rolls, -- Rolls -- A paean from the bells! And his merry bosom swells -- With the paean of the bells! -- And he dances, and he yells ; Keeping time, time, time -- In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the paean of the bells --Of the bells : Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme, -- To the throbbing of the bells - Of the bells, bells, bells --To the sobbing of the bells ; Keeping time, time, time, -- As he knells, knells, knells, -- In a happy Runic rhyme,-- To the rolling of the bells -- Of the bells, bells, bells --To the tolling of the bells, -- Of the bells, bells, bells, bells -- Bells, bells, bells -- To the moaning and the groaning of the bells.

(4A) Definitions of Unfamiliar References by Verse Verse 1. (a) Runic: Runes were characters of several alphabets used by the Germanic peoples until the 13th century. They were first used over 1500 years ago by the East Goths, and later appeared throughout England and Scandinavia. The word "rune" itself comes from an early Anglo-Saxon word meaning "secret" or "mystery", and they remain an enigma to the modern world. (b) Tintinnabulation: Poe invented the English word from tintinnabulum the Latin word for bell. Given the context of the poem, the word has come to mean the jingling or tinkling sounds of bells. Modern spelling of the word has dropped the double “n” in the second syllable. However, the use of the double “n” lengths the sound and may have been what Poe intended. Verse 2. (a) Euphony: Pleasing or sweet sound. The acoustic effect produced by words so formed or combined as to please the ear. (b) Voluminously: Having or marked by great volume or bulk. Consisting of many folds, coils, or convolutions. (c) Rapture: Ecstasy. A state or experience of being carried away by overwhelming emotion. A mystical experience in which the spirit is exalted to a knowledge of divine things. Verse 3. (a) Alarum: In Elizabethan times and in Shakespeare’s plays, alarm was spelled alarum, giving the word 3 syllables. (b) Clangor: A resoundingly loud clang or medley of clangs that make a loud racket. (3) Expostulations: reasoning earnestly with a person for purposes of talking them out of something. Verse 4. (a) Monody: An ode sung by one voice (as in a Greek tragedy). An elegy or dirge performed by one person. (b) Paean: An ode sung by one voice (as in a Greek tragedy). An elegy or dirge performed by one person Note: Poe’s original script of the poem shows something similar to the indentation used above. (3) Runic: See definition in Verse 1). Internet Sources: Poestories.com; Wikipedia; College English (December 1940, Analysis of “Bells”); Britannica.com (Rachmaninoff, “Bells”); GradesAver.com; Poe Society of Baltimore (Marie Louise Shew);

(4B) Comment on The Bells Inspirations for the Poem. Thomas Ollive Mabbott in The Collected Works of Poe (1969) suggests that the impulse to write the piece came from a copy of the April 1848 Union Magazine in which editor Caroline Kirkland quoted a description of a publishable poem: “A poem of twenty lines, spirited, intense, and exuberantly suggestive alike to feeling and to thought, is ... of a higher order than an epic of twenty books.” Although Kirkland had rejected Poe’s poem , she sometimes bought Poe’s verses, and he seems to have taken up the challenge.

He was living in a cottage near and often walked to the campus to spend time with the Jesuits. The University Church (known as Old St. John’s) has a bell tower with a huge bell that Poe could hear from his home. The Church Bell became known as “Old Edgar Allan” after his death. The subject of the poem may have been suggested by Mrs. Marie Louise Shew, the women who helped the family in numerous ways, including caring for Virginia.

One day, when Shew was visiting Virginia at the Poe’s Fordham NY cottage, Poe told her that he was writing a 20-line poem that would be fit for publication. Hearing the Fordham Church bell ring, Mrs. Shew suggested: “Why not use bells?” However, Shew may have done even more. Not too long after Poe’s death a 2-verse poem called Bells surfaced. The author is said to have been Shew; the poem is remarkably like Poe’s poem. Consider these examples from the Shew poem: The first verse presents “little silver bells” with a “fairy-like melody…from their silver, tinkling throats”; the second and final verse presents “heavy iron bells” from which a “horrible monody…floats...How I shudder at the notes of the belle, bells, bells--Of the bells.” It is possible that Shew shared her idea or showed Poe a draft of her poem.

The design of the poem. Whatever its source, Poe’s Bells presents a progression from something wonderful to something terrible. Any or all of the following progressions fit the poem: (a) the unbounded merriment of youth happiness of young love, the fruition of that love in marriage, the pain and unexpected events that intrude, and death; (2) the seeming reality of joy to the reality of madness and death; or (3) spring, summer, fall, winter. The poem opens with merriment and ends with gloom and death. Each verse presents a type of bell and establishes a specific mood: Verse 1=Tinkling sleigh bells punctuate fun and excitement Silver). Verse 2=Golden wedding bells celebrate the promise of joy (Gold). Verse 3=”Brazen alarum” bells introduce feelings of horror (no specific metal).

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Verse 4=Iron bells announce death (Iron).

Since silver and gold are the more valuable metals, Poe uses them for the 2 happy verses. No specific metal is associated with the “alarum” bells; in fact, they sound almost human, shrieking with fright about fire. The least valuable metal (Iron) is given to the bells that toll death; however, Iron is also much harder and more durable than Silver and Gold. The verses become longer as we move through the poem, giving the impression that the times of peace and joy pass all too quickly and that fright and despair linger. The poem is also divided into two parts: 2 positive verses; 2, negative.

The Impact of Virginia’s Death and Poe’s Impending 2nd Marriage. Although Poe continued to grieve the loss his first wife, he and, Sarah Emelia Royster Shelton met again and soon were engaged to be married. The joy of the first 2 verses are linked to both women. Notice how jubilant the Wedding (Golden Bells) verse is!

The 2nd 2 verses change dramatically to a dismal account of fire and fear. The sepulchral ending presents the king of the ghouls who tolls the bells, dancing the macabre dance of death. The repetition of "Runic" with its secret messages and mysterious rhyme suggests that the message is Memento Mori: Remember, you must die. You may remember from the 1st Poe session that the wisdom of accepting the inevitability of death was active from the medieval period through the 19th C. [Note: If you’d like to read more about “Memento Mori,” here is a link to an excellent discussion: https://dailystoic.com/memento-mori/]

Technical note. Poe’s poem is a conscious masterpiece of interlocking sounds. Here is a brief description of the literary devices he is using (with examples). Onomatopoeia, the naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of its sound (buzz or hiss, for example). Examples: tinkle, jingling, tintinnabulation, and clanging. The long series repeating the word “bells” (when read aloud) also echoes the tolling of a bell. , the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.” Examples: Runic rhyme; sounding cells; a tale of terror, now, their turbulence tells; frantic fire; and more. Assonance, the repetition of a vowel sound in non-rhyming words. Examples: "slEdges, bElls and "mErriment their mElody foretells. Repetition, repeating the same word after one another. For example: "bells," "keeping time, time, time / In a sort of runic rhyme," "shriek, shriek," "higher, higher, higher," tolling, tolling, tolling," "swells," and more Rhythm and Meter. More than any other poetic device, it's the rhythm of "The Bells" that makes it lyrical. In addition to the sound devices just mentioned, Poe uses internal rhyme, line length, varied meter, and punctuation to create an imitative bell rhythm.

Internet Sources for Analysis of The Bella. OwlCation; GradesAver; Wikipedia; Fordham University; Poe Society of Baltimore (Mrs. Shew); Britannica.com: Shmoop; brighthubeducation.com (literary analysis of Bells).

Reading 5. , The Bells, Op. 36 (192o)

Link to Rachmaninoff Biography: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Rachmaninoff “Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943) spent much of his childhood and youth in the Russian countryside. For the rest of his life, he would vividly remember a childhood resonating with the beautiful and exotic sounds of ringing bells. Rachmaninoff writes that ‘The sound of church bells dominated all the cities of the Russia I used to know…They accompanied every Russian from childhood to the grave, and no composer could escape their influence….This love for bells is inherent in every Russian…’

In 1913, Rachmaninoff received an anonymous letter from a young admirer (Moscow Conservatory cello student Maria Danilova). The student enclosed symbolist poet Konstantin Belmont’s translation of Poe’s Bells Rachmaninoff was mesmerized: ‘In the drowsy quiet of a Roman afternoon, with Poe’s verses before me. I heard the bell voices, and tried to set down on paper their lovely tones that seemed to express the varying shades of human experience.’’ Recognizing that the 4 sections of Poe’s poem represent the 4 aspects of life: birth, marriage, terror, and death. Rachmaninoff devised a highly original musical form. His choral symphony unfolds in four movements and features three soloists, a chorus, and a large orchestra. Below is Georg Predota’s (slightly edited) analysis of the symphony. “Movement 1 Silver Sleigh Bells introduces a contrast between brilliant and upbeat music verses sad, solemn and gently reassuring expressions. A silvery introduction--involving the entire orchestra--prepares for the entrance of the tenor soloist. The jubilant mood gradually becomes more reflective as the entire chorus wordlessly participates in the musical discourse. The cheerful mood returns once more, but this time is tempered by allusions to the Dies Irae from the Latin requiem mass. The opening of this funeral chant continues to grow in prominence throughout the work and will brutally dominate the concluding funeral movement.

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The text for the 2nd Movement hear the mellow wedding bells, is a vision of unbridled joy and hope. However, Rachmaninoff’s musical setting paints an atmosphere of languid tranquility. The soprano soloist initially focuses on the rapturous aspects associated with romantic love and marriage, with a glorious climactic outburst affirming this sentiment. However, this movement of sanguine beauty is once again rife with allusion to the chant of the dead.

The 3rd Movement Hear the loud alarm bells builds a powerful picture of bells filling the air with tension, despair and even terror. Rachmaninoff transforms the typically light-hearted scherzo into a grim version that has been described as ‘demonic.’ Lacking soloists, the chorus builds a tense, dark and dissonant musical tapestry. The mood remains unsettled throughout, and a final climax features the raging orchestra before the movement ends abruptly.

The Final Mourning Iron Bells is luxuriously bathed in funeral imagery and features some of the most seductive and complex musical writing Rachmaninoff ever produced. From the haunting English horn solo to transformed snippets of the funeral chant and the liturgical chanting of the baritone soloist, Rachmaninoff offers little hope. Only in the concluding pages does Rachmaninoff allow the music to escape the sense of endless grief and mourning. As the music turns to the major key, the strings finally offer some consolation, returning us to the lyrical theme first heard in the opening movement. “--Perdota, Interlude, December 10, 2016. . U-Tube Link to Performance of Rachmaninoff, The Bells (Op. 53) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jk8P9C3hdgw

Reading 6. Poe, Poem: Al Aaraaf (1824, 1829)--Readings and Selection Introduction. Even with the death of his foster mother and his dissatisfaction with West Point, Poe managed to publish a 2nd poetry collection. Although the volume received little attention, it reflects Poe’s interest in faith and the afterlife. The 441-line Al Aaraaf is the collection’s central poem. 15-year-old Poe wrote the poem in 1824; three 3 years later (1827), he self-published his first collection anonymously, probably to avoid John Allan’s anger. Poe did not include Al Aaraaf and identified himself only as “A Bostonian.” In 1829, he revised Al Aaraaf and featured it in his 2nd collection which carried his name.

Even though the 2nd collection received little attention, Poe was proud of his long poem. Following Poe’s fame after the 1845 publication of The Raven, respected poet invited Poe to speak at the prestigious Boston Lyceum. Everyone expected him to read The Raven, but he opened with the very long poem Al Aaraaf along with The Raven. His reading and discussion received a number of negative reviews, and a disappointed Poe became even more frustrated with Boston and New England elitists. We’ll learn more about Poe & his native Boston and New England in Session 3.

You’ll find the background of Al Aaraaf in the following series of short readings : (A) Poe’s inspirations for the poem,: Astronomer Tycho Brahe’s Supernova and Sura 7 of the Holy Quran; (B) Explanations and quotes by Quran scholar; (C) Selections from Al Aaraaf; and (D) Ianthe in Haven, a complete, short poem linked to Al Aaraaf.

(6A) Poe’s Inspirations: Tycho Brahe’s account of a Supernova and the Quran

(6A1) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). Danish nobleman and writer-astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was known for his accurate observations. His system correctly identified the Moon as orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun. Since the rudimentary telescope would not be invented until 1608, Brahe used only his naked eye.

On November 11, 1572, Brahe first noticed an unusual star; he followed its presence and published his findings in De Nova Stella (Copenhagen, 1573). The star appeared near a rectangle of 4 stars in the constellation of Cassiopeia and was already brighter than Venus. It was first white, then yellow, then red, and lastly blue-grey. It was visible for 16 months, until in 1574 it faded away completely from human sight. The supernova caused great excitement and terror. Tycho was also an astrologer, who regarded the star as a bad omen--even a warning about the end of the world. Poe regarded the Brahe astrological event as a sign from God.

(6A2) The Holy Quran. Inspired by Brahe’s account and fascinated with exotic Arabia, Poe read the holy Quran, most likely using the 1734 English translation by George Sales. The Quran (Poe knew it as the Koran) is the central religious text of Islam and is believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. Poe became fascinated by the concept of Al Aaraaf (spelled variously) identified in the Quran as a celestial site between Paradise and Hell where those departed who have not been very good or very bad go after death. They are not punished, and they receive counsel from celestial beings toward the end of receiving God’s forgiveness and going to Paradise.

(6A3) Poe explained the poem’s setting in his submission letter to a potential Al Aaraaf publisher: “Its title is “Al Aaraaf” — from the Al Aaraaf of the Arabians, a medium between Heaven & Hell where men suffer no punishment, but yet do not attain that tranquil & even happiness which they supposed to be the characteristic of heavenly enjoyment….I have placed this “Al Aaraaf” on the celebrated star discovered by

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Tycho Brahe which appeared & disappeared so suddenly — It is represented as a messenger star of the Deity, &, at the time of its discovery by Tycho, as on an embassy to our world.” (6B) Explanations and Quotes by Quran Scholar Mehmet Paksu with Sura 7 Quotations [Note: Sura is a “sacred verse story”; the quotes are from section 7 of the story.]

Paksu describes Aaraaf as a curtain, a high wall, and a hill between Hell and Paradise. Another commentator describes it as a balcony surrounding a minaret on the Sirat Bridge which is thin, straight, and sharp. With God’s command, the bridge will be laid across Hell. Here are sayings from the Quran:

 "Whoever recites Surah Al-'A'raf every month, will be among those that no fear shall be upon them, nor shall they grieve…Whoever recites Surah Al Araf, Allah will set a curtain between him and the and, on the Day of Judgment Adam (as) will be his intercessor."

 Al-Haafith Al-Hakami said about the people of Al-A‘raaf, "They will be kept between Paradise and Hell for a period of time that Allah wills, then they will be allowed to enter Paradise." (B2) Hazrath Hasan Basri, Companions of Hell and Companions of Heaven:

“These are the people who were assigned by the command of God to allocate the companions of Hell and the companions of Paradise. I swear it is true, they might be among us today .true they might be among us today. The reason why the people in the Araf are called as Araf is their ability to recognize humans for their actions. And again as it is explained in the interpretations, when God balances good and evil deeds in the scale and distinguishes companions of paradise from companions of Hell, He will make those wait for quite some time whose good and evil deeds are equal.

Those who are going to be next to the Sirat Bridge will know the companions of Hell and the companions of Paradise. When they see the companions of Paradise, they will say, ‘Gods peace and blessings be upon you.’ When they turn to the left side, they will see the companions of Hell and by seeking refuge in God will supplicate as, ‘O God do not let us be among those atrocious.’ After done with companions of Hell and companions of Paradise, God will forgive them with His Mercy and will put them into the Paradise.”

The people of the Heights call out to some men who were the leaders of unbelief in the world whom they recognize by their marks on their countenances. The people of the Heights call out: "Now you see that neither your numbers nor the wealth you amassed nor your growing arrogance and vanity have availed you!"

(6C) Al Aaraaf Introduction and Summary [Pictured left is an illustration of the Al Aaraaf lead seraph by W. Heath Thompson). (C1) Introduction. .Poe Scholar Thomas O. Mabbott points out that Poe’s poetic vision of Al Aaraaf is quite different from the vision in Sales’ translation. Sales’ Al Aaraaf is a wall or partition between Heaven and Hell; it is a place of sorrow that, with God’s forgiveness, can lead to redemption and paradise. But Poe’s Al Aaraaf narrator sees this liminal space quite differently asking: “What help is it for anyone to know that Truth is mostly false and that Bliss is really woe. Better that they welcome the ecstasy of life and realize that death is “sweet.” Poe views Al Aaraaf as the celestial sphere for companions and lovers where Beauty, Harmony, Authentic Truth, and Ultimate Bliss flow freely.

(C2) Summary. Poe moves us into the imaginary setting: “the anchored realm” of Al Aaraaf. Here are the poem’s major actors: God; Nesace (Neh-sock-ee), the ultimate embodiment of Beauty; Ligeia (Lie- gee-uh’ the Harmony of the spheres; the “maiden-angel” Ianthe, and the “seraph-lover” Angelo. Nesace is the major angelic entity in the garden of Al Aaraaf; it is she who carries out God’s commands. She is described as having "angel limbs,” ”a "gentle waist," and "golden hair.” The poem is in two parts. In the first part, God calls Nesace to raise the angel Ligeia and, through her, to counsel the inhabitants so that they can be admitted to heaven. Part 2 focuses on the results of Nesace and Ligeia’s efforts. Angelo (Michelangelo) and Ianthe fail to respond to Ligeia's call which results in God’s not allowing them into heaven

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Poe moves us into the imaginary setting: “the anchored realm” of Al Aaraaf. Here are the poem’s major actors: God; Nesace (Neh-sock-ee), the ultimate embodiment of Beauty; Ligeia (Lie-gee-uh’ the Harmony of the spheres; the “maiden-angel” Ianthe, and the “seraph-lover” Angelo. Nesace is the major angelic entity in the garden of Al Aaraaf; it is she who carries out God’s commands. She is described as having "angel limbs,” ”a "gentle waist," and "golden hair.” The poem is in two parts. In the first part, God calls Nesace to raise the angel Ligeia and, through her, to counsel the inhabitants so that they can be admitted to heaven. Part 2 focuses on the results of Nesace and Ligeia’s efforts. Angelo (Michelangelo) and Ianthe fail to respond to Ligeia's call which results in God’s not allowing them into heaven.

(C3). Central Characters and the Selected Passages. The selected passages describe the “maiden-angel” Ianthe and her “seraph-lover” Angelo. Poe makes it clear in his letter to his potential publisher that he specifically intends Michelangelo to be the seraph lover: a fitting position since his contemporaries called him Il Divino ("the divine one").  Angelo. Like many, Poe considered Michelangelo to be the quintessential Renaissance man: painter, sculpture, architect, and inventor. Poe felt that he was committed to create an aesthetic of Beauty and Faith. In the poem, Poe alludes to Michelangelo’s interest in flight, establishing Angelo as a “seraph,” the highest order of the nine-fold celestial hierarchy, associated with light, ardor, and purity.

 Ianthe. Why Poe chose the name “Ianthe” for the name of the “maiden-angel” is not clear. Ianthe appears in several Greek : as a Cretan girl who marries a man, who was once a women; as one of the many daughters of Titan ; and as one of the who accompanied Persephone, the Goddess of Spring, when she was captured by Hades in the . Fittingly, Ianthe is a virgin and, thus, pure. She also has great beauty.

(C43) Conclusion. The poem culminates in God’s command that the magnificent seraph Angelo and the virginal angel Ianthe enter Paradise. However, the two ignore God’s command and choose to remain together in Al Aaraaf: a place of unregimented freedom. Poe’s message is clear: Through Beauty and Harmony (i.e., poetry and art), the Will of God is communicated to us, who are lacking the complete knowledge given to angels.* *Insight generated by Christopher P. Sempter, The Raven Illustrations of James Carling (2014).

(6D) Al Aaraaf: Conclusion INote: To save space, each verse is written as a sentence, using dashes to separate the lines. I’ve also identified the lines spoken by Angelo and Ianthe, by adding their names in bold. ]

For what (to them) availeth it to know--That Truth is Falsehood- or that Bliss is Woe? --Sweet was their death- with them to die was rife--With the last ecstasy of satiate life-

Beyond that death no immortality---But sleep that pondereth and is not 'to be'!--And there- oh! may my weary spirit dwell---Apart from Heaven's Eternity- and yet how far from Hell!

What guilty spirit, in what shrubbery dim,--Heard not the stirring summons of that hymn? --But two: they fell: for Heaven no grace imparts--To those who hear not for their beating hearts.--A maiden-angel and her seraph-lover--

He was a goodly spirit- he who fell:-A wanderer by moss-y-mantled well--A gazer on the lights that shine above--A dreamer in the moonbeam by his love:

The night had found (to him a night of woe)--Upon a mountain crag, young Angelo--Beetling it bends athwart the solemn sky,--And scowls on starry worlds that down beneath it lie.--Here sat he with his love- his dark eye bent--With eagle gaze along the firmament….

[Angelo] 'Ianthe, dearest, see- how dim that ray!--How lovely 'tis to look so far away! --She seem'd not thus upon that autumn eve--I left her gorgeous halls- nor mourn'd to leave…..But O that light!- I slumber'd- Death, the while,--Stole o'er my senses in that lovely isle--So softly that no single silken hair-- Awoke that slept- or knew that he was there.

'The last spot of Earth's orb I trod upon--Was a proud temple call'd the Parthenon;--More beauty clung around her column'd wall--Than ev'n thy glowing bosom beats withal,--And when old Time my wing did

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disenthrall--Thence sprang I- as the eagle from his tower,--And years I left behind me in an hour…Ianthe, beauty crowded on me then,--And half I wish'd to be again of men.'

(Ianthe) 'My Angelo! and why of them to be?--A brighter dwelling-place is here for thee---And greener fields than in yon world above--And woman's loveliness- and passionate love.'

(D2) Al Aaraaf-Related Poe Poem: To Ianthe in Heaven (1840) [Overview. This Poem is clearly linked to Al Aaraaf. This poem’s mortal narrator is moving beyond the vanities of life and spending his “dark hours” trying to imagine the “eternal; streams” that may flow around his departed beloved Ianthe.]

THOU wast that all to me, love,--For which my soul did pine —--A green isle in the sea, love,--A fountain and a shrine--All wreathed around about with flowers —And the flowers, they all were mine.--But the dream, it could not last;

And the star of Hope did rise=--But to be overcast.--A voice from out the Future cries,--“Onward!” — while o’er the Past,--(Dim gulf!) my spirit hovering lies,--Mute, --motionless, aghast!

For, alas! alas! with me, --Ambition, all, is o’er; --“No more, no more, no more” — (Such language holds the solemn sea--To the sands upon the shore) —Shall bloom the thunder-blasted tree,--Or the stricken eagle soar.

And all my hours are trances,--And all my nightly dreams--Are where thy dark eye glances,--And where thy footstep gleams, --In what ethereal dances, --By what eternal streams.

Al Aaraaf and To Ianthe Internet Sources: Al-Islam,org; Islam.net.(Scholars of Tafseer--Quranic exegesis); Poe Society of Baltimore (Al Aaraaf and To Ianthe in Heaven ); Study.com; jstor.org (stable); poedecoder.com; gradesaver.com;oxfordreference.com; .eapoe.org/works/mabbott; Brittania.com (Michelangelo, Brahe): Wikipedia.

Reading 6. The Enmity between Poe and Critic Rufus Griswold The Poe Biography. The day Edgar Allan Poe was buried, Griswold published a long obituary entitled Memoir in the Tribune; rather than using his own name, he signed the article “Ludwig.” Here are the opening lines: "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it. ”"Ludwig" was soon identified as editor, critic, and anthologist Griswold also included Memoir in his 1850 edition of the Works of the Late Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold, who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842 due to Poe’s harsh (but just) criticism of Griswold’s Anthology: Poets and Poems of America.

Somehow, Griswold became Poe's literary executor and continued to destroy his dead enemy's reputation. Griswold depicted Poe as a depraved, drunk, drug-addled madman and included Poe's letters as evidence. Griswold’s claims were either lies or distorted half-truths. Letters that Griswold included as proof of his Poe portrait were later revealed as forgeries

Those who knew Poe well denounced the biography, but it became wildly popular for two reasons. (1). It was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted. (2) Readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by such an “evil" man. In n one way or another, every single biography of Poe since Griswold’s has either relied on or felt it necessary to respond to Griswold’s description of Poe’s life and behaviors. Ironically, even Griswold’s 1850 edition of Poe’s writings (the first posthumous collection) remains at the heart of nearly every modern compilation of Poe’s works.

The complex relationship between Poe and Griswold (1815-1857). From their first meeting in 1841, the two men viewed each other with professional suspicion and hid a dislike of one another. However, both were willing to pretend friendship as long as there was something to gain.

As the editor of the prestigious and popular Graham's Magazine, Griswold occupied a place of power and privilege. Griswold, a failed Baptist minister turned editor, considered himself Poe’s social and moral superior. To Griswold, Poe was only a poor Southerner with an unimpressive smattering of education and an acid pen. Who was Poe to appoint himself as the literary conscience of America?

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In Poe’s eyes, Griswold was a literary pawn and a mediocre writer who was born into prosperity and succeeded more through social connections and exchanges of favors than by his talent. Allied with the snobbish Northern set of writers and critics, Griswold embodied all that Poe detested.

What infuriated and embarrassed Griswold was Poe’s review of Griswold’s 1842 anthology: The Poets and Poetry of America. The anthology established Griswold as an influential judge of American poetry and an ardent advocate for Nationalism. The anthology was an enormous commercial success’ 10 editions had been published by 1850.

Poe, a fearless and independent critic, reviewed Griswold’s 475-page anthology and announced that the anthology was completely unworthy of attention. He wrote to a colleague: “Have you seen Griswold’s Book of Poetry? It is a most outrageous humbug.” Poe was absolutely right about the limited quality of Griswold’s taste. The poet to whom Griswold gave the most space was Charles F. Hoffman, a New York City author who published several undistinguished collections of poetry before going insane.

Hoffman, who was never popular as a poet, struck up a correspondence with Griswold, and they became friends. In the anthology’s first 3 editions, Griswold included 45 Hoffman poems--twice as much space as he gave to any other author, including Poe, Longfellow, Bryant, and Emerson. Griswold also highlighted Boston-born poet Charles Sprague as one of his five pantheon of authors, who is not even read today--nor is Hoffman.

In my opinion, only 5 of the 80 “poets” Griswold includes merit inclusion: Poe, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Collen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and James Russell Lowell, Poe’s negative opinion of the Anthology is completely justified. Modern scholars consider the book "a graveyard of poets.”

Although Poe was correct and most of the poets Griswold included are unknown today, the public hailed the Griswold anthology. After Poe’s death, Griswold was considered the ideal person to produce the Poe biography. The result was Griswold’s vicious characterization of Poe as an addict, an alcoholic, and a haunted man, given to deep melancholy and depression.

It was not until the 1941 Poe biography by scholar Arthur Hobson Quinn that a balanced view was provided of Poe, his work, and the relationship between the author’s life and his imagination. Even though Griswold’s portrait of Poe was false, the Negative Poe Persona (Madman, Dissolute Drunk, and Addict) continues to flourish today. [

Internet Sources for Rufus Griswold Anthology: Poe Society of Baltimore, Boston Historical Society, Rufus Griswold Papers, Wikipedia; weebly.com/Griswold. ]

Poe-Sess. 2, Oct. 22-23, 2018-St. Richard’s Episcopal Church, Winter Park-Designer-facilitator Pamela Menke 13