9 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO'

Landscape, , Art and Change

INTRODUCTION APPLIED

Restoration ecology is the emerging para­ Preservation, conservation, and restoration digmatic relationship of humanity to . It ecology has occurred in response to the industrial revo­ lution and its massive programme utilising is a logical outcome of the nature as both raw material and sink for projects of conservation and preservation. wastes. Restoration ecology establishes a new Preservation and conservation emerged in the relationship to nature by addressing a range years around the turn of the twentieth century of damaged land and water systems in both in response to growth and development in the urban and rural settings. Restoration ecology is American West. Preservation began with the a community of disciplines, which acts upon aesthetic/scientific interests of botanisers and natural systems through the sciences and engin­ gardeners in the subject of trees. Organised eering; and upon cultural values through the groups at that time helped to establish Arbor arts and humanities. Day and promoted a plan for national If we are going to restore ecosystems, practi­ preserves. This interest in nature was fuelled tioners must engage nature through primary by the writings of the naturalist/authors experience. Restoration ecology redirects the Emerson, Thoreau and Muir. A popular move­ concepts of agriculture and gardening, to a pro­ ment, preservation was soon balanced by a gramme of healing nature. Restoration ecology more practical and scientific voice. The project emerges from a that is beginning to of conservation has been described by Samuel recognise its detrimental effect on nature, and Hays (1959: 123) as 'efficiency in the develop­ is seeking new ways to understand and act ment and use of all natural resources'. Estab­ upon a range of post-industrial problems. In lished during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency, the following pages, We will explore ideas conservation was defined by Gifford Pinchot of applied and cultural ecologies. We will and others as a rational approach to land conclude with a manifesto, which places art and management. ecology (eco-art) in the midst of the radical Conservation theory was rooted in an engi­ human ecologies and social-environmental neering approach to applied knowledge. The change. ultimate goal was properly to inventory all natural resources prior to a planned develop­ ment intended to achieve efficient use and min­ imise waste. This is still the focus of conservation biologists worldwide who inven­ tory natural communities and their movements, then manage habitat so that select species

I , ECOLOGY, ART AND CHANGE 135

(either migratory or indigenous) will prosper. cultural practices. On one end lie and Conservation and preservation are programmes humanities, in the middle are the design pro­ that are driven by a reaction to human distur­ fessions, at the other end science and engineer­ bance of natural systems. Conservation projects ing. Restoration ecology has been touted as a today involve large habitat areas, nesting areas, new relationship to nature, one in which the old and numerous migration areas where land­ reductionist paradigm is reversed and scientists scapes are managed to the best advantage of a are charged with re-assembling a working single species or groups of similar species. nature from the pieces discovered over the last Preservation and conservation were forged 200 years, taking it apart. While the machine as a binary pair. Preservation was primarily a metaphor was useful in the disassembly and citizen-based cultural programme inspired by analysis of nature, it is less useful when re­ naturalist authors and artists, while conserva­ assembling nature. The aesthetic roots of tion was primarily an expert-based scientific restoration ecology can be found in the urban­ programme. Preservationists supplied the social nature design projects of Frederick Law and nature-aesthetic argument for protection Olmsted (particularly the Fens of Boston, 1881). of national as public land while the The roots of its science lie in Aldo Leopold's conservationists inventoried and planned for work restoring the lands of the University of the rational development of public lands. This Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum (1934). binary pair was alternately oppositional and It can be argued that this 'discipline' was collegial in pursuit of their goals. The preserva­ established in the early 1980s, in part by the tionist rhetoric was about keeping wild areas efforts of William Jordan III (1984), a botan­ and wildlife from commercial development and ist and journalist who was employed at the use. The conservation policy goals of the era Madison Arboretum and saw the potential of included protecting large tracts of land, water­ Leopold's ideas in a contemporary setting. sheds and forests, sustained forestry, dams and During the fiftieth anniversary of the Madison water-power, hunting, grazing and mineral­ Arboretum, he published a seminal text declar­ mining rights. The Hetch Hetchy and Yosemite ing the import of this area. This was followed Valleys in California are probably the best by a symposium on restoration ecology, which examples of the oppositional outcomes of the brought together some of the key thinkers preservation and conservation movement. worldwide. This resulted in an edited text, Preservation and conservation were a reac­ Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach tion to the perception of encroaching physical to Ecological Research (Jordan, 1987). In limits within the . Preservationists Jordan's original document, he was interpreting believed that was in a state of grace, restoration ecology as a mixture of cultural and beyond the limits of human habitation. Nature scientific efforts, 'active as a shaper of the land­ was something to be preserved and contained scape, yet attentive to nature and receptive to for future generations. The conservationist its subtlest secrets and most intricate relation­ believed that wilderness was a resource bounty ships. The restorationist is in this sense like to be managed and controlled for long-term an artist and a scientist, impelled to look economic benefits. Both of these philosophical closer, drawn into lively curiosity and the most and political positions placed nature (in the intricate relationships' (Jordan, 1987: 24). form of wilderness and land resource) well After Leopold, Jordan is clear that restoration beyond the limits of cities or towns. is about restoring a 'whole natural community, Restoration ecology is a new way of thinking. not taking nature apart and simplifying it, but It links citizens and experts, as well as cities and putting it back together again, bit by bit, plant wilderness, in a broad programme of ecological by plant', concluding, in his own words, 'the awareness and action. It is a community of ecologist version of healing' (Jordan, 1987: 23). disciplines synthesising a continuum of diverse Jordan commented on the import of restoring 136 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO

whole communities in this text, but he also there is a record of the ecosystems' component recognised the import of restoring (reclaiming) parts, or a likely reference ecosystem can be industrial sites (referencing the noted biologist identified, and the soils and hydrology remain Anthony Bradshaw's pioneering work on coal untouched. In urban settings there is little left mining sites in ). Jordan sees the Madi­ untouched, soils and hydrology are almost son Arboretum as a research laboratory for always affected. The historical model and its work that will be in increasing demand in the expert-defined parameters are the exception future, due to the fact that the industrial revolu­ rather than the norm. More likely the restora­ tion has provided humanity with the tools to tionist is faced with conditions which are chal­ affect nature on a grand scale. The work that lenging: in other words, disturbed soils and a first found its symbolic and intellectual focus as radically changed hydrology. Furthermore, the a result of the anniversary of the Madison work occurs in a social setting where the Arboretum occurs around the world today. perception of nature and its physical manifesta­ Today there are academic, private industry, tion is quite diverse. In the words of Anthony non-profit and federal government models of Bradshaw (1995: 105), 'The primary goal of restoration practices. In 1988 the Society for restoration is an aesthetic one - to restore the Ecological Restoration was announced at the visible environmental quality of the area.' This Restore the Conference in Berkeley, means that the decision to restore is both California through the efforts of John P. Rieger, cultural and discursive, a mix of science, art and John T. Stanley on the west coast and William democracy. Once the site has lost its soils and Jordan in Wisconsin. There are now two jour­ hydrology, the expert is seeking to define an nals attending the area, Restoration Ecology: aesthetic target that is relevant to a local The Journal of the Society for Ecological commUnIty.• Restoration, published by Blackwell Science, Philosopher Andrew Light (2000) has writ­ and Ecological Restoration, published by the ten extensively about the import of the social University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. element in restoration ecology. 'Restoration is Each year, the disciplines of anthropology, art, not inherently democratic, but it does have an biology, botany, ecology, engineering, philos­ inherent democratic potential. The problem is ophy and poetry participate with government not just to identify this potential, but to make a regulators, first peoples, citizen activists, policy case for why it is part of the criteria for what makers and spiritual leaders at the annual identifies restoration as a good environmental Society for Ecological Restoration Conferences practice' (Light, 2000: 165). The democratic (http://www.ser.org). potential of restoration programmes is revealed Restoration ecology attempts both to define at three steps in the process: and reconstruct nature while staying aware (and respectful) of the complexities of the 1 In terms of the goal of restoration, which must process, its ethical context and the social poten­ be set in such a way that it reflects local tial of its performative aspects. Restoration aesthetics. ecology is an important new area of thinking 2 In terms of the act of restoration, when addi­ tional bodies, hands, hearts and minds can and acting. It provides us with experiences and invest the project with diverse integrity and knowledges that can transform the human rela­ . tionship to nature. 3 During the monitoring period after planting, where citizens can gauge the efficacy of their actions.• RESTORATION ECOLOGY - CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES This democratic potential and its social benefits are not inconsequential. The concept was Nature can be restored to its 'historical form' if the basis of the $85 million Changing Places LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY, ART AND CHANGE 137

programme of the Groundwork Trust in tion or revegetation. Restoration can refer to the United Kingdom (Groundwork Trust, the recovery of biological communities, or it 1999-2001). Changing Places invested money can refer to the recovery at the landscape to recover the aesthetic quality of local environ­ ecology scale. Reclamation usually refers to the ments, in communities ravaged by industry. It recovery of strip mining sites, or areas of indus­ integrated restoration ecology, social recovery trial soil. Mitigation is currently specific to and community arts in the programme. wetland recovery; usually replacements are The definition, goals and ethics of restora­ created to replace those lost to development. tion are a consistent point of discussion from Revegetation might involve the recovery of a a range of points of view. In 'Sunflower forest, on farmland. Joan G. Ehrenfeld (2000) Forest: Ecological Restoration as the Basis for a has identified at least four approaches to New Environmental Paradigm' (Jordan, 1994: restoration ecology (Figure 9.1). These four 205-20) and 'A Field Guide to the Synthetic strands of practice demand separate goals and Landscape: Toward a New Environmental evaluation methods. The items on the left Ethic' (Turner, 1998: 195-204), the botanist describe less disturbed sites, the items on the William Jordan and poet and philosopher right describe highly disturbed or, in the case Frederick Turner describe restoration as a new of mitigation wetlands, lost sites. This range relationship to gardening or agriculture. They of goals (bottom text in each box) demands see restoration as a culture-nature activity in diverse theory and analysis. (It is assumed that which benefit goes to the ecosystem rather than the first step of restoration is to preserve land the ecosystem providing benefit in terms of and conserve species wherever possible.) products for the gardener or farmer. In this The community of disciplines working in emergent relationship, the concept of nature as the area of restoration ecology necessitates an instrument of humanity is expanded to respect for a diversity of knowledge, practice nature as a relational entity worthy of human and pedagogy. The immediate future of restora­ investment. This expanded concept of nature tion ecology will be defined by a struggle takes us away from a human use value and between discipline specific knowledge stan­ towards the recognition of the value of ecosys­ dards. The arts and humanities relish the idea tems and their component organisms. of thinking about the foundation of knowledge, Other philosophers and theorists with im­ seeking new metaphors, narratives and shifts portant contributions to the philosophy of in human value. The sciences relish the idea of restoration ecology include Robert Elliot, building on accepted foundation knowledge, Cheryl Foster, Eric Katz and William Throop. seeking the empirical tools to understand, pre­ The interest of these 'cultural ecologists' can be serve, conserve and restore natural systems. defined by the pursuit of ethical positions in This dynamic tension is essential if we are to an arena where the foundation of knowledge achieve a new community of disciplines respon­ is in constant flux, and the context for action is sible for both a theoretical and applied know­ a moving target. Much of the discussion has ledge, capable of addressing both rational and revolved around the idea of restoration (and speculative approaches to a changing nature/ some of our 'natural' monuments) as 'counter­ culture relationship. feit nature' or nothing more than another Restoration ecology with its attendant human artefact (Throop, 2000: 71-134). Other citizen/expert programmes and integration of discussions (primarily amongst the scientists) nature/culture goes to the heart of fundamental revolve around the various valances of meaning environmental questions of the twenty-first that surround the descriptive terms of practice century. Restoration ecology is an emergent and the means of evaluating projects. There community of disciplines. The form and theory has been an ongoing dialogue about the shaded of its social-aesthetic interface is as yet un­ meanings of restoration, reclamation, mitiga- refined. There is both intellectual and aesthetic 138 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO

Less disturbed More disturbed

Conservation biology Wetland science - Ecosystems Endangered species Water quality functions

Restoration of species Mitigation (replacement)

Restoration ecology

Geography - landscape ecology Mining - site reclamation Watershed ecosystem Extremely disturbed lands

Restoration of ecosystems Reclamation of vegetative cover

Figure 9. 1 Restoration ecology: systems, disciplines, focus and goals (after Ehrenfeld, 2000)

space for artists to participate in this paradig­ painters illustrated pristine that matic shift in nature/culture relationships. were being newly tamed by the technology of the pioneers. With the advent of the modernist period of the twentieth century, the relevance of CULTURAL ECOLOGIES landscape as a subject began to fade. Painters were disinterested in subjects external to the Background, art and landscape media and its means of expression. The painter moved away from landscapes and other Artists have worked with the nature/culture subjects external to the medium. The painter's dichotomy for generations. Europe has a rich effect on the meaning and perception of land­ landscape tradition. In the seventeenth scapes and nature diminished accordingly. century painted Italian land­ scapes specifically chosen for their contextual references to Roman history. Intertwining Earth-art images of nature and nostalgic culture, his work provided a primary source of ideas about picto­ Sculpture's historical relationship to landscape

) rial framing. Nature was the formal setting to is different from that of painting. It is only with • consider the ruins of Rome as the advent of the minimalist era of modernist elements of an experientially rich landscape. In sculpture in the 1960s that landscape began to the eighteenth century , Frederick playa sustained and primary role in sculptors' Edwin Church and John James Audubon were thinking. working in America, painting the wilderness John Beardsley, Thomas Hobbs and Lucy and wildlife of the United States. The American Lippard are the primary authors on the subject LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY, ART AND CHANGE 139 of earth-art. Beardsley's (1977) Probing the Ecosystem approaches Earth: Contemporary Land Projects and later (1984) Earthworks and Beyond provide the At the same time, another group of artists authoritative view on the originators of earth­ emerged with a focused interest in systems art. Hobbs' (1981) Robert Smithson: Sculpture theory and ecology. Hans Haacke, Helen Mayer is the best reference on that artist's works and Harrison and Newton Harrison, Alan Sonfist, writing. Lucy Lippard's (1983) Overlay is a and Agnes Denes were the original (and contin­ classic. It transcends the hierarchy of the art uing) practitioners. They differed from the world as well as the ranks of the earth-artists, earth-artists by their interest in dynamic living providing her readers with a comprehensive systems. Where the earth-artists expressed overview of diverse archaeological, historic and themselves in the landscape, these ecological contemporary practices. Beardsely and Lippard artists were interested in collaborating with both describe a post-studio inquiry and practice nature and ecology to develop integrated con­ that integrates place, form and materials. The cepts, images and metaphors. While earth-art earth-artists engaged landscape directly, earth was the first to go public, these ecological artists was the material, the form oriented the viewer were the first to act in the greater interest of to the place of the work. Earth-art challenged nature and the commons. In 1974 Jack the purpose of art as a collectable object. In Burnham wrote Great Western Salt Works, an some ways it was the first artwork to go public, important book that developed an initial to establish art as an interface to the world. approach to systems aesthetics. Herbert Bayer, Walter De Maria, Michael Alan Sonfist (1983) edited Art in the Land, a Heizer, Nancy Holt, Mary Miss, Isamuu selection of texts which addressed the scope and Noguchi and Dennis Oppenheimer were just range of artists working in relationship to some of the original practitioners that began environment at that time. In 1992 Barbara working as earth-artists, or environmental Matilsky curated Fragile Ecologies. Matilsky's sculptors. They experimented with simple catalogue provides an excellent overview of the geometric forms that integrated place, space, historic precedents for this work, as well as time and materials. The work ranged from pris­ some of the most important work of the first tine natural environments to post-industrial and second generation of ecological artists. environments. Theorist-practitioners Robert A text edited by Bylai Oakes (1995), Sculpting Smithson, Nancy Holt and Robert Morris with the Environment, is unique, and quite expressed a more integrated relationship to valuable as a reference in that he asked each nature as system. Smithson was acutely aware artist to write about their own work. Land and of nature's entropic and eutrophic cycles, and , an international survey of embraced mining areas and quarries as the both types of artists' projects, was edited by content and context for his work. Smithson's Jeffery Kastner with a survey of writing on the partner and colleague Nancy Holt was particu­ subject by Brian Wallis (Kastner and Wallis, larly interested in earth/sky relationships, 1998). The text goes into the first, second creating works that updated ancient techniques and third generations of earth and ecological with a modern sculptural vocabulary. Morris artists, providing an overview of works and addressed post-industrial landscapes, in both accompanying articles. In 1999 Heike Strelow form and theory. Writing about his own work curated Natural Reality, an international in Kent, Washington, his articles about the overview which expanded the concept of eco­ ethical responsibility of artists working in post­ logical art and its range of effort to include the industrial landscapes telegraph issues in human body as a site of 'natural' inquiry. The restoration ecology, a decade later (Morris, accompanying exhibition catalogue provides 1979, 1993). arguments for the three areas of the exhibition, •

•

140 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO

the unity of humanity and nature, artists as and theories that inform and sustain the prac­ natural and cultural scientists and nature in a tice. We would argue after Harrison and Sonfist social context. (Auping, 1983: 99) that eco-art is funda­ mentally interdisciplinary, in that we can't rely on the art world as the only point of engage­ ART AND RADICAL ECOLOGY ment and interpretation. Furthermore, the artists involved in this practice can't confine , or eco-art, is a creative process their learning or production to art. We must that results in interface between natural systems reach out across disciplines to build a platform and human culture. It is manifest in form, of knowledge and practice. In the interdiscipli­ concept and focused experience. It recognises nary model, artists find critical social space to the historic dichotomy between nature and expand their practice by moving outside their culture and works towards healing the human discipline and its institutionalised relationship relationship to the natural world and its ecosys­ to society. In this way, we find opportunities tems. both intellectual and creative that we cannot A set of goals (broad intentions): find within our own discipline (which like other disciplines has turned inward upon itself). • eco-art is a compassionate advocacy for natural • • Interdisciplinary practice breaks the form of commUnities; discipline-specific institutions. It expands the • eco-art addresses damage to diversity and combined disciplines and provides the artist d-,~o_amics. Qt ecQ,"-'iv..~ws, • eco-art is an expression of val ue, in such it is with a new path to social engagement. Inherent ll\ tnat 'Qatn lS tne res'Qol\s\b\.\i.t'[ br t'ne an\.st to \.,,'O..~~\"""\wo.\.\'l~ \)'j \~\.~w,:, • eco-art seeks to balance the technical with the educate him/herself in both disciplines. In turn, biological and ecological; the work needs to be received and evaluated for • eco-art seeks legal rights, and appropriate advo­ the totality of its intention. cacy for natural systems.

Objectives (metrics for project analysis): Dualities

• interdisciplinary knowledge or participation The environmental movement can be charac­ from other disciplines; terised by a struggle between the oppositional • strategic actions targeting specific communities (human and natural); ideas of nature as an autonomous and intrinsi­ • aesthetic and scientific components that are cally valuable entity unto itself versus nature open to supplementary response; as both a concept and focus of human exploita­ • an integrated, conceptually informed aesthetic tion for economic value. The social-ecologist experience of complex systems. Murray Bookchin (1974: xv) sets up a simple duality, to help us understand these ideas better: 'Ecologism refers to a broad, philosophical, Theory and interdiscipline almost spiritual, outlook toward humanity's relationship to the natural world ... environ­ In Fragile Ecologies (1992) Barbara Matilsky mentalism [which is] a form of natural engi­ provides a robust historical context for ecolog­ neering seeks to manipulate nature as a mere ical artworks. As a contemporary curator, she "natural resource" with minimal pollution was interested in form and content, how the and public outcry.' Bookchin's philosophical product of ecological art presented itself to the position on ecologism and environmentalism world, specifically the art world. As eco-artists reflects the earlier discussions of preservation and theorist, we are interested in form and and conservation. But what does this mean for content, but I am also interested in the concepts artists? Ecologism provides artists a pathway LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY, ART AND CHANGE 141 into a new area of knowledge. In that broad Human actions now affect global climate; philosophical/spiritual outlook there is plenty this is an essential awareness of the post­ of room for artists to experiment with interface, industrial condition. Carbon-based industrial perception and human values. We want to think by-products and a lack of effective human of interface as a common boundary or inter­ advocacy threaten nature. The human effect on connection between systems, equipment, con­ the planet has become so great that we have cepts or human beings. Interface is the art, begun to examine carefully the human condi­ the physical manifestation of that 'relationship tion and its intellectual (and psychological) between humanity and the natural world'. The relationship to nature. Three philosophies have concept of interface is appropriately open, its emerged which inform a continuum of human form undetermined but its intention explicit, it thought and action in relationship to garden defines the art of ecology without closing out its and wilderness ideas - social ecology, eco­ options. Perception is the awareness of interface feminism and . These three ecolo­ or awareness through interface. Human values gies share a common thread - the negative are the target, or goal, of cultural agents (the effect of human civilisation upon natural sys­ active role of agency is assumed under the inter­ tems has instigated the need for various radical disciplinary model). Eco-artists manipulate the communities to seek a path to action. attendant metaphors, symbols and narratives of Social ecology calls for a grand decentralisa­ the nature/culture interface to shift human tion scheme, with a move to smaller cities, and perceptions around the dual subjects appropriate technologies. It seeks a balance of their inquiry, research and production - with nature and an equitable 'human footprint' affecting valuation. These are the strategic on the planet. This is the broadest of our three points of engagement for the eco-artist - inter­ eco-philosophies, firmly rooted in the garden face, perception and human values. but respectful of wilderness. Social ecology claims a spatial allegiance to city, town and country, believing that nature is a fundamen­ The philosophies tally human concept that must be resolved in a social setting. Industrial economies, politics It is important to understand the philosophies and urban forms all must change if we are to that can inform our actions. Where do the eco­ achieve an ethical and sustainable relationship artists stand in relation to nature? We can to nature and our remaining wilderness lands. broadly situate the eco-artist in either the The approach is built upon a powerful critique wilderness or the garden. This simple duality of the oppressive nature of industrial-capitalist allows us to consider wilderness as the condition society.• of nature without human impact, and garden Eco-feminism examines the historical rela­ as the human condition (or city condition) of tionship between women and nature. Eco­ nature. Our value systems can flow in either feminism claims no spatial allegiance; the focus direction. If value is centred in the garden, then is upon the biological relationship between it is the use of nature that drives our actions. The humanity and nature. The eco-feminist reveres garden relationship assumes that we are above wilderness, but the eco-feminist project is still nature and capable of some charitable (and not garden, it is focused upon resolving humanity's so charitable) contributions to nature. If value is inequitable relationship to nature. The argu­ centred in the wilderness then it is the mainte­ ment is that dominant (male) culture, in its role nance of that boundary separating humanity of master with dominion over all, is unable to from nature that drives our actions. Wilder­ acknowledge its dependency upon nature, ness (by strict definition) is a condition that can which has culminated in a threat to survival. be defended, defined or interpreted but never 'We must find a form which encourages sensi­ improved upon by human action. tivity to the conditions under which we exist on 142 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO

the earth, which recognizes and accommodates agent of change in the shifting values of nature the denied relationship of dependency and and culture. As I have said earlier, the strategic enables us to acknowledge our debt to the points of engagement for the eco-artist are sustaining others of the earth' (Plumwood, interface, perception and human values. It is 1993: 198). The eco-feminist approach is built through human values that we know nature, it upon a critique of the oppressive nature of an is through human values that artists act upon inherently masculine society. culture to change the perception of nature. Finally, deep ecology recognises the intrinsic value of non-human nature. In terms of our garden/wilderness metaphor, it is explicitly Eco-art and paradigmatic change wilderness. It declares a lack of critical know­ ledge in the context of increasingly complex Restoration ecology is the only applied ecolog­ worldwide ecological catastrophes. In this ical programme that integrates city, town, vacuum of rational eco-knowledge it demands country and wilderness. It is the only applied an advocacy and activism based on philosoph­ ecology that is equipped to address all three ical principles. Deep ecology is bio-centric; it political programmes, of humanity in nature, recognises the value of all living things and post-dominion humanity and the intrinsic emphasises non-interference in natural pro­ rights of nature (although most deep ecologists cesses: 'The flourishing of human and non­ would disavow the restoration ecology pro­ human life on Earth has intrinsic value. The gramme as too manipulative). Restoration value of non-human life forms is independent of ecology integrates preservation and conserva­ the usefulness these may have for narrow tion in its scope of activity. The all-too-obvious human purposes' (Naess, 1989: 29). The deep challenges (and costs) of restoring complex ecology approach privileges nature and places ecosystems and landscapes dictate the use of humanity on a co-dependent footing. It declares stabilising methodologies (preserve/conserve) the human interference in nature excessive before any attempt is made to restore. and calls for a substantial decrease in human Restoration ecology is the emerging paradig­ population. The deep ecology approach is the matic relationship of humanity to nature. It most radical of the three ecologies; it is built addresses the full range of philosophical, spatial upon a critique of and technolog­ and political constructs outlined so far. More ical progress. It obligates action through a importantly, restoration ecology is a commu­ dynamic platform first developed by Arne nity of disciplines, which recognises its role in Naess (Naess, 1989) and George Sessions the context of cultural values. If we are going to (Sessions, 1995). restore nature (the underlying goal of all three These three philosophies, with their spatial of our philosophies), we must engage nature as commitment to city, town, country or wilder­ a primary human value which we feel responsi­ ness, and their political commitments to bility for. Responsibility flows from intimacy. humanity, post-dominion humanity and the Jordan speaks of it as an ecological version of intrinsic rights of nature itself, provide a broad healing. Light declares its democratic potential. intellectual foundation for the eco-artist. This Restoration ecology redirects the age-old is a foundation of human values that project concepts of agriculture and gardening, which ways to understand and act in relationship to reaped benefit from nature, to a programme of nature. This foundation provides room for a caring experimentation with/for nature range of practitioners with a shared interest in (healing). Restoration ecology emerges from a the roles that art can take in the changing culture that recognises its effect on nature, and human relationship to natural systems. The is just now beginning to understand and act founda-tion can accommodate the artist as upon the problem. While there are conflicting witness, advocate or activist, but always as an opinions about how best to take responsibility, LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY, ART AND CHANGE 143

we believe that intimate knowledge is the "person" for purposes of adjudicatory pro­ primary place to start. cesses, whether it represents proprietary, spiri­ We have argued in the past that we must seek tual, aesthetic, or charitable causes. So it should the aesthetic (the interface) which be as respects valleys, alpine meadows, rivers, define the perception of complex ecosystems. lakes, estuaries, beaches, ridges, groves of trees, With intimate knowledge we can characterise swampland or even air that feels the destructive those properties (after Eaton, 1997: 85-105) as pressures of modern technology and modern health. Ecological restoration begins the intim­ life.' While we may initially consider the rights ate dialogue with nature that will allow us to of nature an outrageous idea this question is a internalise and define that aesthetic perception. little less shocking to think about when we The ecological humanists and artists are faced remember that 150 years ago the legal status with the challenge of understanding this aes­ of women and various cultural groups were thetic , and communicating it to the considered radical and upsetting thoughts. broadest segment of society. Imagine being so Corporations, merchant marine vessels, coma­ intimately aware of your bio-region that you tose humans, and babies all have rights, based can ascertain its health by an aesthetic under­ on advocacy by invested interest. Why couldn't standing of its complex form. An odd idea, until we extend these basic legal rights to natural you think about family, friends and pets - ecosystems? A legal interface for nature funda­ you can 'see' illness in them before you know mentally changes perception and value within a they are sick. Or your car, computer or some specific society and culture. We would argue other appliance that you use daily, and in some that without the ability to advocate legally for strange way, you know it is unhealthy, breaking natural systems, the political and economic down before it stops working. The perception systems of democratic nations will never be of health is a multi-sensual mix of signals, moved towards a sustainable model. If we can which have an appropriate rhythm or pattern. empower this advocacy, we guarantee an era of When that pattern or rhythm is amiss, it is clear creative change and renewed democracy. that the health of that perceived system is compromised. The recognition and definition of aesthetic health within a perceived ecosystem CONCLUSION goes directly to our questions of interface, perception and human value. We have attempted to outline a manifesto of We would argue that the most important eco-art that recognises the emergent restora­ culmination of the project of eco-art, of our tion ecology paradigm. We have developed a three philosophies and applied ecologies, will programme with definition, direction, intention be legal rights for nature. Within our capitalist and interdisciplinary goals in mind. We have democracy the courts provide the ultimate argued that the bridge between areas of know­ notice of change in human value. Guaranteeing ledge and the focus on issues of the public realm , the rights of nature would extend the essential can be fertile ground for both academic and rights of political and economic equality. Rec­ applied research. We have argued the impor­ ognising nature as an important third leg of tance of engaging issues, from the rights of democratic society is a logical and essential next nature to the properties, or aesthetic, of step. This is an idea which has been considered perceived health. The arts is the discipline that in the past. most consistently questions the foundation In 1972, Supreme Court Justice William O. knowledge of society. In a culture dominated by Douglas (Stone, 1972: 74-5) offered the dis­ science (which defends foundation knowledge), senting opinion on a legal case brought against the arts have to develop new critical and Disney Inc., in support of a grove of trees strategic tools to act upon society. We need to in California: 'The ordinary corporation is a create a supportive interdisciplinary community 144 TIM COLLINS AND REIKO GOTO

of creative individuals that are committed to , RECOMMENDED TEXTS and take responsibility for, positive shifts in culture. Bookchin, M. (1990) The Ecology of Freedom, Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books. • Eco-art is a compassionate advocate for natural Botkin, Daniel (1990) Discordant Harmonies: A communities.• • New Ecology for the Twenty-First Century, • Eco-art addresses damages to diversity and the New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Marturana, H.R. and Varela, E]. (1987) The Tree of dynamics of ecosystems. Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human • Eco-art is an expression of value; in such it is Undersanding, Boston, Mass.: Shambala Pub­ transformative by intent. lications, Inc. • Eco-art seeks to balance the technical with the Merchant, C. (1980) The Death of Nature, Women, biological and ecological. Ecology and the Scientific Revolution, San Eco-art seeks constitutional rights, and appro­ • Francisco, CA: Harper. priate advocacy, for natural systems. Sessions, G. (1995) Deep Ecology for the 21st Century, Boston, Mass.: Shambala Publications. the world that everyone sees is not the world, Throop, w. (2000) Environmental Restoration: but a world which we bring forth with others. Ethics, Theory and Practice, Amherst, NY: (Marturana and Varela, 1987: 245) Humanity Books, an imprint of Prometheus Books.