Deliverables: 2.1.B.1 Lead participatory risk mapping exercise across C-CAP communities & 2.1.C.1 Update community hazard, risk and/or vulnerability maps

This document was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). It was prepared by the Coastal Community Adaptation Project (C-CAP) implemented by DAI for USAID/Pacific Islands. March 2013

INTRODUCTION

From mid November 2012 through early February the C-CAP technical team carried out participatory risk and infrastructure assessments and mapping in five communities in each of C- CAP’s year one counties of Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. A standard methodology was developed and used in each of the communities to determine first, what climate related impacts are being faced by the communities and secondly, what community infrastructure whether built or natural was being affected by climate change related events. The C-CAP Community Engagement Methodology can be found in Annex 1. The climate change risks and infrastructure information gathered was registered in a geo-spatial format using a simple Google maps platform where both images and text were incorporated to provide important information regarding both the risks and infrastructure identified by the community members. The following report documents each of the twenty community sessions by country and summarizes the information provided by community members in each of the workshop sessions. This information will first be used in the development of a C-CAP Infrastructure Prioritization Index. The index, to be tested in March 2013, will assist communities in deciding what climate change adaptation projects they would like to undertake. The risk and infrastructure mapping information will also help the communities develop longer term disaster risk reduction strategies and land use plans while incorporating climate predictions including precipitation, storm surge, high tide events and sea level rise. Papua New Guinea Working closely with the Office of Climate Change and Development (OCCD) and their Adaptation department the C-CAP project team and OCCD staff facilitated Risk Mapping exercises in five coastal villages in the Central and National Capital Districts of Papua New Guinea. Prior to contacting the village authorities, C-CAP consulted with the other new USAID program, MARSH and WWF technical staff in order to coordinate efforts and explore possible collaborative activities. Given previous work in several Central Province villages and good receptivity from the local authorities the following communities were identified: Gabagaba, Tubusereia, Pari, Boera and Lealea. During the first half of December 2012 and early January 2013 a joint C-CAP and OCCD team visited each community to conduct one day risk mapping exercises. Each community meeting was organized by the village Councilor, the official government representative. Councilors asked a representative group of village members to participate in the exercises to include women, elders, youth and disabled in order to get a representative view of each village. Background Papua New Guinea consists of the eastern half of New Guinea Island and about 700 offshore islands between the equator and 12°S, and 140°E–160°E. At 462 243 km2, Papua New Guinea is the largest of the 15 Pacific Climate Change Science Program Partner Countries. The country’s geography is diverse and, in places, extremely rugged. A spine of mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, runs the length of New Guinea Island, which is mostly covered with tropical

- 3 - rainforest. Dense rainforests can also be found in the lowland and coastal areas as well as the very large wetland areas surrounding the Sepik and Fly Rivers. The highest peak is Mount Wilhelm at 4697 m (Papua New Guinea Country Statistics, SOPAC, 2010). The population of Papua New Guinea is approximately 6 744 955, with 40% living in the highlands and 18% in urban areas. The capital, Port Moresby, is located in the south-east and has a population of approximately 500 000. Eighty-five percent of the population live a subsistence lifestyle in rural areas. These people depend on traditional agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. Mining and oil production are the main sources of revenue for Papua New Guinea, accounting for 60% of export earnings and 20% of government revenue. Agricultural crops are still a major source of revenue, in particular copra (Papua New Guinea is the biggest producer in the South Pacific), coffee, palm oil and cocoa. Export of forestry products, once among the country’s main sources of revenue, has declined in recent years. (Source: Chapter 11- Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research, Australia’s Pacific Climate Change Science Program, 2011)

The Central Province of Papua New Guinea (PNG) is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to the accelerated increases in population from the interior. Many are flocking to the capital in search of employment by companies in the expanding mining and petroleum sectors. The cost of food and lodging in the capital is so high that many, including public servants, have no choice but to live in the surrounding villages where housing options are less costly. This population pressure translates into a heavy demand for land and natural resources in the neighboring communities. This additional stress will only intensify problems associated with a changing climate such as damage to crops from extremes in rainfall, wind and drought and a drop in fish availability from coral reef degradation and bleaching. An already acute land tenure problem will only be acerbated by climate change related risks and effects. Recurring concerns surrounding climate change related issues included longer droughts, stronger and more regular? flooding events, increased storm intensity, accelerated coastal erosion, stronger king tide events and sea level rise. The need for potable water was expressed in all communities where for several months in the year the population is dependent on water trucked in from Port Moresby at very high costs. Those who cannot afford the trucked water must drink contaminated water from boreholes or rainwater catchment tanks. Many cited waterborne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid and malaria as common health issues. The following sections summarize the information provided by each of the communities during the participatory risk identification sessions. They are a result of a standard community engagement methodology developed by the C-CAP team prior to visiting with each community. The methodology can be found in Annex 1. Gabagaba The village of Gabagaba is located approximately 80 km south of Port Moresby. It is a bedroom community for some working in the capital who cannot afford the very high costs of lodging in the city. The population of the village is estimated at around 2,000. Contact with the village leaders was facilitated by the Office of Climate Change and Development who recommended a long time local partner, Felix Mavaru Morea to accompany the C-CAP team to Gabagaba after making contact with village leaders to request their participation. The government official in Gabagaba, Councillor - Joe Kila was an active participant in the mapping exercise on the 17th of

- 4 - November 2012. The session was attended by 20 participants, which included women leaders, elders, and youth. Risk Identification The session started with a general open discussion on risks and impacts due to climate change. The C-CAP team reviewed the causes of global warming and its effects on climate. Several examples from the United States were provided to help focus the discussion. After the general overview, the members of the community were asked to provide examples of risks and impacts that they have been experiencing which may also be attributable to global warming and its effects. The following list was provided during the brainstorming session: Global Warming Impacts Unpredictable weather – There are no longer two distinct seasons with drought and rain now coming at random periods. This is having a negative impact on traditional knowledge as the natural indicators like animal movements are no longer accurate. This is resulting in less communication and information sharing between generations. Wind patterns are changing and impacting fishing by driving stocks away. Precipitation Pattern Changes Increased incidence of flooding with poor drainage has resulted in sanitation problems from standing water. This is compounded with poor sewage management. Drought is affecting agriculture and drinking water supplies and heat waves are more frequent. Natural Disasters Corals are dying/ bleaching and fishers must go farther to get fish. Overfishing with small mesh nets is depleting fisheries. Coastal soil and beach loss from wave action and higher king tides compounded by mangrove deforestation is leaving little vegetation in the coastal zone to protect the community.

Image 1: Erosion of coastal lands risks destroying homes and livelihoods such as this pig pen on the right of the image. More images from Gabagaba can be found here http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632198145584/detail/

- 5 - Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping The community was then asked to identify their local infrastructure and its vulnerabilities to climate change impacts by dividing it into three categories Economic, Social and Coastal & Water infrastructure. In four groups, they then made hand drawn maps of the infrastructure they had identified as important to the community. See Annex 1 for the maps. Representatives of the community then accompanied the C-CAP team in geo-referencing and photographing the infrastructure and risks identified by the group in the brainstorming sessions. Located below is a screenshot of the simple Global Positioning System (GPS) data in the free Google Maps internet mapping application which can be consulted by following the link provided. Following the screenshot is the list of infrastructure as presented and analyzed by the community.

Image 2: Gabagaba Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: http://goo.gl/maps/ipvQa Economic Infrastructure Table 1: Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 House jetties are susceptible to storms, surge 1. Fishing boats – and waves Fish are an important source of food and income mooring/jetties  Boats are thrown against house posts in bad weather

2. Informal roadside  Rain, wind and heat limit the amount of time Income generation for mostly women stores/open market that people can be out selling small goods

Access to manufactured goods for those who cannot  Flooding to the point of stopping goods from 3. Trade stores afford the transport costs into the capital entering the village for 3-4 days at a time

4. Bus stop for people Major source of revenue for many in Gabagaba who  No shelter from flooding and storms. In very

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going mostly to Port commute ever day bad flooding the bridge is submerged and Moresby to work vehicles cannot make it to the village

Social Infrastructure Table 2: Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Churches (6) Community unification, moral guidance and stability  Coastal erosion, river flooding and storm damage

2. School – Gabagaba Lower cost education for children in Gabagaba for  Flooding from the river primary parents who cannot send them elsewhere  Overflowing sewage and risk of spreading disease

3. Clinic – Aid Post Health services for the population  Flooding from the river and high tide events  Low quality construction with risks of wind damage and salt spray corrosion

4. Women’s Fellowship Gathering for women’s meetings to organize events  Low quality construction with risks of storm Hall damage  Low lying flood area

5. Sports Field Good for organizing youth and teaching them about  Major flooding from the river especially during team building and sportsmanship high tide

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 3: Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Sirovai river A source of fresh water for washing and sometimes for  High rainfall increases flooding potential and drinking and cooking in times of drought erosion of banks

2. Rainwater tanks Personal tanks but can be shared in times of need  Longer droughts will leave them dry  Corrosion from sea spray

3. Hand pumps to Four in the community but they are not functioning  When working they can be contaminated boreholes properly with salt water intrusion / foul smell

4. Main water Was the main water source for the village. Supplied by  Corrosion and coastal erosion destroyed the distribution system a pump over 5 kilometers away before it was sabotaged piping system and the main tank and 10,000 liter tank

5. Jetty Used for boat commerce to and from Port Moresby. A  Coastal erosion has cut off the road making it potential emergency access route to the capital. inaccessible and the stone jetty is in disrepair

6. Cemetery Where the community buries their dead. There is no  Coastal and riverine erosion other location in Gabagaba  Sea level rise and extreme tidal events

7. Households High tide access is not good and getting worse  Flooding resulting in human waste flowing out of pit latrines

- 7 - Tubusereia Tubusereia is a large village with an estimated 4,000 inhabitants. Its proximity to Port Moresby at less than 50 kilometers, makes it an area where people working in the capital come to look for more affordable housing. The townspeople say the population pressure is very important with more and more people coming from the interior of the country. As economic conditions worsen, many landowners are forced to lease their land to others for rental income. The Councillor, Vagi Morea welcomed the C-CAP team and interested 32 people to participate in the risk mapping exercise. Risk Identification The group was asked to provide examples of risks associated with climate change after the C- CAP team provided some explanations regarding the effects of global warming. The following risks and impacts were shared by the members of the group: Global Warming Impacts Coastal erosion has washed many coconut trees into the ocean. Winds seem to be getting stronger with 1 house destroyed and 3 roofs blown off in recent storms. King tides have become more powerful and a number of houses were damaged by high waves. The tides are pushing more of the human waste and pollution thrown out of houses on posts, onto the land. Precipitation Pattern Changes Droughts are longer and rainwater catchment does not provide enough water to make it through the dry season. Many will drink contaminated water from the bottom of rain tanks and cases of typhoid and dehydration are becoming more common. Gardens are becoming harder to tend because of the lack of rain. Yields of bananas and yams are going down and one variety of yam called Toyota has completely disappeared. Coconut trees are getting sick and this is thought to be provoked by stress from the drought. Mango production has also decreased. During the rainy season flooding occurs more often and pit toilets will overflow into the village. Natural Disasters Fish sizes and quantity are decreasing and coral reefs are dying. This is compounded by dynamite fishing and overfishing. Approximately 20% of the households in Tubusereia depend on fishing to supplement their income and the number is fast declining due to the scarcity of fish. Deforestation in the hills and in the coastal zone is increasing and contributing to the force with which waves and winds hit the village. Poverty and overpopulation are compounding the problem as people do not have the financial resources to buy fuel and must get it from cutting trees and mangroves for ever increasing household size. Scarcity of land is also aggravating the scarcity of resources. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping After listing infrastructure in three different categories three groups drew the important infrastructure in the community on a map. The Water/Coastal infrastructure group added infrastructure they felt was necessary in the community. This is also valuable information in understanding the priorities placed by the members on what issues they feel need to be addressed. An additional step was added to the process and the community was asked to rank the top 5 priorities on each list. When consensus was not clear, they were asked to vote. The

- 8 - following tables will list the top five priority infrastructure according to their importance to the community group as a whole. There is a growing tension in the village between those who are from long established clans and families and newcomers who have moved to Tubusereia to be near their place of work or who have set up a trade shop or other business in the area. With the growing need for affordable housing in Port Moresby, this trend will most likely increase. Not all priority infrastructure was geo-referenced due to weather and distance. The priority infrastructure will be considered in a second more rigorous step aimed at identifying the infrastructure needs of the community.

Image 3: The Tubusereia Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: http://goo.gl/maps/JOPBJ Economic Infrastructure Table 4: Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Roads and feeder Transport to and from the main road and to Port  Erosion from heavy rain roads Moresby for employment and for manufactured goods  Flooding

The community, mostly women, rely on crops for  Flooding 2. Gardens additional income in the village. Women in

Agriculture, an organization,  Drought

Although declining in importance, with estimated 20% 3. Fishery of population fishing, fish are an important supplement  Coral reef decline/fishery decline to household incomes

Linked to roads, many are dependent on work in the 4. Bus service  Extreme weather events, flooding capital.

5. Markets A source of income for mostly women in the village  Extreme weather events, flooding

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Source of wood for construction and for yam and 6. Mangroves  Coastal erosion/king tides banana supports. Protection from coastal erosion

7. Jetties Mooring for boats  Storm surge, waves, wind

8. Trade stores and Source of goods from the capital and a source of income for those who lease their land/building to  Wind, heavy rains with extreme weather events shops (15) entrepreneurs

Social Infrastructure Table 5: Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Water tanks (7) and Drinking water especially during extended droughts  Drought, storm damage distribution system such as experienced in 2012

2. Aid post Source of health services and medication  Extreme weather events especially wind

3. Drainage system Reduces health risks such as waterborne diseases –  Flooding, extreme rainfall and compounded malaria and typhoid by deforestation

4. Schools – Lower and Education for children before seeking higher education  Winds that may blow the roofs off and upper primary in Port Moresby weather events that may damage the structures

5. Feeder roads Allow the population to reach the main road to get  Erosion from flooding and rain events public transport to major centers, particularly Port Moresby

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 6: Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Water Source of drinking water in times of drought  Salt intrusion and contamination with source/spring diseases

2. Mangroves – Protection from coastal erosion and habitat for fish and  Extreme weather events and over harvesting replanting needed other animals important for local food security

3. Habitations in With land becoming scarce these areas are very  Extreme weather provoking diseases coastal area important to especially those living over the water. transmitted through improper waste Human waste had become a serious issue in stilt homes management. who throw their waste directly into the sea.

- 10 - Pari Risk Identification Pari village is divided into two parts, each with its own Councillor. Councillors Willie Willie and Nou Mataio Nou-Taboro were not available for the first session but attended second and third sessions to discuss climate change risks and impacts in Pari. The population of Pari is approximately 2,000 and growing due to the influx of urban job seekers. With Pari’s location at 20 minutes by road from Port Moresby, the pressures from the capital are very acute. The community expressed a serious concern regarding expanding settlements which are putting pressure on the natural resources in the area namely deforestation for fuel wood and fishing for food. This pressure is only compounded by climate change impacts, further adding to the social tensions felt in the community. The sessions on December 10 and January 15, 2013 were attended by 22 community members with strong participation from the Pari Women’s Development Association. Following is a list of risks and impacts identified by members of the community. Global Warming Impacts King tides are provoking coastal erosion where walkways and homes are being destroyed Cyclones with strong winds have blown roofs off of homes Precipitation Pattern Changes Flooding events where water stands in the village. Deforestation aggravates the problem with water coming from denuded hills with more force. Droughts have reduced the gardening potential in the area Natural Disasters Loss of mangroves to protect against the tides. Coconut trees are dying from an illness and/or environmental causes. See image 5 below demonstrating the effects of accelerated coastal erosion.

Images 4 and 5: Accelerated coastal erosion is impacting livelihoods as shown in these images taken less than 6 weeks apart. A coconut tree and a substantial amount of soil have been washed away. More images from Pari can be found here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632566931113/detail/

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Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping The following section documents the participatory risk mapping session held in Pari with local women leaders, elders, and youth. The infrastructure mapping and prioritization followed the methodology described in the Tubusereia mapping exercise.

Image 6: Pari Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: http://goo.gl/maps/IEnsE

Economic Infrastructure Table 7: Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Fish market and  Ocean temperature rising and acidification Income and food source for community members fishing areas  Extreme weather events damaging market

Source of commodities otherwise hard to acquire due 2. Trade stores (10)  Susceptible to high winds and heavy rains to distance and cost of transport

Crops used to supplement the family diets where  Susceptible to flooding, salt water intrusion, 3. Food gardens foodstuffs from the capital are every expensive drought, and severe winds

Ten to twenty trips are made from Pari to the capital  There is no shelter for the moment and people 4. Bus stop every day and the members of the community rely on must deal with the weather while waiting for this transport to go to and from work. transport

Pari is close to the capital and dependent on good  Erosion, flooding and extreme weather will have 5. Road access transport links with the commercial center an impact on the road system

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Social Infrastructure Table 8: Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Churches (4) Gathering places for the community promoting  Subject to high winds and cyclone damage cohesion

2. Primary school Access to education for the community members who  Vulnerable to flooding and high winds want to prepare their children for higher education possibilities in the capital

3. Water Drinking water for times when the irregular provision  The source is exposed to contamination as it source/spring of city water is not available. is not capped  Deforestation risks affecting the volume of water available for the community.

4. Clinic Urgent health care for cases that require immediate  The Pari Health Clinic does not have the attention especially for small children susceptible to proper wind proofing installed on its roof and diarrheal diseases. waiting area. Vulnerable to high winds

5. Village court Provision of conflict resolution and basis legal services  No building for the court leaving the staff to in the community hold meetings outside. Hearings are postponed due to bad weather.

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 9: Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Water When the city water service is not functioning, the  Contamination from human and animal waste source/spring village spring serves as source of drinking water.  Potential drying from deforestation

2. Fishery 75% depend on fishing in one way or another  Overfishing from growing urban pressures  Damage from warming leading to bleaching

3. Coastline/Mangrove Habitat for food fish and crustaceans  Erosion and deforestation areas

4. Disposal area for Human and chemical waste having an effect on  Human waste further dispersed by coastal pollution/trash population especially children who bathe and play in flooding and storm surge coastal waters.

5. Coastal area Housing on stilts is especially vulnerable to coastal  Oil spills affecting fishing and potential erosion and damage. coastal health hazards

- 13 - Boera Risk Identification Councillor Mea Henao interested 15 members of Boera to participate in the risk mapping exercise on January 10, 2013. The group was comprised of elders, women leaders and youth representatives. Boera is a community with a population of approximately 1,500 inhabitants and is growing significantly due to its proximity to the Exxon/Mobil - Liquefied Natural Gas plant which employs 8,000 on site workers and another 4,000 service providers who commute to the site on a daily basis. Global Warming Impacts The community members estimate coastal degradation due to sea level rise as much as 4 meters (measured on the coastal slope) in last 15 years. This is being aggravated by mangroves being cut for firewood and construction, which in turn results in less fish due to habitat loss. Coral degradation is also being observed with an increase in coral bleaching and overharvesting of sea cucumbers, seaweed is disappearing in the coastal area due to pollution. Precipitation Pattern Changes Rain and storm events are more severe causing damage to homes especially to roofing material which is can be blown off with the strong winds. Drought and water management are serious issues including contamination from latrines to ground water sources. Droughts have negative impacts on gardens, reducing production and exacerbating land ownership issues. Flooding provokes waterborne diseases such as malaria and diarrheal illnesses. Natural Disasters Boera has been subjected to tsunami warnings that caused the population to panic and move to higher ground. This brings into question potential damage to the LNG facility during an earthquake, tsunami or storm event. The community is concerned regarding potential leaks from the production facility.

Image 7: This image of Boera Health Clinic demonstrates a number of climate change vulnerabilities including coastal erosion removing protective vegetation and the proximity of the health clinic to the shore line and related risks to storm surge, cyclones and sea level rise in the long term. More images from Boera can be found here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/c-cap/sets/72157632607012173/detail/

- 14 - Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping The following section documents the participatory risk mapping sessions held in Boera with local women leaders, elders, and youth representatives. The infrastructure mapping and prioritization followed the methodology described in the Tubusereia mapping exercise.

Image 8: Boera Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: http://goo.gl/maps/nBLQk Economic Infrastructure Table 10: Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

A large number of households depend on fishing for  Coral reefs are being impacted by increasing 1. Fishery their livelihoods. Fish are an income source for many temperatures

Although decreasing in importance, vegetables and  Severe droughts and flooding are reducing crop 2. Gardens root crops are still important as food and income success where some are no longer planting sources in Boera

An income earning activity for those of lower socio- 3. Informal markets  Severe weather is affecting open market sales. economic levels

Important for those who cannot afford to go to the  Severe winds, and cyclones can damage the 4. Trade shops capital to purchase manufactured goods stores.

Proximity to Port Moresby makes Boera an important  Weather events such as high winds and 5. Animal raising/breeding source of especially pigs for urban consumers extended drought negatively impact the animals.

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Social Infrastructure Table 11: Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Borehole water Water distribution is not assured full time in Boera and  Saltwater intrusion and contamination by supply the community is reliant on boreholes for drinking pathogens is a serious issue during droughts water and water shortages

2. Feeder roads Homes with agricultural products need roads to  Heavy rains and flooding make certain evacuate their goods. Manufactured goods are roads impassable by vehicle distributed via these roads

3. Sea wall Protects the village infrastructure from coastal erosion  Storm surge and wave action during severe storms are damaging

4. School Education for children preparing for higher studies  Strong winds can damage roofs

5. Clinic Important health services  The clinic is very close to the water line and susceptible to winds, flooding and coastal erosion (See Image 7)

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 12: Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Significance to Community Vulnerability Point

1. Bore hole/ water Boreholes are important source of drinking water  Contamination by pathogens and salt distribution intrusion system

2. Coastal Source of fuelwood (mangroves), oil, food and  Coastal erosion, storm surge and sea level vegetation – revenue (coconuts) and trees for soil rise in the long term Mangroves & stabilization/protection (See Image 7 above) coconut groves

3. Sea walls Protection of important infrastructure  Erosion, wave action and storm surge

4. Coral reefs Source of food from fish and crustaceans, protection  Temperature increases provoking bleaching from wave action

5. Coastal area Coastal areas are important living areas especially for  Human waste provoking contamination with polluted by communities living in stilt houses pathogens, pollution is damaging near shore trash/waste resources like clams and animals dependent on seaweed that is killed by the pollution.

Lealea Risk Identification Concilor Konio Morea convened a group of 15 community leaders including women’s association and youth representatives on 8 December 2013. Lealea has a population of around

- 16 - 2,000 and that relies greatly on agriculture production for revenue. The main population of Lealea is separated from the mainland by a river and can only be accessed via a wooden footbridge built with assistance from the LNG plant just East of Lealea. The new bridge was built after a storm damaged the old bridge constructed by the community using local materials.

Image 9: A home in Lealea which suffered cyclone damage. It is located not far from the Lealea Health Clinic and middle school buildings. More images from Lealea can be found here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/c-cap/sets/72157632193957581/detail/

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping The following section documents the participatory risk mapping sessions held in Lealea with local women leaders, elders, and youth representatives. The infrastructure mapping and prioritization followed the methodology described in the Tubusereia mapping exercise.

Image 10: Lealea Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: http://goo.gl/maps/RwtGS

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Global Warming Impacts Community members expressed concern with a visible rise in sea level as evidenced by higher and higher high tide events. Storms are reported as being more and more severe with around 6 homes losing their roofs in recent storms. (See Image 9 above) Precipitation Pattern Changes Flooding of garden areas and the village is becoming more and more of a problem. With agriculture so important for livelihoods, this is a growing concern. On the opposite end of the spectrum, droughts are an increasing problem with dry seasons becoming longer and provoking the failure of crops. Natural Disasters A tidal event destroyed the main footbridge over the river. It was rebuilt by the LNG plant. The footbridge is the only evacuation route for Lealea. With the footbridge as the only way for the community to access higher ground in the event of a tsunami warning, it is important infrastructure to protect in terms of disaster preparedness planning for Lealea. Coastal soil erosion is also of concern especially for those who have homes in the coastal zone. Economic Infrastructure Table 13: Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Gardens Especially important for this community for revenue  Flooding and droughts are more severe

2. Roads Evacuation of crops for sale in markets  Storms can make transport difficult

Main transportation corridor for Lealea especially for 3. Footbridge  Tidal action and storm surge school kids

 Coastal erosion human pressure from over 4. Mangroves Construction, fuel wood, fish, crabs harvesting

 Exposed to the weather as there is no shelter for 5. Bus stop Transport to the LNG plant and to Port Moresby the passengers.

Social Infrastructure Table 14: Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Aid post Health services in emergencies given distance to Port  Strong wind and cyclone damage (See image Moresby 9 taken next to the Aid Post)

2. School Education for children to prepare them for higher  Cyclone and storm damage, flooding education

3. Sports field Entertainment and teaching teamwork for youth  Flooding damage development

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4. Church Gathering place for community cohesion  Storms and wind damage

5. Roads and bridges Important for evacuating agricultural production  Storm surge and tidal action. Sea level rise

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 15: Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Water wells An important source of drinking water  Seawater and pathogen contamination

2. Coastal area Living area for community especially the youth  Storm surge, sea level rise, exacerbating pollution and human pathogen transmission

3. Sea wall Protects homes from tidal action and increasing high  Coastal erosion, tides, sea level rise tide events

4. Irrigation/drainage Water management for crops to control water  Flooding and drought

5. Mangroves Fish and crustacean habitat, firewood, construction  Coastal erosion, deforestation materials

- 19 - The Kingdom of Tonga In collaboration with the University of the South Pacific Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (USP PACE-SD), DAI facilitated C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise in five Tongatapu Island Group villages—Ahau, Nukuleka, Popua, Sopu and Tatakamotonga— through one-day sessions held between Thursday, January 10th and Friday, January 18th. Through one day sessions in each community, DAI led an introduction to C-CAP, and each village’s C-CAP Community Committee (CCC) participated in climate change risk identification and infrastructure mapping exercises. Following the workshop, communities’ Town Officers and interested CCC members led the C-CAP team on a tour of the village’s social, economic, coastal and water infrastructure. C-CAP geo-referenced and photographed these community assets and uploaded data points mapping software. Each CCC was initiated by the community’s Town Officer (Mayor), with guidance from the USP PACE-SD In-Country Coordinator Lopeti Faka’osi and Co-Chair of their National Project Advisory Committee Simi Silapelu. All CCCs are comprised of 15 village, youth, and women leaders. Background Tongatapu Island is home to 75-percent of the Kingdom of Tonga’s population of 103,036. Between 2006 and 2011, the number of Tongatapu households grew 3.4-percent, while all other Tonga island groups experienced a declining number of households during the same period1. This population trend is expected to increase as residents flock from the outer islands to reside close to Nuku’alofa, the capital city and economic hub of the Kingdom. The population influx is merging with the changing climate to compound stress on the island’s natural resource base. Each of C-CAP’s five communities—situated at various ends of the northern coast of Tongatapu—is increasingly at risk, as outlined in the sections below. Across the communities, CCCs all reported that sea level rise and resulting coastal inundation and erosion is impacting their communities. This is consistent with analysis conducted by the Pacific Climate Change Science Program which reports a 6 mm rise of sea level near Tonga each year since 19932. This exceeds the global average of 2.8 to 3.6 mm per year. Each village also extolled the virtues of sea walls for protecting their coastal zone despite acknowledging the maladaptive nature of this intervention; each CCC was aware that sea walls are expensive, require frequent repair, and redirect and intensify ocean currents towards neighboring villages without sea walls—causing extreme erosion and inundation.

Among other climate change risks and impacts experienced in Tongatapu, each CCC cited more intense rains as the cause of village flooding, erosion and sedimentation of near shore marine environments. While freshwater needs varied across the C-CAP communities, each CCC believes that drought is more frequent in Tongatapu and rain falls less often, but in more intense showers. This is corroborated by the Pacific Climate Change Science Program, that reports a trend of decreasing rainfall in Nuku’alofa since 1950.

1 http://www.spc.int/prism/tonga/index.php/tonga-documents/doc_download/94-preliminary-count-2011 2 http://www.cawcr.gov.au/projects/PCCSP/Nov/Vol2_Ch14_Tonga.pdf

- 20 - While there was no clear consensus among the communities on whether there has been a significant change in the frequency and intensity of cyclones and other climate-related natural disasters, each year high wind events do impact livelihoods through damage to food-bearing trees that each village depends on as a food and income source. Breadfruit, mango, coconut and banana trees are particularly vulnerable to high wind events. Coconut tree damage can have far ranging impacts. Coconut cream is used in most Tongan dishes. Coconuts are also used as pig feed. This is important, as most families own and care for pigs to be used primarily for celebrations and family and cultural obligations. Livelihoods are also impacted by an increase in illness and infection following floods and cyclones, both of which can cause freshwater tank contamination. Villages also cited sea spray from cyclones and high-wind events increase corrosion of household and community center roofs, which then contaminates the village’s freshwater supply that is collected from gutter systems and rainwater tanks.

Tatakamotonga Tatakamotonga, a community that sits on the coast of the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon in east Tongatapu, has a population of 1,761. Beyond its historic significance as the landing site / docking point of the first missionaries to arrive to Tonga—in 1799—Tatakamotonga is the social and economic hub of the eastern end of Tongatapu Island. Tatakamotonga’s local police outpost and health clinic provide social services to eastern villages, while a local bank branch, cash transfer outpost, convenience stores and informal roadside markets provide an economic and financial foundation for the area. Tatakamotonga Town Officer Hone Felemi and the Tatakamotonga CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Thursday, January 10, 2013 in the Tatakamotonga Town Hall. Risk Identification Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps, the Tatakamotonga CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Tatakamotonga.

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Image 18: A member of the Tatakamotonga CCC leads a presentation on climate change impacts and risks in Tatakamotonga. Additional Tatakamotonga photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632510501404/

Global Warming Impacts The CCC reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level and increases in average ocean temperature. While average sea level rise encroaches on arable land—Town Officer Felemi and Youth Group President Sifa Latunipulu note that this is compounded by sea swells and king tide events that contribute to erosion, causing more accelerated land loss. A local home that stands meters from the coastline and the Mu’a Government Primary School are the closest village infrastructure to the coastline. Global warming is also causing impacts on local livelihoods. The CCC advised that they are experiencing decreases in near shore fisheries and marine animal products, such as shellfish, which they attribute to rising average ocean temperature; the CCC also notes that overharvesting of coastal mangroves impacts near-shore fisheries. While not suggested by the CCC, it is also likely that overfishing has contributed to losses. Outside of the coastal zone, community plantation sites have also experienced losses which may be attributed to rising air temperatures, as well as increases in intensity/frequency of natural disasters, and drought. In this agrarian society, any decrease in root crops, tuber and vegetable production has far-ranging implications on household subsistence and income-generation capability. Precipitation Pattern Changes The CCC ascribes variations in seasonality and increasing numbers of drought and heavy rain events to climate change-induced precipitation pattern changes. They report an increase in soil erosion and coastal pollution related to flooding that typically occurs after periods of heavy rain. Tatakamotonga is divided into halves by Taufa’ahau Road—the main road on Tongatapu; the north side of the village beyond the road slopes to the lagoon at the southern end of the village. Lacking a proper drainage system, rainwater runoff and floodwaters carry pollution and sediment to the coastline. Points without mangrove forest cover are experiencing erosion. The village

- 22 - reports that runoff of sediment, pollution and chemicals used in agriculture contributes to the death of mangrove forests and fisheries. While precipitation intensity is projected to increase in the Pacific Islands region, the number of rainy days per year is expected to decrease. Resulting periods of drought are also a major concern of the Tatakamotonga CCC. The CCC notes that recent droughts have resulted in lost production and stunted growth of villagers’ vegetable and root crops and tubers. In addition to the impact on agriculture, the village reports that incidence of typhoid increases during periods of drought. Natural Disasters The village did not note a discernible difference over the past decade in the number / frequency of cyclones and other natural disasters but did describe serious impacts on village infrastructure, livelihoods and environment that are caused by extreme weather events. Infrastructure damage stems primarily from high wind events and cyclones, and related flooding. Destroyed roofs were the most common impact according to the CCCs. The CCC also explained that coastal erosion is exacerbated by storm surges and cyclone-related flooding.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).

Image 19: Tatakamotonga Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d2d3fd958bb2d093f&msa=0&ll=-21.18013,- 175.117908&spn=0.027411,0.052314&iwloc=0004d3260c5ea6433f6de.

- 23 - Economic Infrastructure Table 31: Tatakamotonga Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The Community Hall building rents space to a branch  Flooding (located on northern slope of the 1. Tatakamotonga of the Tonga Development Bank, a privately-owned village) Community Hall convenience store, and two money transfer centers at  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage which villagers collect remittances.

Coconut oil is manufactured by youth and sold to  Flooding (located on northern slope of the 2. Tatakamotonga restaurants located in Nuku’alofa. This is an important village) Youth-Run Coconut source of income and business education for  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof Oil Manufacturing Tatakamotonga youth. damage

Though privately owned, this business supplies  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 3. Private-Owned villagers with essential inputs for vegetables, cash damage Seedling Nursery crops and traditional plants/flowers.  Drought

 Drought Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the  Flooding 4. Village Plantations primary livelihood source for Tatakamotonga.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, tree crops (root crops and tubers often survive)

Semi-subsistence farmers sell crops to residents of the Hahake District at this roadside market. This is an  The informal market is housed in a local gas 5. Roadside Informal important source of income for families in the station. The primary vulnerability is to damage Market community and a food source for residents of the incurred to crops prior to harvest. Hahake District.

Mature Mangroves  Pollution Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Deforestation and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life. 6. Mangrove Forests Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near- Young Mangroves shore fisheries.  Storm Surge  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

Social Infrastructure Table 32: Tatakamotonga Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Mu’a Government  Sea Level Rise School for village youth in grades 1-6. Primary School  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The Community Hall is the center for regularly held  Flooding (located on northern slope of the 2. Tatakamotonga village meetings, development program meetings and village) Town Hall all discussion of village policy. It is also used for community events and informal social gatherings.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The Hahake District Health Clinic was recently 3. Hahake District constructed with funding from China Aid. It serves the  Flooding Health Clinic health needs of residents of the Hahake District.

 Flooding 4. Hahake District The Hahake District Police Outpost provides security  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof Police Outpost and police services to residents of the Hahake District. damage

 Flooding Men’s halls are centers for nightly gatherings and kava 5. Men’s Hall drinking-fundraisers for community social issues.  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof damage

The Women’s hall is a center for regular gatherings  Flooding 6. Women’s Hall and community events.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

- 24 - Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 33: Tatakamotonga Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

Sea Wall 1 was constructed in front of a memorial to  Erosion 1. Sea Wall 1 / the landing site of the first missionary to arrive in  Flooding Missionary Landing Tonga (1799), and was designed to stem erosion and to  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge Site provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and average sea level rise.  Sea Level Rise

Sea Wall 2 was designed to stem erosion and to  Erosion 2. Sea Wall 2 / Nahafu provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm  Flooding Point surges and average sea level rise; it was built to stem  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge coastal flooding of Nahafu Point.  Sea Level Rise

The reservoir / water pump—run by the 3. Tatakamotonga Tatakamotonga Water Committee—provides piped  Drought Reservoir / Water water, used for cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage Pumps 1, 2 homes.

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can Freshwater reserve tanks were formerly used by be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 4. Tatakamotonga community members without a household rainwater to collect all available water during intense rain. Rainwater Tanks 1, 2, catchment tank. All have fallen into disuse and need to  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; 3 (Concrete) be rehabilitated. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

Nukuleka Nukuleka, a small village with a population of 265 individuals in the Lapaha District, is situated along the mouth of the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon in northeast Tongatapu. It is significant as the site of “the cradle of Polynesia,” where 2,900 year-old pieces of “Lapita” pottery were discovered by Canadian archaeologist Professor David V. Burley in 2007. Lapita pottery is the primary source of the archaeological-defined path and timeline of the peopling of the Pacific Islands from coastal Melanesia, Micronesia, and northeast through Polynesia to Samoa. Professor Burley’s findings indicate that Nukuleka was the launching point of the inhabitation and culture of Polynesia, extending from New Zealand in the south to Hawaii in the north and finally to Easter Island in the east3. This site of historical significance is also one of six eastern Tongatapu villages being targeted by the Ministry of Land, Environment, Climate Change and Natural Resources (MoLECN) — through approximately $576,000 in funding by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community—for coastal zone management support. MoLECN has expressed interest in leveraging these resources with support from C-CAP for a coastal infrastructure rehabilitation / development. Currents moving water from the open ocean into the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon around the peninsular Nukuleka, has formed an inlet of brackish water that is cutting inland behind the village. Vulnerable to sea level rise, flooding/inundation and accelerated coastal erosion, these climate change impacts are combining to consume greater amounts of Nukuleka’s arable land each year. Town Officer Sitiveni Fe’au and the Nukuleka CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Monday, January 14, 2013 in the Nukuleka Catholic Church Hall.

3 "Canadian rewrites Oceania history", Randy Boswell, Calgary Herald, 21 January 2008

- 25 - Risk Identification Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps, the Nukuleka CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Nukuleka. Global Warming Impacts Rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and sea surges are the most significant risk to Nukuleka from the impact of global warming, according to the Nukuleka CCC. Sea level rise has accelerated coastal erosion in Nukuleka, damaging the village sea wall, and inundating unprotected land on the western end of the village. The Nukuleka CCC postulates that the Nuku’alofa (capital city) sea wall has altered the effects of ocean waves and currents, causing down coast erosion problems in their community. The village representatives expressed concern over the coastal road which serves as the only entry and exit point to the village. The CCC’s initial preferences are to protect the coast—and road—from sea level rise and to develop an alternative entry/exit road from the community that would connect to Tongatapu’s main Taufa’ahau Road.

Image 20: Erosion plagues Nukuleka, a peninsula in northeast Tongatapu Island. Additional Tatakamotonga photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632520198858/ Precipitation Pattern Changes Precipitation patterns no longer follow the typical Tongan wet and dry season, according to the village. The village notes a decrease in frequency, yet increase in intensity, of rainy days— which impacts livelihoods in terms of food and water security. Resulting periods of drought have impacted subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in the community—reducing harvests of root crops and tubers. The village also depends upon regular rainfall to replenish their freshwater supply which is collected in rainwater catchment tanks.

- 26 - Like the other C-CAP priority communities in Tonga, Nukuleka’s roads lack proper drainage; the CCC notes that roads, which are elevated, can cause flooding in the land they dissect during periods of heavy rain. The CCC report an increase in soil erosion related to flooding that typically occurs after periods of heavy rain. Lacking a proper drainage system, rainwater runoff and floodwaters carry sediment to the coastline, causing erosion of roads, land, and the village sea wall while also harming the offshore reef and near shore marine life.

Natural Disasters Like its peer CCCs in other Tongatapu villages, the Nukuleka CCC shared the impacts of cyclones and gale-force wind events on food-bearing trees and roofs, and noted that storm surges inundate coastal infrastructure, increase erosion, and damage near-shore fisheries. The CCC’s main concern, however, was that the village lacks a proper disaster warning system. While disaster risk management plans have been drafted for the village, Nukuleka only has one exit road out of their village. This road, as previously noted, runs along the coast and can be flooded by sea surges. While the CCC’s preference is to construct an alternative exit road that cuts through inland mangrove swamp behind the village to Taufa’ahau Road, a warning system that provides ample evacuation notice can also help villages to escape disaster.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).

Image 21: Nukuleka Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d33be568fba98a5f2&msa=0

- 27 - Economic Infrastructure Table 34: Nukuleka Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

In 2007, the oldest pieces of Lapita Pottery found to 1. Lapita Pottery date in Polynesia were excavated from a site in  Flooding Excavation Site Nukuleka. The village views this as a potential tourism site.

This road is the only entry and exit point to the 2. Nukuleka Village community and thus is an important transportation  Flooding Road route for villagers traveling to Nuku’alofa for work and  Erosion for those who sell crops and fish to market.  Storm Surge

This road leads to most villagers’ plantation plots, and 3. Nukuleka Plantation is thus essential for food security and the village  Flooding Road economy. Heavy rains make this unpaved road  Erosion impassable.

Mature Mangroves  Pollution Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Deforestation and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life. 4. Mangroves Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near- Young Mangroves shore fisheries.  Storm Surge  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety  Sedimentation of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.  Overfishing 5. Coral Reef Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to  Rising Sea Temperature maintain catch levels.  Storm Surge

Social Infrastructure Table 35: Nukuleka Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Government Primary School for village youth in grades 1-6.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage School

The Community Hall is the center for regularly held village meetings, development program meetings and  Flooding 2. Town Hall all discussion of village policy. It is also used for  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage community events and informal social gatherings.

3. Sports Field Center for village play and sporting events.  Flooding

 Flooding Both village cemeteries are situated on the coastline.  Storm Surge 4. Cemetery 1, 2 While one is protected by a sea wall, the coastline is rapidly eroding towards the second cemetery grounds.  Erosion  Sea Level Rise

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 36: Nukuleka Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can Water supply for community events and gatherings. be damaged from excessive heat/sun; 1. Town Hall Rainwater Supply for community members without personal  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Tanks (2) (Concrete) rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

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2. Catholic Church Hall Water supply for church services, employees and Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  (see above) (Concrete) personal rainwater tank.

3. GPS Rainwater Tank Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for  (see above) (Concrete) community members without personal rainwater tank.

 Drought—reservoir dries; too small to collect all 4. LDS Church Water supply for church services, employees and available water during intense rain. Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Fiberglass) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

The reservoir / water pump—run by the Nukuleka Water Committee—provides piped water, used for 5. Nukuleka Reservoir / cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Nukuleka  Drought Water Pumps 1, 2 has two 5,000 liter fiberglass reservoir tanks and two  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage water pumps; however, one reservoir tank is cracked, and one machine is no longer working.

Drainage channel accommodates sea water flow during 6. Drainage tidal changes, and serves as a channel for rainwater  Erosion runoff.

Sea Wall was designed to stem erosion and to provide  Erosion a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and  Flooding 7. Sea Wall average sea level rise; it was built to protect the road  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge and to stop coastal erosion.  Sea Level Rise

Sopu (Kolomotu’a) Sopu (Kolomotu’a) is Tonga’s second largest village, with a population of 7,870. It is located to the west of capital city Nuku’alofa, serving as a ‘suburb’ for workers. The Nuku’alofa sea wall ends at the far western edge of Sopu, where ocean currents continue to erode the coastline, creating a channel into a swamp that extends into the center of the village. During the rainy season (November – April) and extreme rainy periods during the dry season, homes and other community infrastructure experience near constant flooding. Town Officer (Mayor) Sio Tu’iano, Town Committee Chairperson Drew Havea and the Sopu CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Tuesday, January 15, 2013 in the Kolomotu’a Town Hall. Risk Identification Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps, the Sopu CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Sopu. Global Warming Impacts Similarly to Nukuleka, rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and storm surges are the most significant risk to Sopu from the impact of global warming, according to the Sopu CCC. These issues have increased erosion and flooding in the village center, rather than along the coast, however; impacts are primarily felt on the outskirts of the inland mangrove swamps that extend from the end of the Nuku’alofa / Sopu sea wall through to the center of Sopu.

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Image 22: Inland flooding impacts households / infrastructure on the outskirts of the inland mangrove swamps.

Inland flooding is most severe during the rainy season from November through April, but also occurs throughout the year during periods of heavy rain. Also like Nukuleka and Ahau CCCs, the Sopu CCC attributes much of the accelerated coastal erosion and flooding to impacts of the Nuku’alofa sea wall. Rising sea temperatures and sedimentation caused by increased erosion also have impacts on near shore fisheries that are a staple of Sopu community livelihoods. Shellfish gathering is an important semi-subsistence activity for many households in this coastal village. Each day at low tide, Sopu villagers can be seen from the coastal road gathering shellfish, and collecting their catch from fish traps. The CCC expressed concern that rising ocean temperature can impact coral reef health and the health of coral reef fish, shellfish and other near shore marine animals. The CCC also cited the increased risks of vector-borne diseases—such as malaria and dengue fever—carried by mosquitoes which breed in the stagnant flood and swamp waters that envelop Sopu during the rainy/hot season. While malaria is not endemic to Tonga, stagnant water pools increase risks of dengue fever outbreaks. The CCC expressed concern, however, that rising air temperatures could eventually draw Tonga into the malaria zone. Precipitation Pattern Changes The Sopu CCC notes a decrease in frequency, yet increase in intensity, of rainy days—which combines with the impacts of sea level rise to intensify flooding in the village. Flood waters that drain into the Pacific Ocean and the inland mangrove swamps also exacerbate erosion from tidal flows and sea surges.

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Image 23: Homes and infrastructure throughout Sopu experience frequent flooding. Additional Sopu photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632524253609/ Land use plans and building codes that were referred to during road and home construction are outdated, according to the CCC. Road, homes, and other community infrastructure—particularly those in the center of the village close to the inland mangrove swamp—are left vulnerable to flooding throughout the year. It is worth noting that the number of Kolomotu’a households has increased 11-percent between 2006 and 2011. If urbanization rates continue to rise, poorly planned roads and buildings that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change can be expected to have an even greater impact on the community. Natural Disasters The CCC explained that while “cyclone season” in Tonga runs from November to April, in the past cyclones fell primarily in February and March. In the past decade, however, the CCC advised that cyclones have been more frequent and no longer predictably occur only in February and March. Like the CCC’s analysis of risks stemming from global warming and precipitation pattern changes, they also linked the primary impacts of natural disasters to flooding and inundation. The intensity of storm surges during cyclones and gale force wind events also increase erosion in coastal areas and the inland mangrove swamps. Natural disasters also levy significant impacts on semi-subsistence shellfish gathering and coral reef fishing in coastal Sopu. Storm surges and waves often damage reefs and the areas inside the coral reefs inhabited by shellfish. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).

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Image 24: Sopu Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d3502669190cd0353&msa=0 Economic Infrastructure Table 37: Sopu Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Flooding Planned recreation area for future local tourism  Erosion 5. Village Park development.  Storm Surge  Sea Level Rise—inundation

Village roads are essential for villagers traveling to 6. Village Roads Nuku’alofa for work and for those who sell crops and  Flooding fish to market.  Erosion

Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem Mature Mangroves services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as  Pollution nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for  Deforestation 7. Mangroves fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves Young Mangroves also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety  Sedimentation of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.  Overfishing 8. Coral Reef Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to  Rising Sea Temperature maintain catch levels.  Storm Surge

This cooperative is mainly staffed by village youth, and led by an official from the Tonga Fisheries Department. The group mainly collects shell fish from  Flooding—sedimentation near-shore fisheries. They also use fish nets and 9. Sopu Fishing  Overfishing traditional fish traps. The Association also owns Association multiple boats, but has not acquired a working motor.  Rising Sea Temperature The Association enters the coastal area, and transports  Extreme Weather—storm surge boats over a ‘boat slick’ that connects the coast to a coastal road.

 Erosion 10. Boat Ramp Ramp for transporting boats to the coast.  Sea Level Rise  Extreme Weather—storm surge

- 32 - Social Infrastructure Table 38: Sopu Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

6. Hala o Vave Government Primary School for village youth in grades 1-6.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage School (GPS)

 Extreme Weather Event—roof damage School for village youth in grades 1-6 is located on the 7. Kolomotu’a GPS  Flooding coast, but is protected by the Nuku’alofa Sea Wall.  Sea Level Rise

The Community Hall is the center for regularly held village meetings, development program meetings and  Flooding 8. Town Hall all discussion of village policy. It is also used for  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage community events and informal social gatherings.

9. Sports Field Center for village play and sporting events.  Flooding (semi-permanent)

 Flooding  Storm Surge 10. Cemetery 1 Village cemetery is adjacent to inland swamp.  Erosion  Sea Level Rise

11. Wesleyan Church  Flooding. Kindergarten program. Kindergarten  Extreme weather event—roof damage

12. Salvation Army Kindergarten grounds flood during normal rainy  Flooding. Kindergarten periods.  Extreme weather event—roof damage

Situated on the coast, but protected by the Nuku’alofa  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Sea Wall, village health clinic, staffed by a nurse, 13. Health Clinic  Flooding provides health and outreach services to GPS students and the community.  Sea Level Rise

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 39: Sopu Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small Water supply for community events and gatherings. 8. Town Hall Rainwater to collect all available water during intense rain. Supply for community members without personal Tanks (Concrete) rainwater tank.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 9. Catholic Church Hall Water supply for church services, employees and to collect all available water during intense rain. Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can 10. Hala o Vave GPS be damaged from excessive heat/sun; Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for Rainwater Tank (2) community members without personal rainwater tank.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 11. The Lord’s Church of Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for to collect all available water during intense rain. Tonga Rainwater community members without personal rainwater tank.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Tank (Concrete) damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

- 33 -

 Drought—reservoir dries; too small to collect all 12. Free Church of available water during intense rain. Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for Tonga Rainwater community members without personal rainwater tank.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Tank (Concrete) damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 13. Salvation Army Water supply for church services, employees and to collect all available water during intense rain. Church 1 Rainwater volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Tank (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 14. Wesleyan Church 1, Water supply for church services, employees and to collect all available water during intense rain. 2, 3 Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can 15. Wesleyan Church Water supply for students, employees and volunteers. be damaged from excessive heat/sun Kindergarten Supply for church members without personal rainwater  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Rainwater Tank (2) tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination (Concrete) from rusty roof (sea spray)

16. LDS Church Water supply for church services, employees and  Drought Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Fiberglass) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system

Drainage channel accommodates sea water flow during 17. Drainage tidal changes, and serves as a channel for rainwater  Erosion runoff.

Sea Wall was designed to stem erosion and to provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and average sea level rise; it was built to protect the road  Erosion 18. Sea Wall and to stop coastal erosion. Sea Wall has redirected  Flooding wave energy/tidal flows to the western end of the  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge village that is not protected by sea wall; this has caused extreme erosion.

Popua According to Town Officer (Mayor) Sione Uta, 90-percent of Popua’s 1,894 residents have relocated there from outer islands and villages to be closer to Nuku’alofa, Tonga’s capital city and economic center. While there is no data to substantiate this, evidence of the community’s unplanned housing and road construction on reclaimed land in the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon abound.

- 34 -

Image 25: Unplanned Roads trap seawater, creating permanent Image 26: Housing developments on reclaimed land extend into the brackish pools. Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon. Additional Popua photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632540496576/ Popua is located to the east of Nuku’alofa, and is surrounded by water on three sides: the Pacific Ocean to the north and the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon to the east and south. Areas that extend more than one community block to the east, west and south of Popua’s main road are consistently flooded throughout the year. While not approved by the Tonga Ministry of Infrastructure, the community continues road and housing construction further into swampy coastal areas along the west and south coast of the Lagoon. The CCC noted that their greatest concern regarding flooding and inundation was the impact on household septic systems. They note that septic tanks overflow during flooding events, creating extreme health concerns for the community. Adding to the community’s vulnerability, a high percentage of households do not have plantation plots; moreover, remaining land within Popua is not sufficient for farming. In addition to flooding, the land to the north of the village, a mangrove swamp, was the site of the former Tongatapu Island dump. Until the 2007 opening of the Tapuhia Landfill, this section of Popua served as a poorly-tended dumping ground for Tongatapu’s expanding population. While the area has been cleaned, remnants of the dump remain clearly visible on the main road into Popua. Town Committee Chairperson Sione Uta and the Popua CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Wednesday, January 15, 2013 in the Popua Free Church of Tonga Hall. Risk Identification Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps, the Popua CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Popua. Global Warming Impacts According to the Popua CCC, the greatest impacts from increasing air and sea temperature are rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and storm surges. In addition to the impacts of flooded homes and infrastructure, inundation and flooding also cause household septic systems to overflow, raising health concerns in the village. Many homes on the coast

- 35 - experience flooding and inundation monthly during high tides, making septic system overflows a regular community concern. Precipitation Pattern Changes The CCC explains that precipitation falls less frequently, more intensely, and occurs less predictably during periods of the year. The participants again cited flooding and resulting coastal erosion as the most serious risk facing the community. While septic tank flooding is contained in coastal areas during high tides, heavy rain often causes septic tank overflows throughout the village. The primary risks of drought on this community is on their drinking water supply, as many homes do not own a rainwater tank, and must rely on rainwater collected in church rainwater tanks. Natural Disasters The CCC again noted that flooding, coastal inundation and erosion were the primary risks associated with natural disasters such as cyclones and gale force wind events, adding that impacts are exacerbated by a lack of road drainage in the community. The community notes that a 1985 cyclone caused severe erosion, permanently inundating coastal Popua with sea water. Inundation has been exacerbated, according to the CCC, by mangrove deforestation carried out by community members. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).

Image 27: Popua Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d3652d91c1d0640ca&msa=0

- 36 - Economic Infrastructure Table 40: Popua Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

Village roads are essential for villagers traveling to Nuku’alofa for work and for those who sell fish to market. Village expansion and privately-funded road  Flooding construction has not adhered to engineering principals, 1. Village Roads  Erosion however. Roads also lack adjacent drainage systems.  Sea Level Rise This has led to frequent flooding of land adjacent to  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge roads, and in some cases, has caused permanent inundation.

Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem Mature Mangroves services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as  Pollution nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for  Deforestation 2. Mangroves fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves Young Mangroves also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety  Sedimentation of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.  Overfishing 3. Coral Reef Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to  Rising Sea Temperature maintain catch levels.  Storm Surge

Social Infrastructure Table 41: Popua Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Popua Government  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Primary School School for village youth in grades 1-6.  Flooding (GPS)

 Flooding 2. Sports Field Center for village play and sporting events.  Sea Level Rise  Storm Surge

 Flooding Village cemetery sits to the south of a semi-  Storm Surge 3. Cemetery 1 permanently flooded area. Village has deposited topsoil to raise the cemetery elevation.  Erosion  Sea Level Rise

 Flooding 4. Cemetery 2 Village cemetery.  Erosion

 Flooding  Sea Level Rise Men’s halls are centers for nightly gatherings and kava 5. Men’s Hall drinking-fundraisers for community social issues.  Storm Surge  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof damage

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 42: Popua Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Popua GPS  Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for Rainwater Tank (2) be damaged from excessive heat/sun; community members without personal rainwater tank. (Concrete)  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; damage to piping, gutter system; contamination

- 37 -

from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small 2. Catholic Church Hall Water supply for church services, employees and to collect all available water during intense rain. Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can 3. Wesleyan Church Water supply for church services, employees and be damaged from excessive heat/sun. Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for community members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

4. LDS Church Water supply for church services, employees and  Drought Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for church members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Fiberglass) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system

Drainage channel installed after road construction  Erosion caused flooding; insufficient to accommodate sea water 5. Drainage  Flooding flow during tidal changes, serve as a channel for rainwater runoff.  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge

Ahau Ahau is a coastal community with a population of 395 in the Kolovai District. Ahau is precariously placed in a coastal zone that sits between sea walls and dense coastal mangrove forest from Nuku’alofa / Sopu extending to Kolovai in the southeast and the Kanokupolu sea wall to the north. The impact of these sea walls on ocean currents in Ahau, according to the Ahau CCC, has intensified erosion in its coastal zone. In 2005, the Ahau Village Committee built a sea wall from its coastal boundary to the south—at the point of a dense mangrove forest in the neighboring village of Kolovai; extending the length of the village to its northern border of Kanokupolu, which has built a sea wall that extends to the northern tip of Tongatapu. Between construction and the current day, the sea wall has eroded in three points, creating ever- expanding channels through which tidal flows enter and exit the formerly protected coastal zone. This has left a village sports field—that once served as an international rugby field that hosted Tonga’s first match against Fiji in the 1930s and served as the site of weekly horse racing competitions between Tongatapu villages—permanently inundated with sea water. Ahau village’s current groundwater supply—used for cooking, cleaning and hygienic needs—is from the Hihifo (western) District, which provides piped water to Fo’ui in the south to Ha’atafu to the north. The water supply is insufficient to meet community demand, however. The Ahau CCC indicates that piped water is only available in the early morning and again in the late evening. While a current Australian Agency for International Development / Global Environment Facility-funded project began rehabilitating the current water supply system— repairing water pumps, installing new water pipes, and outfitting homes with water meters—in August 2012, through private financing, the Ahau Village Committee drilled a borehole in the village plantation zone, to the west of all community housing, intended for an Ahau-dedicated piped water system. The village did not have sufficient funding for piping, water pumps, a reservoir tank, or the construction to implement the water delivery system. At this point, the borehole remains covered while the Ahau CCC contemplates financing solutions.

The C-CAP Community Committee (CCC) was initiated by Kamoto, the Town Officer (Mayor) and Mātāpule (Talking Chief) of the King of Tonga (Tupou IV, V and VI). Kamoto and the

- 38 - Ahau CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Friday, January 18, 2013 in the Ahau Wesleyan Church Hall. Risk Identification Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps, the Ahau CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Ahau.

Global Warming Impacts Given Ahau’s proximity to the coast and their eroded sea wall, sea level rise was the CCC’s greatest climate change concern related to global warming. The CCC noted that sea level rise was inundating the coastal zone and contributing to erosion of their sea wall and coastline. During king tides, the water line has reached the village houses that stand closest to the coast.

Image 28: A local resident points out that the high tide mark reaches her home. Additional Ahau photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632520198858/ Regarding increasing sea surface temperature, near shore marine life that the village depends upon for food security is increasingly at risk, according to the CCC. While the CCC has not noted coral bleaching events, they were concerned that if sea surface temperatures continue to increase, the local reef could experience bleaching, further impacting coastal fisheries. Precipitation Pattern Changes The CCC cited changes in the flowering schedule of local flora and food-bearing trees in Ahau. The group noted that flora comes into bloom early in recent years, as compared to past decades. The CCC also explained that over the past decade, rain typically falls in short intense downpours, rather than in previous decades which were marked with frequent steady rain during the November to April rainy season. These heavy rain events result in village flooding that

- 39 - typically flows along the village road system to the coast, flooding adjacent homes. In addition to flood damage, this also exacerbates erosion of the coastline and village roads, and increases sedimentation of coastal waters. Reflective of the current rain patterns experience by the village, the CCC explained that droughts are more frequent in Ahau compared to past decades. Drought impacts the village groundwater supply and risks tropical crops that depend upon heavy rainfall. Natural Disasters Many impacts of natural disasters are extreme versions of the risks associated with sea level rise, including storm surges that inundate coastal infrastructure and homes. The Ahau CCC noted that cyclones and gale force wind events can destroy village pig pens, with storm surges sweeping some animals out to sea. In the aftermath of cyclone and gale force wind events, the Ahau CCC also notes that sedimentation from coastal erosion—caused by inland flooding run-off—and storm surges that disrupt near shore marine habitats impact the village’s food security. It often takes time for near shore fisheries to recover following a storm, during which time village members must rely on frozen and processed foods for protein. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).

Image 29: Ahau Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d38c1a484e3af933c&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 43: Ahau Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Ahau Plantation This road leads to villagers’ plantation plots, and is  Flooding

- 40 -

Road thus essential for food security and the village  Erosion economy. This is also an important road for village  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge, Fallen Trees women’s cooperative weaving / tapa-making activities; (on road) many private plantation lots include mulberry tree orchards used as inputs into tapa.

 Flooding Private plantations are important for food and financial  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge, Uprooted security. Semi-subsistence farmers also sell crops in Trees/Bushes (Mulberry, Banana, Plantain, 2. Plantations local markets. Women’s cooperatives use Mulberry Breadfruit, Mango) Tree bark as primary input into tapa-making.  Rising Air Temperature  Drought

Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem Mature Mangroves services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as  Pollution nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for  Deforestation 3. Mangroves fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves Young Mangroves also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.  Extreme Weather—Storm Surge  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety  Sedimentation of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.  Overfishing 4. Coral Reef Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to  Rising Sea Temperature maintain catch levels.  Storm Surge

Social Infrastructure Table 44: Ahau Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

Forming sports field used for international rugby competition between Pacific Island countries (1924-  Flooding 1. Sports Field 1961), as well as local sports and inter-village horse-  Sea Level Rise racing. Has since experienced erosion and is  Storm Surge submerged in coastal water.

 Flooding 2. Cemetery 1 Village cemetery.  Erosion

The Community Hall is the center for regularly held village meetings, development program meetings and  Flooding 3. Town Hall all discussion of village policy. It is also used for  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage community events and informal social gatherings.

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 45: Ahau Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can 1. Wesleyan Church Water supply for church services, employees and be damaged from excessive heat/sun. Rainwater Tank volunteers. Supply for community members without  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; (Concrete) personal rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can Water supply for community meetings and events. be damaged from excessive heat/sun. 2. Town Hall Rainwater Supply for community members without personal  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; Tank (Concrete) rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

The Ahau Sea Wall was privately financed by the  Erosion 3. Ahau Sea Wall village and completed in 2005. It has since eroded at three points, creating gaps through which the sea enters  Flooding

- 41 -

the coastal zone. These gaps have eroded from regular  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge tidal flows and storm surges. This is exacerbated due to Ahau’s location between the Nukua’lofa/Kolomotua sea wall and a sea wall to the north of the village; this results in faster-moving, more extreme tides and regular wave energy.

Ahau village privately financed the drilling of a borehole. The village currently relies on an Eastern District-run water pump that only provides running 4. Borehole  Drought water in the morning and evening hours. The village does not have financing for a reservoir tank, pipes, or a pump.

- 42 - Fiji

In collaboration with the University of the South Pacific through the Pacific Center for Environment and Sustainable Development (USP PACE-SD), DAI facilitated C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise in five communities across three Provinces: Daku and Buretu in Tailevu Province, Vunisinu-Nalase in Rewa Province and Vunisavisavi and Koroko in Cakaudrove Province. DAI facilitated these one-day sessions between December 10, 2012 and February 8, 2013. Community assessments in Fiji were postponed from mid-December through February 7, 2012 due to Cyclone Evan, a Category 4 cyclone that battered western Viti Levu, Fiji—including Tailevu and Rewa Provinces4.

In each community, DAI met C-CAP committees comprised of community leaders from men’s, women’s and youth groups to lead an introduction to C-CAP, and climate change risk identification and infrastructure mapping exercises. Following the workshop, community leaders and interested community member’s led the C-CAP team on a tour of the village’s social, economic, coastal and water infrastructure. C-CAP geo-referenced and photographed these community assets and uploaded data points into mapping software for future geospatial analysis

Background

Fiji comprises more than 300 islands with a total land area of approximately 18,300 km2. The last national census was taken in 1996, at which time the population was 773,000. Viti Levu— the largest of two main islands at10,429 km2—covers 57-percent of Fiji’s total area, while Vanua Levu covers 5,556 km2. Viti Levu is the political and economic center of Fiji with the capital city of Suva situated on the southeast coast and Nadi, the center of tourism, on the west coast. Over 90-percent of Fiji’s total population—along with the bulk of all service centers, infrastructure, and agricultural production—reside along the coast.

Fiji has an oceanic tropical climate with a dry season from May to October and rainy season from November to April. Fiji’s relative location has a strong influence on both seasonal and inter-annual variations in climate, particularly rainfall, where the southeasterly tradewinds carries moist air into the islands. Fiji is also prone to El Nino events and tropical cyclones relative to the country’s location in the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). During an El Nino- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event, conditions drier and hotter than normal can be expected from June to August. During the November to April wet season, Fiji is normally traversed by tropical cyclones.

Climate change is likely to affect the coastal resources of Fiji in a variety of ways. Sea-level rise may lead to increases in coastal erosion and coastal inundation, increased exposure to wave action (as coral growth lags behind sea-level rise), and, in some cases, the retreat of mangroves. Projected increases in sea surface temperature may lead to a rising incidence of coral bleaching.

4 http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/fiji-looks-to-rebuild-after-tropical-cyclone-evans- wrath/story-e6frg6so-1226539352397

- 43 - Coral bleaching, together with the lag in coral growth, may lead to a reduction in reefal sediment production necessary for maintaining shoreline stability. Coral bleaching is also likely to have adverse effects on coastal biological diversity and fisheries. Changes in the patterns of storms, such as an increase in the frequency or intensity of tropical cyclones, may cause greater incidence of coastal inundation and erosion events. These processes may be exacerbated by reduced reef protection.

Fiji, especially Viti Levu, already suffers from human-generated coastal ecosystem degradation. High population growth rates, intensive urban development, deforestation of catchments, pollution and increased exploitation of biological and physical coastal resources have exposed large areas of coast to erosion and inundation events. These human-generated stressors have reduced the resilience of coastal systems to cope with climate variability, sea-level rise and other impacts of climate change.

Karoko

Karoko village is in Vanua Levu’s Cakaudrove Province. The village is accessible via the Hibiscus Highway along Buca Bay—approximately a three hour journey by vehicle from Savusavu. According to the village headman the village has a population of 616 people. The village headman is appointed by the village to manage the day to day affairs of the village such organizing meetings, liaising with government services and managing visits to the community. The C-CAP risk mapping exercise was attended by 51 villagers representing village leadership, and women and youth groups.

The community’s main source of income is from fishing. Currently all fish caught are marketed in Savusavu—a three hour journey directly by vehicle, or a four hour journey by bus. However, a new freezing plant recently opened on Rabi Island, a short boat journey from their village. The community intends to capitalize on this new economic resource by increasing fishing activities and collection and marketing of marine resources.

Risk Identification

As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Karoko.

Global Warming Impacts

- 44 - The community reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level. The community estimates that the village site has lost three acres in the last 40 years; this leaves only two acres of land available to villagers for residence and village infrastructure. During spring tides the sea regularly enters the village, inundating a larger swath of Karoko’s limited land resources. The plantations for the village are mainly situated on higher ground—but in the past villagers also supplemented plantation production of root crops and tubers with home-based vegetable gardens. This is no longer practiced, however, due to increased salt water intrusion, sea swells and spring tides. The community also reports that the impacts of climate change are affecting local livelihoods, food production and water supply. Marine resources have been affected by sedimentation of the reefs due to periods of heavy rain—and may contribute to dwindling fish stocks; further research would be required to attribute the cause of reduced near-shore fish populations , which may also be reflective of over-fishing. The community has also reported that they now experience more intense dry periods that affect their water supply and agriculture.

Precipitation Pattern Changes

The C-CAP committee reports that their village has experienced more variable rainfall patterns, with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes that fall between longer and more intense dry periods. These changes impact traditional planting cycles, agricultural production levels, and the village water supply.

The village relies on natural springs for its water supply. Currently three springs are supplying water to three community reservoirs. The reservoirs are not, however, sufficiently large to meet the community’s need for freshwater. Water shortages are exacerbated by frequent reservoir leaks, and more frequent and intense dry periods.

Natural Disasters

Cyclone Thomas—the last major cyclone to affect the village—occurred in 2010, causing widespread damage in the Northern Division of Fiji. The cyclone damaged many houses in the village which have since been repaired or re-built with assistance from the government and Habitat for Humanity. Although the village can experience storm surges during cyclones, the reef and Rabi Island provide some shelter for the bay.

The community’s disaster risk plan and recent infrastructure developments will be a boon to villagers in the event of a disaster. Access to the village will be improved when the upgrade of the Hibiscus Highway is completed in 2014. This will reduce the travel time for emergency services to reach the village in the event of a disaster. The community also has a simple disaster management plan; in fact, C-CAP witnessed its application. The plan identifies the primary school—situated on higher ground to the rear of the village—as the community evacuation

- 45 - center. During the C-CAP risk mapping exercise, the community took shelter in the school— carrying out their disaster risk plan—in reaction to a tsunami warning stemming from an earthquake near the Solomon Islands. C-CAP will build upon this base through implementation of disaster risk preparedness activities scheduled for 2013-14.

A solar power scheme supported by government provides electricity supply to the village. Each household pays an establishment fee of FJD$84 and subsequent monthly payments of FJD$14/month for the service, which provides power even during disasters when communities on the national gird do not have electricity.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping

Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.2).

Image 11: Karoko Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d5ba08a8e7185816b&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 16: Karoko Economic Infrastructure

- 46 - Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Bleaching Fishing is the main source of community livelihoods, 7. Coral reefs  Sedimentation as a source of income and subsistence.  Rise in sea surface temperatures

 Drought 8. Village Plantations Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is one of  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, and livestock areas the main sources of income for the village. taro and tree crops

Mature Mangroves Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Pollution and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life such  Deforestation 9. Mangroves as crabs. Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near-shore fisheries, which are essential for local Young Mangroves livelihood activities.  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

The main road provides access to other villages and  Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding community plantations. The main bridge to the east 10. Roads/Bridges needs to be repaired urgently as highlighted in the  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations wash out in periods of heavy rain photos taken during the community assessment.

Located on nearby Rabi Island, this resource is a 11. Fish freezing plant potential boon to Karako and neighboring village  Extreme Weather Event – roof damage economies.

Social Infrastructure Table 17: Karoko Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The community hall is a major asset for the community  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 1 Karoko and is situated on the seafront. It is used for  Storm surge Community Hall community events.  Rising sea levels

Most village households are equipped with solar panel  Extreme Weather Event—panel damage 2 Village solar provided through a government subsidized scheme.  Storm surge power scheme Many of these solar panels are situated on the sea front area.  Rising sea levels

While situated outside of the coastal zone, the 3 Community  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage community’s main Church is vulnerable to cyclones Church and other extreme weather events.

School for village children in grades 1-6. The school  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 4 Primary School serves as the village evacuation center for disaster events.  Drought – affecting water supply

5 Primary school The school is outfitted with solar panels, which  Extreme weather event – panel damage solar panels provide electricity.

Telecom Fiji erected a mobile phone tower in the 6 Mobile phone village recently, vastly improving mobile connections  Extreme weather event – solar panel damage tower with the island population centers. Solar panels  Extreme weather event – tower damage provide the energy source for the tower

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 18: Karoko Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

- 47 -

The village does not currently have a properly constructed seawall although some attempts have been  Erosion made by community members to create a stone barrier  Flooding 8. Sea Front with old coral. While mangroves provide some protection to the east and west of the main beach. The  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge center of the community has no protection against king  Sea Level Rise tides, storm surges and average sea level rise.

9. Community  Drought – affecting water supply Springs supply water to three reservoirs. The water is Reservoirs/water not treated.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage supply

 Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged Some community members use alternate springs when droughts. 10. Community springs the village supply is insufficient. These springs are un- protected.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from storm water run off.

Daku

Daku, Tailevu Province is located within the Rewa Delta in the South-eastern part of Viti Levu. The village has a population of approximately 215 and is located along the Navolau River, a Rewa River tributary. The village is located approximately seven kilometres east of Nausori Airport. The risk mapping exercise was attended by 71 participants on December 10, 2012.

Risk Identification

As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Daku.

Global Warming Impacts

The community reports that due to the village’s low elevation relative to sea level, rising sea levels and heavy rainfall events leave the village prone to inundation. The situation gets worse if the rain storms coincide with spring tides resulting in widespread flooding of the village.

Daku village was originally constructed on reclaimed land. The reclamation was done by the villagers in the 1930s but future hydrological concerns were not taken into account during village planning. The village was reclaimed on coral, which was quarried from nearby Toberua Island. The community attempted to dredge the surrounding stream to raise the village in 2000. In the early 2000s, the community also spent approximately to reclaim and construct a causeway.

- 48 - Food crops such as taro, cassava, bananas and leafy vegetables—a primary source of village livelihoods—are vulnerable to salt water intrusion. The community reported that this has had some impact on eating patterns of the villagers and a rise in NCDs, with more processed foods now being consumed by the community.

The community also relies heavily on near shore marine resources for subsistence and sales in the nearby markets of Suva and Nausori. Marine resources have been affected by the destruction of mangroves for firewood and stunted from increased sedimentation of the river system.

Precipitation Pattern Changes

The C-CAP committee reported a change in rainfall patterns, with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes which result in regular flooding—due to the high water table. USP research5 shows that the elevation of the village is in the range of approximately 0.8 metres above mean sea level. As such, during spring tides when water level increases by an additional 20-30 cm, most of the relatively low lying areas within the village and surrounding areas (approximately two thirds of the surface area) become inundated with brackish water. Owing to its low elevation relative to the high tide water mark, the water table is relatively high. This is evident in the construction of exposed, above-ground septic tanks. Salt water intrusion has also impacted concrete house foundations with the foundation deteriorating much quicker due to salt water and flooding.

The problem of flooding is exacerbated by the village’s poor drainage system and the impacts of overland flow from scrubland behind the village, especially during periods of heavy rainfall. This condition is prevalent during the wet season from October to March, and increasingly at various times throughout the year, reflective of the varying rainfall patterns reported by villagers.

Natural Disasters Frequent flooding from periods of heavy rain, and storm surges from cyclones and tropical depressions submerges all roads leading to the village —cutting the population off from emergency services.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.2).

5 Limalevu, L. Vulnerability & Adaptation Assessment to the Impacts of Climate Change Daku Village, Tailevu, unpublished.

- 49 -

Image 12: Daku Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d5ba386321afe1c2d&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 19: Daku Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability Mature Mangroves Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Pollution and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life.  Deforestation 1. Mangrove Forests Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near- shore fisheries. Marine resources are the primary Young Mangroves source of income for the community.  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

 Flooding Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is 2. Village Plantations  Sea Level Rise – salt water intrusion into another source of income for the village. Regular salt and Livestock planting areas water intrusion and flooding have affected areas community food security.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding 1 Roads/Bridges There is one access road into the village.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can washed out

Social Infrastructure Table 20: Daku Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The Church is very close to the sea wall and is subject  Flooding 1. Daku Church to regular flooding.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

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 Flooding 2. Daku Primary School School for village children in grades 1-6.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The community hall used to be a private house for the 3. Daku Community  Flooding chief but was given to the community. The community Hall hall is used for village events.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The cemetery is situated within the village boundary 4. Village cemetery and is prone to regular flooding. The high water table  Flooding also presents a problem in digging burial sites.

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 21: Daku Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The seawall was designed to stem erosion and to  Erosion provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm  Flooding 1. Sea Wall surges and average sea level rise. However it now  Extreme Weather Event needs significant improvement to cope with rising sea levels and storm surges.  Sea Level Rise

The village has installed 3 flood gates with assistance  Erosion of the AusAID GCCA project however these have  Flooding 2. Flood gates proved insufficient on their own to stop the village  Extreme Weather Event from regularly flooding.  Sea Level Rise

The village is connected to the Nausori Town water  Flooding 3. Water supply supply which provides clean, treated water.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

The drainage canals leading to the flood gates were designed to reduce flooding in the village, however sea  Flooding 4. Drainage canals wall height does not and an additional flood gate  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage installed to make the drainage canals fully functional.

Because of the high water table, septic tanks are being  Flooding 5. Sewerage/septic tanks built above ground with seepage causing possible health issues.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

Vunisavisavi

Like Karoko village, Vunisavisavi is located in Vanua Levu’s Cakaudrove Province – approximately two hours from Savusavu in Buca Bay. The village is of historical and archaeological significance for Fiji as the original site of the Paramount Chief of Cakaudrove, the third most senior chief in Fiji. The original stone mounds used to signify this chiefly village are still located near the coastline; the village reports that the site is vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surges. The village has a population of 107 according to the Cakaudrove Provincial Council. The risk mapping exercise was attended by 17 village leaders.

Risk Identification

- 51 - As an initial exercise the community assessed the current and projected impacts of climate change experienced in the village. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Vunisavisavi.

Global Warming Impacts

The community reports that the primary impacts of global warming, sea level rise and inundation during high tides are felt in the coastal zone. A small river flanking the west of the village used to provide additional freshwater, a place to bath, and freshwater prawns for villagers; but salt water intrusion from sea level rise and storm surges has reduced its viability for these functions.

Image 13: Salt water intrusion has affected many coastal villages

Inundation exacerbates the village’s already limited supply of land; due to a lack of land resources, villagers must rely on plantation land rentals from a nearby village in order to carry out kava farming, a major source of income.

Global warming also affects local livelihoods through prolonged periods of dry weather that contribute to reduced kava yields. Prolonged drought also impacts village water supply during the traditional dry season, and intermittently in the rainy season—reflecting the variant precipitation patterns reported by the village.

- 52 -

In addition to prolonged drought, the village also noted that sea surface and air temperature is rising. The increase in air temperature is impacting agricultural—and villager’s own— productivity, according to the committee. The committee also expressed concern that rising sea surface temperature is contributing to declining near shore fish and shellfish stocks. As with Karoko, however, it is difficult to attribute this directly to climate change.

Precipitation Pattern Changes

The committee cited a change in rainfall patterns with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes falling irregularly between longer and more intense dry periods. This variability impacts village water supply and agricultural production, with the longer dry periods affecting the yields of common crops. Currently the community relies on one protected spring for their water supply which is insufficient to meet village demand. Another water source has been identified but the village does not currently have the resources to protect this spring or to procure needed infrastructure to pipe the water to the village.

Natural Disasters

The last major cyclone to affect the village was Cyclone Thomas in 2010, which caused widespread damage in the Northern Division of Fiji. During disasters the village takes shelter in the nearby primary school (name of the school?)—the village’s designated evacuation center. The poor unpaved access road to the village, set on steep terrain, presents evacuation issues, particularly for the elderly and infirmed. Storms also cause excessive water runoff from the steep slopes to the rear of the village, which contaminates the village’s primary freshwater spring.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping

Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.2).

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Image 14: Vunisavisavi Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d5ba14a6414d30d79&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 22: Vunisavisavi Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The village relies heavily on subsistence and semi-  Drought 1 Village Plantations subsistence agriculture as their primary livelihood  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, and livestock areas source taro and tree crops

Mature Mangroves  Pollution Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Deforestation and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life 2 Mangroves such as crabs. Mangroves are essential for the Young Mangroves sustainability of near-shore fisheries.  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding The main road provides access to other villages and 3 Roads/Bridges to main markets in Savusavu.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can be washed out

Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for fish —  Bleaching 4 Coral reefs a major source of a food and livelihood for the  Sedimentation community  Rising sea surface temperatures

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Social Infrastructure Table 23: Vunisavisavi Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1 Community A new church was planned, but cannot be built due to  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Church rising sea level near the intended construction site.  Storm surge

 Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 2 Primary School The school is situated in a nearby village.

The original home site of the paramount chief of  Sea level rise 3 Tui Cakau’s Cakuadrove is located at the seafront of Vunisavisavi.  Storm surges home site It is a significant heritage site for Fiji  Extreme weather events

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 24: Vunisavisavi Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability The village does not currently have a properly constructed seawall although some attempts have been  Erosion made by community members to create a stone barrier  Flooding 1 Sea Front with old coral. While mangroves provide some  Extreme weather event—storm surge protection for the village they have not alone helped the village to secure the coastline from impacts of  Sea level rise king tides, storm surges and average sea level rise.

The village has one protected spring that supplies  Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged 2 Community water to the community. Another spring has been droughts. Water Supply identified to serve as a supplementary water source  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from however this is currently unprotected. storm water run off.

The main drain from the main road has been poorly 3 Main drain designed and directs storm water through the middle of  Flooding channel the village causing widespread flooding

A small river flanks the village to the west. The river  Sea level rise – salt water intrusion used to be a source of freshwater fish, freshwater  Storm surge – salt water intrusion. 4 River supplies and was a place to bath. The river is now  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from contaminated by salt water at the village site, however storm water run off.

Vunisinu/Nalase

Vunisinu-Nalase is a community on the Rewa Delta in Rewa Province, Viti Levu. The villages combined have a population of 259, as reported by the Rewa Provincial Office. The C-CAP risk mapping exercise was attended by 45 village representatives on January 30, 2013. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Vunisinu-Nalase.

- 55 - Global Warming Impacts

The primary livelihood impacts of global warming are concentrated in the agriculture sector; plantations—which primarily grow taro, cassava, bananas and leafy vegetables—are vulnerably located in the flood-prone delta. Regular salt water intrusion stunts crop growth, compromising food security for the village. The community reported that this has had some impact on eating patterns of the villagers and a rise in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) as residents substitute healthy, plantation grown food crops with high fat – high sodium processed foods.

As with other villages in the Rewa Delta, low elevation relative to sea level is compounded by sea level rise, leaving the village prone to inundation during heavy rain storms. The situation gets worse if the rain storms coincide with spring tides resulting in widespread flooding of the village.

The community also relies heavily on the sale of marine resources for their incomes, particularly mangrove crabs , which are caught and sold in Suva and Nausori markets. Marine resources have been affected by the destruction of mangroves, crabs habitat, and increased sedimentation of the river system.

Image 15: To prevent river bank erosion villagers are using coconut husks as a makeshift barrier.

In the past the village was held up as a model for refuse deposal; the village hired skips for weekly rubbish pickup and disposal at local land fill sites. Each household was expected to pay FJD$3/month for the service. The service has been discontinued, however, due to the community’s inability to manage regular fee collection. All rubbish now remains in above ground sites on the perimeter of the village. The community reported that since the service

- 56 - disruption, frequent flooding washes rubbish from the perimeter into the village center. The refuse has the potential to pollute water sources causing widespread outbreaks of waterborne diseases.

Precipitation Pattern Changes

Villagers report changing rainfall patterns—with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes. The high water table—due to the village’s low elevation relative to the high tide water mark—is unable to absorb intense high-rainfall events, which results in regular flooding. Because of this, the community builds above-ground septic tanks, which, the villager reports, are prone to leaking —a potential health hazard if they pollute the water supply.

The problem of flooding is exacerbated by the village’s poor drainage system of the village. This condition is prevalent in the wet season from October to March or during prolonged periods of heavy rainfall within the area.

Natural Disasters

As mentioned above, the village floods regularly during periods of heavy rain, inclusive of cyclones and tropical depressions. During these periods all roads leading to the village flood, cutting villagers off from emergency services and supplies. In order to build resilience to natural disasters, the village intends to set and apply building standards for cyclone- and flood-proofing infrastructure for a forthcoming rural housing scheme funded by the Fiji government. All housing funded under the scheme, and those housing constructed with private funds in the future will then adhere to these standards. This will also include looking at more innovative ways to address their sewerage issues. C-CAP will support the community’s efforts in this area through its disaster risk preparedness activities.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping

Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.2).

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Image 16: Vunisinu/Nalase Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d5ba1fb6af36bc20d&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 25: Vunisinu-Nalase Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability Mature Mangroves Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Pollution and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life  Deforestation such as crabs. Mangroves are essential for the 1. Mangrove Forests sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Marine Young Mangroves resources are the primary source of income for the community.  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

 Flooding Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is 2. Village Plantations  Sea Level Rise – salt water intrusion into another source of income for the village. Regular salt and Livestock planting areas water intrusion and flooding have affected areas community food security.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding 3. Roads/Bridges There is one access road into the village.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can washed out

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Social Infrastructure Table 26: Vunisinu-Nalase Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1. Vunisinu and Nalase The Church is very close to the sea wall and is subject  Flooding Churchs to regular flooding.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

There is dispensary for the villages. The dispensary is run by trained member of the community. The dispensary unlike a health clinic does not have a  Flooding 2. Dispensary trained nurse available and only supply basic drugs  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage such as paracetamol and oral rehydration therapies, and first aid.

The community hall is situated at the back of the 3. Vunisinu and Nalase  Flooding village and has had its foundations affected by regular Community Halls flooding. The hall is used to hold community events.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 27: Vunisinu-Nalase Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability The current seawall was designed to stem erosion and  Erosion to provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm  Flooding 1. Sea Wall surges and average sea level rise. However it now needs significant improvement to cope with rising sea  Extreme Weather Event levels and storm surges  Sea Level Rise

The village installed two flood gates many years ago  Erosion where we built to specifications built up from dated  Flooding 2. Flood gates climate and hydrological models; gates are now in a  Extreme Weather Event state of disrepair  Sea Level Rise

The village is connected to the Nausori Town Council  Flooding 3. Water supply water supply which provides clean, treated water.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

The drainage canals and flood gates were designed to reduce flooding in the village. The sea wall needs to  Flooding 4. Drainage canals be higher and the flood gates need repair, however. The main drainage culvert on the main road is also  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage poorly positioned as it drains water into the village site.

Because of the high water table septic tanks are being  Flooding 5. Sewerage/septic tanks built above ground with seepage causing possible health issues.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

Buretu

The village of Buretu has a population of 131 and is located in the Rewa Delta in the South- eastern part of Viti Levu, along Navolau River, a Rewa River tributary. The village is located approximately six km east of Nausori Airport. The C-CAP committee of 17 village representatives participated in the C-CAP risk mapping exercise on December 11, 2012.

- 59 - Risk Identification

As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Buretu.

Global Warming Impacts

The community reports that their low-lying village, relative to sea level, is prone to inundation due to sea level rise and heavy rainfall events. As with Daku, flooding is intensified when rain storms coincide with spring tides.

Food crops such as tarp, cassava, bananas and leafy vegetables—a primary source of village livelihoods—are vulnerable to salt water intrusion. The community reported that this has had some impact on eating patterns of the villagers and a rise in NCDs, with more processed foods now being consumed by the community.

The community also relies heavily on near shore marine resources for subsistence and sales in the nearby markets of Suva and Nausori. Marine resources have been affected by the destruction of mangroves for firewood and increased sedimentation of the river system.

Older members of the community reported that the houses now at the front of the village used to be at the back of the village. The front of the village also used to include a playing field which has now been claimed by the river

Precipitation Pattern Changes

Villagers report changing rainfall patterns—with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes. The high water table—due to the village’s low elevation relative to the high tide water mark—is unable to absorb intense high-rainfall events, which results in regular flooding. Because of this, the community builds above-ground septic tanks, a common practice in the Rewa Delta villages. These septic tanks are prone to leaking and can be a potential health hazard if they pollute the water supply. Salt water intrusion impacts concrete house foundations, causing more rapid deterioration.

The problem of flooding is exacerbated by the poor drainage system of the village especially during periods of heavy rainfall. The village also reported that the current drainage system on the main access road drains water into the village site. This condition is prevalent especially during the wet season from October to March or during prolonged periods of heavy rainfall within the area.

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Natural Disasters

As mentioned above the village floods regularly during periods of heavy rain, cyclones and tropical depressions. During these periods all roads leading to the village are inundated—cutting off emergency services and supplies. During disasters the village uses the primary school as an evacuation center.

Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping

Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.2).

Image 17: Buretu Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d66cab1951474c0ab&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 28: Buretu Economic Infrastructure

- 61 - Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability Mature Mangroves Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Pollution and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life.  Deforestation 1. Mangrove Forests Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near- shore fisheries. Marine resources are the primary Young Mangroves source of income for the community.  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution

 Flooding Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is 2. Village Plantations  Sea Level Rise – salt water intrusion into another source of income for the village. Regular salt and Livestock planting areas water intrusion and flooding have affected areas community food security.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding 3. Roads/Bridges There is one access road into the village.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can washed out

Social Infrastructure Table 29: Buretu Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The Church is very close to the sea wall and is subject  Flooding 1. Buretu Church to regular flooding.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The primary school for village in the next village also  Flooding 2. Primary School acts as the evacuation center for the village.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

The community hall is situated at the back of the 3. Buretu Community  Flooding village and has had its foundations affected by regular Hall flooding.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 30: Buretu Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

A vetiver grass seawall was designed to stem erosion  Erosion and to provide a coastal barrier against king tides,  Flooding 1. Sea Wall storm surges and average sea level rise. However it  Extreme Weather Event now needs significant improvement to cope with rising sea levels and storm surges  Sea Level Rise

The drainage canals with the flood gates have been designed to reduce flooding in the village however the sea wall needs to be higher and the flood gates need  Flooding 2. Drainage canals repair. The main drainage culvert on the main road is  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage also poorly positioned as it drains water into the village site.

Because of the high water table septic tanks are being  Flooding 3. Sewerage/septic tanks built above ground with seepage causing possible  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage health issues.

The village is connected to the Nausori Town water  Flooding 4. Water supply supply which provides clean, treated water.  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

- 62 - Samoa In collaboration with the University of the South Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (USP PACE-SD), DAI facilitated C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise in five communities on the island of Savai’i—Falealupo, Auala, Asau, Manase and Sapapalii— through one-day sessions held between Wednesday and Saturday January 9-12, 2013. Through one day sessions in each community, DAI led an introduction to C-CAP, and representatives of village leadership, women’s and youth groups participated in climate change risk identification and infrastructure mapping exercises. Following the workshop, community leaders and interested community members led the C-CAP team on a tour of the village’s social, economic, coastal and water infrastructure. C-CAP geo-referenced and photographed these community assets and uploaded data points into mapping software.

Background

Samoa is a country of two main islands, Savai’i and Upolu, with eight smaller islands off the southern/northern/west/east coast of Savai’i/Upolu—four of which are inhabited. Its total area is approximately 2,931 square kilometers, with 403 kilometers of coastline. According to the CIA6 World Factbook, approximately 193,000 people live in Samoa; and the economy is based on tourism, agriculture, fisheries and forestry product exports. Tourism now accounts for approximately 25% of the economy7. There are also several food processing and automobile parts plants.

The capital, Apia, is located on Upolu, the second largest island, and has a population of approximately 40,000. The islands are of volcanic origin clearly visible in the form of several dormant volcanoes and lava fields. The climate in Samoa has two distinct seasons. The dry season runs from May to September and the wet season when Samoa typically experiences cyclones from October to April. Projected sea level rise could exacerbate coastal erosion, loss of land and property, and dislocation of the island inhabitants. The extreme events of tropical cyclones Ofa (1990) and Val (1991) caused damage with costs estimates of approximately four times the gross domestic product (GDP) of Samoa. Recent disasters include the 2009 tsunami which killed over 150 people, left 2.5 percent of all Samoans homeless and destroyed transport, water and energy infrastructure across large areas8. The tsumani also had a major impact on tourism. The main area affected included villages on the south east coast of Upolu. More recently Cyclone Evan caused widespread wind and flood damage in the capital and it surrounds.

Samoa’s main concerns related to climate change are the potential implications of a change in the frequency and/or intensity of extreme weather events, coastal erosion and sea level rise. The islands are presently exposed to severe tropical cyclones that typically occur between December and February (National Climate Change Country Team, 1999); Cyclone Ofa (1990) and Cyclone Val (1991), for example, caused massive damage to Samoa’s infrastructure, natural vegetation,

6 Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] (2011). Samoa. The World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld- factbook/geos/ws.html

7 ADB.2012 Asia Development Outlook 2012 Update. Manila 8 World Bank. 2012 World Bank Development Blog.

- 63 - crops and plantations (NMFA et al., 2010)9, resulting in economic costs equivalent to about three times the country’s Gross National Product (NCCCT, 1999). These vulnerabilities in part reflect the fact that about 70 per cent the country’s infrastructure and human settlements are located close to its coastline. Long dry periods associated with the El Nino Southern Oscillation are also a concern (NCCCT, 1999)10.

Across all C-CAP communities, participants reported that climate change is causing coastal erosion, flooding, storm surges and salt water inundation. Given that 70-percent of Samoa's population and infrastructure are located along the coast and on low-lying areas, this puts a high proportion of the population at risk to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise. Climate projections show that sea level rises could further exacerbate coastal erosion, loss of land and property and dislocation of the island settlements. Coastal floods are also likely to become more frequent and severe. Environmental sustainability and disaster risk reduction are among the priorities of the Strategy for the Development of Samoa which identifies climate change adaptation as a cross-cutting issue.C-CAP will assist these communities to implement a community based integrated coastal protection model, which will increase the resilience of its coastal communities and infrastructure to the impacts of climate change.

Falealupo Falealupo is located on northwest Savai’i, the more arid part of the island, which frequently experiences forest/bush fires. The village population of 1,097 is comprised of 577 men and 520 women, according to the 2011 national census. The risk mapping exercise was attended by 51 villagers with representation from village leadership bodies, and women’s and youth groups. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Falealupo. Global Warming Impacts The primary impacts of global warming cited by the C-CAP committee —sea level rise and inundation—are concentrated in the coastal zone of the village the old village site during high tides. The village and village plantations are situated on higher ground this was as a direct result of the cyclones experienced in Samoa in 1990/91. These cyclones caused widespread damage in Savai’i. Moving the plantations to higher ground has ensured that that salt water does not directly affect crops however livestock are kept closer to the village and can be affected by regular sea flooding.

9 Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Metorology [MNREM] (2005). National Adaptation Programme of Action Samoa. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/sam01.pdf

10 National Climate Change Country Team [NCCCT] (1999). Samoa. First National Communication to the UNFCCC. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/samnc1.pdf

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Image 30: Two major cyclones damaged the Church on the Falealupo seafront. The Church was abandoned and a new Church built on higher ground. The community also believes that global warming is also affecting local food and water supplies. Marine resources have been affected by sedimentation of the reefs due to periods of heavy rain. The community has also experienced prolonged periods of drought which have affected their water supply. In 2011, the government channeled emergency water supplies to the village in response to the major drought in that year. The community also reported higher temperatures over the past 10 years, which they link to lower crop yields and more prevalent disease, particularly impacting the banana, taro and cocoa crops. Precipitation Pattern Changes As mentioned above most villagers believe that there has been a change in rainfall patterns, with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes interspersed between longer periods of drought, although Falealupo has always been affected by droughts to some extent given its location in the drier northwest of the island. Natural Disasters In the early 1990s Cyclones Ofa and Val caused widespread devastation in the village prompting many people in the community to move inland. The government supported the move with new access roads and a new water supply. The coastal freshwater springs that the community relied on in the past are no longer viable due to salt water intrusion and a lower water table exacerbated by drought. The coastal part of the village still remains an essential economic asset for fishing and tourism. A small tourist resort has been recently built at the seafront. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping

- 65 - Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.4).

Image 31: Falealupo Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d424e64d28d3c2ac5&msa=0&ll=- 13.513498,-172.755032&spn=0.05024,0.104284 Economic Infrastructure Table 46: Falealupo Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

Providing a food sources and livelihood for the  Bleaching/Sedimentation 12. Coral reefs community.  Rise is sea level temperatures

 Drought 13. Village Plantations Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the  Fires – bush fire damage to tree crops and livestock areas primary livelihood source for Falealupo.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

Fales are situated on the seafront at the old village site  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 14. Private-Owned providing accommodation for tourist and locals visiting damage Tourist Fales the area.  Storm surge- it is on the seafront

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding The main road provides access to other villages and the 15. Roads/Bridges  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the ferries and roads to the plantations. plantations can washed out

A privately owned store which provide the basic  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 16. Village store necessities for the community. damage  Storm surge- it is near the seafront

Social Infrastructure Table 47: Falealupo Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

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7 Falealupo  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage The main Church is no longer situated on the sea front. Church  Fire – bush fires

8 Falealupo  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage School for village children in grades 1-6. Primary School  Fire – bush fires

9 Falealupo Falealupo has 3 community fales designated as  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Community evacuation centres during times of disasters.  Fire – bush fires Fales

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 48: Falealupo Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The reservoir / water pump was installed by Samoa 11. Community  Drought Water Authrority and provides piped water, used for Reservoir / Water  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Some Pump families also get water from protected springs.  Fire – bush fires

 Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged droughts. Freshwater springs that used to provide water to the 12. Community drinking  Storm surge – storm surges can contaminate community in the past and are still used today by many springs springs with salt water. families living in the coastal areas.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from storm water run off.

The seawall needs repair to stem erosion and to  Erosion provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm  Flooding 13. Sea Wall surges and average sea level rise. The seafront/beach is growing in economic significance for the community  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge and needs protection.  Sea Level Rise

Auala Auala is a community in the northwest of Savai’i, with a population of 537—269 men and 277 women, according to the 2011 national census. The risk mapping exercise was attended by 94 villagers with representation across village leadership, women and youth groups. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed climate change’s current and projected impact on the village. The community was given C-CAP project background and a brief overview of climate change and global impacts of climate change; the community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Auala.

Global Warming Impacts The community reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level and the sea now entering the village during high tides. Most of the plantations for the village have been relocated inland as a direct result of the cyclones experienced in Samoa in 1990/91 which caused widespread damage in Savai’i.

- 67 - The community also reported that global warming is also affecting local livelihoods. Auala community mentioned the extremes of weather that have affected their food supplies and water supply. Marine resources have been affected by sedimentation of the reefs due to periods of heavy rain. Auala as with many of the villages situated in the north east of Savai’i has been affected by prolonged periods of drought associated with the El Nino Southern Oscillation which has impacted on the livelihoods of the communities affected. The greatest impact for Auala has been on their water supply with the new water system recently installed not providing sufficient supply for the village. 2011 in particular was a dry year which had a great impact on their water supply. The community believes that they now experience hotter temperatures than in the past which have affected their crops and their own productivity. Precipitation Pattern Changes As mentioned above most people in the village reported that there has been a change in rainfall patterns for their village with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes but they now have longer drier periods which can affect their water supply and crops. Auala has always been affected by droughts to some extent has they are situated in the drier north west of the island. During drought periods the community has also been affected by fires which can damage both crops and property. Natural Disasters As with many villages on the north coast of Savai’i Cyclones Ofa and Val, in the early 1990s, caused widespread devastation prompting some community members to move their homes inland. The community use to rely on springs on the coast for their water supply these have now been affected by salt water and droughts. The coastal areas of the village still remain an essential economic asset for fishing. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.4).

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Image 32: Auala Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d424f7d346c3c9de0&msa=0&ll=- 13.521906,-172.652485&spn=0.012559,0.026071

Economic Infrastructure Table 49: Auala Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought 5 Village Plantations Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the  Fires – bush fire damage to tree crops and livestock areas primary livelihood source for Auala.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

Providing a food sources and livelihood for the  Bleaching/Sedimentation 6 Coral reefs community.  Rise is sea level temperatures

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding The main road provides access to other villages and 7 Roads/Bridges  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the the ferries and roads to the plantations. plantations can washed out

A privately owned store which provide the basic  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 8 Village store necessities for the community. damage  Storm surge- it is near the seafront

Social Infrastructure Table 50: Auala Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

4 Community The Church is near the seafront and affected by storm  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Church surges.  Storm surge

 Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 5 Primary School School for village children in grades 1-6.  Storm surges

The community fale is situated on the seafront so it 6 Community Fale cannot be used as an evacuation centre.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

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 Storm surge

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 51: Auala Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The reservoir / water pump was installed by Samoa 5 Community  Drought Water Authority and provides piped water, used for Reservoir /  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Some Water Pump families also get water from protected springs.  Fire – bush fires

 Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged droughts. Freshwater springs that used to provide water to the 6 Community  Storm surge – storm surges can contaminate community in the past and are still used today by many drinking springs springs with salt water. families living in the coastal areas.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from storm water run off.

 Erosion The seawall needs repair to stem erosion and to  Flooding 7 Sea Wall provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and average sea level rise.  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge  Sea Level Rise

Sapapali’i Sapapali’i is situated on southeast Savai’i, and has historical significance as the landing place of the first Missionary to Samoa, John Williams, who landed here in 1830. The village has a population of 952, including 509 men and 443 women (2011 Census). The risk mapping exercise was attended by 25 villagers representing village leadership, women and youth groups. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed the current and projected impacts of climate change. The community was given the background to the project and a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change; the community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Sapapali’i. Global Warming Impacts The community reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level and the sea now entering the village during high tides. Many of the plantations for the village are now situated inland as a direct result of the cyclones experienced in Samoa in 1990/91. However livestock are kept closer to the village and can be affected by regular sea flooding. The issue is exacerbated when there are heavy rains and the creek at the rear of the village also floods causing even more damage. It is estimated that the creek now floods at three or four times a year.

The community also believes that global warming is also causing affecting local livelihoods. In the communities visited in Savai’i, including Sapapali’i it was mentioned that there was an increase in beach de mer and a reduction in other food sources such as fish and shell fish which could be directly attributed to a change in sea temperature which affects the type of food available for these local marine resources.

- 70 - Precipitation Pattern Changes In the community presentation most people in the village reported that there has been a change in rainfall patterns for their village with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes which result in flooding from the river to the rear of the village. The community also stated that they now have longer drier periods which can affect their water supply and crops. Natural Disasters As mentioned above the river at the rear of the village now floods three or four times a year which is directly attributed to periods of more prolonged rainfall. Some houses have to evacuate to higher ground when this occurs. Although there have been cyclones since Ofa and Val in the early 1990s these cyclones have caused the greatest devastation in recent years. Currently new houses in the community do not always follow specific building standards although standards do exist. As an example not all housing uses cyclone strapping to ensure roofs are secure during cyclones. Many people in the main village on the coast have relocated to higher areas inland over since the early 1990s and are not directly affected by storm surges and river flooding. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.4).

Image 33: Sapapali’i Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d424fe104b96b9243&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 52: Sapapali’i Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

2 Village Plantations Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the  Drought

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and livestock areas primary livelihood source for Sapapali’i.  Flooding particularly for pigs kept at lower elevations  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

 Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 3 Private-Owned Rosalote Fales provide accommodation for tourist damage Tourist Fales and locals visiting the area.  Storm surge- it is on the seafront

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding The main road provides access to other villages and 4 Roads/Bridges the ferries and roads to the plantations.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can washed out

Mature Mangroves  Pollution Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish  Deforestation and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life. 5 Mangrove Forests Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of near- Young Mangroves shore fisheries.  Storm Surge  Extreme Weather  Flooding—sedimentation, pollution A privately owned store which provide the basic  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 6 Village store necessities for the community damage  Storm surge- it is near the seafront

Social Infrastructure Table 53: Sapapali’i Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

The Church is a prominent feature in the village and is  Flooding (from storm surges and flooding of the 7. Sapapali’i Church well known across Samoa. It represents an investment local creek located to the rear of the village) of over $1 million for the community.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

 Flooding (from storm surges and flooding of the 8. Sapapali’i Primary School for village children in grades 1-6. local creek located to the rear of the village) School  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

In Sapapali’i each family has their own open fale  Flooding (from storm surges and flooding of the 9. Sapapali’i however the chiefs use their family fales as community local creek located to the rear of the village) Community Fale meeting points to discuss village issues and hold village events.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 54: Sapapali’i Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability The seawall was designed to stem erosion and to  Erosion provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm  Flooding 1 Sea Wall surges and average sea level rise. However it now needs significant improvement to cope with rising sea  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge levels and storm surges  Sea Level Rise

The reservoir / water pump was installed by Samoa 2 Community Water Authrority and provides piped water, used for  Drought Reservoir / Water cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Some  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage Pump families also get water from protected springs.

 Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged droughts. Freshwater springs that used to provide water to the 3 Community drinking  Storm surge – storm surges can contaminate community in the past and are still used today by many springs springs with salt water. families living in the coastal areas.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from storm water run off.

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4 Community bathing The community pools provide safety and privacy for  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from pools bathing. storm water run- off.

Asau Asau is a community in the north west of Savai’i. As with Falealupo and Auala the village is situated in the drier part of island which also experiences forest/bush fires. The village has a population of 1207- , comprised of 622 men and 585 women (2011 Census). The risk mapping exercise was attended by 60 villagers representing village leadership, women and youth groups. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed how climate change is currently affecting their village and how they see it potentially impacting them in the future. C-CAP led an introduction to the project, followed by a brief overview on climate change, and the global impacts of climate change. The community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Asau.

Global Warming Impacts The community reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level and high tides entering coastal areas. As with Auala plantations for the village have been relocated inland as a direct result of the cyclones experienced in Samoa in 1990/91 which caused widespread damage in Savai’i.

The area has been subjected to major forest/bush fires in the past damaging livelihoods and property. The community also believes that global warming is also causing affecting local livelihoods. Asau has been affected by prolonged periods of drought which have affected water supplies and crops. The extremes of weather have affected marine resources due to sedimentation of the reefs during periods of heavy rain. As mentioned by other villages 2011 in particular was a dry year which had a great impact on their water supply. Precipitation Pattern Changes The village reported that there has been a change in rainfall patterns for their village with fewer but more intense rainfall episodes but they now have longer drier periods which can affect their water supply and crops. During drought periods the community has also been affected by major forest/bush fires which can damage both crops and property.

Natural Disasters Cyclones Ofa and Val in the early 1990s caused widespread devastation in the community prompting some community members to move their homes inland. The community use to rely on springs on the coast for their water supply these have now been affected by salt water and droughts. The coastal areas of the village still remain an essential economic asset for fishing. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the men, women and youth completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water

- 73 - infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.4).

Image 34: Asau Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d424fb3a4a1fb59f6&msa=0

Economic Infrastructure Table 55: Asau Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought 1 Village Plantations Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the  Fires – bush fire damage to tree crops and livestock areas primary livelihood source for Asau  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

Providing a food sources and livelihood for the  Bleaching/Sedimentation 2 Coral reefs community  Rise is sea level temperatures

 Flooding – the main road is prone to flooding The main road provides access to other villages and 3 Roads/Bridges the ferries and roads to the plantations.  Extreme Weather Event – roads to the plantations can washed out

A privately owned store which provide the basic  Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof 4 Village store necessities for the community damage  Storm surge- it is near the seafront

Social Infrastructure Table 56: Asau Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

1 Community The Church is near the seafront and affected by storm  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage Church surges.  Storm surge

 Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 2 Primary School School for village children in grades 1-6.  Storm surges

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The community fale is situated on the seafront so it  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage 3 Community Fale cannot be used as an evacuation centre.  Storm surge

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 57: Asau Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability The reservoir / water pump was installed by Samoa 1 Community  Drought Water Authrority and provides piped water, used for Reservoir /  Extreme Weather Event—structural damage cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Some Water Pump families also get water from protected springs.  Fire – bush fires

 Drought—springs can dry up in prolonged droughts. Freshwater springs that used to provide water to the 2 Community  Storm surge – storm surges can contaminate community in the past and are still used today by many drinking springs springs with salt water. families living in the coastal areas.  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from storm water run off.

 Erosion A new seawall has been constructed by the  Flooding 3 Sea Wall government to protect the village against king tides, storm surges and average sea level rise.  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge  Sea Level Rise

4 Community The community pools provide safety and privacy for  Extreme Weather Event—contamination from bathing pools bathing. storm water run- off.

Manase Manase is a small village on the northeast coast of Savai’i with a population of 147 people including 81 men and 66 women. The village is situated by the sea and is famous for its white sandy beach that attracts tourist to the area. Manase has been a popular destination since the 1990s with low-budget and locally owned beach fale accommodation. On January 11, 25 community members—with representation from village elders, women and youth groups—attended the risk mapping exercise. Risk Identification As an initial exercise the community assessed current and projected climate change impacts. The community was given the background to the project and a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change; the community representatives then analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural disasters experienced in Manase. Global Warming Impacts Sea level rise and resulting more extreme tidal movements and sea surges are the most significant risk attributable to global warming impacting Manase. Sea level rise has a direct impact on their most important natural asset, their beach. The community stated that sea level rise has accelerated coastal erosion damaging the beach and beach front. They would like to find a solution to this problem other than a seawall, which the community fears will affect the natural beauty of their beach.

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Image 35: Many coastal communities in Samoa now rely on tourism as a major source of income.

Precipitation Pattern Changes Precipitation patterns no longer follow the typical Samoan wet and dry season, according to the village and that there are fewer but more intense rainfall episodes. The community also stated that they now have longer drier periods which can affect their water supply and crops. Natural Disasters Over the years the village has been badly affected by cyclones; between 1989 and 1992, the community was affected by a cyclone every year. As with Sapapali’i, while housing standards do exist, they are not regulated, and few new houses ascribe to them. As an example not all housing uses cyclone strapping to ensure roofs are secure during cyclones. The community has remained on the seafront as they derive the main income from tourism. Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping Following identification of local climate change impacts, the community completed hand-drawn community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.4).

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Image 36: Manase Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here: https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=208005538255266014458.0004d42599f5ad20f5f8d&msa=0&ll=- 13.446668,-172.378846&spn=0.00157,0.003259

Economic Infrastructure Table 58: Manase Economic Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Flooding The beach is the main economic asset for the 6. Manase Beach  Erosion community and attracts tourists to their village.  Storm Surge Flooding

The beach fales provide an income and employment opportunities for the community. The fales provide  Flooding 7. Beach fales budget accommodation for local and international  Erosion tourists.  Storm Surge

The main road provides access to the villages to the east and west of Manase. Local access roads provide  Flooding 8. Roads/bridges access to the village plantations and community  Erosion evacuation centre.

 Drought  Flooding particularly for pigs kept at lower 9. Community Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the elevations plantations primary livelihood source for Manase.  Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava, taro and tree crops

Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety  Sedimentation of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.  Overfishing 10. Coral Reef Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced  Rising Sea Temperature fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to maintain catch levels.  Storm Surge

 Flooding 11. Village stores and The community has two stores and a service station  Extreme Weather Events service station which provide all essentials to the community  Storm surges

- 77 - Social Infrastructure Table 59: Manase Social Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

As with many communities in Samoa the Church is an 5. Village Church  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage important part of the community.

The community fale is the center for regularly held  Flooding village meetings, development program meetings and 6. Community Fale  Storm surges all discussion of village policy. It is also used for community events and informal social gatherings.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

7. Evacuation centre Center for village play and sporting events.  Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

Water and Coastal Infrastructure Table 60: Manase Water and Coastal Infrastructure Infrastructure Point Significance to Community Vulnerability

 Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can Water supply for community events and gatherings. be damaged from excessive heat/sun; 1 Water reservoir Supply for community members without personal  Extreme Weather Event—contamination; and pump rainwater tank. damage to piping, gutter system; contamination from rusty roof (sea spray)

2 Drainage channel accommodates sea water flow during Drainage/culver tidal changes, and serves as a channel for rainwater  Erosion ts runoff.

The community has resisted building a substantial sea  Erosion wall has it will spoil the natural beauty of their beach.  Flooding 3 Sea Front They are looking for a solution that will fit their  Extreme Weather Event—storm surge requirement to continue to encourage tourists to the village.  Sea Level Rise