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Appraisal of Active Tectonics in Hindu Kush: Insights from DEM Derived Geomorphic Indices and Drainage Analysis

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GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS 3(4) (2012) 407e428 available at www.sciencedirect.com China University of Geosciences (Beijing) GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsf RESEARCH PAPER Appraisal of active tectonics in Hindu Kush: Insights from DEM derived geomorphic indices and drainage analysis Syed Amer Mahmood a,b,*, Richard Gloaguen a a Remote Sensing Group, Institute of Geology, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Bernhard V. Cotta Str. 2, 09599 Freiberg (Saxony), Germany b Department of Space Science, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, 54590, Lahore (Punjab), Pakistan Received 13 May 2011; accepted 3 December 2011 Available online 11 December 2011 KEYWORDS Abstract Landscapes in tectonically active Hindu Kush (NW Pakistan and NE Afghanistan) result Active tectonics; from a complex integration of the effects of vertical and horizontal crustal block motions as well as Geomorphic indices; erosion and deposition processes. Active tectonics in this region have greatly influenced the drainage IRAT (index of relative system and geomorphic expressions. The study area is a junction of three important mountain ranges active tectonics); (Hindu Kush-Karakorum-Himalayas) and is thus an ideal natural laboratory to investigate the relative Hindu Kush; tectonic activity resulting from the India-Eurasia collision. We evaluate active tectonics using DEM PakistaneAfghanistan derived drainage network and geomorphic indices hypsometric integral (HI), stream-length gradient (SL), fractal dimension (FD), basin asymmetry factor (AF), basin shape index (Bs), valley floor width to valley height ratio (Vf ) and mountain front sinuosity (Smf). The results obtained from these indices were combined to yield an index of relative active tectonics (IRAT) using GIS. The average of the seven measured geomorphic indices was used to evaluate the distri- bution of relative tectonic activity in the study area. We defined four classes to define the degree of rela- tive tectonic activity: class 1__very high (1.0 IRAT < 1.3); class 2__high (1.3 IRAT < 1.5); class * Corresponding author. Remote Sensing Group, Institute of Geology, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Bernhard V. Cotta Str. 2, 09599 Freiberg (Saxony), Germany. Tel.: þ49 3731444035. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Mahmood). 1674-9871 ª 2011, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2011.12.002 Production and hosting by Elsevier 408 S.A. Mahmood, R. Gloaguen / Geoscience Frontiers 3(4) (2012) 407e428 3dmoderate (1.5 IRAT < 1.8); and class 4dlow (1.8 IRAT). In view of the results, we conclude that this combined approach allows the identification of the highly deformed areas related to active tectonics. Landsat imagery and field observations also evidence the presence of active tectonics based on the deflected streams, deformed landforms, active mountain fronts and triangular facets. The indicative values of IRAT are consistent with the areas of known relative uplift rates, landforms and geology. ª 2011, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction In mountain ranges, recent and active tectonics can be viewed as the main factor contributing to rock uplift, their present-day Tectonic geomorphology is one of the emergent disciplines in topography being the result of the competition between tectonic geosciences due to the advent of novel geomorphological, geodetic and erosional processes (Andermann and Gloaguen, 2009; Perez- and geochronological tools which aid the acquisition of rates (uplift Pena et al., 2009). The drainage pattern in tectonically active rates, incision rates, erosion rates, slip rates on faults, etc.) at vari- regions is very sensitive to active processes such as folding and able time-scales (103e106 years; Burbank and Anderson, 2001; faulting which are responsible for accelerated river incision, basin Azor et al., 2002; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Bull, 2007). This disci- asymmetries, drainage geometry and complexity and river pline is important because the results of regional studies on neo- deflections (Cox, 1994). The geomorphic indices are important tectonics are significant for evaluating natural hazards, land use indicators capable of decoding landform responses to active development and management in populated areas (Pedrera et al., deformation processes and have been widely used as a reconnais- 2009). Besides its socio-economic importance, study of neo- sance tool to differentiate zones deformed by active tectonics tectonics is based on a multi-disciplinary approach, integrating data (Keller and Pinter, 2002; Chen et al., 2003). from remote sensing imagery, geomorphology, structural geology, This investigation applies a quantitative analysis of geomor- stratigraphy, geochronology, seismology, and geodesy. phic indices extracted from the digital elevation model (DEM) in Figure 1 Regional tectonic framework (Hindu Kush-Himalaya-Pamir-Karakorum) with inset showing the study area (Fig. 2). GPS velocity vectors (Red) with respect to Eurasia fixed reference frame from Mohadjer et al. (2010), the purple vector is transformed with respect to Pak- istaneIndia fixed. Abbreviations of fault names: DkF, Darvaz Karakul fault; AM, Alburz Marmul; CbF, Central Badakhshan fault; HvF, Henjvan fault; HF, Herat fault; CF, Chaman fault; MoF, Mokar fault; GzF, Gardez fault; KoF, Konar fault; SBF, Sulaiman Base front; MBT, Main Boundary Thrust; MFT, Main frontal thrust; MMT, Main Mantle Thrust; and MKT, Main Karakorum Thrust, Reshun fault; TMF, Tirch Mir fault; SF, Sarobi fault; ST, Spinghar Thrust; AF, Andarab fault; TbF, Tarbella fault; BgF, Bazgir fault; Sources: Lawrence et al., 1981; Wheeler et al., 2005; Doebrich and Wahl, 2006; Mahmood and Gloaguen, 2011. S.A. Mahmood, R. Gloaguen / Geoscience Frontiers 3(4) (2012) 407e428 409 Figure 2 Tectonic setting of the study area (A), sub-basins with reference numbers (B). 410 S.A. Mahmood, R. Gloaguen / Geoscience Frontiers 3(4) (2012) 407e428 Hindu Kush and its neighbourhood to evaluate relative active analyzed 33 sub-basins (Fig. 2B) using seven geomorphic indices: tectonics. The Hindu Kush is one of the most tectonically active hypsometric integral (HI), stream-length gradient (SL), fractal regions in the world as a result of the India-Eurasia collision dimension (FD), basin asymmetry factor (AF), basin shape index (Fig. 1). For the detailed study of the morphotectonic features as (Bs), valley floor width to valley height ratio (Vf ) and mountain described by Keller et al. (1996) and Keller and Pinter (2002),we front sinuosity (Smf). We then combined these seven indices to Figure 3 SL mechanism (modified after Hack, 1973) (A), and geological strength level map and SL anomalies (B). S.A. Mahmood, R. Gloaguen / Geoscience Frontiers 3(4) (2012) 407e428 411 provide a global estimator to characterize active tectonics (El rugged (Burtman and Molnar, 1993), (Figs. 1 and 2). Northern Hamdouni et al., 2008). Similar approaches were found to be Hindu Kush consists of folded Mesozoic and predominantly useful in various tectonically active areas such as the SW USA Tertiary sediments, while the southern part consists of highly (Rockwell et al., 1985), the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Wells complicated metamorphic rocks, marbles and intrusions of et al., 1988), the Mediterranean coast of Spain (Silva et al., granodiorites (Gansser, 1964; Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975). 2003), the southwestern Sierra Nevada of Spain (El Hamdouni Evidences of active tectonics exist in the Western Karakoram, et al., 2008) and in Beotia. The previous studies (Dehbozorgi the Tirich Boundary Zone (Hildebrand et al., 2001) connected et al., 2010) were mainly conducted on relatively small areas with the Chaman-Gardez-Konar fault system (Mohadjer et al., (5350 km2) while we performed our analyses on a relatively large 2010). As a result, this activity is inferring a sinistral transpres- areas (132,259 km2) and introduced an additional fractal dimen- sional tectonic regime, which is ascribed to the progressive sion index (FD), which was found to improve the analysis of indentation and a possible anticlockwise regional rotation of India tectonic geomorphology. We also combined results from these into Eurasia (Tapponnier et al., 1981; Hildebrand et al., 2001). The analyses with the geomorphic expressions mapped on enhanced Hindu Kush region is tectonically active with deep Landsat 7, þETM (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) imagery. (w70e300 km) and intense seismicity (Pavlis and Das, 2000). The sinistral Chaman transform fault south of the Hindu Kush infers the highest slip rate of 26 mm/y (Apel et al., 2006). The 2. Tectonic, geologic and geomorphic setting sinistral movement of Chaman transform fault appears to be influencing continental deep-subduction in the Pamir region as its The Hindu Kush is a very complex mountain range system in slip is distributed into several fault systems in the north (Mohadjer terms of tectonics, geology and geomorphology. This region et al., 2010), e.g., chaman-Mokar-Gardez.Konar-Main Karakorum located at the western syntaxis of Himalayas, in a broad defor- thrust-Tirch Mir-Reshun fault system and presumably, Chaman- mation belt created by the India-Eurasia collision zones is highly Gardez-Laghman-Bazgir fault system (Mahmood et al., 2009).
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