Folk Media for Agricultural Extension: a Study of Yakshagana - a South Indian Folk Theatre

Home , Dakshina Kannada, South India, Yakshagana

ISSN: 2347-7474 International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities

Available Online at: www.ijassh.com

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Folk Media for Agricultural Extension: A Study of Yakshagana - A South Indian Folk Theatre

Padmanabha K. V.1*, Sathish Kumar2

1. Department of Mass Communication and Journalism, Tumkur University, BH Road, Tumkur-572103, Karnataka, India. 2. Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, Kuvempu University, Jnana Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta-577129, Karnataka, India.

*Corresponding Author: Padmanabha K.V. Abstract: Agricultural extension is an important prerequisite of agricultural development in developing countries like India. Studies have proved that folk media play a significant role in agricultural communication, especially in extension activities. The present paper examines the role of Yakshagana in agricultural extension from the perspective of Diffusion of Innovations. Yakshagana is a 500-year-old south Indian folk theatre, popular in the coastal districts of Karnataka. Because of its flexibility, Yakshagana is being used for disseminating different development messages for the past many years. Using an exploratory method, the present paper attempts to identify major milestones in using Yakshagana for agricultural extension. The changing role of Yakshagana in looking at the changing approaches to agriculture has also been examined.

Keywords: Agricultural extension, Development communication, Diffusion of innovations, Folk media, Folk theatre, Yakshagana.

Article Received: 04 June 2020 Revised: 10 June 2020 Accepted: 20 June 2020

Introduction Agricultural extension is the application of Important tool in the process of motivating scientific research and new knowledge to rural masses towards accepting social agricultural practices through farmer changes that are being introduced through education. The goals of agricultural extension various development agencies. The include transferring information from the potentialities of folk media forms such as folk global knowledge base and from local theatre, puppetry, storytelling, folk songs, research to farmers, enabling them to clarify folk dances, ballads, etc. in agricultural their own goals and possibilities, educating extension have been tried and proved in them on how to make better decisions, and various developing countries at least for the stimulating desirable agricultural past sixty years [3]. “Folk media are part of development [1]. the rural social environment, and hence, Effective extension involves adequate and credible sources of information to the people. timely access by farmers to relevant advice, They have proved useful in generating with appropriate incentives to adopt the new grassroots participation and dialogue technology if it suits their socioeconomic and between the performers and the audience” agro-ecological circumstances [2]. However, [4]. Yakshagana is a prominent folk theatre one of the most important aspects of of south India, highly popular in the coastal agricultural extension is the kind of media, districts of Karnataka. A multi-dimensional the extension practitioners use in their folk theatre comprising of dance, music, strategies. Traditional folk media have been spoken word, body language, stage considered powerful media of communication techniques, costumes and makeup, among rural mass and farmers. According to Yakshagana is usually performed in the Chapke and Bhagat [3], folk media provide. open-air throughout the night.

According to Ashton [5], “Of India's many should use the combinations of traditional folk-theatre forms, Yakshagana may be the and electronic extension methods make most colorful, vigorous, and spirited” [5]. available rural agricultural libraries and Yakshagana has been over the centuries, a facility of Internet at village level [12]. There major form of expression of the coastal and have been some studies on the role of Malenad regions and as such occupies a Yakshagana in development communication. central place in the cultural ethos of the Usharani [13] has noted that a Yakshagana people [6]. titled ‘Nisarga Sandhana’ was extremely successful in the entire state of Karnataka, The themes of Yakshagana performances are which encouraged many Yakshagana troupes usually drawn from epics like Ramayana, to come up with programmes on topics like Mahabharata, Bhagavata and other Indian AIDS, Union budget, Dunkel Draft etc [13]. mythologies. However, Yakshagana is such a flexible traditional art that it has been used In a quasi-experimental research, for communicating various development Madhyastha [14] has found that there was messages related to environment, significant change in the awareness level of agriculture, health, rural development, the respondents regarding AIDS after family planning, literacy, etc. watching Yakshagana on AIDS awareness [14]. D’Silva et. al [15] while examining the Review of Literature global health problem of HIV/AIDS from The timeless traditional media present intercultural communication perspectives, inexhaustible alternatives for has noted that Yakshagana was pivotal in experimentation in development creating awareness of the disease among a communication [7]. In a study conducted in previously ill-informed audience [15]. Singapore, Valbuena [8] revealed that folk Kumar [16] has reported that Yakshagana media programme helped rural farmers has been used to disseminate messages improve strategies in the production, storage, related to family planning, environmental preservation and even marketing of rice [8]. awareness, literacy, awareness on diseases Van der Ban and Hawkins [1] have reported like AIDS, cancer, chikungunya and leprosy, that in Java, shadow puppets were utilized to health and sanitation, small savings, budget, promote agricultural innovations. In Nigeria, communal harmony, anti-dowry, the use of fertilizer and tractor was promoted untouchability, breast feeding, protection of through traditional folk songs [1]. female child, food and nutrition, iodine, The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization malaria, monkey disease, irrigation, self- has declared that the folk media in the form help, new economic policy, etc [16]. of popular singers and musicians have There have been no studies into the role of proven highly effective for focusing Yakshagana in extension communication, community attention on population issues though it has been a major folk media of [9]. According to Chiovoloni [10], for Karnataka for centuries. The present paper, sustainable development of agriculture, there adopting an exploratory approach, has tried is a need for close collaboration between to examine the role of Yakshagana in development agents and traditional and new agricultural extension, from the perspective rural communicators to revive or strengthen of Diffusion of Innovations. the traditional communication system for making optimal use of its interactive power Agriculture and Yakshagana to stimulate peoples’ participation [10]. Yakshagana is part and parcel of Karnataka, Several studies have taken place in India too. especially of four districts i.e., Dakshina Chapke and Bhagat [11] conducted a study of Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada and Tamasha, Bhajan, Kirtan, Dhandhar and Shimoga, and Kasargod of Kerala. It has a Quawaly in Nagpur district in Maharashtra known history of at least 500 years. The art and found that folk media could be has two geographical variants- moodalapaya systematically used for agricultural as well (eastern style called Doddata-major play, as rural development [11]. Chauhan [12] Northern Karnataka), and paduvalapaya stated that policy makers involved in (western style- also known as coastal planning and implementation of research and yakshagana). Paduvalapaya Yakshagana has extension activities of agricultural fields another variant called ‘Tala Maddale’ a text-

©2013-2020, IJASSH. All Rights Reserved 2 Padmanabha K. V. & Sathish Kumar| International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities | 2020 | Vol. 08 | Issue 07 |01-08 centered performance with no stage-action, India got independence at a crucial juncture, dance and make-up, but focusing instead on when the country was facing a number of the sung verses and spoken dialogues [6]. grave problems. The outbreak of the Second Both agriculture and Yakshagana are the World War (1939-45) put severe strain on integral part of the life of coastal districts in India’s food economy, in part because the war Karnataka. Agriculture has been the main cut India off from the world food markets on occupation of the region for a long period, which it had become dependent [19]. In though there may have been shifts in sources addition to this, there was Great Bengal of income, of late. Famers in the coastal belt Famine of 1943, in which as many as 4 had no sources of entertainment and social million people died of starvation [20]. India education other than Yakshagana before the experienced a food crisis that enveloped the emergence of modern mass media. They had country in the first five years after to depend on folk media like Yakshagana to independence. The grain bowls of West come out of the monotony and routine Punjab and East Bengal went to Pakistan as pressures. a result of Partition. The situation was aggravated further by mass-exodus of people They could find some Yakshagana from across the boarder. performance somewhere in their village or in neighbouring villages almost every day. The situation compelled the government of Yakshagana has been a channel of informal India to initiate 'Grow More Food Campaign' education for the masses, and it has been in 1948. Arrangements were made for aptly referred as an Open University [17]. integration and co-ordination of the entire Yakshagana has its base on epics like campaign for increasing agricultural Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata and production. Agricultural departments of state various puranas, which are rich in noble governments were assigned the responsibility values. Every prasanga (episode; play-text in of implementing this campaign. Some state the form of poetry) based on these governments associated the public with mythologies propagate morality and ethics, working of the campaign by setting up non- and have a deeper impact on the audiences in official committees at the village, taluk, one way or other. district and state levels.

Generations have been influenced by the The plans were revised from time to time to speech, music, colour and vibrancy of make the campaign more effective. The Grow Yakshagana so deeply that the natives of the More Food campaign (1943-51) was replaced region have a psychological bond with the art by the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), and its and the artistes. The uniqueness of primary emphasis was on agriculture and Yakshagana lies in its ability to respond to food production. the contemporary needs. From economic progress of the country to the creation of Yakshagana and GMF awareness against epidemics, Yakshagana Yakshagana played a significant role in has responded to the contemporary disseminating the objectives of Grow More developments of the society from time to Food and other schemes of agricultural time. development of the government in coastal Karnataka in 1950s and 1960s. National Different government agencies like the Song Extension Service (NES), a rural and Drama Division, the Directorate of Field development initiative launched by the Publicity, etc. have adopted different folk Government of India in 1953, conducted a media for communicating development Yakshagana Talamaddale competition in communication, while folk artistes too have Dakshina Kannada district in order to participated in such missions voluntarily. encourage Yakshagana authors to come up Yakshagana has been one such art form. with new prasangas dealing with Grow More Food (GMF) Campaign agricultural development. Rapid agricultural development in order to Several prasangas on agricultural achieve food self-sufficiency in the shortest development were composed and performed possible time was among the immediate during this period. Nellura Gella, Japani priority of India in the post-independent Krishi Vijaya, Rashtra Vijaya, Krishi Vijaya, scenario [18].

Krishi Mahime, Grow More Food, etc. were Service in 1959 to publicize the Grow More some of the Yakshagana prasangas composed Food campaign”. with the central theme of agricultural development. The prasanga was published along with interpretations in 1960. It was performed at Nellura Gella (1958) various places in coastal and Malenad areas in the early 1960s. As the title indicates, the ‘Nellura Gella’ (literally means ‘victory of a prasanga intended to popularize the village of paddy’) of Kolambe Puttanna Japanese farming technique, which was a Gowda can be considered one of the part of the agricultural extension activities of pioneering attempts in this connection. the period. According to Rao [22], “The Gowda, who was a teacher, writer and farmer prasanga highlights the food crisis in the from Chokkadi in Sullia taluk of Karnataka, country, appealing people to try their level composed this prasanga in 1958. The purpose best to solve the same. It denotes that people of the author was “to publicize the message of should make use of the timely assistance of increased food production by using the the government.” The “imaginary plot” medium of Yakshagana” [21]. depicted how a gram sevak (village servant) Though the prasanga was on a contemporary convinced the village head as well as the theme, Damle [21] points out, that the author farmers to adopt the Japanese farming had tried to accommodate its message in the method, and how “the food crisis of the traditional style of Yakshagana by brining country was solved with the four-fold characters like Dhanyadevi (Goddess of increase in food production” [22]. grains) and Narada. To summarize the plot of The gram sevak, in the plot, explains the Nellura Gella: farmers spend their time in modern agricultural techniques such worshiping Dhanyadevi, while the Goddess Japanese method of implantation, use of appears and advises them “to minimize chemical fertilizers, pesticides and worship and maximize work” [21]. intercultivator. He also suggests ways of Meanwhile Narada meets the farmers and borrowing loans from cooperative societies. educates them regarding chemical fertilizers, The landlord opposes the new initiatives in improved seeds, and advanced farm the beginning but gets convinced about them equipments in order to achieve increased food once he witnesses the results, and instructs production. The farmers also get organized all other tenants to follow the method from and achieve good results. This worries the next season. Daridryaraja (the king of poverty), who asks Rashtra Vijaya (1961) his followers, the ‘fool’ and the ‘idler’ to mingle with farmers and make them to turn ‘Rashtra Vijaya’ (literally means ‘victory of away from their works. the nation’) is a similar prasanga, composed by Seethanadi Ganapaiah Shetty in 1961. He also sends pests to spoil the crops. Shetty, a renowned Yakshagana author, is Finally, Dhanyadevi intervenes, defeats from a place called Seethanadi near Hebri in Daridryaraja and his team and provides Karkala taluk of Karnataka. He has solace to farmers. The prasanga is a well- composed about 56 prasangas in Kannada structured idea to convey the need for and Tulu languages related to different agricultural development as intended by the themes. Rashtra Vijaya too secured cash Grow More Food campaign and the First Five prize from Government of India for its Year Plan. innovation and excellence during 1960s.

Japani Krishi Vijaya (1959) It does not focus only on agriculture and Manila Shivashankara Shatri from Punacha industrialization, but also speaks about in Bantwal taluk of Karnataka, composed eradication of poverty, corruption, class and ‘Japani Krishi Vijaya’ (literally means caste differences in society, black market, ‘victory of Japanese farming technique’) in gambling, and alcoholism. The prasanga 1959. Shastri was a teacher by profession. presents these issues through the events The prasanga “bagged gold medal in the taking place in the kingdom of one talamaddale competition conducted by the Dharmapalaka, the king of Sourashtra. Puttur Division of the National Extension

The king comes to know about the problems same objective, titled ‘Krishi Mahime’ prevailing in his state and implements (meaning ‘greatness of agriculture’). There various development projects with the help of was also one more attempt by K. his minister Subuddhi. Gopalakrishna Bhat Kaikamba titled ‘Raitana Baduku’ (meaning life of a farmer). The author of the prasanga has also provided dialogues along with the verses, in order to Madhupa Mahatme (1980) help artistes to communicate the messages ‘Madhupa Mahatme’ (meaning ‘greatness of better. The prasanga clearly reflects the honeybees’) is a different one in respect of its objectives of the first two Five Year Plans, theme, compared to the previously discussed where the plot emphasizes increased prasangas. An episode promoting beekeeping, agricultural production, which necessitates it was written by agriculturist and artist irrigation projects, construction of dams, Harikrishna Bhat Artyadka in 1980. The power generation, crop loans to farmers, etc. prasanga highlights the advantages of honey, It portrays the picture of a welfare state as a the procedure of proper beekeeping, and the result of agricultural development and measures to protect honeybees through a industrialization [22]. story. As per the prasanga: Long back, Queen Krishi Vijaya (1960s) Bee, created by Brahma, descends to Earth and develops her family on the foothills of ‘Krishi Vijaya’ (literally means ‘victory of Shivagiri. agriculture’) of V. Rama Rao Siddayyakodi belongs to the same series of prasangas. Finding medicinal uses in honey, Chandra, a Rama Rao was a teacher from Bantwal taluk human, fosters honeybees and popularizes in Karnataka. The plot of ‘Krishi Vijaya’ beekeeping. The bee-family faces threats advises farmers to concentrate on from Pipeelikasura (‘ant’ referred as demon) agricultural development and suggests and Kanajasura (‘wasp’ referred as demon). measures to be taken against the plant Finally, they overcome all the threats, diseases and pests. Krishi Vijaya presents expand the family and lead a happy life. the story of a depressed farmer who has lost interest in farming due to the loss he Effects of Modern Agriculture and incurred. Yakshagana Development communication is not only The plant diseases are depicted as demons in about promoting positive changes, but also the plot. The gram sevak suggests the farmer about criticizing the negative aspects. measures to be taken against these ‘demons’ Yakshagana has looked at the other side of and steps to improve agriculture. Motivated the modernization of agriculture too. by the gram sevak, the farmer concentrates Yakshagana authors have responded to the on agriculture with improved farming contemporary developments in the field of techniques and achieves prosperity. The agriculture and composed prasangas farmer in the prasanga represents the highlighting the ill-effects of over- agricultural community of the country. mechanization. The following section Other Efforts analyses two such prasangas. Several other attempts have also been done Savayava Vijaya (2010) in Yakshagana with the intension of Savayava Vijaya (meaning victory of organic agricultural extension. Ambemule Govinda farming) by artist and academician Bhaskar Bhat, a farmer and homoeopathy medicine Rai Kukkuvalli from Mangalore was practitioner from Kasaragod district, Kerala, composed in 2010. As the title indicates, the has composed a prasanga titled ‘Grow More prasanga highlights the significance of Food’ which directly deals with the intentions organic farming and points at the ill-effects of of the GMF scheme. N. Narayana Shetty, a modern agricultural approaches. scholar of poetics, from Mangalore has written a prasanga titled, again, ‘Krishi To summarize the plot: a person suffering Vijaya’ (victory of agriculture). from various diseases approaches his king and seeks solutions to his misery. After N. N. Madhyasatha, a teacher and a consultation with his minister, the king Yakshagana artiste, from Kasargod district, understands that the diseases are due to the came up with another prasanga with the

©2013-2020, IJASSH. All Rights Reserved 5 Padmanabha K. V. & Sathish Kumar| International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities | 2020 | Vol. 08 | Issue 07 |01-08 troubles caused by one demon (personifying approaches, which has converted farming increased use of chemical fertilizers, into an industry [23]. pesticides and insecticides). Savayava Kumara, son of the minister, wages a war Discussion against the demon and provides solace to the The prasangas presented above can be citizens by killing him. In an interview with broadly classified into two categories- these authors, Bhaskar Rai Kukkuvalli said, prasangas with mythological background and the prasanga was specially prepared for prasangas with social background – though broadcasting in ‘Krishi Ranga’ programme of all of them belong to a single category called All India Radio, Mangalore. Renowned ‘imaginary prasangas’. The first category Yakshagana artistes Padyana Ganapathi uses a storyline similar to that of mythology, Bhat (Bhagavata- the singer), Siddakatte where characters such as god, sage, king, Chennappa Shetty (Savayava Kumara), minister, demon, etc are used. The second Kumble Sundar Rao (the king), M. category adopts the modern characters such Prabhakar Joshi (the demon) and Bhaskar as landlord, farmer, gram sevak, social Rai Kukkuvalli (the minister) had worker, etc. Nellura Gella, Rashtra Vijaya, participated in the Yakshagana talamaddale. Savayava Vijaya, Krishi Vijaya (of M.T. The 30-minute-episode spoke about Shanthimoole), and Madhupa Mahatme environmental protection, increasing belong to the first category, while Japani immunity in people, apart from propagating Krishi Vijaya and Krishi Vijaya (of Rama Rao the ‘organic mission’. ) belong to the second category.

Krishi Vijaya (2011) Though all the prasangas have a single broad Agriculturist and teacher M. T. Shanthimoole intention, i.e. agricultural extension, this from Sullia taluk of Karnataka wrote a categorization is important to examine their Yakshagana ‘Krishi Vijaya’ in 2011. This effectiveness. Studies have revealed that Krishi Vijaya was different in its content Yakshagana can be used for awareness from that of the prasangas produced in 1950s purpose, but audiences have always felt that and 60s with the same title. If the episodes Yakshagana with mythological framework written during the Grow More Food will be more effective [16, 24]. Yakshagana is campaign dealt with acceleration of food basically an art form used to narrate production with modern techniques, the new mythological stories. Non-mythological one highlighted their demerits and promoted prasangas gained popularity only after the need for organic farming. 1950s.

The prasanga opens up with Narada meeting Therefore, it is natural that the traditional Bharatha Muni, a sage advocating of organic viewers of Yakshagana are pleased to watch farming. Narada explains the disappointing Yakshagana with mythological framework. state of agriculture, worsened with the This is true specifically for Yakshagana excessive use of chemical fertilizers and bayalata because, this is a performance pesticides. Bharatha Muni decides to provide necessitating characters acting on stage with a solution to the situation and creates a specific costumes, make-up and language. model of organic farming on the foothills of Characters like Dharmapalaka or Subuddhi Malayachala with his disciples. in Rashtra Vijaya, Dhanyadevi, Narada or Daridryaraja in Nellura Gella, king, On the other hand, Mahiketana, the advocate minister, demon or Savayava Kumara in of modern agriculture continues his method Savayava Vijaya can be brought on stage and ridicules organic farming. Some farmers with costumes which fit to the tradition of blindly follow his approach and end up in Yakshagana. failure and disappointment. Eventually, farmers are convinced with the advantages of They will be more “acceptable” to the organic farming and decide to adopt the audience. Whereas, characters like gram same. As the authors writes, “the prasanga sevak, social worker, landlord, farmer, etc. intends to highlight the negative side of the may not fit to the costumes of traditional modern agriculture propagated in the name Yakshagana. However, this limitation is of Green Revolution.” He says he aspires to minimal in talamaddale, which too has much motivate the ordinary farmers who are potentiality to communicate intended depressed with the failures of modern message to the audience.

The prasangas discussed above can also be communication too, where they are called classified into two more categories, i.e. extension agents or field officers. It is prasangas supporting modern agriculture important to note that the Yakshagana and prasangas supporting organic farming. authors have brought the idea of opinion Prasangas composed during the period of leaders. The gram sevak of Japani Krishi Grow More Good campaign like Nellura Vijaya and Krishi Vijaya (of Rama Rao), Gella, Rashtra Vijaya, Japani Krishi Vijaya Subuddhi in Rashtra Vijaya, Narada in are more concerned about modern Nellura Gella, Bharata Muni in Krishi Vijaya agricultural techniques, while those written (of M. T. Shanthimule) are good examples of in the new millennium like Savayava Vijaya opinion leaders. The audience can easily or Krishi Vijaya (of M T Shanthimoole) relate the role played by the extension support organic farming. Which method of officers in the real life, which will certainly farming is better-is not a topic of discussion be a support to the extension officers in their here. act of agricultural extension. The point to be noted is that Yakshagana as Conclusion a responsible art has responded to the Many scholars and artistes have argued that contemporary needs. As mentioned earlier, any living art like Yakshagana should not be the initial decades of independence restricted to mere entertainment. As Joshi demanded massive food production since the [27] said, “Any art that does not accept country was suffering from food crisis, and contemporary influences will be more dead therefore, the administrators thought of than alive” [27]. In the words of Someshwara adopting modern agricultural techniques, for [28], “A live art having mobility cannot live in which extension communication was a key past without having an idea about present requirement. and future. In case it continues the old habit, It was natural that Yakshagana as a such an art becomes reactionary and anti- traditional folk media supported the progressive. It loses its meaningful link with government’s policy and became a part of the the presence” [28]. Yakshagana has made the mission. A different thought process emerged maximum use of its flexibility and responded in the country after 1980s with to the contemporary issues. environmental movements making a strong Its role in agricultural extension is an presence. People started becoming aware of instance to this. Any social transformation the other side of modern farming and Green does not take place instantly; rather it is a Revolution. Savayava Vijaya or Krishi Vijaya gradual process. Yakshagana as a traditional are representatives of this thought. An folk theatre does not cause changes all of a important feature of most of the Yakshagana sudden because it works at a deeper prasangas here is that the use of opinion psychological level. Yakshagana prasangas leaders. can create a congenial environment, an The idea of opinion leaders was developed by important prerequisite of extension. Katz [25] and was effectively applied by However, those who use such traditional arts Rogers [26] in his concept of Diffusion of in development communication should take Innovations [25, 26]. Opinion leaders have a sufficient care to see that their originality is greater role to play in extension not harmed.

References 1. Van der Ban AW, Hawkins HS (1996) Annual Conference of the Association of Agricultural extension. Hoboken: Wiley. International Agricultural Extension and Education. Florida, USA. Retrieved from 2. Anderson JR, Feder G (2004) Agricultural https://rb.gy/luvvx4. extension: Good intentions and hard realities. The World Bank Research 4. Melkote SR, Steeves HL (2001) Observer, 19(1):41-60. Communication for development in the third world: Theory and practice for 3. Chapke RR, Bhagat R (2006 November 1). empowerment. New Delhi: Sage Traditional folk media: A potentially Publications. effective communication tool in rural areas. Paper presented during 22nd

5. Ashton MB (1969) Yakshagana: A South 16. Kumar S (2010) Role of Yakshagana in Indian folk theatre. The Drama Review, Development Communication. In Nandini 13(3):148-155. Lakshmikantha & Krishnamurthy Sitaram (Ed.). Media Researcher. 6. Bapat G (1998) Semiotics of Yakshagana. Bangalore: PG Dept. of Journalism and Udupi: Regional Resource Centre for Folk Mass Communication, Acharya Institute Performing Arts. of Graduate Studies. 7. Ranganath HK (1980) Using folk 17. Joshi MP (2006) Yakshaganadalli vastu- entertainments to promote national mandane: Kelavu tippanigalu. In development. Paris: UNESCO. Padekallu Vishnu Bhat (Ed.). Sukruti- 8. Valbuena VT (1993) Weaving together folk Prof. T. Keshava Bhatta Samsmarana media and mass media. Development Samputa. Udupi: Prof. T. Keshava Bhatta Communication Report 74, Singapore. Samsmarana Samiti, 311-330. 9. Coldevin G (2007) Making a difference 18. Datt R, Sundharam KPM (1999) Indian through development communication: Economy. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Ltd. Some evidence-based results from FAO 19. Sherman TC (2013) from 'grow more food' field projects. In J.Servaes (Ed.) to 'miss a meal': hunger, development and Communication for development and the limits of post-colonial nationalism in social change (232-251). New Delhi: Sage India, 1947-1957. South Asia: Journal of Publications. South Asian Studies, 36 (4):571-588. 10. Chiovoloni M (2004) the interactive power 20. Sen A (1981) Poverty and famines: An of local and traditional communication essay on entitlement and deprivation. systems. Ileia Magazine, 28:1-4. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11. Chapke RR, Bhagat R (2003 July 15) 21. Damle C (1986 February 2) Hosa Traditional folk media – An effective ashayada nellura gella. Mungaru. communication tool for social development. Paper presented during International 22. Rao KB (1973) Yakshagana. Mangalore: Seminar on People’s Traditional Wisdom Kubanoor Balakrishna Rao. in Agro-ecosystem Management, held at 23. Shanthimoole MT (2011) Krishi vijaya Florence, Italy. Retrieved from yakshagana prasanga. Narnakaje, Sullia: https://rb.gy/8g9x62. Karthikeya Prakashana Kayaka Sangha. 12. Chauhan NB (2004 February 17-18). 24. Ishwarachandra BG (2020) Samvahana Corrective approaches of communication madhyamavagi yakshagana: Ondu for sustainable extension services in India. vishleshanatmaka adhyayana. National workshop on communication Unpublished PhD dissertation submitted support for sustaining extension services. to Kuvempu University, Karnataka. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Retrieved from https://rb.gy/rpuojc. 25. Katz E (1957) the two-step flow of communication: An up-to-date report on 13. Usharani N (1994) Alternative media: hypothesis. Public Opinion Quarterly, New dimensions. Communicator, 29(1):1- 21:61-78 5. 26. Rogers EM (1962) Diffusion of innovations. 14. Madhyastha S (2005) Yakshagana as a NY: Free Press of Glencoe. tool for development communication. In Kamalipour, Y. R. & Dasgupta, B. Global 27. Joshi MP (1998) Vagartha. Puttur: Media Journal. MIC, Manipal. Karnataka Sangha. 15. D’Silva MU, Walker KL, Hart JL (2008) 28. Someshwar A (2013) Yakshataru. The HIV/AIDS pandemic: Examining a Mangalagangothri: Dr. P. Dayananda Pai global health problem from intercultural & Sri P. Satish Pai Yakshagana communication perspectives. Intercultural Adhyayana Kendra. Communication Studies, 17(4):36-43.