Exploring Faculty's Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Styles On

Exploring Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Styles on Motivation

Towards Work at University of The Gambia (The Gambia) and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop (Senegal)

A dissertation presented to

the faculty of

The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Doctor of Education

Saiba K. Suso

April 2021

Exploring Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Styles on Motivation

Towards Work at University of The Gambia (The Gambia) and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop (Senegal)

SAIBA K. SUSO

has been approved for

the Department of Educational Studies

and The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education by

Emmanuel Jean Francois

Associate Professor of Educational Studies

Renée A. Middleton

Dean, The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education of Ohio University 3

Abstract

SAIBA K. SUSO, Ed.D. April 2021, Educational Administration

Exploring Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Styles on Motivation

Towards Work at University of The Gambia (The Gambia) and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop (Senegal)

Director of Dissertation: Emmanuel Jean Francois

This dissertation sought to explore faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership styles on motivation towards work at University of The Gambia (UTG) in the Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD) in Senegal using qualitative case study.

The University of Cheikh Anta Diop was established in 1958, while the University of

The Gambia came into being by an Act of Parliament in 1999. Using Sacchetti’s (2015)

Inclusive and Exclusive Governance model which explains organizational leaders’ success or failure to motivate followers as resulting from their choices between inclusion and exclusion in governance and decision-making, the study analyzed Vice

Chancellor/Rector-faculty relationships at UTG and UCAD to understand the influence of the leadership style on faculty motivation at both universities. The existing literature reveals that higher education leadership-faculty relation is highly influenced by faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style and its impact on faculty wellbeing. Therefore, issues such as equity, equality, fairness, and participation, according to behavioral psychologists such as Adams (1963) and Hertzberg (1966), have influence on faculty wellbeing.

However, the literature on how faculty’s perspective on institutional leadership style influences faculty motivation at the workplace in Senegambian higher education 4 institutions is scarce. This study seeks to identify how faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style at the UTG and UCAD influences their motivation. The data was collected through interviewing seven members of faculty from each of the two universities and documents review. The documents reviewed showed the influence of politicians on policy making at UCAD and the resultant long-term conflicts between faculty and the leadership and between students and the government through the Rector.

As at UTG, the Rector at UCAD is appointed by the head of state. This political mandate has been exploited by some heads of state to impose policies on the university with health hazards for faculty and students in many cases. Often, the consequences have been strikes of different magnitudes. A comparative study of the data was performed through cross- case analysis which involves examining themes in the data and identifying similarities and differences across the cases. The findings showed that a blend of transformational leadership style, which shows respect for employees, and the democratic leadership style, which exercises devolution of powers, has greater motivation on faculty even if other factors such as conditions of work tend to be unpleasant. Democratic leadership has been popularly identified as ideal by many participants because of its empowerment of faculty.

Democratic leadership allows faculty to participate in the policy making and governance structures of the institution. Faculty derived such high sense of satisfaction from participating in the democratic structures that even though some factors such as work conditions have been found to be demoralizing, they do not affect faculty motivation negatively. Democratic decision making, when blended with transformational leadership, has the potential of offsetting the negative effects of other factors because faculty value 5 respect, fairness, justice, and recognition above many other factors. Conclusions were drawn from the analysis and recommendations made for further research.

Recommendations were made for what University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop in terms of what they can learn from each other, the benefits for stakeholders, and further research. 6

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to the memories of my late father, Alhagie Karunka Suso,

mother, Haja Keme Jebarteh, my wife, and the children.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the Chair of my Committee, Dr.

Emmanuel Jean Francois, whose close and constant mentoring and supervision culminated into the successful completion of this dissertation. Also, my sincere thanks, go to the rest of my highly esteemed Committee, Dr. Assan Sarr, Dr. Dwan Robinson, and Dr. Charles Lowery all of whom have given me indefatigable support and encouragement in my entire program. This dissertation project could not have been accomplished without the empathic efforts of this highly esteemed Committee. I wish to express my gratitude to my late parents and Clive Belgeonne who stood by side through thick and thin to help me achieve my goals in academia. My sincere thanks go to Dr.

Barrel Gueye Sowe and her colleagues, Dr. Ibra Sene, Dr. Haddy Njie, Ebrima Ceesay, and all others who made this achievement possible through their continued support and believe in me. I thank members of the Suso Kuda families of Wuli Passamas, Mansajang

Kunda, Kombo Sukuta, and Farato. I am indebted to all of you in no small measure.

Allah be with you all.

Table of Contents

Page

Abstract ...... 3 Dedication ...... 6 Acknowledgements ...... 7 List of Tables ...... 13 List of Figures ...... 14 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 15 Background ...... 15 Problem Statement ...... 16 Purpose Statement ...... 22 Significance of the Study ...... 23 Research Questions ...... 24 Justification of the Study ...... 25 Beneficiaries of the Study ...... 29 Limitations of the Study...... 30 Delimitations of the Study ...... 31 Organization of the Study ...... 32 Operational Definition of Key Terms ...... 32 Boko Haram...... 32 Good Leadership ...... 33 Leadership ...... 33 Leadership Style...... 33 Motivation ...... 33 Organizational Culture ...... 34 Organization Climate ...... 34 Organizational Environment ...... 34 Performance ...... 34 Poor Leadership ...... 35 Rohingyas ...... 35 Summary ...... 35 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 37 9

Introduction ...... 37 Leadership ...... 38 Leadership Styles ...... 40 Laissez Faire Leadership...... 41 Instructional or Transactional Leadership ...... 43 Transformational Leadership ...... 46 Integrated Leadership...... 53 Contingency Theory...... 57 Flexibility and Adaptive Theory ...... 58 Strength of Flexible and Adaptive Theory ...... 61 Weakness of Flexible and Adaptive Theory ...... 62 Application of Flexibility/ Adaptive Theory to Educational Organizations ...... 63 Capacity Development as Flexibility Leadership Style ...... 63 Social Justice Leadership ...... 65 Motivation ...... 69 Participation as Basis for Motivation ...... 71 Motivation and Organizational Performance ...... 73 Faculty Perspective as Product of Organizational Culture and Campus Climate ...... 77 Policy Formulation in Educational Leadership Practice ...... 80 Summary ...... 83 Conceptual Framework ...... 85 Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 101 Introduction ...... 101 Research Design...... 101 Case Study ...... 104 Research Setting...... 107 Sampling Techniques ...... 109 Participants ...... 114 Instrumentation ...... 116 Data Collection ...... 120 Interviews Process ...... 120 Observation ...... 122 Documents Review ...... 124 10

Validating Data Analysis Procedure ...... 126 Data Analysis and Coding Strategies ...... 130 Within-Case Analysis ...... 133 Cross-Case Analysis ...... 135 Trustworthiness/Reliability (Credibility and Dependability) ...... 135 Researcher’s Role/Personal Biography ...... 139 Research Protocol and Ethics...... 142 Chapter 4: Findings ...... 144 Introduction ...... 144 Presentation of Within-Case Findings on UTG ...... 145 Perspective of Institutional Leadership Style ...... 146 Justification of Leadership Perspective Description ...... 148 Conditions Affecting Perspectives of Leadership Style ...... 152 Influence of Perspective Determinants on Faculty Motivation ...... 161 Presentation of Findings on UCAD ...... 167 Perspectives of Leadership Style ...... 167 Justification of Leadership Style Description ...... 169 Conditions Affecting Perspective of Institutional Leadership Style ...... 171 Influence of Perspectives of Leadership Style Description on Motivation ...... 176 General Explanation of the Cases ...... 181 University of The Gambia ...... 182 University of Cheikh Anta Diop ...... 185 Presentation of the Cross-Case Findings ...... 188 Perspectives of Leadership Style ...... 192 Justification of Faculty’s Description of Their Leadership Styles ...... 193 Conditions Affecting Perspective Determinants ...... 195 Influence of Faculty’s Perspective Determinants on Motivation ...... 210 Summary ...... 218 Chapter 5: Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusion ...... 220 Introduction ...... 220 Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Style on Their Motivation at UTG ...... 220 Inefficient/ Ineffective Group ...... 223 11

Unprofessionalism in Leadership ...... 224 Divisiveness/ Discrimination ...... 224 Contemptuousness ...... 226 Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Style on Their Motivation at UCAD ...... 230 Participation ...... 231 Innovation ...... 233 Professionalism, Openness and Criteria-Based Administration ...... 235 Recognition ...... 237 Occasional Slow Decision-Making and Communication Weakness ...... 238 Extent of Leadership Style Influence on Faculty Motivation at UTG ...... 242 Relationships ...... 242 Emotional Feelings and Conflict ...... 244 Attitudes ...... 246 Organizational Performance ...... 248 Extent of Leadership Style Influence on Faculty Motivation at UCAD ...... 250 Relationships ...... 250 Emotional Feelings and Conflicts ...... 253 Attitudes ...... 256 Organizational Performance ...... 257 Similarities Between the Motivational Experiences of Faculty at UTG and UCAD 259 Political Mandate to Select the Vice Chancellor/ Rector ...... 259 Differences Between the Motivational Experiences of Faculty at UTG and UCAD 261 Centralized and Decentralized Decision-Making ...... 261 Similar Conditions of Work Producing Dissimilar Work Motivational Effects . 263 Conclusion ...... 263 Recommendations: What Faculty at UTG and UCAD Can Learn from Each Other 265 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 271 References ...... 273 Appendix A: IRB Approval ...... 286 Appendix B: Letter of Access to UTG ...... 288 Appendix C: Letter of Access to UCAD ...... 289 Appendix D: English Version of Research Instrument...... 290 12

Appendix E: French Version of Research Instrument ...... 292

List of Tables

Page

Table 1 Taxonomy of Social Preferences in Production Organizations …………….86 Table 2 Profile of Participants at University of The Gambia ………………………115 Table 3: Profile of Participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop ……………….116 Table 4: Comparison of Themes and Subthemes in the Findings ………………….189

List of Figures

Page

Figure 1 Burki’s and Litwin’s Model of Organizational Performance and Change ….55 Figure 2 Analytical Framework for University Leadership Styles, Choices, and Productivity ……………………………………………………………………………96

Chapter 1: Introduction

Background

The Gambia and Senegal share similar, and, in some cases, the same historical experiences and common heritage. Nevertheless, differences exist in official and instructional languages. While Senegal has French as its official and instructional language, the official and instructional language for The Gambia is English. Since the researcher’s intention is to explore faculty’s perceptive of the influence of leadership styles on motivation towards work at a Gambian university (UTG) and a Senegalese university (UCAD) explaining the homogeneity of the cultural contexts serves as a strong basis for the comparison, despite official and instructional language differences. The region that is occupied by The Gambia and Senegal is referred to as the Senegambia

Region, to reference the historical identity of the two countries divided by colonial interests (Evans & Ray, 2013; Mazonde, 2001; Senghor, 2013). The two countries share the same geographical, cultural, historical, and social contexts, which according to

Hofstede (2001), are fundamental cultural elements that determine international comparability.

Thus, the cultural similarities between The Gambia and Senegal allow for reliable comparison in the educational issues of the two countries (Nyang, 2013; Saine, Ceesay,

& Sall, 2013; Senghor, 2013). The significance of context in comparative studies has been emphasized by Sobe and Kowalczyk (2012). The contextual factor, which, according to Hofstede (1980), is key in comparative education, does not pose difficulty for comparison between the two countries, as the social, political, cultural, and historical 16 contexts are identical in numerous ways and the geographical space is the same. The

Gambia lies within Senegal on a latitude that cuts through Senegal from East to West.

Evans and Ray (2013) cited the Burkinabe academic’s (Joseph Ki Zerbo’s) humorous description of The Gambia as a country like a banana pushed into the mouth of Senegal.

As a fundamental element of culture, education is strongly related to the other elements of culture such as philosophy, religion and socio-economic arrangements (Jean-

Francois, 2015; Mazonde, 2001; Senghor, 2013). Comparison in the area of higher education leadership style and faculty motivation between Gambian and Senegalese institutions is culturally feasible as both countries share similar social, cultural (religions:

Islam, which is the predominant religion of both countries and influences the people’s way of life significantly, Christianity, and African Traditional Religion), historical, geographic, and economic conditions (Saine, Ceesay, & Sall, 2013; Senghor, 2013).

Educational practice, prospects, and challenges in either Senegal or The Gambia can be useful in informing educational reform in the other country.

Problem Statement

Education is crucial for the improvement of the well-being of individuals and the development of societies because it provides the requisite knowledge and skills for such development to individuals and societies (Astin & Astin, 2000; Domatos, 1996; Jean-

Francois, 2013). Universities have the crucial roles of providing higher education and

“training academics and qualified professionals, inculcating right attitudes, norms and values as well as developing human and social capacity which are the bedrock of societal and economic development” (Adewuyi & Okemakinde, 2013, p. 127). Many universities 17 in Africa have had good reputations for producing academics and professionals of national and international statues who have not only contributed significantly to knowledge production but also impacted the lives of many people positively (Garwe, n.d.). Such universities have had accreditation by, and affiliation with, some world class institutions of higher education and research much early (Bhola & Dhanawade, 2013;

Domatob, 1996; Mazonde, 2001; Sall, 2004). For instance, Mazonde (2001) revealed that

Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone, West Africa, was established in 1827 and affiliated to the University of Durham as early as 1876.

However, in recent years, many universities in Africa have degenerated with serious implications for individual and societal development due partly to the leadership styles of the institutions (Adewuyi & Okemakinde, 2013; Okoroma, 2007; Mazonde,

2001; Ozo, 2014; Polgreen, 2007; Sall, 2004). Higher education leadership and governance styles have been found to affect various segments of the school as an organization. Faculty-leader relationship has been one of the major essential areas of influence of leadership style on educational performance in higher education institutions

(Franco-Santos, et al., 2017). For example, the institutional leadership and management style in the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop have been observed to have some effect on faculty performance (Camara & Bodian, 2016; Ozo,

2014).

The two public not-for profit institutions of University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop were founded at different times and under different political conditions. The University of The Gambia located in The Gambia was 18 established thirty-four years after independence – 1999 – (Gambia Government,

University of The Gambia Act 1999). On the other hand, University Cheikh Anta Diop, situated in Senegal, was established originally as Dakar School of Medicine, in 1918, in the colonial days, inaugurated as University of Dakar in 1959, and renamed University of

Cheikh Anta Diop in 1987 (Camara & Bodian, 2016). The University of The Gambia has a national ranking of Number 2 among three universities in the country and a global ranking of 11,395. University of Cheikh Anta Diop, on the other hand, has a national excellence ranking of Number 1 among the twenty-eight institutions of higher education in Senegal and a global excellence ranking of 5040 among world universities (Ranking

Web of Universities, July 2019). Both universities are led by a Vice Chancellor or Rector who is appointed by their heads of state. UCAD has five faculties each headed by a Dean

(Doyen, in French) and UTG has ten faculties and schools each headed by a Dean. The faculties and schools are divided into departments each led by a Head of Department. The

Deans and Heads of Department have teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities.

At the establishment of the University of The Gambia in 1999, good collegiality and academic productivity were the hallmarks of the institution’s culture and climate, according to Ozo (2014). However, leadership crisis has reversed the productivity of the institution (Ozo, 2014). Ozo (2014) observed that the research committee of the

University of The Gambia consisted of professionals and scientists with satisfactory management of research governance at the inception of the institution. Ozo argued that research governance started declining as soon as the management committee of the 19

Research Directorate was constituted on non-scientific and non-professional considerations. Ozo (2014) argued that: “this committee as well as other departmental and faculty … committees have become either redundant or moribund” (p. 6). The leadership style which influenced the constitution of the research, departmental, and other faculty committees in the University of The Gambia, therefore, has been a major factor affecting productivity in the institution. Ozo (2014) revealed that respondents in their study pointed to the selective favoritism and bias of the leadership at the University of

The Gambia as obstacles to productivity. According to Ozo, (2014), respondents stated that: “It is only management that dictates what one does and when. … and if you are not in the good books of management, they would not want to fund your activities” (p. 7).

Nyang (2012) also observed that the quality of leadership of the University of The

Gambia is a major hinderance to the development of the of the institution in the following words: “UTG [University of The Gambia] is a young institution with considerable potential but needs … a visionary leadership. Under the right leadership this institution could potentially become a first-rate institution” (p. 520). Thus, leadership crisis is at the heart of development problem of the University of The Gambia.

Similarly, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, educational leadership has been described as a major contributing factor to deteriorating educational standards (Polgreen,

May 20, 2007). The policy of massive enrollment of students without adequate facilities to cater for the educational and social needs of the increasing number of students without a corresponding increase in infrastructure has been described as a source of declining standards at University of Cheikh Anta Diop (Polgreen, 2007, May 20). Eisemon and 20

Salmi (1993) and Polgreen (2007, May 20) have pointed out that dilapidating infrastructure and inadequate equipment, also, are sources of declining educational standards at Cheikh Anta Diop University. The emergence of religious (Islamic) activism on campus has also been identified by scholars such as Polgreen (2007) and Camara and

Bodian (2016) as leadership challenges facing the institution.

Although, there are differences in the challenges at both the University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the leadership styles at the two institutions have been depicted as having a key influence on the development of the universities

(Camara & Bodian, 2016; Eisemon & Salmi, 1993; Nyang, 2012; Ozo, 2014; Polgreen

2007). The low productivity at the University of The Gambia has been attributed mainly to the quality of leadership style and governance system of the institution’s units. On the other hand, declining standards due to “massification” in student population without a corresponding increase in facilities and inadequate equipment, according to Polgreen

(2007), and the declining infrastructure are some of the indications of quality of leadership style at Cheikh Anta Diop University. Constant student activism based on

Islamic fundamentalism replacing academic secularity on campus has become a major leadership problem at Cheikh Anta University, according to Camara and Bodian (2016).

The leadership styles at both universities are shown to have limited the institutions’ growth and development to their fullest (Nyang, 2012; Ozo, 2014). Astin and Astin

(2000) have argued that “poor educational governance is both an individual and an institutional challenge as it hinders productivity through low faculty motivation” (p. 12).

Also, according to equity theory, a major factor that influences faculties’ motivation and 21 productivity is how employees perceive management’s practice of justice, fairness, and equity in relation to their input (task performance) and the reward (outcome) compared to the task level, and the reward paid to another colleague doing the same or a similar task in the institution (Adams, 1963). Motivation and performance are therefore not only linked but also major consequences of leadership styles in institutions (Adams, 1963;

Bandura, 1964; 1965; 1973; 1982; 1986; 1989; 1997; Locke, 1968; Locke & Latham,

1990, 2006; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1980; McClelland, 1985; Mintzberg, 1973).

The influence of politics on institutional management and governance at both universities has been described as significant in understanding faculty’s perspectives of how the leadership styles of their institutions affect their motivation at the University of

The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Various Vice Chancellors changed tenure at both universities since their inception, with varying degrees of political influence on their institutional management and governance at the University of The

Gambia. Some Vice Chancellors have been so close to the presidency of the country that their relationship with faculty was seen as demonstrating a sense of invincibility. Some others had such bitter relationship with the head of state that when their service was terminated by the head of state they took recourse to court action for wrongful termination. Instances of termination of service and/ or dragging faculty to court by some

Vice Chancellors for the criticisms they had levelled against them was also a factor that marked faculty-Rector relationship at University of The Gambia, according to media reports. Similarly, at University Cheikh Anta Diop, various instances of political influence on some Vice Chancellors’ have been reported to be an underlying factor in the 22 constant strikes in the institution marked by peaceful, and, sometimes, violent demonstrations. Thus, both universities have been reported to have some degree of political influence on policy making and the relationships between staff through the leaderships of the institutions.

Therefore, exploring the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles on motivation towards work at the University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop both of which are facing similar leadership problems is crucial to faculty motivation and performance. A systematic comparative study of faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation to work at UTG and UCAD is imperative based on the similar institutional leadership problems within similar geographical, historical, and socio-cultural contexts for more efficient and effective higher education leadership styles and faculty motivation in the Senegambia

Region. Thus, this study will find out faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation and the existing similarities and differences in the influences on their motivational experiences at both institutions for greater institutional success.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore the influence of faculty’s perspectives of leadership style on motivation towards work at the University of The

Gambia in the Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop in Senegal for a more efficient higher education leadership style and faculty behavior in the subregion of the

Senegambia. At this stage in the research, leadership style is defined as “the relatively 23 consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader” (Nanjundeswaraswamy &

Swamy, 2014, p. 58). University governance system is generally defined as the leadership style or system of directing the affairs of an institution of higher education by the Rector or Vice Chancellor.

A higher education leadership style may be good or bad depending on its impact on institutional growth and development. A good university governance system means a leadership style in which the Rector or Vice Chancellor creates an organizational culture and campus climate that encourage democratic participation, collaboration, and cooperation among subordinates and staff leading to higher motivation and greater productivity. On the other hand, a poor or bad university leadership style and governance system refer to a system in which the Rector or Vice Chancellor relies on their subjective judgment to formulate higher education policies and direct practice unilaterally for academic success and demand unquestioned allegiance, obedience and compliance from subordinate staff and faculty or bias in the leader’s exercise of power and responsibility.

If good higher education leadership style grounded in the socio-cultural values of the

Senegambia Region could be discovered from UTG and UCAD, visionary educational leadership could be enhanced in Senegambian institutions of higher education.

Significance of the Study

The governance system of an institution of higher education has direct effect on the campus culture and climate and, therefore, the quality of educational outcome of the institution (Domatos, 1996; Sall, 2004). Astin and Astin (2000) argued that for students to take up responsibilities in their society effectively they must “have experienced 24 effective leadership as part of their education. They are not likely to commit to making changes in society unless the institutions in which they have been trained display a similar commitment” (p. 12). Hence, faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership style in their university is crucial in determining the educational and professional skills students acquire in higher education. This is because faculty’s perspectives of the influence leadership style in their institutions influences their motivation to work.

Different leadership styles create different organizational cultures and climates. In the same way, different organizational cultures and climates have different effects on faculty morale and motivation towards work. Faculty are likely to be more productive if highly motivated than if their motivation is low (Franco-Santo, et al., 2017). Highly motivated faculty are more likely to impact their students positively through greater effective teaching and mentoring. A good educational leadership style would, therefore, endeavor to raise faculty motivation for greater institutional efficiency and effectiveness. This study seeks to identify that motivating educational leadership style which will raise standards in universities in the Senegambian region of West Africa.

Research Questions

To explore faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership styles on motivation towards work at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the research will explore the following questions:

1. What are faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership style on their

motivation at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop? 25

2. To what extent do the perspectives of faculty at University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop influence their motivation towards work in their

institutions?

3. What are the similarities and differences between the motivational experiences of

faculty at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop

based on the influence of their perspectives of the educational leaderships of their

institutions?

Justification of the Study

Leadership styles are based on theoretical foundations which allow for analysis

(Bandura, 1964; 1965; 1973; 1982; 1986; 1989), as well as comparisons. Although

Senegal and The Gambia, for example, have had different higher educational systems, as the former is Francophone and the latter Anglophone, their leadership styles are based on specific theoretical premises. Therefore, they can be studied and compared scientifically for more effective higher education leadership through Rector-faculty relationship. The two countries are identical in more ways than they are different: they share common cultures, as the same ethnic and linguistic groups and religions are found in both countries (Nyang, 2013; Saine, Ceesay, & Sall, 2013; Senghor, 2013). Also, they share the same geographical and identical cultural features as The Gambia lies within Senegal and the people speak the same languages and interact at various levels due to shared socio-cultural practices, norms and values and economic realities and historical experiences. The cultural contexts of both countries provide bases for comparing higher education issues for the purpose of addressing educational reform (Kubow & Fossum, 26

2003). Colonialism separated the people of the region occupied by Senegal and The

Gambia called the Senegambia Region as boundaries were arbitrarily drawn to satisfy the political and economic needs of colonial governments (French and British), rather than on any socio-cultural, linguistic, or geographical differences (Mazonde, 2001; Saine,

Ceesay, & Sall, Introduction, 2013; Senghor, 2013). As a result, members of the same families, ethnic groups and clans found themselves on different sides of the new borders that divide the two former colonies for no other reason than colonial convenience and desires. The proposed comparative study of the influence on faculty’s perspectives of the educational leadership style on their motivation at UTG and UCAD is premised on these common geographical, historical socio-economic and cultural experiences and contexts.

At the University of The Gambia, the governance system of the schools, departments, and units was based on academic, professional and scientific knowledge and training when the institution was founded in 1999. When leadership changed several times since its existence, the university’s governance system changed to individual control and direction (Ozo, 2014). The responsibility allocation criteria changed from academic, scientific, and professional competence to affinity and allegiance to the centralized power structured around the university’s Vice Chancellor who assigned responsibilities, allocated rewards, and appraised faculty performance on non-academic and non-professional bases. The lack of knowledge and experience to manage such units on the parts of many individuals led to low academic and research productivity

(Bobaccanfusso, et al., 2015; Ozo, 2014). 27

For a developing country as The Gambia with only one public university, the low productivity could mean less employability of its graduates on whose service the country relies mainly (Jones, & Chant, 2008). Thus, graduates of university may benefit less from faculty’s knowledge and experience. People whose wellbeing hinges on the services of these graduates are unlikely to benefit much from inadequately trained and ill-equipped graduates. When faculty is motivated they are likely to work hard to attain the organizational goal which they align with their goals under transformational as well as democratic leadership styles. In this way, their job satisfaction urges them to work hard in the interest of their students who benefit from their diligence. The students’ wellbeing increases by being more effectively and efficiently tutored and exposed to greater academic rigor. Thus, they learn higher skills which they later employ in the service of their country and people when they graduate and take employments in the various national sectors. On the other hand, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop the influence of politics and trade unionism has eroded autonomy and affected leadership quality

(Eisemon & Salmi, 1994). Also, student demonstrations emanating from disgruntlement about school declining accommodation and overcrowded classes, and inadequate equipment at point to leadership challenges that need urgent attention (Polgreen, 2007).

The situation is by no means peculiar to UCAD, in relation to UTG, as described above.

It was therefore imperative to decipher through a comparative study the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles on their motivation at the University of

The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop for higher organizational performance.

A comparative study on the faculty’s perspectives of the influence of higher educational 28 leadership on their motivation in The Gambia, an Anglophone country, and Senegal, a

Francophone country, is limited. Therefore, this comparative study of faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop contributes to the body of knowledge on the effects of university administration in the Senegambian Region (The

Gambia and Senegal) because the geographical, historical, and cultural experiences of the two countries identical (Nyang, 2013; Saine, Ceesay, & Sall, 2013; Senghor, 2013).

Focus on educational issues for comparative purposes has broadened the scope of international education comparisons across cultures (Hayhoe, 2007; Kubow & Fussom,

2003; Yariv-Mashal, 2003). It was therefore imperative to compare the influence of the perspectives of faculty on the educational leadership styles on their motivation at UTG and UCAD. The comparison helped the researcher to understand and make practical recommendations, where necessary, on effective institutional reforms for UTG and

UCAD.

Moreover, the literature on comparative higher education leadership between

Anglophone and Francophone universities in West Africa is scarce. No such study exists on institutions of higher education or universities in Senegal and The Gambia. Therefore, this research is a groundbreaking study that lays the foundation for an understanding of how the perspectives of faculty on the educational leadership in an Anglophone,

Gambian university, and a Francophone, Senegalese university, affect faculty’s motivation towards work. 29

Beneficiaries of the Study

The study focuses on the faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership style on motivation at both University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

The faculty who are affected directly by the leadership style at either university should benefit mutually from each other’s experience. Faculty and Vice Chancellors at both

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop stand to benefit from a proactive attitude to higher education leadership and faculty relationship by learning from each other’s experience. Faculty of both University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop might learn not only learn what circumstances can negatively affect their attitude towards work and the resultant effects on institutional and national development, but also the significance of issues that they might have taken for granted.

The students of both the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop will benefit from the study in the form of value-added teaching and research in their institutions arising from the lessons that might be learned on leadership styles, faculty’s perspectives on leadership styles, and faculty motivation towards work. The quality skills that they will acquire from highly motivated faculty will lead to greater well-being for them in terms of greater employability and sense of self-confidence.

Similarly, the Gambian and Senegalese people will benefit from the study as faculty attitudes to the teaching-learning process change for the better through highly motivated faculty’s performance. Such performance includes teaching, mentoring, and research. The value added will enable graduates of the institutions to put to the service of the people of their countries the skills required for national development. 30

The Gambian and Senegalese governments will also benefit from a cadre of better trained supply of labor force to the public and private sectors. Similarly, the research will provide lessons from the successes and challenges of each institution (University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop) in relation to their leadership style vis-à-vis faculty perspectives and motivation. The governments in both countries will be equipped with information to provide and monitor public institutions of higher education based on lessons learned from faculty perspectives on institutional leadership style and its influence on motivation. Since policy making is an arena with multiple stakeholders, faculty experiences could inform higher education policy reform significantly ((de Jong,

2008; Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 2009; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010).

Limitations of the Study

Investigating the effects of leadership style on motivation of faculty in the

University of The Gambia where the researcher is employed on faculty might not be totally free from personal bias. However, the researcher endeavored to minimize personal bias by distancing himself from the data through triangulation for greater validity and reliability. As Ebneyamini and Moghadam (2018) argued, qualitative research is strengthened through internal validity and external validity. The researcher used triangulation, member-checks, audit trail, and researcher positionality to report bias in order to strengthen the data for greater reliability. To further strengthen the data the researcher used external validity techniques such as thick description, multi-modals such as in-depth interviewing, document reviews, and examining artifacts (Merriam, 1998;

Moghadam, 2018; Yin, 2009; 2014). 31

Also, as participation in the study was voluntary and respondents in the study who have consented to participating in the study had the right to withdraw their participation from the study at any stage of the research, a problem emerged in the recruitment because a particular responded who had earlier volunteered participation withdrew her participation because the IRB statement which indicated that her data could be shared with a Federal agency for redress if her right to confidentiality is violated. Recruiting a new participant at the nick of time posed a big challenge. However, the researcher endeavored to keep interview time within the range of an hour and one hour and a half to avoid boredom and stress among respondents.

Another limitation of the study is that it is on the perspectives of faculty on the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation at UTG and UCAD but does not include the perspectives of other members of staff and Rectors in the institutions. Also, it does not include the views of the students of the institutions.

Delimitations of the Study

The comparative study is only on two universities in the Senegambian Region of

West Africa UTG and UCAD) and that is the context within which it should be understood. It does not include universities in even other African countries. Also, what is described in the study relates to what obtains at the University of The Gambia in The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop in Senegal. The findings may not necessarily apply to all or other universities in The Gambia and Senegal even though such universities may be in the same Senegambian Region. The situations in the two institutions may not necessarily apply to other institutions in The Gambia and Senegal. 32

Organization of the Study

In this proposed study the researcher seeks to explore faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership styles on motivation towards work at the University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Chapter One introduces the study by giving background information on the study area, stating the research problem, and stipulating the research questions to be explored. Chapter Two deals with the literature review by discussing the concepts of the research question in the context of existing and point out the gap in the literature on which the study will focus. The chapter also discusses he conceptual framework that will guide the study. A summary of the key issues is given at the end of the chapter. Three deals with the methodology that will be applied in the study and justify the use of the methodology. The chapter details the research design for the proposed study.

Operational Definition of Key Terms

Boko Haram

Boko Haram is a terrorist organization which operates in Northern Nigeria, parts of Cameroon and Burkina Faso in West Africa. The original name of the organization is

Jama’atu Ahlis Sunnah Lida’awati wal-Jihad, meaning the followers of the tradition of

Prophet Muhammad (Peace and Blessings of Allah be upon him) by means of preaching and Jihad. The name Boko Haram has been given to it by the Hawsa people of

Maiduguri, in Nigeria, where the organization was headquartered. Boko Haram signifies that Western education is forbidden (in Islam). For this doctrine of the organization, many settlements and individuals in these parts of West Africa have been victims of its 33 atrocities such as kidnapping of young girls and forcing them into their own views of

Islamic culture and tradition and carrying out insurgencies on settlements in the areas

(BBC News, May 13, 2014).

Good Leadership

A good leadership is one which motivates subordinates through inspiration based on charisma, knowledge, and skills. Such a leadership enhances institutional performance through cooperation, collaboration, and trust (Franco-Santos, Nalick, et al., 2017;

Sawyer, 2000).

Leadership

It is “a social process in which an individual or a group influences behavior toward a shared goal” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 427). In shared leadership the stewardship is done by the group of leaders whereas in autocratic leadership, the direction is given by the overall leader.

Leadership Style

It “is determined by the motivational system of the leader, that is, the underlying needs structure that motivates behavior in various interpersonal situations” (Hoy &

Miskel, 2013, p. 442).

Motivation

According to Pinder (1984), motivation is “a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration” (p. 8). 34

Organizational Culture

It refers to an “attempt to get at the feel, sense, atmosphere character, or image of an organization.… effective organizations have strong and distinctive corporate cultures and that a basic function of executive leadership is to shape the culture of the organization” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, pp. 179-180).

Organization Climate

According to Litwin and Stinger (1968) organizational climate is “a set of measurable properties of the work environment, based on the collective perceptions of the people who live and work in the environment and demonstrated to influence their behavior” (p. 1).

Organizational Environment

It is a composite of the culture and climate of the organization as shown in the

“natural, spontaneous, and human side of the organization [while] each suggests that the organizational whole is greater than the sum of its parts; and each attempts to uncover the shared meanings and unwritten rules that guide organizational rules” (Hoy and Miskel,

2013, p. 179).

Performance

It refers to such indicators of goal accomplishment as “achievement, job satisfaction, absenteeism … [the extent to which] “individual motivation fits bureaucratic expectations” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 32). 35

Poor Leadership

A poor or bad leadership, here, refers to a system in which the Rector or Vice

Chancellor exhibits bias or discriminatory relationship with followers; relies on subjective judgment to formulate higher education policies and directs practice unilaterally for academic success and demands unquestioned allegiance, obedience and compliance from subordinate staff and faculty (Franco-Santos, et al., 2017; Sawyer,

2002).

Rohingyas

The Rohingyas are a minority Muslim ethnic group from Myanmar where the military subjected them to deadly attacks leading to their mass “exodus” to neighboring

Bangladesh. The Un International Criminal Court referred to the Myanmar government’s military hunting of the Rohingyas as an act of genocide (BBC News, January 23, 2020).

Summary

The Senegambian Region is occupied by two independent countries: The Gambia and Senegal. The University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop are located in these two countries, respectively. Like most African universities, these institutions have been reported in various publications as best with management problems. Faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles of these institutions on their motivation is the subject of this study. The study deals with three research questions centered around faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles of their institutions, the influence of such perspectives on their motivation to work, and the similarities and differences in the motivational experiences of faculty in each institution. 36

It is hoped that the recommendations based on the findings will enhance good collegiality and national development through higher faculty motivation, which will lead to increased student, government, and larger society benefits in both countries.

The next chapter, Chapter 2: Literature Review, deals with the literature reviewed in this study. The literature reviewed and the conceptual framework are intended to find a gap in the existing literature and guide the study in the analysis of the findings (Chapter

4) and discussions of the findings (Chapter 5).

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

This study will compare the influence of faculty’s perspectives of leadership style on motivation at the workplace. A study comparing the influence of faculties’ perspectives of the educational leadership styles on motivation towards work in their institutions requires a review of existing literature on the of key concepts of the phenomenon and a discussion of the conceptual framework that will guide the study. The major concepts of the topic include leadership styles, faculty perspectives, motivation, and organizational performance to achieve organizational goals. It also calls for the examination of some of the key elements and characteristics related to these major concepts that have emerged in organizational leadership study and practice. Such elements include the leadership styles such as democratic leadership style, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, contingency leadership, social justice leadership, and the new forms of contingency leadership such as flexibility and adaptive leadership.

The debate on, and evolution of, these leadership styles in the literature are discussed. Salient emergent issues in the debate on faculty perspectives are also studied.

The literature on motivation will be discussed by tracing the divergent and convergent thoughts on motivation in the behavioral psychology discourse. The research on participation as a key component of the literature on performance are discussed by tracing the emergence of the debate and its influence on the development of research by seminal authors and researchers. The gap in the literature that the study attempts to fill was identified. The discussion on the conceptual framework was drawn on the work of 38

Saccchetti’s (2015) social preferences and governance homogeneity and heterogeneity framework developed on Dewey’s theory of pragmatism to analyze the salient issues of organizational success and failure in relation to the choices available to organizational leaders in governance forms and strategic decision making. A summary of the discussion and the gap in the literature which the study intends to fill are given at the end of the chapter.

Leadership

Leadership has been defined in various ways by different researchers. Jean

Francois (2015) defined leadership as “a process of influence through high risk and even danger” (p. 198). Jean Francois argued that although leadership is related to welding some form of authoritative power over followers, power is not synonymous with leadership, as the power influence is concerned with exercising or impacting followers through coercive measures, while leadership influence is concerned with impacting through overt measures and inspiration. Thus, the author argues that the essence of leadership constitutes motivational interaction between leaders and their followers.

According to Jean Francois (2015), leadership is about creating “an environment of personal and active attitudes to accomplish goals” (p. 198). Jean Francois (2015) observed that “The leader tends to focus on the big picture that affects the relation of organization or institution with its external environment” (p. 197). Hoy and Miskel

(2013) defined leadership as “a social process in which an individual or a group influences behavior toward a shared goal [author’s emphasis]” (p. 427). Leadership is therefore multifaceted and multidimensional and seeks to achieve the organizational goal. 39

Therefore, a fundamental role of organizational leadership is how to enhance organizational performance to achieve the organizational goal. Jean Francois (2015)

“leadership roles stress a lot on matters of strategizing for the future, defining or revising vision, motivating stakeholders, and transforming an organization or institution” (p. 197).

Organizational leadership styles seek to achieve these goals through different ways.

Different organizational leadership styles have different influences on organizational performance. How such varying leaderships influence their achievement of the organizational goal of enhanced performance has been the concern of leadership theorists. Jean Francois (2015) traced the origin of leadership thinking from Plato’s philosopher king or inspirational leadership conceptualization to the later theories on the subject of organizational leadership and observed that “early formal explanations or studies of leadership … include the great man theory, traits, behavioral, contingency, and attribution theory” (p. 199). Leadership theory research has therefore been evolving.

Franco-Santos, et al. (2017) explained that there are different approaches, techniques, skills, traits, attributes, and styles that leaders employ in their stewardship or agency for organizational change. Al Khajeh (2018) stated that the role of leadership is to create “a vision, mission, determination and [the] establishment of objectives, designing strategies, policies, and methods to achieve the organizational objectives effectively and efficiently along with directing and coordinating the efforts and organizational activities” (p. 2).

Researchers have found that some forms of leadership have been found to be more effective for organizational transformation than others. Al Khajeh (2018), for example, applied the quantitative approach to study the impact of six organizational 40 leadership styles on performance: “transformational, transactional, democratic, charismatic, bureaucratic, and autocratic” (p. 8). The researcher administered survey questionnaires to employees of twenty organizations that were selected randomly. The researcher discovered that unlike the transactional, charismatic, and bureaucratic leaderships, transformational, autocratic, and democratic leadership styles have positive impacts on organizational performance.

Leadership Styles

Wang, et al. (2010) examined the results of leadership style and human resource management strategy on organizational performance. The researchers examined the influence of leadership style as an independent variable on organizational performance through human resource management style as the dependent variable. The study which used questionnaires on organizational administrators and staff discovered that leadership styles are positively related to organizational performance. The study which investigated the role leadership style in Taiwanese organizations, did not, however, capture the phenomenon in an educational setting.

Robinson, et al. (2008) indicated that “the literature on sustainability … sees the quality of school leadership as key to continued organizational learning and improvement” (p. 636). Leadership, according to Buke and Litwin (1994), relates to how subordinate members’ perceptions of senior members’ attitudes and behaviors in the organization influence change in the organization. If faculty perceptive of the leadership quality is negative, faculty motivation will be low and quality of work will suffer, according to Robinson, et al., (2008). On the other hand, if faculty have a positive 41 perspective about the leadership type in the institution, the work climate will be good and faculty motivation will be high.

Researchers have studied various styles of leadership since the beginning of the systematic study of organizational change. Some researchers have investigated the leadership styles in relation to their effectiveness. Three styles of leadership have been of interest to researchers in recent years: laissez faire leadership, transactional leadership, and transformational leadership. Hoy and Miskel (2013) compared the effectiveness of these three types of leadership in terms of their capacity for improving organizational performance.

Laissez Faire Leadership

Laissez faire leadership has been described by Hoy and Miskel (2013) as a passive form of leadership in that it avoids any form of transaction with their followers.

Such a leader does not take decisions on important organizational matters that immerge.

The laissez faire leaders expects problems to take care of themselves when they emerge, according to the authors. Even if the laissez faire leader takes a decision on an issue they do not take them at the right the time. They delay decision-taking because they have no desire to take responsibility for what happens in the organization. Such leaders dodge responsibility in various ways. According to the authors, the laissez faire leader stays aloof of their colleagues, as a result, the followers do not feel accountable to anybody in the organization. Because the leader does not give feedback to them when they need it, nor do they take concern over organizational matters of importance, the organizational structures are left to operate as and how they may. 42

Thus, the laissez faire leader does not give any guidance to subordinates in the institution. Laissez faire leaders in educational institutions confine themselves to their offices with little or no awareness of, or concern about, the day-to-day running of the school. The leader does not communicate, nor do they respond to communications from followers. Such a leader lets events to unfold without any concern about their consequences. The lack of supervision leads to institutional decay just as infrastructural neglect becomes the main reason for inefficiency, effectiveness, and dilapidated infrastructure and furniture. Hoy and Miskel (2013) indicated that laissez faire leadership is the most ineffective form of leadership as it does not initiate any positive change in the organization.

Nevertheless, the laissez faire leader’s lack of concern may indicate deficiency in self-confidence and therefore serves a strategy to avoid confrontation with subordinates who might know better or are better skilled. To avoid embarrassment, such leaders may take to the laissez faire approach. Another factor that may influence the choice of laissez faire leadership is to keep their dubious activities from their subordinates. Such a leader may collaborate with only subordinates who their activities cannot be accomplished without the participation of these subordinate such as cashiers and other key personnel.

To attempt to avoid scandals, the laissez faire leader who seeks to cover their corrupt practices might create a circle of close relatives and friends hired and promoted not on the bases of knowledge and experience but the wish to cover their secret dealings. Such employees are likely to feel indebted to the leader than to the organization. By treating some with favoritism and distancing and marginalizing others, such a leader creates a 43 culture of nonchalance and negligence of duty. The campus climate becomes clouded with suspicion, jealousy, hatred and antagonism. The inadequacies of laissez faire leadership for organizational growth and development gave rise to alternative leadership styles. As the campus climate gets hostile, individual employees’ morale become low because their job satisfaction is low. There is close association among the organizational culture and the campus climate that it produces, and the campus climate and the level of job satisfaction that employees derive from the culture and climate.

Instructional or Transactional Leadership

One of the leadership styles that emerged as an alternative to laissez faire leadership is instructional or transactional leadership. Hoy and Miskel (2013) described transactional leadership as reward-oriented in that it functions on the basis of mutual benefit between the leader and their followers. They stated that such leaders’ motivation strategy is to reward work or efforts put into the task as a way of improving organizational performance. The authors explicate that transactional leadership, by rewarding subordinates’ immediate psychological and material needs for doing the job, gives workers a sense of being incentivized to do more. However, Burke’s and Litwin’s

(1992) Model of Organizational Performance and Change showed that there is no motivation between employees and transactional leaders. Individual and Organizational performance is shown to be influenced by the dimensions of external environment, leadership, mission and strategy, and organizational culture.

Nevertheless, Hoy and Miskel (2013) identified three components of transactional leadership: reward leadership, active management-by-exception, and passive 44 management-by-exception. The authors reveal that contingency reward leadership, as a subtype of transactional leadership, is concerned with associating reward to performance as the source of motivation. In other words, the leaders and their followers assume a contractual arrangement in which each has their part to play. Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) explained this transactional understanding between the transactional leader and the subordinates as based on reciprocal benefits. Hoy and Miskel (2013) explained that active management-by-exception, refers to the leader’s function of giving clear guidelines, directions, and explanations to followers in order to accomplish task successfully and emphasizing on quality; problems are brought to light; but show little or no regard for capacity building, despite strategies to ensure standards are met through strict supervision, unlike laissez faire leader. The final component of transactional leadership, according to the authors, is passive management-by-exception which means that leaders delay action on problems or urgent situations until the performance problems reach them before taking action to address them. Hoy and Miskel (2013) criticized transactional leadership as a leadership style which is less capable of dealing with emergent organizational situations originating from the external or internal environments.

Similarly, Hallinger (2005) and Robinson, et al., (2008) conducted extensive research on the effectiveness of transactional and transformational leaderships for school improvement. They have used the term instructional leadership to mean the same as transactional leadership. Studies showed that instructional or transactional and transformational leaderships are the two types of leadership that have dominated the literature of educational stewardship recently (Hallinger, 2005; Jacobson, 2011; 45

Robinson, et al., 2008). Robinson, et al., (2008) compared these two types of school leadership (instructional and transformational) in their study due to their domination of the leadership research in recent years and their application of “a more inductive approach based on a detailed analysis of the meaning of items included in the measurement instruments of leadership used in studies of the leadership outcome relationship” (p. 638). Robinson et al (2008) observed that instructional leadership emerged in poor communities where schools were led by strong transactional leaders who exercised control, gave direction, and set goals and objectives in terms of teacher expectations and student outcomes.

Robinson, et al (2008) criticized Hallinger’s (2005) conclusion that transformational leadership yields higher educational outcomes than instructional leadership and observed that Hallinger’s (2005) research on the impact of instructional leadership on student outcomes lacks statistical evidence. The authors observed that

Hallinger’s (2005) conclusion was based on a meta-analysis of qualitative research articles, rather than statistical significance calculation, and was, therefore, flawed.

Robinson el at (2008) argued that there is little or no empirical evidence to refute the importance and effectiveness of instructional leadership in education. According to them the research that Hallinger (2005) relied on to make such a claim is inaccurate because the statistical insignificance argument is not supported by quantitative data but opinions.

They argued that the study only reviewed literature and discussions on instructional leadership but not the effect size statistics of quantitative research on instructional leadership. Robinson’s et al (2008) counterargument was that transactional leadership 46 addresses students’ educational outcomes whereas transformational leadership addresses their social concerns. Hallinger (2011) argued that even if transactional leadership is effective on students’ educational outcomes, it would only for the short-term. Educational leaders who use transactional leadership may only do so to address short-term needs.

Eventually, educational leaders must resort to transformational leadership in the longer- term, according to Hallinger (2005; 2011).

Transactional leadership has been more popular than laissez faire leadership because of the sense of responsibility of the transactional or instructional leaders. The transactional leader seems to have an edge over the laissez faire leader in terms of their commitment to the organizational goals and objectives. Nevertheless, transactional leadership is contractual and does not have any social relations concern. The transactional leader operates on the conviction that reward serves as the most effective source of motivation for subordinates. They concluded that by linking reward and performance for subordinates they are likely to ensure higher productivity in the institution. Studies have found that the motivation has more to do with other factors such as social relations and workplace conditions than material rewards. Various alternatives to transactional or instructional leadership as a source of motivation for subordinates have emerged and practiced, but the most widely researched and practiced is the transformational leadership style.

Transformational Leadership

Burke and Litwin, (1992) showed the crucial role of the leader as a source of motivation for higher organizational and individual performance. The authors identified 47 the dimensions of transformational leadership as management practices, structure, systems consisting of policies and procedures, work unit climate, task and individual skills, individual needs and values, motivation, and individual and organizational performance. They argued that all these other dimensions of transformational leadership interact to bring about individual and organizational performance through the mediating effect of motivation. Another important point that can be drawn from their perspective of transformational leader is that leadership tends to merge into the distribution of organizational management called “management practices” here. This points to the fact transformational leadership does not apply coercion; rather, it employs greater reliance on impression for leader-follower effects.

Similarly, Hoy and Miskel (2013) argued that transformational leadership was built on the leaders and followers characteristic of transactional leadership to include the social dimension of organizational life. The authors defined transformational leadership therefore as a leadership style in which “leaders are proactive, raise the awareness levels of followers about inspirational collective interests, and help followers achieve unusually higher performance outcomes” (p. 449). They argued that transformational leadership has been popularity for its “idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized considerations” (p. 478).

The idealized influence characteristics refers to the quality of psychological impact that transformational leaders have on followers such as trust, admiration, and appreciation due to their ability to connect with followers’ sociocultural needs as individuals and groups as well as their adherence to exemplary work ethics. It provides 48 the inspirations that spur individual workers’ motivation to aspire for greater productivity through personal development and enhanced organizational performance, according to

Hoy and Miskel (2013). Idealized influence also enables transformational leaders to command the respect of followers, as they not only value the contributions of followers genuinely, but also raise the needs of their followers beyond their own. They succeed in proving their selflessness, also, by supporting followers to achieve their individual and group vision, mission, goals, and needs, according to Hoy and Miskel (2013). Robinson et al (2008) also support this view of empathy and sense of collaboration in transformational leadership thus: “It was argued that this energy and commitment to a common vision transformed the organization by developing its capacity to work collaboratively to overcome challenges and reach ambitious goals” (p. 639). The inspirational engagement of transformational leadership which gives faculty a sense of recognition and belongingness, and participation in goal setting and shared decision making will give them a sense of ownership and thereby raise their motivation level much higher.

The two subtypes of the idealized inspiration characteristic of transformational leadership, according to Hoy and Miskel (2013), are the “attributed idealized influence”

(p. 450) which refers to the leader’s source of power coming partly from followers’ perception of the leader’s qualities such as charisma, sense of duty, devotion to higher order ideals, perseverance on moral ethics, self-confidence, and power to impress others; and “idealized influence as behavior” (p. 450) which refers to leader’s source influence 49 coming partly from the charismatic actions that the transformational leader takes to achieve the redefined organizational values, their own beliefs, and sense of mission.

Hoy and Miskel (2013) argued that inspirational motivation enables transformational leaders to redefine and reconstruct the organizational mission, vision and goals and provide guidelines that lead to the attainment of new goals through inspiration rather than coercion. The authors argued that the guidelines are clear and comprehensive to convince the followers that the problems of the organization are resolvable and the new goals attainable. That means, transformational leaders give followers the hope of self-fulfillment by giving them challenging though attractive and attainable goals.

Also, the authors argued that goal commitment is secured through inclusive management, participatory goal setting and collaborative work or a high team spirit. Hoy and Miskel (2013) observed that inspirational motivation leads to commitment at individual and group levels which are causes of “team spirit, enthusiasm, goal commitment, and shared vision” (p. 450). Followers develop a sense of belonging to the organization through their involvement in decision-making, and ownership of the goals through participation in the process of goal setting. As a result, their commitment to the realization of the goals they have contributed to set becomes high. The challenging goals make them achieve self-actualization from fulfilling performance. In this way, transformational leaders contribute significantly to the workers’ aspiration for a sense of self-fulfillment. 50

The third characteristic of transformational leadership is intellectual stimulation.

This characteristic of transformational leaders enables them to enhance the creativity and innovation of workers by provoking their ability to perceive old problems in new ways and performing old tasks in new ways, according to Hoy and Miskel (2013). By developing followers’ creativity, followers also influence leaders’ perspectives of their ways of doing thigs and assumptions about organizational issues. Hence, critical thinking develops new ways of seeing and developing programs and new ways of operationalizing programs, according to the authors.

Individualized consideration allows transformational leaders to connect with members of the organization with respect, dignity, and empathy, according to Bass

(2008). Hoy and Miskel (2013) observed that transformational leaders find what each member’s needs are and help them to grow and appreciate their strength. Individualized consideration also speaks to transformational leaders’ selfless attitude of developing each member of the organization to discover ways of improving themselves, without claiming credit for it, according to Hoy and Miskel (2013).

Individualized consideration also speaks to the effective communication style of transformational leaders. Such leaders institute a two-way communication system which ensures top-down and bottom-up communication in the organization and feedback ensures improvement opportunities for workers, according to the authors. They maintain that individualized consideration is an important quality of transformational leaders’ exhibition of broadmindedness as shown in their appreciation of individual differences as source of organizational opportunities rather than threat. It also helps individual members 51 to take charge of their development through proper advice and guidance. According to the authors, individualized consideration also enables transformational leaders to create conducive environments for members to unlearn old habits and learn new ones that raise their awareness level as well as their individual and group productivity to higher levels, without expecting any personal reward in return.

However, this belief in the power of human relations in institutional transformation must not be stretched too far and prescribed for all situations as organizational contexts differ significantly and different organizational contexts require different leadership styles (Hallinger, 2011). Moreover, Robinson, et al (2008) criticized the research on transformational leadership on the grounds that:

Variations of these instruments developed by Burns (1978) and extended by Bass

and Avolio (1994) have been used in many published empirical studies of

transformational leadership in education, though few have investigated the impact

of such leadership on students’ academic or social outcomes. Of the 33 studies

reviewed by Leithwood and Jantzi (2005), about half were judged to show that

transformational leadership had a small indirect influence on academic or social

student outcomes. But this review did not involve calculation of effect size

statistics. (p. 636)

Robinson et al (2008) argued that instructional leadership is more pedagogically orientated (task-focused) than transformational leadership which is more relationship focused. The authors argued that Hallinger’s (2005) conclusion that transformational leadership is more suitable for educational reform is far-fetched as the role of the 52 educational leader is not only to build social relations and inspiring followers but also enhancing pedagogical outcomes which is the domain of instructional or transactional leadership. Robinson et al (2008) went on to argue that their extensive empirical research showed that since it would be extremely difficult to link the affective response of teachers liking their principal with higher student outcomes, transformational leadership could hardly be said to have direct or strong influence on educational outcomes, whereas transactional leadership, which stresses leadership activities and promotes the application of practices which influence the teaching and learning process directly has greater impact on instructional outcomes. Robinson et al (2008), therefore, concluded that

“transformational leadership explained very little of the variance in students’ gains in literacy and numeracy” (Robinson et al, 2008, p. 658).

What is clear is that transformational leadership style provides the human relations component in the workplace. Such a leader style provides the opportunity for subordinates to get closer to the leader and learn from them. The leader influences subordinates through leadership by example rather than material rewards. This type of leadership has been found to be motivating because employees feel valued. The human relations consideration in organizational leadership has been a turning point in organizational performance and productivity. Holistic leadership in education is required for optimal motivation of subordinates for academic and social outcomes.

Transformational leadership does not influence educational outcomes. It is for this reason that the integrated leadership has been proposed by researchers to combine the social and human relations and academic demands of students. 53

Integrated Leadership

Robinson et al (2008) observed “that empirical research comparing transformational and transactional leaderships on their pedagogical and strength and educational results is very limited” (Robinson et al, 2008, p. 666). The authors stated that researchers various discovered that although transformational leadership is important for educational reforms, it neither provides a holistic framework for such reforms nor does it measure up to the effectiveness and efficiency of integrated leadership in educational

“pedagogical quality and educational outcomes” (Robinson, et al, 2008, p. 667). This is supported by observations made by Hoy and Miskel (2013) who saw transformational leadership as encompassing instructional leadership. They indicated that:

“transformational leaders expand on transactional relationships to manage meaning, emphasize on the followers’ emotional responses, and achieve unusually high- performance outcomes” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 478). Therefore, for both student outcomes and quality faculty input “integrated leadership” (Robinson et al, 2008, p. 667) may be prescribed for organizational change.

As shown in Figure 1, Burke’s and Litwin’s (1992) model of organizational performance and change indicates that the dimensions of integrated leadership, “external environment, mission and strategy, and structure, leadership, organizational culture, systems, policies, and procedures, management practice, work unit climate, task and individual skills, and individual needs and values” (Burke & Litwin, 1992, p, 528), interact with the crucial dimension of motivation to impact individual and organizational performance for organizational change. Their model is a combination of transactional and 54 transformational leadership styles. Although the authors maintained that their model is a simplification of the complex nature of the realities of integrating a two-dimensional organizational management consisting of transactional and transformational leaderships, it is comprehensive enough to give a holistic view of the combination of the two leadership styles. They indicated that even though a hologram would have been appropriate to depict the situation more clearly, their model is adequate to illustrate the interactions in the various dimensions of the two leadership styles to explain their combined impact on organizational performance. In the transactional leadership style, according to Burke’s and Litwin’s (1992) model, there is no motivational impact on performance. However, the combination of transactional and transformational leadership styles results in complementary and overlapping social, pedagogical, and educational benefits. As Figure 1, Burke’s and Litwin’s model of organizational performance and change, shows, leadership impacts positively on individual and the organizational performance through the interactions among the dimensions of external environment, mission and strategy.

Figure 1

Burke’s and Litwin’s (1992) Model of Organizational Performance and Change

Note: The figure shows Burke’s and Litwin’s (1992) “Causal Model for Organizational

Performance and change” (p. 528).

However, this may be applicable only for the short- and medium-terms, as school situations are dynamic (Capper & Young, 2014; Theoharis, 2010). Long-term organizational change requires a more contingent, dynamic, adaptive, and flexible 56 leadership that would take into account the contexts or situations within which the change takes place (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). Therefore, Hallinger (2011) suggested that contingency leadership seems to be the most effective education leadership type with instructional leadership being applied when a new principal inherits a poorly performing school until such time that they put the school on course. After putting it on course, a transformational leadership which emphasizes human relations as a basis for sustained school development may be appealing in the context of an educational organization where current situations demand a normative approach to enlist the trust and confidence of faculty.

Though integrated leadership combines the strengths of transactional and transformative leadership, that does not mean that it eliminates their weaknesses.

Transactional and transformative leadership may be combined into an integrated leadership but does not mean the complementary model provides the opportunity to deal with all the challenges of leadership in an organization. Integrated leadership leads to higher performance because the motivational elements of both human and material rewards serve as strong incentives for employees. The missing piece in the integrated leadership model for holistic motivation is that problems may be situational and decision taking is done within contexts. Leaders take decisions within different conditions. Such conditions include time and information available for decision taking and the importance of the decision (Hoy & Miskel, 2010). Different conditions require different decision taking styles. The observation that effective leadership for motivation requires a 57 contingent approach gave rise to the emergence of contingency theory in organizational leadership.

Contingency Theory

Out of this model of shared leadership a new form of contingency theory emerged where emphasis was placed on the contextual significance of leadership and the role of the top-manager to empower middle-level managers when transactional leadership and transformational leadership overtook contingency leadership in research prominence in the 1970s (Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Hoy and Miskel (2010) pointed out that contingency theory shows that the best way to decide how leaders should execute their organizational responsibilities and other tasks in the organization depends on the approach that is most suitable under the circumstances or “best matches the circumstance – contingency” (p.

345).

The reappearance of the contingency leadership after its lost glory in the 1970’s and its subsequent overshadowing popularity of the transactional and transformative leadership in research and the literature was, according to Van Knippenberg and Sitkin

(2013), due to their weaknesses. The authors observed that the lack of sufficient empirical evidence on “the multidimensional definition of charismatic-transformational leadership and its construct validity” (Dinh, et al., 2014, p. 42) claimed by some researchers accounts for its fall from grace in research prominence and leadership practice. Contingency theories emerged as a result of the limitations of the incremental models (Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Contingency theory is a meta-theory that has given rise to various schools of thought (Dinh et al., 2014). 58

The rotational leadership progressed to various forms of contingency theories which stressed the importance of empowering subordinates to take important decisions at middle-level management. It also gave rise to situational or contextual leadership entering the equation to explain the need for flexibility and adaptiveness in decision making as a response to the shortfalls of transactional and charismatic-transformational leadership, (Dinh et al., 2014). According to Din et al. (2014) these various models of contingency theory (early and later theories) were covered in such representative articles as those of Carso, et al. (2007) and Podsakoff, Bommer, Podsakoff, and Mckenzie,

(2006). Dinh et al. (2014) argued that: “The thematic category of contingency includes where the leader adjusted to the situation or adjusted the situation to fit him- or herself”

(p. 56). The various models which emerged from the contingency theory over the years include: “The Lease Preferred Coworker, Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, Situational

Leadership Theory, Multiple Linkages Model, Cognitive Resources Theory, Normative

Decision Model, and Flexible Leadership Theory” (Dink, et al., 2014, p. 56) among others.

Flexibility and Adaptive Theory

Flexibility and adaptive leadership is an important model in the metatheory of contingency theories applicable to the leadership problems that have beset leadership practice in the organizations, especially schools, due to its recognition of the significance of the contexts in which leaders take decisions (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). The flexibility and adaptive leadership may be defined as the adaptation of decision taking strategy to the 59 contexts in which decision is taken by a leader (Dinh et al, 2014; Hoy & Miskel, 2013;

Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010).

The framework of the flexibility and adaptive leadership theory is as complex as its role of providing a general guide for a wide range of leadership practices and behaviors in various situations. This flexibility and adaptive leadership theory require making decisions that affect the organization and its employees in various ways. The leadership decision-taking style may enhance organizational performance or inhibit the organization’s ability to meet its goals because decisions are not taken in a vacuum

(Dinh, et al., 2014; Shipper & White, 1999; Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Leaders therefore need to understand the contexts in which decisions are to be taken (Hoy, &

Miskel, 2013; Shipper & White, 1999; Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). According to

Hoy and Miskel (2013), when leaders are faced with a “decision opportunity” (p. 346), they may choose one of the following decision-making strategies: “satisficing, truncated satisficing, adaptive satisficing, truncated adaptive satisficing, and muddling” (p. 346).

This is dependent on three contexts or situations: the availability of sufficient information in order to determine a satisfactory outcome, the availability of sufficient time to search for a comprehensive outcome, and the importance or otherwise of the decision to the success of the organization (authors’ emphases, Hoy & Miskel, 2013).

The authors argued that if a leader in “decision opportunity” (Hoy & Miskel,

2013, p. 346) has sufficient information and time, and the decision is important they will apply the satisficing strategy – “finding a satisfactory solution, rather than the best one”

(Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 330). If the decision is not important to them then they will take 60 the truncated satisficing strategy, according to Hoy and Miskel, (2013). However, if there is insufficient time and the decision is important, though there is sufficient information, they will adopt the adaptive satisficing strategy – a combination of both in-depth reflection and swift thinking on the facts available, according to Etizoni (1967; 1986). If the decision is not important in the context, they will apply the truncated adaptive satisficing strategy– a decision “that may be appropriate, in which case both the range and the number of facts and choices are limited and the analyses are not deep or penetrating” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 343).

On the other hand, if the leader in the “decision opportunity” (Hoy & Miskel,

2013, p. 346) does not have sufficient information but has sufficient time, and the decision is important to organizational success, the leader will take the adaptive satisficing strategy; but if the decision is not important in this context, the leader will take the truncated adaptive satisficing strategy. However, if the information is not sufficient, but the leader has sufficient time, and the decision is important, the leader will apply the adaptive satisficing strategy, whereas, if the decision is not important in this situation, the leader will take the truncated adaptive satisficing strategy, according to the authors. On the other hand, if the leader in the “decision opportunity” (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 346) does not have sufficient information and the decision is not important, the leader will apply the muddling through strategy (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). According to Lindblom

(1980), contingency decision-making is a last resort under difficult situations related to the issue at hand. Thus, it can be argued that contingency theory demands flexibility and 61 adaptiveness. This malleability gives flexibility and adaptive theory wide range applicability as the basis of its strengths.

Strength of Flexible and Adaptive Theory

Contingency theories have the unique characteristics of contextuality. Leaders’ decisions are influenced by the contexts of the organization and the external environment rather than blind mimicry of a straight-jacket prescription of what has been described by some scholars as “one-size-fits-all”. Yukl and Mahsud (2010) state that “The contingency theories are relevant for flexible and adaptive leadership because they provide insights into how to diagnose the situation” (p. 83). General guidelines are given for various situations. It is expected that effective leaders with the requisite knowledge and skills will be able to reflect on each situation objectively and quickly to swiftly take decisions that would ensure effectiveness and efficiency. Yukl and Mahsud (2010) state that:

“Flexibility and adaptive leadership theory has been praised for changing leadership behaviors in appropriate ways as the situation changes” (p. 81). Hoy and Miskel (2013) indicated that decision making situations require various procedures in order to find out under each situation the soundest. Similarly, Yukl and Mahsud (2010) stated that based on several survey results on the subordinate satisfaction and leadership effectiveness improving “flexible and adaptive leadership would require diagnostic and decision- making contingent on the situation: multisource feedback, behavioral modelling, roleplaying and executive” (p. 83). The authors identify more specific decision-making guides for leaders in specific situations. Such suggestions include giving followers clear goals, objectives, directives, explanations, and policies while monitoring them closely in 62 situations of role ambiguity. They argue that leaders should appeal to followers’ values and beliefs to enlist their commitment and involve them in decision-making where they have clear and relevant ideas, skills, and information. Although, contingency theory is generally known to be vague and ambiguous, some models of the theory provide us with practical guidelines to deal with real organizational problems in various situations.

Weakness of Flexible and Adaptive Theory

A major weakness of contingency theories in general is the lack of specified prescriptive leadership behavior for dealing with specific situations. Leaders will have to use their discretion in most situations, although some versions such as the flexibility and adaptive approach has guidelines (Hoy & Miskel, 2013; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010).

Similarly, flexible leadership requires taking decisions in innovative ways to address new problems and take advantage of opportunities for effective leadership. However, this practice may be inconsistent with traditional practice known to leaders in organizations where innovation is new (Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). This conceptual limitation may constrain exploration of the scope of the study of how leadership in higher education in

Anglophone and Francophone universities influences the perspectives of faculty and their behaviors in the workplace. The theory does not explain how leadership styles influence faculty perspectives. This study will yield thick data on the influence of the leadership styles on faculty perspectives in Francophone and Anglophone universities in Senegal and The Gambia, respectively, but will not establish causal relationships as what the author will explore is the affective inquiry of faculty perspectives rather than objective evaluation of causal relationships. Also, as the purpose of the study is to explore the 63 perspectives of faculty in relation to the influence of the leadership style of their universities, the author chooses to take the qualitative approach in this research.

Application of Flexibility/ Adaptive Theory to Educational Organizations

One way in which contingency theories are applicable to education is the adaptation of teaching techniques to classroom situations (Hoy & Miskel 2013). This has been described by Hoy and Miskel (2013) as “scaffolding [authors’ emphasis] to support students’ developing expertise” (p. 81). The concept refers to the situation where “the teacher is constantly adjusting and tailoring responses to the student” (Hoy & Miskel,

2013, p. 81). The theory is also relevant to the educational contexts in which decisions are taken in that it deals with the complex organizational problems and the need to take decisions on or about them with the flexibility and adaptiveness paying particular attention to the theory’s variables of decision situations of time, importance of the decision and sufficiency of information.

Capacity Development as Flexibility Leadership Style

Institutions, especially those of higher education, use various programs and systems to promote human capital formation as organizational policy (Yukl, 2008; Yukl

& Mahsud, 2010). Yukl (2008) indicates that human resource development is essential to flexibility and adaptive leadership (Osborn, Hunt, & Jauch, 2002; Yukl, 2088; Yukl &

Mahsud, 2010). Flexibility leadership is also about encouraging innovation (Osborn,

Hunt, & Jauch, 2002; Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Theoharis (2010) argues that faculty, as specialists, will explore new avenues to create knowledge and improve school condition. The author also states that participatory leadership will empower followers 64 through capacity building and delegation of responsibility and authority as employees’ self-confidence is engendered by capacity building. According to Theoharis, (2010) capacity building therefore is essential in order to harness organizational potentials for empowerment as a strategy to create a conducive campus climate free of envy and jealousy, hatred and suspicion. It will instill among followers a sense of collegiality, cooperation, and collaboration to attain their objective of establishing a more socially just educational institution (Theoharis, 2010). Therefore, innovation helps in accreditation and raises a university’s profile or ranking among other universities of the world.

Flexibility and adaptive leadership model find innovation and improvement as an ongoing process in organizations such as universities, especially liberal arts colleges.

Swift and smart decision-making under various conditions is a requisite skill for effective organizational leadership in the current complex, modern organization (Hoy &

Miskel, 2013; Shipper & White, 1999; Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). The degree to which a leader exercises this quality will contribute significantly to their leadership success. Hoy and Miskel (2013) argue that quick and satisficing strategies are valuable tools, especially when time for a decision is short. School leaders work not only in multicultural, multiracial, and gender diverse situations in the institution and its external environment but also within contexts of information availability, time constraint in situations where urgent decision taking is indispensable, and the importance of the decision is evident. Often, therefore, they are required to make quick decisive behavior choices among many competing ones, according to Hoy and Miskel (2013). How well they fulfil this role will also contribute to their educational leadership success. In other 65 words, school leaders work in complex and sometimes volatile situations and must therefore be versatile to be effective leaders (Dinh, et al, 2014; Shipper & White, 1999;

Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). The contingency theories, especially flexibility and adaptive theory, provide a framework to understand the decision-making process in such diverse situations and contexts.

However, as campuses are becoming increasingly diversified with faculty and student bodies in the 21st century (Jean-Francois, 2015), most educational institutions will require a more a social justice perspective in leadership (Theoharis, 2010). Therefore, any leadership that ignores the vital element of plurality and multiplicity in the institution may result in catastrophic leadership failure. Social justice leadership has been identified as a vital leadership type would balkanize the diversity in higher education and cater to the needs of the increasing multiplicity and diversity of higher education campuses. Thus, a leadership style that does not only take into account the contexts of decision in schools but also incorporates issues of diversity, equality, fairness, and participation is required for effective leadership in educational institutions. Hallinger (2011) call s this leadership type “leadership for learning” (p. 133) and argues that it is a blend of features of various types of leadership, including instructional, transformational, and democratic or shared leaderships.

Social Justice Leadership

Social justice leadership has been identified as one of the most critical leadership styles (Jean-Marie, et al., 2009; Theoharis, 2010). It has gained grounds in various forms of organizations, especially educational institutions where leadership deals with plurality 66 among students, staff, faculty, parents, communities where the institutions are located, and families of diverse racial, ethnic, gender, sex, physical, and mental categories. A review of the literature and research-supported claims indicates that leadership for social justice cannot therefore be neglected because of its pluralistic composition (Jean-Marie, et al., 2009; Theoharis, 2010). Theoharis (2010) argued that the school is a mosaic of multi-cultures, racial differences, ethnic groups, gender diversity, and economic disparities and to neglect these important sociocultural differences is to work for failure on the part of educational leader.

Therefore, a leadership that does not take into account the diversity of the organizational membership or even discriminates between the various socioeconomic groups of the school will fall short of meeting the goals of improved educational and social outcomes (Hoy & Miskel, 2013; Jean-Marie, et al., 2009; Theoharis, 2010). The dynamics of the educational institution, of which academic staff condition is key, influence the quality of educational development and student achievement in educational institutions (Carper & Young, 2014; Jacobson, Brooks, Giles, Johnson, & Ylimaki, 2005) through staff motivation and performance. Marginalization and discrimination of any form will lead to faculty dissatisfaction and disgruntlement which in turn will lead to poor attitude towards work due to lack of motivation. Theoharis (2010) argues that staff development for collaborative teamwork, rather than marginalization, is an important factor for school development. In explaining the vitality of the role of the socially just leader in the school system the researcher described the rational for their own visit to the schools where they conducted a study of educational leadership type and school 67 conditions for change thus: “understanding the leaders’ perspectives on the strategies they used in their effort to create more socially just schools provided a key vantage point in wrestling with the contested space of leadership in relation to social justice schools”

(Theoharis, 2010, p. 366). Theoharis (2010) argued that “equity-focused” (p. 366) professional development, for example, is essential for sustainable institutional development. Equity-focused leadership is crucial for leadership effectiveness and organizational change because it enables educational leaders to harness the wide range of knowledge and skills among members of diverse racial and social groups on the school campus.

Social justice leadership is concerned with a deep commitment to perpetual development at all levels and across all sectors and categories (social, economic, political, and cultural groups) of the school (Capper & Young, 2014; Jean-Marie et al.,

2009; Theoharis, 2010) and addressed unfair treatments of all sorts in the school system.

For example, the problems of unilateral decision making, subjective hiring and firing, contractual arrangements, and unfair promotion have the effects of dropping faculty morale very low and demotivating hitherto dedicated members of faculty. Staff development, hiring, promotion and supervision have been identified by many researchers as crucial to school context development. (Capper & Young, 2014; Hallinger,

2005, 2011; Jacobson, 2005; Jean-Marie et al., 2009; Theoharis, 2010). Theoharis (2010) found out that “although tackling a de-professionalized teaching staff through building staff capacity is a strategy emphasized by many who are engaged in school improvement, the principals in this study re-centered skills and orientation on skills and justice” (p. 68

366). Hence, it is vital for leaders interested in school success to take advantage of the skill sets that individual employees possess, rather than marginalize them.

According to Theoharis (2010) one of the strategies that the successful social justice principals in their study applied was to challenge rather than encourage or exercise

“deficit models of seeing students” (p. 367). Educational leadership requires respect for faculty as well as students (Jacobson, 2011; Hallinger, 2005, 2011; Theoharis, 2010).

Social justice educational leadership, according to Theoharis (2010), “calls for leaders to embody the complicated mix of a passionate resolved commitment to a social justice vision, and sincere humility” (p. 368). Therefore, it is imperative for social justice leadership to practice sincere humility in the education system to allow each member to develop to their fullest and give to the organization their best. Social justice leadership will also empower faculty to take risks in the interest of their students and for institutional development. Social justice leaders exhibit trust and delegation of responsibility because social justice leaders “rely on the professional decision-making power” (Theoharis, 2010, p. 368) of their colleagues.

Just management practice raises faculty motivation, collaborative and cooperative work. It enhances organizational change by recognizing individual and group skills contributions and thereby achieves academic and social outcomes. These (improved social and academic outcomes) further enhance the grounding of social justice practice in the educational institution and enhance organizational change conditions through participation and empowerment. 69

Motivation

Organizational leadership style is an important determinant of employees’ motivation (Jean Francois, 2015). Motivation is a key element which influences organizational performance. Motivation is influenced by leadership style, decision- making style, and faculty perceptions, and affects faculty attitude towards work or performance. Jean Francois (2015) argues that a key feature of leadership is to ensure organizational transformation by raising the motivation of followers.

Research on motivation has shown there are different ways or arousing people to act under certain circumstances. Such research can be traced back to Pavlov’s

(1927/1960) theory of classical conditioning which argues that learning results from interaction with the environment as a result of individuals interacting with their environment through a stimulus-response relationship. This implies that learners’ behavior could be influenced by giving them specific rewards, punishing their behavior, or withholding reward. More recent behavioral theories such as Albert Badura’s social learning theory (1971) which he later developed into the Self Efficacy Theory (1989) also support this argument.

Skinner (1953), in his operant conditioning theory, argues that the environment determines the behavior of the child through a process of stimulus-response- reinforcement (Bandura, 1986). According to Skinner (1953), learning all behavior emanate from one of two situations: “respondent (classical) or operant conditioning” (p.

123). One of the sources of reinforcement of human behavior, according to operant conditioning theory, is reward (Skinner, 1953). When an individual’s behavior is 70 rewarded positively, it results in the continuity of the behavior being exhibited, according to various behaviorist scientists (Bandura, 1986; Skinner, 1956; Thomas, 2005). Skinner

(1953) states that: “rewarding tendencies strengthen tendencies to act” (p. 124). Positive reinforcement is the result of behavior which has been deemed as positive (Bandura,

1971; Skinner, 1958; Thomas, 2005). Educational leaders, for example, can apply this theory by reinforcing teachers’ and faculty’s behavior through positive rewarding for exhibiting desirable behavior at work. Verbal expressions such as “excellent” and “good” increase tendency for repeating the behavior. When individuals are given recognition, for example, this can have similar positive reinforcement on their behavior (Bandura, 1986;

Skinner, 1958). For example, a tap on the shoulder produces increases the tendency for repeating the reward. Teachers may also encourage positive behavior in students through verbal expressions as well as gifts, prizes, and positive points that culminate to some form of material benefits to the student (Bandura, 1986; Skinner, 1953).

Reinforcement may be from time to time or perpetual. If reinforcement is given from time to time it is said to be more effective than continuous reinforcement (Skinner,

1953). This form of reinforcement has been called by Thomas (2005) as intermittent. In a school setting, this means teachers may apply this intermittent reinforcement, as opposed to the continuous reinforcement to maintain the behavior that has been deemed as desirable. (Thomas, 2005). On the other hand, negative reinforcement comes from behavior which is undesirable (Bandura, 1971; Skinner, 1953). For example, yelling at a student who engages in disruptive behavior during class sessions may negatively lead to the child giving up the behavior because the yelling produced an undesirable state of 71 mind for the child (Skinner, 1953; Thomas, 2005). Teachers may apply punishment or even withhold reward to discourage unwanted behavior in the school or classroom because it reduces the tendency for repeating the behavior (Skinner, 1953). However, the withdrawal of reward has been more effective in discouraging behavior than punishment

(Bandura, 1971; Thomas, 2005). Therefore, the educational leader in a university such as the Vice Chancellor may reward behavior which they deem healthy or abstain from rewarding behavior which they deem negative or undesirable behavior.

Participation as Basis for Motivation

Decision making, is a key role of the leaderships. How leaders take decisions depends on their style of leadership. Yulk (2008) stated that “making strategic decisions jointly is more likely to yield high quality decisions if the executive have an accurate

‘shared mental’ model about the determinants of organizational performance” (p. 717).

This raises the salient issue of effective communication and feedback channels. Shipper and White (1999) argued that the flexibility and adaptive theory in contingency thinking requires that educational leaders should understand the correlation between relevant programs, systems, and structures and the enhancement of positive behaviors on performance in the organization. Yukl (2008) argued that there cannot be innovation without empowerment, nor can there be empowerment without autonomy. Leadership for organizational change should therefore enhance participation through democratic means for innovation and increased performance.

Hoy and Miskel (2010) argued that participation on the part of senior management, middle management, and faculty in higher education is crucial in decision 72 making for contingency leaders. They identify “contingency rule” and “participation rule” as two of the key “nine basic rules to guide swift and smart decision-making” (Hoy

& Miskel, 2013, p. 347). They argued that the participation rule through swift decision- making states that educational leaders should “involve others in decision making when you deem they have relevant knowledge, a personal stake, and are trustworthy (authors’ emphasis, Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 347). They argued that the rule is “a quick way to determine if teachers should be involved in decision-making” (p. 349). This means that the authors give the right to participation with one hand and withdraw it with the other.

Osborn et al (2002) are of the opinion that conditionalities for participation are not justified because leadership does not exist in a vacuum. The authors observed that leadership is both contextual and historical. Therefore, “leadership is not only incremental influence of a boss toward subordinates, but most important, it is the collective incremental influence of leaders in and around the system” (Osborn et al, 2002, p. 798). This is so because organizational performance is the result of the collective performance of individuals and groups (Hallinger, 2011).

Robinson et al. (2008) also observed that there is a considerable relationship between staff participation in goal setting and implementation in that participation has been seen to be related to high levels of goal understanding and commitment and by focusing and coordinating the efforts of teachers’ and, to some degree, parents. They go on to suggest that principals affect the teaching and learning process by influencing instructors’ attitude, approach, and techniques of teaching as well as the content of what they teach. They revealed that goal content is equally important as clear goal in goal 73 setting process and is a more likely characteristic of instructional leadership as instructional goals align more to leadership indicators and outcomes. They indicated that the research on transformational leadership shows the extent of change in teachers but not the educational achievements students have made or failed to make as a result of the application of the transformational leadership in the institution.

Al Khajeh (2018) stated that: “It is important for a leadership style to offer opportunities to employees, offer a sense of belonging along with allowing them to participate in the decision -making” (p. 9). Based on their research on the six leadership styles of “transformational, transactional, democratic, charismatic, bureaucratic, and autocratic” (p. 8), Al Khajeh (2018) recommended that “organizations should focus on using the transformational and democratic leadership styles in the organizations so as to improve the organizational performance” (p. 9). The author argued that such leadership have the important characteristic of participation which gives employees a sense of ownership and enhancing motivation.

Motivation and Organizational Performance

Leadership style influences the performance of subordinates through their perception of the leader. However, leadership is also influenced by the prevailing circumstances at any given time. (Hoy & Miskel, 2013; Osborn, Hunt, & Jauch, 2002;

Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Osborn et al. (2002) argued that the context of leadership largely determines its effectiveness. The quality of leadership decisions is therefore best captured in the contexts in which it is made. Contingency theories seek to address this contextuality of one of the key roles of leadership – decision-making (Hoy & 74

Miskel, 2013; Osborn, Hunt, & Jauch, 2002; Yukl, 2008; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Al

Khajeh (2018) stressed the significance of transformational and democratic leaderships in increasing organizational performance through their practice of employee participation in decision-making.

The relationship between goal - setting and performance has been one of the most widely investigated in motivation studies since its discovery by Locke (1968),

(Lunenburg, 2011). Locke (1968) propounded the motivation and goal setting theory showing the neglected dimension of how goals serve as motivating factors influencing organizational performance. The theorist came up with the goal setting theory in Towards a theory of task motivation and incentives and declared the significant role of goal setting on organizational performance. In this pioneering research Locke (1968) discovered that it was goals that had a direct influence on performance; that financial and other incentives do not have a direct influence on performance. Locke, Shaw, Shaari, and Latham (1981) reviewed the research on Locke’s (1968) theory spanning over a period of ten years and found out that goals, apart from enhancing group efforts and strengthening endurance, also give employees a sense of focus, motivates them to develop strategy for higher performance through goal attainment. The researchers also supported the significance of specific and hard goals on performance. The research showed that specific and harder goals have greater influence on employees’ motivation than vague and easy goals. Locke and Latham (1990) confirmed Locke’s (1968) findings and added other variables which either mediate or moderate the influence of goal setting on performance: commitment to goal, clear goal, challenging goal, task complexity, and feedback. Lunenburg’s (2011) 75 research on the subject confirmed the claims made by earlier researchers on goal setting theory and emphasized that feedback has indirect influence on participation when other variables of goals setting theory highlighted above “are used to evaluate performance and linked to feedback, on results and create commitment and acceptance” (p. 5). Lunenburg

(2011) also stated that individuals’ and groups’ ability and self-efficacy and deadlines have moderating effects on performance in goal setting theory. The author also stated that research have not found any difference between group goal- setting and individual goal- setting; and that learning orientation goals have stronger motivational power on employees’ performance than has stronger influence on performance than performance goal orientation.

The significance of participation in goal setting has been debated by some scholars. Locke, Shaw, Shaari, and Latham (1981) argued that participation has not been found to have a direct effect on performance in their review of the ten years research

(1969 to 1980). The researchers undertook a quantitative study to test the hypotheses that leaders’ style of communication and goal setting style influence workers’ outcomes. The research is an integrative goal setting approach which combines traits and power relations in the organization as a social system. The effects of communication style were tested through high/low directiveness and unnominated leader, while the leadership trait was investigated on the bases of participative goal setting, assigned goal, and “do your best” dimensions. The study revealed that the goal setting more strongly affected participants’ attitudes than the leader communication style, although communication style affected achievement satisfaction and task satisfaction. Goal commitment, task easiness, job 76 interest and satisfaction were found to be strongly influenced by participatory goal setting. On the other hand, the communication style test showed a high correlation between communication style and performance. The research therefore shows that high directiveness when combined with participatory goal setting will result to greater performance and emotional satisfaction. It should help educational leaders to determine the best leadership style, as the author concludes: “it is quite possible that the directiveness and participation operationalized in this experiment exemplifies the transformational leader’s behavior” (Sagie, 1996, p. 61).

Sagie (1996) argued that despite the intensive study on the role of participation in goal setting by Locke, Shaw, Shaari, and Latham (1981), the authors failed to consider the influence of culture in their research. Sagie (1996) argued that earlier studies on the role of participation in organizational performance were conducted in societies where competition, rather than collaboration, is the norm. They argued that the individualistic culture of organizations in which Locke, Shaw, Shaari, and Latham (1981) conducted their research influenced the results of their investigation. They arrived at this conclusion based on their research in which they covered various organizations in society with different norms and studied organizations with different cultural orientations such private as an enterprise with individualistic norms, a unionized organization with representative norms, and an enterprise with collaborative norms. Their findings indicated no significant impact of participation in organizational goal setting on performance in the organization

“high on individualism” and characterized by competition, a moderate impact of participation in goal setting on performance in unionized organizations based on 77 representation, and high level of influence of participation in organizational goal setting on performance in the organization “high on collectivism” (to borrow Hofstede’s (2010) terms and characterized by collaborative work ethics and values. Their findings are corroborated by the seminal work of Hofstede (2010) who discovered that societies in which competition is the norm are high on individualism, whereas those in which collaboration and cooperation are the norm are societies high on collectivism.

The influence of culture on leadership style therefore is important to understand.

When researchers engage in comparative education investigation, it is important that they take into account the cultural homogeneities and heterogeneities. Cross-cultural studies require wholistic lens to look through the influence of culture on the phenomenon being studied before generalization can be made. That is why the researcher is conscious of the cultural similarities between The Gambia and Senegal whose higher education leaderships and their influence on faculty motivation the researcher studied in this dissertation research. Nevertheless, the researcher was cautious about the differences in the influence of colonialism on the two countries such as differences in official and instructional languages and their influence on their cultures.

Faculty Perspective as Product of Organizational Culture and Campus Climate

Leadership styles create organizational culture and from organizational culture emerges organizational climate. Organizational culture and climate are significance elements that determine how employees in an organization or school relate to the organization or institution and to each other, as they influence faculty perspectives. These inter-relationships between faculty perspectives, and organizational culture and campus 78 climate are significant as they determine the motivation or demotivation of employees.

Consequently, organizational culture and climate determine organizational performance through employees’ perspectives and determines their willingness and readiness to give to the organization the best of what they can offer in in terms of skills, competency and passion (Denison, 1996).

Though organizational culture and organizational climate are similar, they are also different. Anthropologists, sociologists and ethnographers have relied on theoretical frameworks to conduct organizational culture research using the constructivist theory and method of doing social science research to explore the meaning, content, and structure of culture, whereas climate researchers have relied on the Lewinian methodology in defining and analyzing organizational environment. The differences in the theoretical instruments and methodologies commonly used in the studies have been the major factors for delineating culture and environment in organizations but the difference is a matter of perspectives rather than substance (Denison, 1996).

Anthropologists, sociologists and ethnographers have defined and located the culture of the organization in the behaviors of members of the organization and symbols of the organization by referring to culture as the sum of the organization’s values, assumptions, and believes that govern members’ behavior in the organization (Schein,

1999). Organizational culture, therefore, is the sanctioned practices of the organization, as opposed to those superficial manifestations which are alien to the approved customs and traditions of an organization. Often, organizational culture reflects the actions and manifestations endorsed by senior management of the organization and are entrenched in 79 the organization. Organizational culture has been built over the long-term and is not easily comprehended in totality by a day’s visitor to the organization (Argris, 1957;

Denison, 1996).

On the other hand, organizational climate has been researched by climate researchers using the Lewinian method and defined, and classified climate differently from culture. (Denison, 1996) According to Argris (1957), some climate researchers perceived the organizational climate as how members of an organization experience the culture as individuals. Organizational climate is more easily perceived by a day’s visitor in the organization because climate in the organization is reflected in the orientation that prevails in the organization. Examples of climate reflections include goal-orientation, task-orientation, and people-orientation (Argyris, 1957). Argyris (1957) indicated that organizational climate is more susceptible to change than the organizational culture.

However, Denison (1996) argued that organizational culture and organizational climate are, in effect, two aspects of the same phenomenon. Denison (1996) stated that the supposed difference between organizational culture and organizational climate depends on the perspective from which the two (organizational culture and organizational climate) are observed. Denison (1996) argued that despite the fact there are similarities and differences between organizational and organizational climate, such differences ae not based on any substantive realities but mere perspectives. The author concludes that

“both perspectives, for example, could be regarded as examining the internal social psychological environment of organizations and the relationship of that environment to individual meaning and organizational adaptation” (Denison, 1996, p. 625). Although 80 earlier researchers have used different methods in studying organizational culture and organizational climate which has been used as a basis for categorizing the two aspects of organization as a system, recent researchers have applied both the Social Constructionism

Theory and Lewinian field method in the observation and analysis of culture and climate in organizations (Denison, 1996).

Organizational culture and climate refer to two different levels of the social and psychological composites of the organization. Earlier theorists looked at the social system of the organization at the deeper level of norms and values, whereas the study of organizational climate is very recent (Argiris, 1957; Denison, 1996; Hoy & Miskel,

2013). The temporal difference between the emergence of either of the two (culture and climate) explains why in the study of the early human relation theorists, climate was not a subject of focus. Organizational culture was the dominant emphasis the study of sociocultural units as in sociology and ethnographic studies. Organizational climate became a subject of concern when social-units anthropology gave rise to other branches of study such as groups and group dynamics. It then became necessary to dissect the behavior of members of the same culture with different subcultures and to try to understand the how those group dynamics have influence members’ behaviors.

Policy Formulation in Educational Leadership Practice

Policy formulation, implementation and evaluation are critical functions of organizational leaders, either directly or indirectly. Policy is about power and how power is used to direct the day-to-day running of organizations (Fowler, 2013). Policy action is used to bring about change in the institution. What change is being sought depends on a 81 number of factors of which power in policy circles is key. Different forms of power manifestations exist in the policy circles such as (Fowler, 2013; Kingdon, 2008). In their

TED Talk on power, Eric Liu (August 14, 2014) pointed out that there are six forms of power: physical force, wealth, government or state action, social norms, ideas, and numbers. Leadership type therefore greatly influences the practice of policy formulation in institutions by maneuvering through and exploiting various forms of power because policy formulation is about how leaders use power in policy circles and how other stakeholders use their own powers and even collaborate with others to harness their powers for a common policy objective where policy congruence exists (de Jong, 2008;

Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 2009; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010).

Levinson, Sutton, and Winstead (2009) argued that: “the institutional structures and practices shape and organize everyday experience” (p. 767). The three streams of policy formulation and implementation highlighted by Kingdon (1984; 1995) are problem stream, political stream, and policy stream (Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010).

Through these structures the policy moves from its conceptualization to its formulation stages. However, policy implementation formulation and implementation does not take a smooth, linear path. It is, rather, a complex and complicated process in a winding, back- and-forth, and hotly contested practice (de Jong, 2008; Fowler, 2013; Kingdon, 1984;

1995; Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 2009; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010).

Therefore, policy is said to be a contested field (Fowler, 2013). However, but it is more so if unpopular policy is imposed on policy implementors and other stakeholders who contest it by redefining or reifying it (de Jong, 2008; Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 82

2009). The negative spill over (Fowler, 2013; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010) of policy to various Communities of Practice is a major source of such a collaboration because of policy congruence between or among the different Communities of Practice to either avoid or put an end to the consequences of a given policy directive (de Jong, 2008;

Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 2009).

Thus, critical theory requires that policy formulation and implementation be coherent for policy action because policy is defined and redefined in the process of meaning-making at the level of the Community of Practice (de Jong, 2008; Levinson,

Sutton, & Winstead, 2009). The inappropriate practice of doing policy advocacy without due consideration of the role of the Communities of Practice has been criticized by the various stakeholders at the implementation level who utilized their power (whether political and wealth) to appropriate the policy (de Jong, 2008; Levinson, Sutton, &

Winstead, 2009; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song, 2010). Therefore, policy appropriation and re-appropriation, and renegotiation, and re-negotiation are conducted by the various Communities of Practice as exercise of power to attain their policy objectives. If a policy resulted from state or government action and/ or wealth, the policy appropriation, “re-appropriation” (where policy goes through various forms of redefinition and re-transformation), negotiation and renegotiation, reification exists (de

Jong, 2008; Levinson, Sutton, & Winstead, 2009; Young, Shepley, Miskel, & Song,

2010) may be manifested through other forms of power such as what Liu (2014) categorizes as physical force, social norms, ideas, and/or numbers (TED Talk). 83

This policy definition, redefinition, contestation, negotiation and renegotiation, appropriation and reification is therefore a complex societal practice. Critical sociocultural approach to policy as shown in the mutual influence of policy and politics in education shows that: “a critical approach to policy which must necessarily be cross- culturally cooperative, takes seriously the notion that so-called communities of practice often comprise the conditions in which policy is both formed and appropriated”

(Levinson et al, 2009, p. 773). This normative policy discourse negotiation brings into existence a policy appropriated in “some politically and culturally viable form”

(Levinson, et al., 2009, p. 778). Thus, although the policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation presuppose a linear process, in real life there is much to doing policy than a simple process of contests between or among opposing interests and agencies and the eventual implementation of the policy content envisaged by the winning authorized policy actors. The social practice of policy shows a more complex process of meaning making and remaking through negotiation, renegotiation, appropriation, re-appropriation.

In other words, policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation form “a complex meaning-making endeavor by Communities of Practice” (Levinson, et al, 2009, p. 780).

The linear process of policy making may therefore be regarded as the initial phase of doing policy. However, in practice policy making goes beyond this initial phase of doing policy.

Summary

Leadership styles have been shown to have significant influence on organizational performance through various key dimensions. One such key dimension is participation, 84 or involvement activities such as decision-making and governance. Participation has been seen have psychological benefits that have positive impacts on employees leading to higher performance. Environmental factors such as internal and external stakeholders have been seen to play pivotal roles as the human resource factors in advancing the goals of the organization and improving the wellbeing of individuals and organizations.

Motivation and performance have been found to be intricately interrelated.

Various studies have investigated motivation from different angles. What stand out in all the research and theories reviewed is the pivotal the strong relationship between motivation and human behavior. This have been seen in the behavioral and cognitive theories as well as psychosocial theories.

The literature reviewed also showed that a comparative study of the influence of faculty’s perspectives on the leadership styles in institutions of higher education on faculty motivation covered a range of salient concepts and issues. the comparative education resources have shown that various education systems across the world have been studied to understand specific issues about them in order to discover ways of dealing with similar issues in other countries. Such studies have also shown trends of what Sacchetti (2015) referred to as “strategic failure” and how that the problems that beset have roots in global issues as well domestic ones such as organizational governance procedures processes.

The influence of national politics has also been seen in the works of various scholars. Politics has been seen to influence education directly and indirectly through policy and strategy. Political influence has been seen to impact education positively and 85 negatively as well. Much of the literature on higher education compares educational systems in terms of content and delivery, relationships between teachers and students in terms of how education is strengthened by the teacher-student relationship and experience, and how schools and communities relate in terms of engagement in each other’s activities and the benefits and challenges.

However, in the relationship between higher educational leadership and faculty, what has not been given enough consideration is how faculty’s perspectives of leadership styles influence faculty motivation at work. The scarcity of such a study is even more acute in African institutions, particularly those in the Senegambian region of West Africa.

In fact, there has not been any study on faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership style on faculty’s motivation towards work in the institutions of higher education in the Senegambian region. This study intends to fill this gap by studying the influence of faculty’s perspectives of leadership style on their motivation at the

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop in the Senegambia region.

Conceptual Framework

This study uses Sacchetti’s (2015) Taxonomy of Production Organizations shown in Figure 1 to discuss the complex structures of production organizations as the lens with which to understand the themes of the research problem and the emergent issues of the literature reviewed. The conceptual framework is adequate to analyze the findings of the research as it relates directly to the concepts in the research question and the themes that 86 emerge in the literature review. Sacchetti (2015) used a taxonomy to explain the characteristics of the different organizational arrangements.

Note: This taxonomy was adopted from Scchatti (2015).

Table 1

Taxonomy of Production Organizations

Social Preferences on Strategy Making

Inclusive Exclusive

1. 2. Inclusive/Inclusive Inclusive/Exclusive (e.g., social enterprises (e.g., cooperatives or Inclusive with a membership: employee ownership with cooperatives and no deliberation mechanisms employee-owned or strategies for the companies with some inclusion of public) deliberation mechanisms or strategies for the Social inclusion of publics Preferences 3. 4. on Exclusive Exclusive/Inclusive Exclusive/Exclusive Governance (e.g., the traditional (e.g., the traditional Structure corporation engaging in corporation with no genuine strategies for the strategies for the inclusion search and inclusion of of publics or addressing publics: a social enterprise stakeholder engagement as highly committed to the a form of constraint to the mission with a mono- corporation’s activities) stakeholder structure and low involvement of publics e.g., a private foundation)

As Sacchetti (2015) explained, the purpose of the framework is to understand the persistent failure of production organizations or their agents responsible for decision- making as well as their impacts through “the interrelationship between agents’ preferences, 87 strategic choice, and the public sphere (here defined by impacts of choices on ‘publics’ who do not have an input strategic choice, and by contextual conditions)” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 474).

Sacchetti’s (2015) inclusive and exclusive social preferences framework originates from the Deweyan theory of pragmatism. It explains that organizations make deliberate decisions and choices which affect their success or failure to meet the needs of individuals and society. Sacchetti called the relationship between these conscious and deliberate choices and their ability or inability to meet the needs of individuals and the larger society as “strategic failure.” Sachhetti’s framework is explained through a complex of concepts, all of which are crucial for understanding its workings. According to Sachetti, production organizations vary and therefore agents make varying choices between alternative governance and strategic decisions in their operations. Such operational choices can be found in traditional corporations as well as not-for-profit organizations. The organization’s agents, according to Scachetti’s framework, make choices between two key variables or

“dimensions” such as the preferred governance structure and the preferred decision- making strategy which the author calls social preferences.

The author states that these “social preferences (governance form, ownership, and control) and strategic decision (characteristic of the production organization)” (2015, p.

474) are taken in relation to the two alternative principles of inclusion and exclusion.

According to the model, organization management chooses to include or exclude other stakeholders in the governance system and the decision-making process. The production organization’s decision maker or agent has four possible alternative choices of operation, 88 in relation to the dimensions and issues of characteristics or principles. They may choose to include stakeholders in the “governance and strategy-making processes” (2015, p.

478). Alternatively, the agents of decision-making may decide to exclude them in both the governance and “strategy- making processes” (2015, p. 478). These decisions of inclusion at both the levels of governance and strategy-making or the decision of exclusion at both levels of governance and strategy-making, according to Sacchetti,

“highlights situations of homogeneous processes” (2015, p. 479). On the other hand, the organization’s decision maker may decide to include stakeholders in the governance process but exclude them in the strategy-making process or exclude them in the governance process but include them in the strategy-making process. These are referred to as “heterogenous processes” (p. 479).

Sacchetti (2015) called these choices among alternatives as “social preferences”

(2015, p. 479) and claimed that each “combination of social preferences regarding governance and those regarding strategy-making” (2015, p. 479) is specific to particular kinds of organizations. For example, the “inclusive social preferences supporting the choice of governance [and strategy-making] are found in social enterprises with a membership, cooperatives and employee-owned companies with some deliberation mechanisms or the inclusion of publics” (2015, p. 479). Similarly, institutions “with a consistent persistence of exclusive social preferences, both in the initial choice of governance and in the strategic decision-making approach” (2015, p. 479), are often profit-oriented “traditional corporations with no strategies for inclusion of publics or addressing stakeholder engagement as form of constraint to the corporation’s activities” 89

(2015, p. 479). The literature reviewed in this study under the comparative education section shows ample documentation of strategic failures emanating mainly from exclusive social preferences in higher education leadership, governance, management, and administration in the U.S., U.K., India, Nigeria, and South Africa and Russia as they become increasingly profit-oriented (Adewuyi & Okemakinde, 2013; Bobyleva, &

Sidora, 2015; Franco-Santos, et al., 2017; Mzangwa & Madue, 2015; Ozolins, 2015;

Vijender, 2003). Also, the leadership style and organization section of the literature reveals that there is a close relationship between participation – “inclusive homogeneous process” (inclusive governance and decision making) – as social preference, and higher organizational performance (Al Khajeh, 2018; Erez, 1986; Wang, 2014; Wang, et al.,

2010).

On the other hand, Sacchetti (2015) explained that organizations which employ the inclusive social preference in governance form but the “exclusive social preference choice in the strategic decision-making [include] cooperative firms … with at least one major stakeholder which sets its objectives in an exclusive way” (p. 479). These types of organizations are cooperatives that serve the interest of their members only. Sacchetti

(2015) stipulated that an organization which seeks to protect its members from the vagaries of the market belong to this category of institutions. An example would be The

Gambia Cooperatives and Credit Union whose goal is to purchase groundnuts from farmers at a stable price to prevent members from the vagaries of the market. They subsidize members’ income by paying a reasonable price even when world market prices are low by subsidizing world market prices from profits made in previous years. When 90 the world market prices are higher they buy at reasonable prices and keep some level of profit, as a safety net. Sam’s Club in Columbus, Ohio, is another example of such a cooperative firm, which prevents members from the effect of price hicks. Sacchetti

(2015) argues that such institutions exercise democratic “inclusive social preferences at membership level but not in decision-making process” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 479) which is the exclusive domain of, though “not the investor, … the weakest stakeholder that would incur the greatest loss if it were not the owner of the organization” (2015, p. 479). The fourth category is the organization with “inclusive strategic decision-making but exclusive social preferences for governance” (2015, p. 479). According to Sacchetti, an organization which practices inclusion of stakeholders in strategic decision making but exclusion in governance choice is “a social enterprise highly committed to the mission with a mono-stakeholder structure and low involvement of publics (e.g., a private foundation)” (2015, p. 479).

Thus, different organization types have different operational characteristics and impact individual wellbeing differently (Sacchetti, 2015). Sacchetti’s model explains that the consequences of the social preferences among alternative decisions have individual and social outcomes. As argued by Dewey (1927), though there is hardly any individual choice because all choices have influences on the larger society, individual outcomes exist and result from social preferences which institutions’ decision-making agents take in the operation of the organizations. Such consequences, according to the model, are

“procedural and process outcomes” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 474) and impact ‘publics’ negatively because they are marginalized from the governance procedure, or the decision- 91 making processes, or both. Thus, according to Sacchetti (2015) individual outcomes and public outcomes are the impacts that emanate from “process and procedural outcomes”

(2015, p. 474), the sum total of which is referred to as the “cumulative outcomes …. from which individuals can receive fulfilment” (2015, pp. 476 - 477) and culminating outcomes which affect “individual wellbeing and ‘publics’ outcomes” (2015, p. 476).

Thus, according to Sacchetti (2015), the prevailing economic crises and their consequences on individuals and societies result from the failure of organizations to empower stakeholders in governance and decision-making processes. Sacchetti argued that these crises and consequences can be explained through the preferential choices which align with the failure of organizations to adopt the contextual conditions and preferences.

The crises and consequences thus highlight the essential “nature of social preferences among economic actors, reinforcing … the role of individual dispositions as well as the meaningfulness of institutions and policy action supporting and empowering the expression of inclusive preferences” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 475). Social preferences determine therefore the impacts of decisions among governance and strategic choices on

“‘publics’ (who have no decision-making power)” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 474). The prevailing economic crises and their consequences result from choices organizational agents make between inclusivity and exclusivity in governance and strategic decision- making choices. The exclusive choices have negative impacts on individual and society because they alienate “publics” in the decisions, rather than include them. Inclusion would have empowered them and increased stakeholders’ wellbeing. 92

Sacchetti calls the negative impact of social preferences on the wellbeing of individuals and groups as “strategic failure” (author’s emphasis, 2015, p. 478). Strategic failure results from deliberate preferential social choices or “governance and strategic decisions categorized along two basic orientations towards inclusion or exclusion of

‘publics’ that have no substantial access to decision power and about these variables”

(Sacchetti, 2015, p. 474). The author argued further that because organizations’ social preferences determine their degree of strategic failure, organizations’ failure to provide the most desirable “process and procedural outcomes” (p. 476) depends on the degree or extent to which social preferences marginalize and disempower stakeholders by alienating them from democratic governance participation and collective strategic decision-making processes. Agents, according to Sacchetti’s (2015) taxonomy, have the choices of either increasing or reducing “strategic failure” in the institutions through the choices they make in relation to inclusive or exclusive governance and/or inclusive or exclusive strategic decision-making. The significance of the framework for this study is partly because it explains the causes and consequences of prevalent leadership or organizational failures as highlighted above, and, party, because it prescribes a specific tool for correcting the strategic failure (author’s emphasis) for a more sustainable and effective organizational governance system which Sacchetti (2015) called “collaborative enquiry.” According to Sacchetti, enquiry is the most suitable method of discovering the causes, consequences, and solutions to production problems in social units as it avoids the “subjective reasoning of the inductive method … and the bounded rationality of the deductive reasoning which may suffer from incorrect assumptions” (Sacchetti, 2015 p. 93

476) by engaging in what the author called “deliberative practices based on enquiry”

(Sacchetti, 2015, p. 476). The author argued that this deliberative enquiry approach emanates from Dewey’s (1927) pragmatism theory and is superior to the market mechanism concept of Hayek (1945). According to Sacchetti (2015), “market mechanism aggregates knowledge through price information, building on the existence of different but complementary interests of buyers and suppliers. Differently, deliberation [enquiry] contemplates a variety of perspectives and interests that may or may not be compatible or complementary” (Sacchetti, 2015, p. 476). The author explained that this is why enquiry employs rules of communication which are more complex at both the formal and informal levels (Sacchetti, 2015). In other words, enquiry is a participatory technique or what Freire (1970) calls the “dialogical process” through which individual stakeholders come together to deliberate on issues, policies, and problems that affect them with a view to arriving at an informed decision with conscientious. The freedom of participation gives a sense of ownership to the stakeholders which guide their commitment to group choice or decision and thereby increase their motivation.

The fundamental principle of enquiry is the conviction that inclusive social preferences which engender participation are the bases of empowerment, motivation, and higher performance through positive psychological outcomes of involvement in decision- making and governance, according to Sacchetti (2015). Sacchetti observed that deliberative enquiry requires that both knowledge and decision-making power be shared to ensure that multiple perspectives are obtained, considered, and evaluated as “social choices” (2015, p. 477). The author called this: “inclusive social preferences” (author’s 94 emphasis, Sacchetti, 2015, p. 477). On the other hand, “exclusive social preferences [are those] that marginalize the interests of the publics affected (others) … or the interest of society … therefore encumbering the needs and wellbeing of the excluded” (author’s emphasis, 2015, p. 477). The “culminating outcomes” (2015, p. 477) of exclusive social preference are frustration, demotivation, and lack of creativity, according to Sacchetti.

Hence, Sacchetti’s (2015) conceptual framework provides a suitable lens with which to examine and explicate the phenomenon of institutional productivity at the

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. As managers or agents

(such as educational leaders in schools) who make social choices, Dewey (1927) argued that institutions are engaged in social praxis and do so within two dimensions: choice of governance and choice of decision-making strategy within two key contextual conditions: inclusion or exclusion. The social preferences that they make in these regards will determine the culminating outcomes (the impacts on individual wellbeing and the effects on the larger society), according to Sacchetti. The conceptual framework will be useful in to looking at the information or data from the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Sacchetti’s (2015) Inclusive and Exclusive Model as Analytical

Framework for Higher Education Leadership Styles, Choices, and Productivity was adopted as the analytical framework for this study. Sacchetti’s (2015) adapted the model from Dewey’s pragmatism theory as the analytical framework to explain how different leadership styles in higher education influence what Sacchetti referred to as impacts on

‘publics’ (in this case, faculty perspectives, morale, and motivation, which in turn influence individual as well as institutional productivity). Sacchetti’s (2015) model was 95 built on Dewey’s pragmatism theory. The analytical framework shows that production institutions have organization decision-makers or agents who determine two basic functions of the organization as the procedural aspects or dimensions of the institutional management (Sacchetti, 2015). According to Sacchetti, these “two procedural aspects of organizational performance are choice of the governance form (ownership, rights, and duties) … and the choice of decision-making processes (as the praxis of collective decision-making)” (2013, p. 478). Organization decision makers therefore operate their organizations along two dimensions of governance: governance form and decision - making processes. Organizational leaders such as higher education leaders decide what governance form and decision-making strategy they would apply. The analytical framework shows that higher education leaders determine how their institutions will operate along specific governance forms and decision-making strategies. These two axes are called dimensions of organizational (or higher education) governance.

Figure 2

Analytical Framework for University Leadership Styles, Choices, and Productivity

Agency Dimensions Alternative Choices Strategies Outcomes

Choice of Strategy Making High on Exclusive Individual Collaborative Decision & Social Enquiry Making Wellbeing

Higher Education Leaders Social Preferences

Inclusive Choice of Low on Decision Governance Form Strategic Individual Making (Rights/ Duties) Failure & Social Wellbeing

Note: This figure was adopted from Sacchetti’s (2015) Inclusive and Exclusive Social

Preferences Model

The model shows that higher education leaders have two options in deciding about governance form and decision-making strategies. The choices are made between the key variables or what Sacchetti called “alternatives choices” of inclusion and exclusion. The higher-education leader may decide to choose an institutional governance system which includes faculty (who have no administrative responsibilities) in the governance of the institution by giving them rights and autonomy to exercise duties 97 without control or hinderance and include them in the strategic decision-making processes such as goal setting, hiring and firing, promotion, capacity development and other policy making processes of the institution.

Alternatively, the higher education leaders may decide to exclude faculty (who have no administrative responsibilities) from the governance procedures and strategic decision-making processes of the institution. Also, the higher education leader may choose to a governance structure which excludes faculty (without administrative responsibilities) from the governance procedures of the institution while including them in the strategic decision -making processes of the institutions. Alternatively, the higher education leader may choose to include faculty (without administrative responsibilities) in the governance procedures and exclude them in the strategic decision-making processes. A higher education leadership style of inclusion in both governance and strategic decision-making and exclusion in both governance and strategic decision- making is regarded as governance homogeneity, while inclusion in one of the dimensions and exclusion in the other is regarded as governance heterogeneity, according to

Sacchetti (2015).

These governance homogeneities and heterogeneities have implications for faculty wellbeing in the forms of morale, motivation, and productivity, according to

Sacchetti (2015). The model shows that exclusion choices in either the governance form or strategic decision-making procedure of higher education leadership style or governance system leads to what Sacchetti calls “strategic failure” (negative effects on the wellbeing of individual faculty and the larger society). In the same way, exclusion at 98 one level of the axes (governance procedures or strategic decision-making process) and inclusion at the other has negative impacts on individual faculty well-being and the wellbeing of the larger society. Higher education leaders’ exclusion choices at both the governance procedures and the strategic decision-making processes, also, have negative impacts on the well-being of individual faculty and the larger society. Thus, the closer the higher education leadership style or governance style to exclusion the higher the degree of strategic failure and the further the governance procedure and strategic decision- making process from the alternative choice of exclusion the lesser the negative impacts of the higher education leadership style on the wellbeing of faculty. On the other hand, inclusion strategic decisions in either governance procedures and strategic decision- making processes or both accomplished through what Sacchetti calls collaborative enquiry positively impacts on the wellbeing of faculty and the larger society. The closer the social preferences of governance and strategic decision making to inclusive choices the higher the positive impacts of the higher education leadership style on the wellbeing of faculty and the larger society.

Thus, collaborative enquiry which enables higher education leaders to gather a broad spectrum of views and ideas from a pool of faculty and staff to determine the manner of governing their institutions and decision-making in their institutions reduces

“strategic failure,” according to Sacchetti (2015). Hence, inclusive alternative choices in leadership style on social preferences for governance forms and strategic decision- making increase faculty and larger societal wellbeing or what Sacchetti calls “cumulating outcomes” through higher morale, motivation, and creativity which lead to increased 99 productivity. These outcomes result from individuals having a high sense of autonomy and satisfaction, according to Sacchetti (2015). It is therefore necessary for higher education leaders who produce the change agents of the public and private sectors of societies “to establish a habit of enquiry, pluralism, and cooperation, as those are tendentially not pivotal in conventional production governance settings” (p. 478) by minimizing strategic failure. As the relationship between employees and organizations is a psychological contract, according to Sacchetti, inclusive social preferences will enhance the faculty performance because participation or collaboration creates psychological satisfaction and enhances performance (Ostroff, 1992) through higher motivation.

As Sacchetti (2015) observes, the model shows that the further the choice of higher education leaders in governance decision (governance forms and strategic decision-making) from inclusive social preferences the closer it is to strategic failure and, consequently, the greater its negative impacts or “cumulative outcomes” on individuals and the larger society. Conversely, the nearer the choice of higher education decisions to inclusion social preferences in governance procedures the greater the positive impacts on faculty and the larger society. The further the choice of governance decisions from inclusive social preferences the further it is from collaborative enquiry and, consequently, the greater its negative impacts on cumulative outcomes. The closer the choices of governance decisions to inclusive social preferences the closer they are to collaborative enquiry and, consequently, the greater its positive cumulative outcomes or impacts on individuals and the larger society, according to Sacchetti (2015). 100

This model will be appropriate in analyzing the relationship between process and procedural outcomes of governance choices and alternative social preferences in university governance settings, as argued by Sacchetti (2015). The model will enable the researcher to understand and analyze how faculty’s perspectives of the educational leadership style at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop have their motivation towards work and its impact on their wellbeing. Ostroff (1992) confirmed that theorists such as Likert (1961), Mayo (1933), and McGregor (1960) have alluded to the relationship between employee satisfaction and well-being, and enhanced individual and organizational performance which Sacchetti (2015) refers to as the culminating outcomes of process and procedural outcomes. Ostroff’s (1992) research which was conducted on 13,808 teachers in 298 schools to investigate the relationship between employee satisfaction, attitudes in terms of stress levels and commitment to organizational goals, and organizational performance using correlational and regression analyses supported Sacchetti’s conclusion that employees’ satisfaction has a direct relationship with their motivation, attitudes, commitment and performance. Thus, the model teaches that higher education leaders can enhance institutional productivity through faculty satisfaction which results from inclusive social preferences in governance form and strategic decision-making. The model also indicates that inclusive higher education leadership style leads to greater positive impacts on individual and societal outcomes and thereby minimizes, if not eliminates, “strategic failure” in higher education governance. 101

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta

Diop on their motivation towards work. Empirical research requires a systematic method of doing the investigation. This chapter deals with the research design, research setting, participants of the study, sampling technique, researcher’s role and personal biography, data collection, data analysis, trustworthiness or credibility and dependability, and the research protocol and ethics. The interview questions are included in the appendices. The study applied the qualitative case study research design at the University of The Gambia,

The Gambia, and University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal, as the research setting. The participants in the study are faculty from the University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop. The sampling section deals with purposive sampling technique and the data collection method that explains the multimodal (interviews and documents review) approach. The data analysis section deals with cross-case analysis for comparative purposes.

Research Design

This study used the qualitative research method to understand the perspectives of faculty at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop in relation to the educational leadership styles of their institutions and how the leadership style affects their motivation towards work. Yin (2014) identified the research question, the degree of influence the researcher has over the phenomenon being studied, and the 102 contemporaneous nature of the phenomenon as the determinants of the research methodology applicable in the study. The study applied the qualitative research design to understand how the perspectives of faculty at the University of The Gambia and the

University of Cheikh Anta Diop about the leadership styles of their respective institutions influence their own attitudes towards work because perspectives are best investigated qualitatively rather than quantitatively and the researcher has no control over faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles of their institutions and it is contemporary phenomenon. Researchers agree that qualitative research method is used to understand, explore, investigate or describe individuals’ or groups’ experiences, interpretations, perspectives, and attitudes (Ahlgrim-Delzell & Privitera, 2018; Merriam,

1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 1995; 2003; 2009; Yin & Campbell, 1989).

Moreover, qualitative research is descriptive and explorative, according to

Merriam (1998). To investigate the research question on the perspectives of faculty and

“how” these perspectives influence their attitudes towards work, the researcher used the qualitative method to explore, describe, and analyze the perspectives of faculty at the

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop about the leadership styles in their universities (Merriam, 1998). Ahlgrim-Delzell and Privitera (2018) defined qualitative research method as “the use of nonnumerical, narrative data from which interpretations are drawn from participant perspectives” (p. 274). Other researchers, also, agree that the research question determines the research method which the researcher should use to investigate the research problem (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1989; 2003; Yin &

Campbell, 1989). Thus, the qualitative research method was used in this study because it 103 is an appropriate approach to investigate the “what,” “how” and “why” questions about a phenomenon or event (Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell,

2018). Since the task of the researcher in this dissertation is to understand “what” the perspectives of faculty at the University of The Gambia and the University of Cheikh

Anta Diop are about the leadership style of their institutions and “how” these perspectives influence their attitude toward their work, the qualitative investigation will be used to answer the research questions (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin & Campbell,

1989; Yin, 1995; 2003; 2009; 2014). This study used a qualitative method to explore the perspectives and attitudes of faculty at the University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop because it was more suitable for the purpose of the study, and more feasible given the time constraint and limited financial resources available to the researcher.

According to Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018), three broad philosophical perspectives underpin qualitative research method: “positivism/ postpositivism, constructivism, and critical theory” (p. 276). Constructivism has been defined as a paradigm which “maintains that there are multiple realities, in which … people construct their own meaning of the world” (Ahlgrim-Delzell & Privitera, 2018, p. 276). The perspectives of faculty at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta

Diop on the leadership style of their institutions and the influence of these perspectives on their work attitude may be constructed differently as each gives meaning to their own experience from their own perspective. This study was be guided by constructivism because it is qualitative research concerned with the influence of faculty’s perspectives of 104 the leadership style at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop on motivation towards work.

Case Study

Among the various approaches of qualitative research, case studies were used to gain deep insight into the phenomenon because case study is used to gain rich, thick data in qualitative research method (Merriam, 1995; Yin & Campbell, 1989; Yin, 1994; 2003;

2014). Case study allows the researcher to gain in-depth knowledge of the event, situation, or phenomenon (Stake, 1995). There are three characteristics of case study: exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive (Merriam, 1998, Stake, 1995; Yin & Campbell,

1989; Yin, 1994). Different case studies have different functions: illustrative case study is used to study a rare or unknown case, explorative case study is used to lay the foundation for further study by producing a hypothesis to explore, and collective case study enables comparison of many cases, according to Ahlgrim-Delzell and Privitera (2018). Yin

(1984) labeled types of case study as explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive which are the same as illustrative and exploratory case studies in Ahlgrim-Delzell and Privitera

(2018), respectively. Ahlgrim-Delzell’s and Privitera’s (2018) descriptive case study corresponds with collective case study as it describes the characteristics of a population or phenomenon that is being studied. Stake (1995) described three types of case study.

Stake’s (1995) intrinsic case study category corresponds with the explanatory case study category of Yin (2009) and Campbell’s (1989) instrumental case study corresponds with

Yin’s (1994) exploratory case study. Collective case study matches with Yin’s and

Campbell’s (1989) category of descriptive case study and Ahlgrim-Delzell’s and 105

Privitera’s (2018) classification of collective case study (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell &

2018; Yin and Campbell, 1989; Yin, 1994; 2009).

Dhul and Hak (2008) classify case study into two types: interpretive and evaluative. Ebneyamini and Moghadam (2018) conclude that when all these differentiations of case study are closely examined, they can be lumped into two main groups. They argue that: “All in all, we believe that in using the case study research as a methodology we have two types: single case study and multiple case study which follows a replication logic” (Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018, p. 3). The multiple case study of

Ebneyamini and Moghadam relates to the collective case study of Yin (1984; 2009;

2014). The framework developed by Ebneyamini and Moghadam (2018) based on a review of the models propounded by Yin (1984; 2009; 2014), Merriam (1998), Stake

(1995), and Dhul and Hak (2008), among others, is a summation of the seminal researchers’ work to provide a generic framework for case study research. The collective, descriptive or multiple case study is therefore a qualitative approach that seeks to explore a number of cases in relation to a phenomenon and compare the perspectives. The collective or multiple case study (Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018; Yin, 1994; 1995) was used in this study to understand and compare the perspectives of faculty of the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop on the leadership styles of their institutions and how these perspectives influence their motivation. Multiple case study has the strength to compare various cases which is the basis of this study – to compare the perspectives of faculty in the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop on the influence of the leadership styles in their institutions on their 106 motivation towards work for the purpose of identifying ways of enhancing faculty motivation at the institutions through leadership dynamics.

Yin (1994) argued that basically case study may be applied to explore real life situations and their interrelationships. This holistic approach to qualitative investigation approach (case study) informed the study adequately as it focuses on exploring faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership style in the two universities (University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop) on their motivation. The case study has increasingly greater application in education than most of the other social science disciplines (Stake, 1995). The approach is therefore suited to explain the phenomena of faculty perspectives and their influence on faculty motivation, morale or attitudes. It is adequate as an approach in this study because of its wholistic nature (Ebneyamini &

Moghadam, 2018) and popularity in educational research (Stake, 1995). Moreover, studying educational matters using case study in small geographical locations such as the

Senegambia Region with less than a tenth of the West African subregion’s land mass and population is in line with the criteria for case study’s suitability to study small geographical locations, according to Zainal (2007). Zainal (2007) argued that case study does not only have the advantage of closely examining data but also that it has explorative and investigative potential to produce thick, rich data on contemporary situations or conditions by keenly observing the phenomena within their contexts.

Qualitative multiple case study provided the researcher the opportunity to explore the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles of two institutions (UTG and UCAD) on their motivation in the small geographical location of Senegambia within 107 the larger West African context through in-depth contextual analysis. Qualitative case study, according to Stake (1995), stands out among many qualitative approaches because it is empirical in that it applies the scientific method. It is interpretive because it illustrates the lived experiences of individuals and groups as a bounded case. It is holistic in that it is all-encompassing, and emphatic. As such, qualitative multiple case study leads to in-depth investigation across a larger number of bounded cases (Ebneyamini &

Moghadam, 2018; Yin, 2009; 2014). Each of the two universities (UTG and UCAD) constitutes a bounded case composed of individuals and groups whose lived experiences are crucial to the study. Moreover, Merriam (1998) states that qualitative case study is used to describe a bounded phenomenon in a holistic way. Thus, studying the perspectives of faculty in the two institutions of higher education in Senegal and The

Gambia can be effectively done through qualitative case study. Also, the advantages of qualitative multiple case study research have been highlighted by Merriam (1998) who identifies three functions of the case study method – pluralistic, descriptive, and heuristic

– which allow researchers to focus on a particular phenomenon to gain thick, rich description and deepen their understanding of the particular phenomenon.

Research Setting

The research was conducted in two universities in The Gambia and Senegal:

University of The Gambia in The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop in

Senegal, where the researcher intended to travel to after securing IRB approval from

Ohio University for data collection. Unfortunately, the unforeseen Covid-19 pandemic and the resultant travel restrictions and the IRB advice to change interpersonal interviews 108 to online or virtual, if not all parts of the world, made it impossible for the researcher to travel to the sites in The Gambia and Senegambia for data collection. As a result, the data was collected virtually by relying on gatekeepers to facilitate the recruitment of participants for the online interviews at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The process of recruiting participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop was beset with lots of difficulties because the researcher was not acquainted with faculty there. Many colleagues and friends in the US, The Gambia, and Senegal had to contact their acquaintances and colleagues at the University to enable the researcher to recruit the required number of participants from there. At the University of The Gambia, the researcher recruited participants through WhatsApp telephone communication because the researcher is a member of faculty at the University and had built enough acquaintances and confidence with his colleagues there.

However, the interviews at both universities were conducted online on Zoom. The

Gambia and Senegal are two countries in West Africa that share similar, and, in some cases, identical historical experiences and common heritage. The region that is occupied by The Gambia and Senegal is also referred to as the Senegambia Region, depicting the similar historical, geographical, and cultural experiences of the two countries divided by colonial interests. The two countries share the same geographical, cultural, historical, and social spaces (Evans & Ray, 2013; Nyang, 2013; Senghor, 2013) which are key factors to consider in a comparative study (Ahlgrim-Delzell & Privitera, 2018; Ebneyemini &

Moghadam, 2018; Hayhoe, 2007; Hofstede, 1980; 2001; Novoa & Yariv-Mishal, 2003).

The cultural contexts of the two countries are very similar, if not identical (Evans & Ray, 109

2013; Nyang, 2013; Senghor, 2013). Institutions of education of these two countries share some significant cultural contexts including local languages.

The cultural elements inherent in educational institutions and the policies and practices that are informed by these similar, or even identical, contexts lend their educational institutions to reliable comparison as the institutions are greatly influenced by the people’s common cultural contexts (Hofstede, 1980; 2001; Sobe & Kowalczyk,

2012). The contextual factor, which is key in comparative education, does not pose difficulty for comparison between the two countries, as the social, political, cultural, and historical contexts are identical in numerous ways. The geographical space is similar, as

The Gambia lies on a latitude that cuts through Senegal from East to West (Evans & Ray,

2013).

Sampling Techniques

Creswell (2007) argued that a good qualitative research survey requires the researcher to include “multiple perspectives that range over the entire spectrum of perspectives” (p. 122) on the phenomenon being studied. Creswell (2007) identified the steps in accessing sampling population and sampling techniques as identifying the research location and individuals, gaining access to the site and individuals, creating rapport with the gatekeepers and sample population, purposefully sampling participants from the sample population, gathering information from the sample population or research participants, recording information, resolving field issues, and sorting data.

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research does not require large sample sizes.

Moreover, case study is usually done on a small number of cases. Even one case can be 110 studied (Creswell, 2014; Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell,

2018). The validity of qualitative research is not in the sample size but the depth of information (Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). The twelve participants from the two cases of University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop will provide adequate samples for in-depth study of the phenomenon in the two universities.

The purpose of sampling is to enable the researcher to collect information on the population (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Sampling technique in case study research refers to the approach of selecting the target population, accessible population, and sample population or participants and determine the method of selecting them

(Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). The target population of this study is faculty at the

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop who have served as members of faculty in their institutions for no less than three years. The sample population consisted of fourteen members of faculty (seven from the University of The

Gambia and seven from the University of Cheikh Anta Diop). A case study with a sample of fourteen participants is adequate for empirical research as what is required in case study is to acquire rich, thick data through in-depth investigation (Ebneyamini &

Moghadam, 2018; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018; Yin, 1994; 2009; 2014). Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018) argued that what qualitative researchers need to do is “to employ techniques to obtain the specific participants who have the specific information they need. Qualitative researchers then study the participants in depth to provide deep, rich descriptions of the topics” (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018, p. 282). The small 111 sample size therefore is not of much importance in qualitative case study. What is required is for the researcher to obtain access to participants who have the information and are willing to give it (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018; Yin, 2003; 2009; 2014).

According to Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018), there are various sampling techniques for the qualitative researcher to select the sample population of the study from which to collect data. Such methods include criterion, critical, typical, opportunistic, snowball, extreme, maximum variation, and negative case samplings. Each sampling technique is suitable for specific kinds of study. Of these techniques, the most appropriate for comparative case study on the various perspectives (in this research, faculty’s perspectives) on a phenomenon, the maximum variation sampling is the most adequate

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The authors argued that maximum variation sampling also lends greater credibility to qualitative research because it provides external validity to the study. The study therefore applied the maximum variation sampling technique, though snowball sampling had to be used at Cheikh Anta Diop University in some instances to obtain four of the seven participants from the institution due to immense difficulty to get access to some potential participants due to the Covid-19 travel restrictions and the consequential IRB advice against interpersonal (face-to-face) interviews. The researcher planned to travel to field in The Gambia and Senegal for data collection after securing

IRB approval for the study, but the Covid-19 Pandemic made it impossible for such travels because borders were closed across the world and international flights cancelled.

The researcher had to resort to online recruiting participants through gatekeepers. 112

Despite the assistance of a member of my Dissertation Committee linking me to a very empathic faculty member at University of Cheikh Anta Diop who personally delivered my letter requesting permission or access to the university for research and helped in consulting colleagues for their voluntary participation in the study, recruitment of the required number of faculty for the study in absentia posed a serious challenge. For a period of about six months, the researcher made little success in recruiting the required number of faculty at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop. It was so difficult to recruit faculty participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop that the researcher contemplated changing the research focus at a certain point. Other colleagues at the University of The

Gambia who sensed the researchers’ frustration in recruiting participants at University of

Cheikh Anta in telephone conversations on the research status with this researcher at the time, also, suggested colleagues of their own at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop all of whom strove hard with other previously mentioned gatekeepers to enable the research to recruit at University of Cheikh Anta the required number of participants who voluntarily participated in the study, after sitting for about six months without making headway in the recruitment at the university. Recruitment of participants in absentia at University of

The Gambia, also posed great difficulty, although of a different type.

However, at the University of The Gambia, the greatest problem associated with the recruitment of voluntary participants among faculty related to the wording of the

Adult Consent Form with Signature. A particular member of faculty withdrew her consent to participate in the study when she read the close indicating that her data could be shared with a Federal Agency to seek redress for her should her identity and security 113 be compromised. She was replaced by another voluntary participant who understood the content in a different way from her. Some others needed clarification on this particular clause of the Adult Consent Form with Signature both at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop before volunteering to participate in the study. After consenting their participation, all of the participants signed the Adult Consent Form with

Signature and emailed them to the researcher before the interviews took place. Contacts at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop made great efforts to ensure maximum variation sampling for the study, while at the University of The Gambia where the researcher is a member of faculty, the researcher himself ensured maximum variation in the sampling process. This was done because the study is not just about accessing faculty with common or typical perspectives at the University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop on the influence of the leadership style of their institutions on their motivation towards work, but also the extreme views and comparing the perspectives in the two universities and the influence of the perspectives on faculty’s motivation towards work.

The purpose of the research is to provide an understanding of how their perspectives of the leadership styles at the University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop affects their motivation towards work. It was therefore important to have participants of different views on the phenomenon. Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell

(2018) argued that “maximum variation sampling maximizes the divert of the sample including typical and extreme cases. The individual cases selected represent the entire spectrum of possible cases rather than a homogenous group like criterion sampling” (p. 114

284). To obtain such diverse views and perspectives on the phenomenon, it was imperative that the researcher used in the case study the maximum variation sampling

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

Participants

Seven members of faculty at the University of The Gambia and seven members of faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, giving a total of fourteen, participated in the study as interview respondents (see Tables 2 and 3). At either university, the five male and two female participants who were selected through purposive sampling/ maximum variation and snowballing took part in the study. At the University of The Gambia where the researcher has colleagues among faculty sampling was completed without much difficulty. However, at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop purposive sampling was used with snowballing as the researcher’s unfamiliarity with faculty and absence from the research site meant heavy reliance on contacts at the institution. Nevertheless, sufficient efforts were made to ensure maximum variation in the samples from the University of

The Gambia as well as University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Table 2 shows the pseudonyms of the research participants at the University of

The Gambia, their age, sex, and institution. The pseudonyms are not based on any specific characteristic, feature, or identifiable mark that can be traced to any individual faculty participant. 115

Table 2 Profile of Participants at University of The Gambia

Faculty Name Age Sex Institution

Elvis 55 Male University of The Gambia

Kanja 57 Female University of The Gambia

Lalo Kebba 39 Male University of The Gambia

Mah Kuyateh 31 Female University of The Gambia

Malcolm X 45 Male University of The Gambia

Suda 32 Male University of The Gambia

Talibeh 35 Male University of The Gambia

Table 3 shows the pseudonym, age, sex, and institution of each participant at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop.. All other people also mentioned in this study was not based on any identifiable characteristics of the individual. The participants had been teaching in the university, as at the University of The Gambia, have been teaching in the institution for no over five years at lower faculty level (faculty without administrative responsibilities). Also, the table shows that faculty at the institutions within the age bracket of 31 to 57 years.

116

Table 3

Profile of Participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Faculty Name Age Sex Institution

Banna 50 Female University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Dande Mayo 47 Male University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Kaaba Mambi 43 Male University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Kalifa 45 Male University of Cheikh Anta Diop

O-Man 35 Male University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Sereignbi 35 Male University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Tiramakhang 49 Female University of Cheikh Anta Diop

Instrumentation

The research instrument is divided into two sections. Section 1 deals with the demographic information of respondents such as faculty’s profile in terms of age, sex, gender, and institutional affiliation. Section 2 deals with the interview questions based on the concepts in the research question. The researcher developed the instrument based on the concepts in the literature reviewed. Al Khajeh’s (2018) article: Impact of leadership style on organizational performance addresses the issues of faculty-Vice Chancellor relationship, the impact of organizational styles on employee motivation and organizational performance, while Oke, Okonola, Oni, and Adetero (2010) and Hallinger

(2011) highlight issues or concepts such as organizational culture, organizational climate, relationships among staff, and conditions of work. The authors found that there are strong 117 relationships between these concepts and how they influence each other in relation to motivation and individual and organizational performance. Dinh et al (2014), Hoy and

Miskel (2010), and Yukl (200) and Yukl and Mahsud (2010) illustrated the relationships between faculty perspectives of leadership style as products of organizational culture and climate. These studies are integral to the literature review and conceptual framework that informed the development of the interview questions in relation to the research questions:

What are faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles on motivation at

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop? To what extent do the perspectives of faculty at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta

Diop influence their motivation towards work in their institution? And what are the similarities and differences between the motivational experiences of faculty at the

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop based on the influence of their perspectives of the educational leadership style of their institutions? The concepts and examples of questions on the concepts are follows:

1. Leadership style: How would you describe the leadership style in your institution?

What factors influence your perspective of the leadership style of your institution

as such?

2. Organizational culture: Could you describe the organizational culture in your

institution? What makes you perceive the organizational culture of your

institution as such? 118

3. Organizational climate: In your view, how does the organizational culture of your

institution influence the campus climate? What makes you think of your campus

climate as such?

4. Influence of conditions service: How would you describe the conditions of service

for faculty?

In what ways do the conditions of service for faculty influence work attitude,

generally?

5. Relationships: What is your relationship with your leader?

How does this relationship affect your motivation towards work?

6. General perspective and motivation: General What is your relationship with your

leader?

7. How does this relationship affect your motivation towards work?

In this study, the researcher used the multimodal technique of collecting data in the field. Interview questions were developed in English and translated into French for use in the Anglophone and Francophone universities, respectively. The translated version was checked for accuracy of translation by sharing it with a colleague from a

Francophone West African country where the education system from elementary school to undergraduate degree is in French. The medium of instruction for the colleague’s second degree which was obtained from Ohio University was English. This colleague is currently pursuing a Doctoral program at Ohio University. Both the English and French versions are in the Appendix section and marked Appendix D and Appendix E, respectively. The researcher used the interview questions in Appendix D and Appendix E 119 to obtain information from the research participants on the thematic issues in the research questions. The researcher used the English version at University of The Gambia where the medium of instruction is English and the French version at University of Cheikh Anta

Diop, where the medium of instruction is French, to collect data from the individual cases. The interviews could not be conducted face-to-face due to the Covid-19 travel restrictions and IRB advice discussed above. The interviews, were therefore, conducted virtually, each lasting approximately one hour. The researcher asked probing questions to main ones, where necessary, without leading the respondents to particular responses but as a guide to get deeper insight into the issues raised by the interview participants.

Also, the researcher used direct observation to glean information or cues from the interview participants from their body language, where applicable. Documents on the institutions were collected from friends and online and reviewed to have greater insight into the relevant issues of the research questions with great difficulty without being at the research sites. It was extremely difficult to have people who had the time and willingness to collect documents on their institutions when the semester was in full operation. A colleague of the researcher tried to assist by appealing their Gambia National Assembly to access documents on the financial report of the University of The Gambia to the

National Assembly but to no avail. The National Assembly member visited some relevant offices and other sources, but the documents could not be traced. Documents accessed included institutional Memos or circulars, minutes of meetings, institutional periodicals such as reports, magazines, staff development policies, and research policies some of which were in their draft forms, local, national, and international print media reports such 120 as online newspaper articles, magazines, BBC news articles, and VOA News reports. The researcher could not obtain most of the documents he expected to access because of the

Covid-19 travel ban almost the world over. Because the researcher could not travel to the sites as a result of the travel restrictions imposed by Covid-19 realities, most of the documents reviewed were online materials.

Data Collection

This qualitative study applied case study as a research approach. There are various sources of case study data and different ways of collecting case study data. Yin

(1994) identifies six ways of collecting case study data: “documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, and physical artifacts” (p.

78). In this study, interviews, document reviews, and direct observation were used to collect data. English and French versions of the interview questions have been developed

(see Appendix D and Appendix E) on the concepts of the research questions and the relevant thematic issues of the literature reviewed. The researcher conducted virtual interviews with all the seven participants at each of the two universities – University of

The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The researcher has shared the instrument with a Senegalese professor-friend currently teaching History at College of

Wooster and a graduate student-colleague at Ohio University from Benin (a Francophone

West African country) for accuracy of the interview instrument translation.

Interviews Process

Interviews with the seven participants at the University of The Gambia and the seven participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop selected on the criteria of maximum 121 variations was conducted within a period of three months, instead of the two weeks earlier planned due to the difficulty of accessing participants, especially at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop. A professor at Cheikh Anta Diop University was contacted by the researcher contacted the authorities and other faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop for the research. The authorities sent a letter of access directly to the researcher. A key contact at Cheikh Anta Diop University, also, submitted the letters to the Rectorate and various Schools of the University. The contact also introduced the research to colleagues and solicited their voluntary participation. As the travel restriction and IRB advice against in-person interview came before the researcher could travel on the site, the

University of Cheikh Anta Diop contact and other faculty-contacts to whom the researcher reached out through a colleague at the University of the Gambia facilitated the recruitment of participants on the principle of maximum variation. The challenges faced in this process have been highlighted above. As a member of faculty of the University of

The Gambia, the researcher personally identified respondents among colleagues for the study ensuring maximum variation. The researcher’s experience working with colleagues on faculty at The University of The Gambia based on good collegiality with each of them since 2001 was an added advantage in identifying appropriate participants and obtaining their participation and cooperation, guided by the sampling technique of maximum variation (a combination of typical and extreme cases), though with fewer challenges than at University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Interviews may be focused group or interpersonal. As pointed out by Yin (1994;

2003; 2009; 2014), the main reason for the interview technique is that it is a reliable 122 source of getting rich, thick data. The researcher applied the interpersonal interview technique because the objective is to discover the perspectives of individual members of faculty and use the information to arrive at the case-based evidence for each university or case, as suggested by Yin (2014) The case-based evidence cross-case data allowed for the identification of similarities and differences within cases and between cases, according to Merriam and Tisdell (2014). The interview questions are open-ended to enable respondents to elaborate on the issues and themes as much as possible. However, since each interview was for an average of one hour, care was taken to avoid too much digression from interviewees by keeping them on track as much as possible, without appearing to be interrupting participants. Nevertheless, the researcher avoided interrupting respondents unnecessarily and encouraged a reasonable degree of conversation to establish trust between the researcher and the respondents. Trust is key to information gathering in qualitative research data gathering (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995,

Yin & Campbell, 1989; Yin, 1994; 2003). One way the researcher strengthened the data was by ensuring external validity through in-depth information from participants not only using interview questions but also probes which sought to get thick description on the themes and issues that arose in the interview process.

Observation

Direct observation, according to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), enables the researcher to ensure internal validity of data. As such, the researcher kept field notes of observations on interview participants’ non-verbal behaviors to better understand the spoken and unspoken information. The participants issued the interview instrument, 123 consent and letter of recruitment to each participant at least a week before the interview to read and ask questions about the research, if had any. The researcher reviewed the contents of the consent form and letter of recruitment letter with each interview participant and answered any question that was asked to the satisfaction of the participant before they signed the consent form voluntarily. The researcher recorded the interviews recorded on Zoom with the consent of the participants to ensure that the data collected from them was fully and adequately captured in its natural setting. The recorded data from interview participants at the University of The Gambia was transcribed, while the data from University of Cheikh Anta Diop was translated from French to English. The data from both cases was coded by identifying codes, creating themes and subthemes from the codes identifying trends and patterns or categories in the themes and the themes of the interview data triangulated with the themes from the Memo-Journal and observation file (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014; Rubin & Rubin, 2018; Yin, 1994; 2014).

Merriam (1998) indicated that the sixth strategy for internal validity is reporting personal bias. To reduce the effects of personal bias, the researcher reported positionality, conducted peer-reading, and member-checking. The researcher sought and obtained assistance from a Senegambian colleague – a Patton College doctoral candidate – for peer-review on the data and the interpretation of the data. This is crucial as the peer has adequate knowledge of the research site and sociocultural contexts of the region, which are key criteria for comparative education research (Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018).

The researcher sought thick, rich data through external validity, as well.

Ebneyemini and Moghadam (2018) stated that the techniques for qualitative researchers 124 to ensure external validity is to “make use of thick description, multi-modals, and multisite designs” (p. 4). The researcher used multi-modal sources such as relevant online documents, photographs, letters, emails, memos, photographs, circulars, and periodicals to lend greater external validity to the research data. Various sources of data should

“converge on the same set of facts or findings” (Yin, 1994, p. 78) in order to illuminate understanding of the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the educational leadership styles at their universities affect their motivation. Similarly, convergent data sets facilitate comparison of the multiple data sets for conclusions and recommendations. Therefore, the researcher sought information through diverse instruments, as this technique would not only produce adequate information but also provide the opportunity to cross-check the data and strengthen it through convergence. Thus, two or more techniques may be used together to consolidate the validity of the data in qualitative case study research

(Yin, 1994; 2003, 2009, 2014). The observations were done mainly during the Zoom interviews, since in-person interviews could not be conducted based on the travel restrictions discussed and the advice against interpersonal interviews described above.

Documents Review

Document reviews was also conducted to corroborate the data from the interviews. Documentation is a reliable source of data collection because documents have been created for purposes other than the research. According to Yin (1994), documents are stable because they can be “retrieved repeatedly; are unobtrusive because they are not created as a result of the study; … contain exact names, references and details of an event; … [span] over long periods of time, many events, and many settings” (p. 80). 125

Nevertheless, the researcher avoided weakening documentation through “low retrievability, biased selection of documents where a document is incomplete, bias reporting of the author which may be unknown to the researcher” (Yin, 1994, p. 80).

Direct observations of interview participants enabled the researcher to support the data with real life situations such as body language, tone of voice, contextual observations such photographs of equipment and other artefacts and culture. Care was taken to ensure what Yin (1984; 1994; 2009; 2014) calls reflexivity through observation, coverage, and avoiding artificial settings because of the observation. Care was also taken to avoid spending too much time on observation as the interviews were virtual and the artifacts were photographs because campus visit was impossible due to the Covid-19 travel restrictions and IRB advice. By using multiple sources of evidence, the data collected was given stronger validity because the strengths of the various techniques reinforced each other and minimized their individual weaknesses.

Most of the documents were therefore accessed online and the websites are reported in the reference section. Such documents accessed informed the study regarding the influence the relationship between faculty and Vice Chancellors, the role of politicians in policy making at UACD and the consequences of such policy impositions.

Also, the documents revealed how government policy imposition impacted student morale at UCAD and the constant, often violent, demonstrations that characterize such student reactions to some government policies. Memos and minutes of meetings, newspaper articles, and photos show the influence of the Staff Union on policy making at

UTG and that faculty reacted to their exclusion from the decision-making process both in 126 terms of sit down strikes and dialogue. Other artefacts such as photographs of furniture, infrastructure, and equipment showing the conditions of work at both UTG and UCAD were observed to have deeper understanding of the phenomenon and further strengthen the reliability of the data in a triangulation process. Documents on the UTG Financial

Report to the National Assembly in 2014 could not assessed for lack adequate documentation to facilitate retrieval.

Validating Data Analysis Procedure

The lack of an agreed systematic procedure for analyzing data in the past has led to lots of ambiguity and disagreement as to what is the most effective way of analyzing qualitative research data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014). Yin (1994) claimed that “data analysis consists of examining, categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial propositions of a study” (p. 102). The author states that

“every investigation should start with a general analytic strategy” (Yin, 1994, p. 102) where the researcher determines what to analyze as priority and what is not worth spending time on to analyze. The priorities for analysis were on items of the data that speak to the research questions from the literature reviewed and emergent themes from the interviews. When new themes emerged in the data collection that are directly related to the research questions but have not been captured in the literature review, the researcher went back to the literature review to see how this information fits into the broad spectrum of the research, especially the concepts of the interview questions.

The researcher personally transcribed the information from the recorded interviews and sent the transcriptions to the interviewees for validation. After this 127 member-checking, the data was shared with the Ohio University Patton College doctoral candidate-colleague of the researcher from the Senegambia Region as an external auditor for peer-examination. The tape recordings of the interviews from the University of The

Gambia were transcribed and those from Cheikh Anta Diop University were translated and transcribed from French into English. The data was analyzed by identifying the codes, forming themes and sub-themes and then observing patterns and trends or categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014; Rubin & Rubin, 2018; Yin, 1994, 2014). The researcher stopped the coding process when data saturation was reached. Data saturation is not just about repetitiveness of data with no new information coming from the data, but, more importantly, exhausting all the main and probing questions (Privitera &

Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018).

The general analytical strategy applies various techniques of data analysis some of which are more appropriate for one form of study or another (Merriam, 1998; Merriam

& Tisdell, 2016; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Yin (1994) identified two techniques of general analytic strategy which enable the researcher to “choose among different techniques and to complete the analytical phase of the research successfully, relying on theoretical propositions, and developing a case description” (Yin, 1994, p.

103). Although relying on theoretical propositions is said to be the most effective way of doing data analysis, it depends on whether the objective of the case study research is to test a theoretical proposition. For a descriptive case study as this, developing a case description as a framework for organizing the study is more practicable (Stake, 1995; Yin

& Campbell, 1989; Yin, 1984; 1994; 2003; 2009; 2014). This is so because the goal is to 128 understand the nature of an event, a situation, or a phenomenon. Yin (1994) argued that

“this strategy is less preferable than the use of theoretical propositions but serves as an alternative when theoretical propositions are absent” (p. 104). Therefore, the study of the influence of faculty’s perspectives of leadership style on their motivation can be effectively conducted by describing the phenomenon and reporting individuals’ feelings and attitude and describing how those attitudes are influenced by their (Faculty’s) perspectives. The research instrument was designed to capture these essential concepts of the research questions. The analysis was done on the emergent themes, patterns, and categories from the interview data during the primary level coding and triangulated them with those from the documents reviewed in secondary level coding (Merriam & Tisdell,

2014).

Moreover, relying on a theoretical proposition in case study analysis presupposes a research method that requires “quantifying the descriptive elements of a case study”

(Yin, 1994, p. 105). Since this research design is a qualitative case study, rich, thick description is what is required to achieve the goal of the study (Merriam, 1998; Stake

1995; Yin, 1994, 2003; 2009; 2014). The alternative of “playing with the data” which is left to the case study researcher in the absence of these two general strategies is risky as it requires that the researcher be “facile at playing with the data” (Yin, 1994, p. 106). If the researcher does not have the requisite skills to use the appropriate techniques for “playing with the data” (Yin, 1994, p. 106) the “entire case study is likely to be in jeopardy” (Yin,

1994, p. 106). To avoid the risk of jeopardizing the study, the researcher neither applied the strategy of relying on a theoretical proposition nor the “play with the data” (Yin, 129

1994, p. 106) technique. Rather, developing a case description as framework for organizing the study was be applied because it is more adaptive to, and adequate for the study.

Pattern-matching is one of the most desirable techniques of case study analysis associated with developing a case study description, according to Ebneyamini and

Moghadam (2018). Yin (1994) argued that “if the case study is a descriptive one, pattern- matching is still relevant, as long as the predicted pattern of specific variables is defined prior to the data collection” (p. 106). Pattern-matching is crucial in case study data analysis because it helps the researcher to determine the extent of internal validity. Yin

(1994) stated that “if the patterns coincide, the results can help a case study strengthen its internal validity” (p. 106). The researcher carried out pattern-matching at the level of individual cases to identify similarities and differences within and among the multiple cases to arrive at a concrete and objective explanation of what the emerging patterns illustrate and what this means for the study.

Another reason why pattern-matching is crucial for this study is that it strengthens single cases as well as multiple cases and helps the researcher to address rival explanations (Yin, 1994). Yin (1994) claims that if identical results are obtained with multiple cases through pattern-matching they help the researcher at the level of the single cases because “literal replication of the single cases would have been accomplished, and the cross-case results might be stated even more assertively” (Yin, 1994, p. 109). The pattern matching analytical technique enabled the researcher to analyze the patterns in the data at the individual case and cross-case levels and make assertions that would are 130 grounded in the data. The researcher personally analyzed the data in order to be more familiar with the information and provide the opportunity to better understand the data from the cases. By coding the information, drawing themes from the codes, subthemes from the themes, and identifying patterns for pattern matching the researcher got closer to the data. That helped the researcher to comprehend the data better for analytical purposes.

The researcher then analyzed the patterns or trends, interpreted them and compared them at cross-case level for similarities and differences. Conclusions were drawn based on the similarities and differences in the interpretation of the patterns. Then, recommendations were made based on the conclusions.

Data Analysis and Coding Strategies

Upon completion of the virtual interviews which were conducted in English at

University of The Gambia, the researcher transcribed the recorded data into electronic format. The researcher translated the virtual interviews at Cheikh Anta Diop University from French to English and transcribed them into electronic format. The translation, transcription, coding, and analysis were all done by hand by the researcher in order to build greater familiarity with the data and to see if new themes would emerge from the interview data (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Each interview subject was sent the transcription of their oral response for review to enable them to add or take out or modify whatever information they wished to change or omit.

The coding process started with open-coding or line-by-line coding (Rubin &

Rubin, 2012) in which concepts in the interview data which address the purpose of the study were identified and labelled as codes as well as “respondents’ meanings … and the 131 researcher’s experience guided by the conceptual framework” (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016, p. 208). These rudimentary codes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) were marked against the appropriate data units for identification and easy access. Then, the codes were combined to form larger categories called themes through axial coding or analytical coding

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Analytical coding or axial coding is a step above open-coding or what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) called descriptive coding as it involves combining themes with similar characteristics but different enough from each other in some details (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Rubin and Rubin (2012) observed that themes, patterns, and categories may be merged to form higher order codes, themes, patterns, and categories or subdivided to form subthemes in hierarchical coding. Thus, some themes with similar features, though distinct in some ways, were merged to form higher order categories of themes or overarching themes (Rubin & Rubin, 2018) and a few other themes were split to form discrete themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This process, which Rubin and Rubin (2012) called hierarchical categorization, enabled the researcher to reduce the numerous codes and themes into categories that are more manageable but related (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Then, the emergent patterns in the data were observed from the themes to better understand the data and report such themes and patterns accordingly (Rubbin & Rubin, 2012). The third-level coding was done through what Rubin and Rubin (2012) called selective coding.

According to the authors, selective coding further combines and condenses second-order categories to third-order categories by combining the axial codes or analytical codes into more comprehensive categories which have connections with other codes in the data 132 called patterns (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) called them categories.

These patterns or categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) were recorded in a memo- journal to enable the researcher to retrieve them more easily later. Observation notes taken during the interviews on Zoom were recorded in a similar memo-journal. Codes taken from documents reviewed and observation were merged with interview codes and themes during the Secondary level coding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The themes retrieved from memos were triangulated with the interview data for validation of the research findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2018). A master list of themes and patterns (Rubin & Rubin, 2018) or categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) of the study were prepared for the within-case analysis and cross-case analysis (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016; Yin, 2014). The narrative of the study was pulled out from the new emergent themes and patterns or trends in the interview data and memos to tell the story by giving “an analytical explanation of the other categories … found” (Merraim &

Tisdell, 2016, p. 207) in the combined data sets of the study.

As a multiple-case study, the data in this research was analyzed at two different stages: within each individual case and across the two cases, as advised by Baxter and

Jack (2010). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) also suggested that: “In multiple case study there are two stages of analysis – the within-case analysis and the cross-case analysis

[authors’ emphasis]” (p. 234). Yin (2014) emphasized that in multiple case study the researcher should make a comprehensive analysis of the context variables related to the study before beginning the cross-case analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Pattern- 133 matching was applied because of its wide usage in case study as a desirable technique for comparing predicted patterns and their effects with those which the researcher has found in the interview data, documents reviewed, and through observation, as suggested by

Basrakada (2014). The codes, themes, and patterns of the individual cases were reported and analyzed separately at the first stage and the analysis of the second phase was conducted across the two cases.

Within-Case Analysis

The purpose of the within-case or case-based analysis in a multiple-case study is to enable the researcher to have deep understanding of the details of each case and maintaining their integrity for comparative purposes across the cases (Merriam & Tisdell,

2016; Yin, 2012). The within-case analysis started with the codes developed in the primary level coding which generated numerous concepts, themes, subthemes and categories (Rubin & Rubin, 2012) from the interview data collected on University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The concepts created from Secondary level coding (documents reviews and observation) were compared and merged with the concepts and themes of the Primary level coding and grouped under the following themes and categories: (1) Description of substantive institutional leadership style, (2) justification of substantive institutional leadership style perspective, (3) influence of perspective of institutional leadership style on faculty commitment, (4) description of organizational culture, (5) factors influencing perspective of organizational culture, (6)

Influence of organizational culture on motivation, (7) description of organizational climate, (8) effects of organizational culture on campus climate, (9) effects of campus 134 climate on mood at work, (10) effects of mood on work attitude, (11) description of conditions of work, (12) Influence of conditions of work on attitude to work, (13) faculty-

Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship, (14) influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship on motivation, (15) general perspective of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship influence on motivation, (16) description of ideal leadership style, and (17) justification of ideal leadership style perspective. The second phase of coding or axial coding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) combined the 17 themes into 4 main new categories

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) or patterns (Rubin & Rubin, 2012) from the interview questions, responses, literature review and researcher’s knowledge of the subject matter

(Meriam & and Tisdell, 2016) are as follows: (1) Perspective of institutional leadership style which combines the themes: Description of substantive institutional leadership style, and description of ideal institutional leadership style, (2) justification of leadership style description which entails the subthemes of justification of substantive institutional leadership style description, and Justification of ideal institutional leadership style description, (3) conditions affecting faculty’s perspectives of institutional leadership style which consists of the subthemes (Rubin & Rubin, 2012) built around organizational conditions in which faculty work such as description of organizational culture, factors influencing perspective of organizational culture, “description of organizational climate, effects of organizational culture on campus climate, effects of campus climate on mood at work, description of conditions of work, faculty-Vice Chancellor/Rector relationship, and

(4) influence of perspective determinants on motivation which combines: influence of perspective of institutional leadership style on faculty commitment, influence of 135 organizational culture on motivation, effects of mood on work attitude, influence of conditions of work on attitude to work, influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship on motivation, and general perspective of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship influence on motivation.

Cross-Case Analysis

The researcher used cross-case analysis to present the findings of the study across the two cases based on the similarities and differences between them. Baxter and Jack

(2010) argued that the comparative method is one of the six approaches to reporting a case study. Although, there is no agreed format for reporting qualitative research findings, it is generally agreed that certain procedures help the researcher to present their findings in a comprehensive manner (Yi, 2014). The cross-case analysis was conducted on the same patterns used for the within-case analysis as these were the findings of the research. Also, they relate directly to the research questions and literature reviewed, and the concepts of the analytical framework. The general properties of each case were analyzed in relation these patterns, the literature reviewed, and conceptual framework.

Trustworthiness/Reliability (Credibility and Dependability)

Some of the main concerns of a dissertation research are related to trustworthiness, validity and reliability (Messick, 1995). Validity and reliability are crucial elements of scientific research intricately interwoven (Ebneyamini & Moghadam,

2018; Messick, 1995; Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Traditional researchers criticized qualitative researchers for lack of generalizability (Messick, 1995). However, recent experience in research has shown that the concern of qualitative research is not 136 about generalizability nor about sample size but the ability of the researcher to obtain rich, thick data to ensure trustworthiness or credibility (Messick, 1995; Patton, 1999).

Messick (1995) emphasizes that replication which, according to traditional Positivistic researchers, is impossible with qualitative findings due to the lack of breadth depends on the qualitative researcher’s ability to obtain the rich, thick descriptions. If research in qualitative methods is grounded in deep investigation the data obtained is rich and thick and therefore enables the researcher to provide adequate information on the population.

Also, the researcher should give enough information on the procedures taken in the research for validity purpose. The fact that the researcher’s findings from a sample population can be applied to the target population lends qualitative research to reliability

(Messick, 1995) because the data is strengthened by the validity considerations considered by the researcher. The researcher took into account the validity question and reliability concern by applying the necessary techniques for internal validity, external validity, and replicability through data triangulation and the use of multimodal qualitative data collection techniques such as interviews, documentation, and artefact examination.

Validity is a precondition for reliability and reliability supports trustworthiness in qualitative research, despite the small sample size (Messick, 1995). Messick (1995) argues that “Validation is empirical evaluation of the meaning and consequences of measurement. The term empirical evaluation (emphasis, the author’s) means to ensure the validation process is scientific as well as rhetorical and requires both evidence and argument” (1995, p. 747). The process of empirical evaluation was also taken care of through the maximum variation sampling procedure that was applied in this study to 137 ensure that extreme cases and typical cases were considered. This sampling method increased reliability at all levels of levels of the sample population. As Messick (1995) argues, “validity is not just about interpretive and action inferences derived from scores, as originally conceived, but also inferences based on any means of observing or documenting consistent behaviors or attributes” (p. 741). Hence, validity, reliability, and trustworthiness or credibility result from the sampling process, data collection, and the strengthening processes of triangulation described.

To further increase the reliability or credibility of the study the researcher applied the “four criteria of trustworthiness: transferability, dependability, confirmability, and credibility” (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018, pp. 604-605). Privitera and Ahlgrim-

Delzell (2018) argue that transferability in qualitative case study parallels external validity/ generalizability of quantitative studies” (p. 604) and that increasing the number of participants is equally important for the generalizability of qualitative data as

“increasing the number of different situations from which the participants are drawn” (p.

604). The maximum variation sampling and multiple cases at the different universities in this study have been intended to take care of the criteria of increasing the different number of participants, multiple sites, and the different situations for the purpose of comparison fulfill the criterion of increasing numbers for generalizability. Therefore, this study is a qualitative investigation which should be generalizable across the target population.

Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018) argue that in qualitative research

“dependability parallels the reliability criterion of quantitative study” and can be obtained 138 by thoroughly explaining the processes the researcher has taken to do the study in such a way that “another researcher can replicate the study” (p. 605). Privitera and Ahlgrim-

Delzell (2018), also argue that the researcher may ensure confirmability as an equivalent of validity in quantitative research by putting aside all biases in the representation of participants’ views. As a member of faculty of the University of The Gambia, the researcher is aware of the possible influence of his experience with the leadership of the institution in the research. The researcher, therefore, was careful not to allow his experience to influence the data through cross-checking of the data (member-checking and peer-reviewing), convergence of the data from obtained using multimodal technique, and multisite design. The researcher presented participants’ views adequately, fairly, and objectively to ensure confirmability. In the interest of objectivity, the researcher removed himself from the data by avoiding leading questions and making suggestions. The researcher avoided interpreting the interviewees’ responses from the researcher’s personal perspective through member-checking and peer-reading, to cater for credibility, according to Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell (2018).

Validity is the extent to which the data produced in a research can be said to be a true representation of the views or characteristics of the research population (Messick,

1995). In qualitative research, validity of data does not depend on the sample size.

Rather, the richness of the information gathered by the researcher and the researcher’s ability to observe and analyze phenomena, according to Patton (1999). Yin (1994) identified internal validity, external validity, and reliability as some of the approaches that researchers can use to maximize the quality of their data. Merriam (1998) claimed 139 that the qualitative researcher has six ways to ensure internal validity of data gathered.

The researcher may apply some, or all, of these different strategies. The researcher may validate the data through member-checks. In order words, the researcher may return the data to the interviewee or research participant to confirm or refute the transcription and/ or interpretation of the data collected from them to prevent misrepresentation of the research participant’s views. To validate the data collected, the transcriptions and interpretations of the information collected from each respondent was be returned to them for member-checking.

To further strengthen the validity and reliability of the data the researcher made use of the external auditor. The external auditor, according to Privitera and Ahlgrim-

Delzell (2018), is an outsider to the study but has knowledge of the study area, the ability to review the processes of the research, and the interpretation of the data. The external auditor is a Patton College doctoral candidate from the Senegambian Region.

Researcher’s Role/Personal Biography

The researcher has the competence to conduct the study in the Senegambian region because the researcher was born in The Gambia but grew up partly in

Tambacounda, Senegal. The researcher then returned to The Gambia to continue elementary school in English. Since then, the researcher has been travelling in and out of

Senegal from The Gambia visiting family and friends frequently. The researcher has very strong social connections with both Gambia, where the researcher has been living since

1970, and Senegal. Therefore, maneuvering through Senegambian culture in which the researcher was socialized from birth did not pose any difficulty for the researcher who 140 speaks all the major languages of The Gambia and Senegal and is very much familiar with the cultures of the Senegambia region.

The researcher has working knowledge of the French language which started with elementary education at Tambacounda, Senegal. Later, it developed in Gambian schools and through private studies (home schooling) to General Certificate of Education

Ordinary Level and Advanced Level. The researcher has advanced listening, reading, writing, and speaking skills not only to comprehend spoken French, but also read and write the language fluently. Transcribing and translating interviews from French to

English did not pose any challenge for the researcher. The researcher held interviews and engaged in conversations in French with faculty in the Senegalese institution of

University of Cheikh Anta Diop with ease during the data collection through online interviews. Similarly, analyzing the French documents and translating them into English was quite easy for the researcher.

Online access to the University of The Gambia faculty and documents such as institutional regulations, minutes of meetings, memos, letters, and photographs did not pose much difficulty for the researcher as a member of faculty since 2001. Although travel restrictions due to Covi-19 and IRB advice prevented the researcher from travel to the research site, reliable picture of infrastructure and furniture have been collected through colleagues and a letter from a Dean to the Ministry of Higher Education,

Research, Science and Technology on the condition of campus facilities. The gatekeepers such as the Deans and other faculty members are colleagues with whom the researcher has maintained good collegiality over the years. Similarly, at Cheikh Anta Diop 141

University the researcher has developed close connection with some members of faculty, some of whom the researcher has built acquaintance with while they were all pursuing higher education at with in Ohio University from 2008 and 2009. One member of faculty was a childhood friend in Tambacounda. Some of them the researcher has maintained close contact with from 2008 to date. Also, a Senegalese professor of History at Wooster

College has established contact between the researcher and a key member of faculty at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop who took it upon herself to personally deliver the letters of permission to the authorities at the institution at follow up on them until positives the responses were obtained on them.

The researcher was appointed as a Graduate Teaching Assistant at the University of The Gambia in 2001 where the researcher continued to teach lower-level courses, before leaving for Ohio University to pursue a Master of Arts degree program from

August 2008 to December 2009. Since 2010 when the researcher returned to The Gambia after a Master of Arts degree program in African Studies at Ohio University, he resumed teaching duties at the University of The Gambia until 2016 when he returned to the US for a doctoral degree program in Educational Administration. As a member of faculty of the University of The Gambia the researcher has been aware of his own biases and tried as much as possible to reduce the influence of these biases in the study by avoiding suggestive questions or bringing his own experience to bear on the interviews in any way.

The researcher avoided asking leading or suggestive questions to bias the study findings.

The researcher included in the sample faculty with diverse views by seeking the typical as well as well as extreme cases as much as possible to obtain a balanced view on the 142 influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style at their university on their motivation towards work. Having gathered data from the sample cases in this way, the researcher analyzed the data with objectivity, clarity and preciseness to ensure validity by starting the analysis within the individual cases and then across the cases.

Research Protocol and Ethics

Because the investigation is on human subjects, the researcher sought and obtained IRB approval before conducting the research. By the time IRB approval was obtained the Covid-19 pandemic led to travel restriction and the IRB advised that all in- person interviews should be conducted virtually. So, the researcher could not travel to

Senegal and The Gambia for the data collection at the University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop, as planned earlier. This has somehow affected the ease with sampling and data collection as the researcher had to rely mainly on friends and colleagues to contact interview participants. Despite hitches in the selection and interview of participants from afar, come colleagues and friends played a key role in ensuring maximum variation at the sampling stage and following up on the recruitment of volunteers to participate in the interviews. The researcher sent each participants the research protocols at least a week before the date scheduled for interview with them to enable them sufficient time to read, digest, and ask questions on the research, if they had any. Before each interview, the researcher took time to go over the recruitment letter and consent form and informed them that they had the right to ask any questions they wished to ask. The researcher explained the purpose of the research to each of the participants and the potential benefits to them. The researcher explained to the participants that their 143 participation is voluntary and that they are free to withdraw their participation from the study at any stage of the research without any risk to them.

The researcher explained to the participants that they would be recorded on audio to enable the researcher to capture their information fully. The researcher assured them that their privacy and integrity would be protected by giving them pseudonyms. The researcher explained to them that the purposes of the recording were to capture their exact words and expressions and for precise transcription. The researcher assured them of the security of the recorded voices. The researcher keeps the recorded voices securely in a personal computer with a strong password. The researcher then sought the consent the potential respondents identified for participation in the study. After reading the consent form, one participant at the University of The Gambia did not like sharing her information with the Federal State Agencies as provided in the IRB consent form and therefore declined to participate in the study. The faculty member was replaced with another volunteer. The researcher then requested them to sign the consent form as an indication of their voluntary personal consent to take part in the research. All participants voluntarily signed the consent form before the interviews with this researcher. Those that needed clarification on the aspects of Adult Consent Form with Signature were given adequate information to enable them to make an independent decision on whether or not to participate in the study. One participant at the University of The Gambia withdrew her participation because she was not satisfied with an aspect of the Adult Consent Form with

Signature and was replaced by another volunteer, as reported above. The signed IRB consent forms are attached at in the Appendix Section of the dissertation report. 144

Chapter 4: Findings

Introduction

This chapter consists of the findings of the research conducted through online interviews, because the Covid-19 pandemic travel restrictions and the IRB policy on interpersonal interviews changed the researcher’s travel plans for data collection, as reported in Chapter 3. The purpose of the research was to explore the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles at the University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop on their motivation. The following three research questions were pursued to understand how faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles of their institutions influence their motivation towards work at their institutions: (1) What are faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation to work at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop? (2) How do faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the leadership styles of their institutions, affect their motivation? (3) What similarities and differences exist in faculty’s experiences in the influence of the leadership styles of their institutions on their motivation at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop? This chapter reports on the cases on which the data were collected, participants interviewed, and the data collection, findings and analysis procedures. The chapter closes with a summary of the similarities and differences between faculty’s experiences in the influence of their perspectives of the leadership styles of their universities on their motivation at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Four main themes emerged from the interview questions, interview data, and documents reviewed which were used to address the 145 research questions. The four main emergent themes which formed the bases of the data analysis are: (1) Faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles of their universities, (2) justification of leadership style perspectives, (3) conditions affecting faculty’s perspectives of institutional leadership style, and (4) influence of faculty’s perspective determinants on their motivation.

The within-case analysis was conducted on the data on University of The Gambia, first. Then, the researcher applied it to the data on University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The second stage of the multiple case study analysis was conducted through the cross-case analysis of two institutions to make general descriptions and draw similarities and differences between the cases. From the similarities and differences, inferences on the implications of the findings were made.

Presentation of Within-Case Findings on UTG

The data on the first case reported and analyzed for detail understanding is the

University of The Gambia. The responses of individual interview participants were examined on the bases of the four main themes identified: Perspective of institutional leadership style, justification of leadership style description, conditions affecting leadership perspectives, and influences of leadership style perspectives on faculty motivation for the analysis of the data. As indicated above, all the names used in this study are pseudonyms for the protection of the integrity and right to privacy of the participants as well as others mentioned. The University of The Gambia has had seven

Vice Chancellors since its founding. Some have served in an acting position, while others have been appointed for a complete term. When faculty mentioned the name Vice 146

Chancellor, they were not pointing to any particular person but a general practice at the

Office of The Vice Chancellor.

Perspective of Institutional Leadership Style

Participants’ perspectives on the theme of perspective of institutional leadership style, which refers to the style of institutional leadership, was sought on two themes:

Description of substantive institutional leadership style, the actual leadership style at faculty’s university as the individual respondent sees it, and description of the ideal institutional leadership style, the most desirable higher education style of leadership for the individual respondent. Suda, a 32-year-old male participant, described the substantive leadership style of his university thus: “Well, the leadership of the University of The

Gambia, I would say is very … loose, not well coordinated system … loose and laissez faire.” Another member of faculty at the university, Talibeh, who is a 34-year-old said:

I think the leadership style is a unique one. I don’t think we have this type in other

universities, because in our own people are appointed based on political affiliation

or based on social affiliation which I call nepotism. For me, if it is not based on

academic excellence, everything fails because if you bring people who are not

academics to run an academic institution, whatever you have you just accept it.

Mah Kuyateh and Kanja, 31-year-old and 57-year-old female respondents, respectively, both referred to the leadership style of their institution as “autocratic.” Elvis, a 55-year- old participant and one of longest serving members of faculty, made a distinction between two forms of authoritarianism in describing the institutional leadership style of the University of The Gambia: “excusable” and “inexcusable” autocratic leadership 147 styles. The participant indicated that the leadership style at a certain stage of the development of the institution may be excusably authoritarian, but not at all times and that Vice Chancellors who come on board after the institution’s initial stages can only be

“inexcusably authoritarian.” Elvis stated that authoritarianism reached its peak at the university during the time of Vice Chancellor Karamo who actually “killed” the staff union that had been in existence even before his time as Rector. Lalo Kebba, another male participant, aged 39, said: “I would describe the leadership style of my institution as dysfunctional.” However, Malcom X, a 45-old male participant, observed that it is

“democratic, though not faculty-led ... but Administration-led.”

The second component of the category of perspective of leadership style deals with what style of leadership faculty see as the ideal style for higher education in the

Senegambian Region. Both Suda and Elvis described their perspectives of the ideal institutional leadership style as one which is truly “democratic, open, participatory, and respectful to all views.” Both Malcom X and Kanja described their ideal institutional leadership style as one which is “democratic, professionally-run by academics.” Lalo

Kebba described it as one which is run on “decentralized decision-making and implementation … financially disciplined and sets priorities right.” Lalo Kebba’s description made reference to the use of the democratic structures of the institution such as the divisions of the university: Schools/Faculties, Departments, and Units each of which is led by a member of faculty. Mah Kuyateh described her ideal leadership style as one which is “proactive, flexible, versatile, well-informed, and academic-oriented.” For

Talibeh, the ideal institutional leadership style is an “academically-oriented leadership, 148 conscious of its duties to the stakeholders of the University and the Gambian people.”

The ideal leadership style question helps the researcher to see what similarities or differences, if any, exist between the substantive leadership style of their university as they see it and the leadership style they want to see in their institution. In this case, there is a wide difference between what faculty yearn for as the best leadership style for their institution and what they claimed exists in their institution.

Justification of Leadership Perspective Description

This is intended to reveal the reasons why faculty described the two leaderships

(substantive and ideal) as did. Faculty reported various justifications for their perspectives of the substantive leadership styles of their institutions and their ideal institutional leadership styles. On the factors influencing his perspective of the substantive leadership style of the University of The Gambia, Suda states that there is

“lack of clarity and weakness of the leadership … constant manifest faculty discontentment, especially during the time of some Vice Chancellors.” Most participants pointed out that the leadership is deliberately divisive. Mah Kuyateh, Suda, Elvis, and

Talibeh, and Lalo Kebba all indicated that the leadership discriminates between faculty and administrative staff to advantage of the latter. (Administrative staff in this study refers to the lower ranking administrative staff who are not part of decision-making body of the University, as opposed to “Admin” or the “Administration” or “Management” who are the decision makers at the University.) Malcom X claims that usually “the University is run by an inefficient Administration-led cabal which is not conscious of pursuing their mandate, but to fulfill the interest of the few who are within the cabal.” There seems to be 149 tension in this response and the participant’s description of the substantive leadership style of the university as “democratic’ because:

The leadership always allows us to meet at the end of every month the first

Wednesday to discuss the way forward for UTG and also the remuneration

packages for the staff retention. Also, to create a conducive environment for

teaching and learning. Such VC Office also practices open-door policy for any

staff who wants to see them, the only setback is they cannot decide without

involving their team who often give them ill advice.

Kanja adduced the reason of “lack of consultation and support for professional staff development” as the justification for her description of the substantive leadership style of the university as autocratic. Lalo Kebba said: “Many factors influence my perspective of the leadership style of my university: I’ve witnessed incompetence, nepotism, favoritism, negligence, greed, indolence and belligerence of the Admin of the UTG while I was a

Graduate Assistant and, later, Lecturer.” Elvis stated that some Vice Chancellors had reason to be authoritarian because: “at that time the university had no structure. It had no organizational structure. … And it was pretty difficult to run an inclusive regime at the university at the time. So, its authoritarianism could be understood.” Elvis stated that: some Vice Chancellors consolidated the authoritarianism in the institution by imposing on the institution a management system comprising mainly of close associates; and that:

The same thing continued until one Vice Chancellor took over and

institutionalized the autocratic leadership. … For example, I remember we were 150

trying to form a union and a Vice Chancellor came and disbanded it. It was a Vice

Chancellor who succeeded in disbanding it.

Elvis continued to state that some Vice Chancellors restructured the Management Team and called it different names comprising mainly of close relatives and allies and thereby succeeded in using manipulation and coercion as strategies to get what they wanted. He observed that: “The important thing to note here is that the voices of dissidence were marginalized. This compelled some members of their management team to either serve the interest of the person who recruited them or remain silent if they didn’t want to be branded ‘troublemakers.’” In making justifications of their description of the leadership styles (substantial and ideal), faculty adduced various reasons.

For the justification of the institutional leadership styles which they described as ideal, Elvis observed that participatory democratic leadership would be the most effective. He went on to say: “No-one knows it all. … one size fits all policies are at the roots of the university’s problems. Only through democratic consultation can different views be obtained for peculiar circumstances.” Suda maintained that “genuine democratic participation gives feelings of belongingness and being respected and leads to the growth and development of ideas.” Kanja said a participatory, academic-led professional leadership is crucial “for the effective running of the faculties [schools, departments, and units] in consistency with university rules, regulations, and processes in the best interest of all stakeholders and the country at large.” Mah Kuyateh, like her colleagues (Suda,

Lalo Kebba, Malcom X, Elvis, Talibeh and Kanja) justified faculty-led university leadership style on the grounds that: “Academics know the problems of academia more 151 than anybody else.” The reasons adduced by faculty in their responses show what faculty deem their ideal leadership practice for their institutions is faculty-oriented professional democratic leadership. They believed that this was inexistent in their institutions. Even the member of faculty who described the substantive leadership as democratic continued to say that the institution is sometimes run by “a cabal” which is not interested in the development of the university. This supports Lalo Kebba’s claim that democratic structures exist in the institution but are often “undermined” by leaderships.

To justify their description of substantive leadership style of the University of The

Gambia, faculty outlined the lack of commitment to democratic leadership principles such as participation, justice, transparency, and accountability, among other issues. Elvis gave the genesis of autocratic leadership of the institution and made distinctions between various Vice Chancellors and their époques. He said a particular Vice Chancellors had to put in place an administrative structure because it would be difficult to create a democratic system of governance and administration because of the lack of enough qualified and experienced colleagues at the time. He explained that a Vice Chancellor practiced a management team with members of the team consisting mainly of his close associates at the university. He stated that the autocratic leadership style was institutionalized by other Vice Chancellors who tried to disband the Staff Union of the university. Elvis observed that it was a Vice Chancellor later eventually delegitimized the

Staff Union by through coercion. Lalo Kebba, Kanja, and Mah Kuyateh all pointed to the discriminatory practices in Management of the university and the deliberate marginalization of faculty from the decision-making and governance systems. However, 152

Malcom X justified his description of the substantive leadership style as democratic by indicating that the leadership allowed faculty to meet at the school levels once every month to discuss issues related to the teaching and research at the university, a practice which Suda described as a sham because their views were not considered.

Conditions Affecting Perspectives of Leadership Style

This is a category that entails subthemes related to faculty’s work environment and their daily experiences at the workplace. The subthemes have been mentioned above as: Description of organizational culture, factors influencing perspective of organizational culture, description of organizational climate, effects of organizational culture on campus climate, effects of campus climate on mood at work, description of conditions of work, and faculty-Vice Chancellor/Rector relationship. Since perspectives are formed based how people see a phenomenon, faculty working in an institution of higher education are expected to have their perspectives influenced by specific factors in their environment. At the University of The Gambia, faculty gave various factors on which they based the descriptions of their perspectives of the substantive leadership. Suda, Talibeh, and Lalo

Kebba described the organizational culture as negatively “unique” because of what they considered to be the failure to cultivate an academic culture based on professionalism, collaboration, and productivity. Kanja described the organizational culture as marked by

“distention between faculty and Administration,” Admin, Administration, or

Management (Administrative Staff who have decision-making powers, authority, and influence at the university). Elvis stated that: “The leadership is not committed to the organizational goals, vision, and mission” and that “significant improvements [in the 153 organizational culture] came about as a result of the influence of the Staff Union” (also called Staff Association, Faculty Association, or UTG Faculty and Staff Association composed of faculty, administrative staff, and ancillary staff). (The Staff Association referred to here is different from the Staff Union which Elvis said was “killed” by a certain Vice Chancellor as the former was established in 2016, while the latter had been in existence about nine years earlier.) The role of the Staff Association in bringing about major changes in working conditions has been raised by Mah Kyateh, Talibeh, Elvis, and

Suda. Malcom X described the organizational culture as characterized by “no innovation, no terms of reference, no detailed orientation, which make up organizational culture.”

Talibeh said that the university is run on the practice of “Un poids, deux measures” – a

French saying meaning different standards or criteria for different people (researcher’s translation confirmed by the participant). Mah Kuyateh stated that “It is a hard culture … static with autocratic decision-making.” Lalo Kebba states that: “Admin shows lack of commitment to decentralized decision-making.”

Organizational culture, also, was a key concept in the themes which emerged in the interview data as a factor influencing faculty’s perspectives of the substantive leadership style. Respondents gave various reasons for their descriptions of the organizational culture. Lalo Kebba observed that: “The organization has proper structures for decentralization. However, most of these structures have proved meaningless giving the rate of administrative undermining from the top in decision making and implementation.” Kanja highlighted the “lack of communication and collaborative efforts on academic innovation.” Suda indicated that the uniqueness of the University’s 154 organizational culture arises from “downplaying the fundamental contributions of faculty

… empowerment of administrative staff over faculty … marginalization and discrimination of faculty, contrary to normal university practice.” Elvis stated that: “The university has a muddled culture where the decision-making bodies are composed of academics and non-academics.” Like Elvis and Malcom X, Mah Kuyateh observed that a certain Vice Chancellor is too old to create a credible organizational culture, and that he is incapable of pragmatic leadership, and too dependent on bad advisers. Talibeh indicated that there is a lack of academic culture at University of The Gambia because

“There is net degradation of research funding.” Like Suda, Lalo Kebba, Mah Kuyateh, and Elvis, Talibeh described the organizational culture as beset with discrimination between faculty and administrative staff, as well as “among faculty who belong’ and

‘faculty who don’t belong’ in matters of promotion, recruitment, study leave, access to funding information for research and travels to international conferences.” Talibeh, also listed promotion of personal interest in a public institution, victimization of whistle blowers, ambiguous policy making to create loopholes to avoid responsibilities. Faculty interviewed felt that the university should be led professionally by academics but were of the opinion that it has often had non-academics who run the institution in an unprofessional manner.

Organizational culture and campus climate are closely related as they mutually influence each other. To understand how faculty relate to each other and to other members of staff, it is important understand their views and feelings on how things are done and how these feelings affect them emotionally. Talibeh reported that the campus 155 climate of the University of The Gambia is problem-ridden. This description of the campus climate seems to cut across the responses from all the participants. Mah Kuyateh, like Lalo Kebba, indicated that there is a sense of “rejection on the part of faculty due to

Admin’s disregard for faculty and student needs.” Elvis observed that: “There is always grumbling, grumbling among faculty. People don’t feel satisfied. And some people believe they’re just here to be seen to be working. OK? They see the university as not forward looking.” Kanja said that the campus climate is one of “disunity between faculty and Admin.” Suda said that the “discriminatory system has created a climate of mistrust and disunity between faculty and Admin, faculty and administrative staff, and among faculty.” Even Malcom X who described the campus climate as “conducive” on the grounds that there is no physical fighting acknowledged severe tensions among staff when he said there is spiritual fighting which prevents many qualified professionals from taking up jobs in the institution or returning to their jobs after their studies abroad or secondment elsewhere.

The debate about whether organizational culture gives rise to campus climate or whether the reverse is what obtains has not been settled yet. Some organizational culture scholars say that the unsettled debate shows that they are mutually reinforcing

(Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2013). On the effects of organizational culture on campus climate, Mah Kuyateh indicated that it “is a ‘dead academic culture’ producing a ‘dead campus climate’ …There is little financial support for social and academic campus activities and little social campus interaction … due to lack of a university campus.” She explained that faculty and students are scattered across various campuses of other 156 institutions. Talibeh echoed similar observations about the absence of social and academic activities due to the lack of a university campus. He said that:

The employment of administrative staff without the requisite qualifications or

following due process because of nepotism is affecting the campus climate

because such employees show greater commitment to the person who brought

them to the institution than the university. … they become our privileged

administrators who expect subservience from us, faculty.

Malcom X stated that:

The climate condition on campus is conducive since there is no physical fight but

there is spiritual fight through “marabouts” because of position which is threating

and shying away good people who fear being destroyed and attracting people who

are not good but also believe to fight spiritually and hence ‘square pegs in round

holds.

Malcom X claimed to have come in contact with people who have been fought

(spiritually) not to come back to the university. Elvis indicated that the campus climate is marred with indifference and disinterest. He cited the example that: “Often, if you call for meetings the turnout is very poor ... convocations, trainings, … people hardly turn up.

They see it as waste of time to attend … because even if you make contributions, nobody will consider them.” Faculty generally expressed the idea that the organizational culture has had negative effects on the campus climate.

The effects of the campus climate on faculty’s mood at work was explored to discover how faculty feels about what goes on around them at the workplace on a daily 157 basis. Mah Kuyateh revealed that she “feels bad about the situation.” Malcom X indicated that “It makes the teaching and research difficult.” Elvis, Lalo Kebba, and

Talibeh also stated that it creates disillusionment, suspicion, and hatred between faculty and administrative staff, faculty and Administration, and even among “faculty who belong” and “faculty who don’t belong.” They claimed that it creates care-free attitude to work for some members of faculty. Suda observed that it creates a situation of constant suspicion between faculty and administrative staff because faculty think that some administrative staff allow themselves to be used by Administration. Kanja stated it is uninspiring and that her sources of inspiration come from her conscience and commitment to her students. The campus climate therefore is unhealthy for good collegiality and counterproductive.

Conditions of work at the University of The Gambia have been described as the some of the most significant influencers of faculty’s attitudes toward work. Many aspects of the conditions of work have been raised by interviewers to be determinants of their perspectives of the substantive leadership style that they described. Malcom X observed that conditions of work: “do not clearly capture the well-being of the staff and have not been clearly defined … duplication of roles … too many people in administrative taking whopping sum … as salaries, instead of purchasing educational materials….” Elvis,

Suda, Mah Kuyateh, Lalo Kebba, and Talibeh described the working conditions at the university as “poor” and “frustrating,” listing the following reasons: inadequate office space creating tension between faculty and teaching staff of host institutions on their campuses, lack of enough classrooms leading to loss of valuable instructional time due to 158 faculty having to wander about in search of vacant classrooms for lectures, low remittances, bossy administrative staff treating faculty with contempt, delay in contract renewal leading to faculty losing crucial opportunities, inconsistent appointment and recruitment, retention and promotion procedures for staff, especially administrative staff, poor benefits for faculty on study leave, and discrimination in general welfare of faculty.

On tension arising between faculty of University of The Gambia and staff of their host institutions over facilities, Elvis cited the example of a situation in which the authorities of the host institution of his School seized their office space from faculty of the

University of The Gambia by changing the lock without informing faculty thus cutting him, in particular, off of his books and other materials in that office. Talibeh decried the lack of office space for faculty of the School of Arts and Sciences, especially on other campuses than their own, where they are given classes to teach but do not have even a common room to wait for their lecture time or assigned specific classrooms for their lectures. He said: “So, we’re forced to look for a place to cool ourselves down before our lectures begin, and vacant classrooms to hold lectures. So, we roam like the Rohingyas.”

(Laughs sarcastically, showing deep anger) Mah Kuyateh, also, emphasized that

Administration often “pays lip service to conducive conditions of service.” She cited the example that: “as a Graduate Assistant you should be enrolled in a Master degree program after 3 years of service. However, many members of faculty have stayed longer

… the leadership does not show any sign of concern about it.” She also observed that the conditions of service “don’t even show how UTG guarantees that you go for further studies. Rather, staff are left to look for scholarships all by themselves. Also, employment 159 contracts of 3 years … seems … too short … for faculty retention.” Like Mah Kuyateh,

Elvis, and Lalo Kebba, Talibeh maintained that: “Apart from the lack of sufficient classrooms and office space, facilities such as toilets and furniture are in deplorable conditions, equipment such as smart boards are non-existent and mere projectors often unavailable.” Talibeh, also, stated that despite having a standby generator, students sometimes use their mobile phones to provide light to avoid late evening classes from disruption, when electricity goes off. He reported that in such a situation, the students switch on their mobile phone lights to prevent the disruption of an engaging class. The campus culture and climate tend to have influenced each other in a negative way because each has been described mainly in negative terms, as can be seen in Mah Kuyateh’s description of both as the influence of one on the other: “a dead organizational culture producing a dead campus climate.”

At the university of The Gambia faculty have both academic and social relationship expectations from the Vice Chancellor. The fulfilment or non-fulfilment of these expectations contributed to their perspectives of the leadership style. On faculty-

Vice Chancellor/Rector relationship, Malcom X reported “a healthy personal relationship.” Kanja, on her part, stated that her relationship with the Vice Chancellor is

“sometimes tense and other times cordial,” while Lalo Kebba, Suda, and Mah Kuyateh indicated that they have little, if any, personal relationship with the Vice Chancellor but have close relationships with their Dean of School, Head of Department, and Heads of

Unit, who, according to them, have little power to be of significant help to them because 160 of the centralized decision-making style at the university. Asked about his relationship the

Vice Chancellor, Suda replied:

Well, I would say I have never had any meaningful relationship or interaction

with any of the Vice Chancellors. Actually, the one that stayed the longest during

my time there was one who … we actually ended up knowing each other through

Facebook after he had left [the university]. We kind of became friends through

Facebook. ... I don't know how he noticed me on Facebook but during his time

there we didn't have any interaction. I don’t think he knew me.

Suda observed that, generally, faculty and Administration, especially the Vice

Chancellors, have little interpersonal relationship because they live in different “worlds.”

Mah Kuyateh, Elvis, and Talibeh described the faculty and Admin relationship, especially the VC, as living in different “worlds” to show the aloofness of the Vice Chancellor from faculty by indicating that the Vice Chancellor came to Brikama Campus where their

School is located only once. They indicated that even at that, it would only be after a scandal about appalling conditions of facilities becomes so scandalous that it reaches the major media houses. They said that’s when the Vice Chancellor, out of feared of another student demonstration, would decide to see the situation in which faculty and students had been complaining about for long. Elvis said he has had little social or professional interaction with the Vice Chancellor. Apart from Malcom X and Kanja who claimed to have cordial and mixed relationships, respectively, with the Vice Chancellor, all participants in the study reported little or no professional or personal interaction with the

Vice Chancellors of the university. Elvis claimed that a particular Vice Chancellor was 161 accessible, but many others have not been so. Elvis, like Malcom X, maintained that the accessibility of a particular Vice Chancellor was not out of his own volition but a result of the pressures of the University of The Gambia Faculty and Staff Association Executive who have been very instrumental in bringing about some remarkable changes in the way the university is being run. Elvis said: “It will appear as if a particular regime is transformational: looking after our needs and emotions but it’s not. If not for the Staff

Association, he [the Vice Chancellor] it would have followed the pervious pattern of autocracy.” Malcom X did not give any reason why he said a particular Vice Chancellor operates what he called “an open-door policy” but remarked that he is incapable of taking decisions and depends on a “cabal” who deceive him in their attempts to protect their own interests in the running of the university. Suda also expressed the view that the

Monthly School Meetings held by faculty which some members of faculty believe is a privilege from the Vice Chancellor is, in fact, a right which is honored only in words but not in practice, as the decisions taken at such meetings are not considered by Admin. Lalo

Kebba also pointed out the lack of commitment to democratic leadership style on the part of Administration for the fact that they undermine the decentralization structures to the point that many faculty members committed to organizational change decline positions on the structures.” The general relationships between faculty and the Vice Chancellor both at academic and social levels have been seen as very minimal, if existent at all.

Influence of Perspective Determinants on Faculty Motivation

This theme describes how faculties’ perspectives of the leadership styles of their institutions and the conditions in which they execute their daily routines at the workplace 162 as products of the leaders’ choices of governance and decision-making styles. They stated that the leadership styles affect their work attitude and motivation. The category includes subthemes such as influence of organizational culture on motivation, effects of faculty’s mood on their work attitude, influence of faculty’s working conditions on their attitude towards work, influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship on faculty motivation, perspective of the influence of leadership style on motivation, and general perspective of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship influence on motivation. The influences of these factors on motivation reveal how faculty’s views of the leadership styles of their institutions affect their motivation at work, as the perspectives are based on what they deem as their experiences with the factors outlined. However, their motivation may or may not be influenced by those perspectives as some participants indicated in their responses. According to the responses, the effects of the factors on faculty motivation are relative. Nevertheless, a generally trend can be deciphered. The general trend may be identified from the articulated and the non-articulated (body language) feelings and views. As shown by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), various cues emerge in interview data as in other data sources such as observation, documents review, and artifacts which corroborate the interview data. Similarly, puzzles, maxims, metaphors, paradox and anecdotes can reveal hidden meanings in interviewers’ responses (Merriam

& Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).

On the influence of the organizational culture on faculty motivation, Suda reported that it is relative in that it varies from one person to another. However, he observed that the organizational culture, generally, has “bad influence” on faculty 163 motivation and he claimed that he had often heard some members of faculty say: “‘I don't care because no matter what I do, the Administration do what they want.’ …Other people think: ‘Admin is here for their own interest … I’m not going to listen to them.’ … people feel disappointed with Admin.” Suda stated that this sense of disappointment has led to disengagement due to demotivation and institutional underperformance because “it is kind of further marginalizing faculty… reducing the very critical input that the university needs from faculty.” Kanja made a similar conclusion in her observation by saying that it has resulted to “lack of collaborative efforts among faculty.” Like Suda and Kanja, Elvis described it as “demotivating and the principal cause of the high attrition rate, moonlighting, and carefree attitude on the part of some members of faculty.”

Although Malcom X said that the campus climate is conducive for teaching and research, his observation about the influence of the organizational culture on faculty motivation is that: “the failure of policies is due to poor communication between

Administration and faculty.” Talibeh expressed similar views as Suda, Malcom, Elvis, and Kanja, on the influence of the organizational culture on faculty motivation, went on to add “disillusionment and indifference” to the list. Like Malcom X, Talibeh observed that “Some Vice Chancellors’ reliance on some misleading collaborators and close associates has created low quality performance and la transite masse [French expression meaning mass exodus or high level of attrition, researcher’s transl.] at the University.”

Like his colleagues, Lalo Kebba said that “the organizational culture is not only demotivating but also set for failure because the lack of commitment on the part of

Administration has led to indifference for some members of faculty.” Mah Kuyateh 164 added that “there is lack of motivation, especially for faculty who return from studies, because they seem to be frowned upon by Admin.” The general perspective of the influence of the organizational culture on motivation is therefore a sense of demotivation.

Almost, all participants revealed dissatisfaction with the way things have generally been done at the university and thereby affecting motivation negatively for many. Even though, few admitted that it affects their own motivation negatively, almost, all the participants indicated that it affects many members of faculty’s motivation negatively.

The effects of faculty’s mood on their work attitude were investigated through an attempt to understand how the campus climate affects their mood and how their mood, arising from the effects of the campus climate, in turn, influences their motivation as shown in their performance at work. Malcom X and Mah Kuyateh expressed difficulty in preventing such mood at work from affecting their attitude at work. Mah Kuyateh observed that despite conscious efforts to prevent her personal feelings from affecting her work attitude negatively, the reality is that it is not always possible for her to prevent her personal feelings from affecting her work attitude thus: “… a large class with no fans or ventilators… in the hot summer, this affects my mood instantly and my attitude towards

… the subject matter and interaction with … students, although I do my best to adapt.”

Malcom X, on his part, revealed that: “It makes it difficult for me to put my best in the delivery.” Elvis reported the effects as low innovation, enthusiasm, and productivity, disinterest in the work, high attrition, and moonlighting on the parts of many members of faculty. Talibeh added to the effects adduced by Elvis a sense of “disenchantment, disillusionment, frustration, discouragement, and carefree attitude towards work on the 165 part of some members of faculty.” Malcom X and Talibeh stated that some members of faculty try to prevent the effect of the campus climate on their mood from affecting their work based on their sense of nationalism, conscience, and religious obligation.” Like

Talibeh, Suda and Mah Kuyateh, Kanja claimed that her only source of motivation is “her students’ feedback.” Suda explained that as a result of the campus climate on faculty’s mood: “faculty and Admin are often on the lookout for trouble from each other … and there is advocacy for a faculty-only union for greater faculty security.” Negative influence of the organizational climate on faculty motivation has been reported by almost all participants.

The influence of the conditions of work on motivation have been widely agreed to be demotivating for most participants. Malcom X reported that the conditions of work have the effects of “demotivation and under-performance on the job.” Elvis observed that there is dissatisfaction, frustration, low self-esteem, a great deal of part-time engagement and moonlighting, conflict between faculty and Administration, some members of faculty were said to have abandoned the practicum components of their courses due to frustration from lack of adequate support on the part of Administration for such activities. Suda indicated indifference from poor working conditions on the part of some members of faculty. Lalo Kebba described them as demotivating. Mah Kuyateh claims that faculty have become less proactive due to “lack of information on conditions of work.” Talibeh echoed similar views as his colleagues and added that Administration refers to the Staff

Association which was created as a result of the need for a robust bargaining structure as

Boko Haram (a terrorist organization in Nigeria). Talibeh went on to say that the 166

“antagonistic and discriminatory leadership style of the institution works against the interest of the University.” This is a factor that has been most widely spoken about by participants as the effect of the conditions of work on faculty motivation. Participants identified various aspects of the conditions of work as having negative influence on their motivation.

Malcom X claimed that the faculty-Vice Chancellor relationship does not have effects on his motivation because he is self-motivated due to his conscience and fear of

God. Kanja, also, made similar remarks by saying that she does not allow her relationship with the Vice Chancellor affect her motivation at work. However, Elis and Suda reported that the faculty-Vice Chancellor relationship has low motivation effect, high level of self- reservation, and lack of concern for student achievement on the parts of some members of faculty. Mah Kuyateh indicated it evokes in her a “feeling of being on my own” due to lack of concern from Administration and the disempowerment of lower faculty leaders such as Deans, Heads of Department, and Heads of Unit, as reported by Suda and Lalo

Kebba. Talibeh said that there is “negative motivation at all times … feelings of mistrust and resentment from Vice Chancellors’ lack of concern for faculty welfare leading to confrontations.”

Finally, on the subject of the general perspective of how substantive leadership style influences faculty motivation at work, Malcom X claimed that it has low motivation effect leading to underperformance on the part of some members of faculty. Lalo Kebba,

Suda, and Elvis claimed that it is demotivating. Kanja described it as “Hectic and 167 stressful sometimes.” Mah Kuyateh stated that it leads to underperformance on the part of faculty.

Presentation of Findings on UCAD

As at University of The Gambia, all names in this study are pseudonyms given to participants and other individuals mentioned in this study to protect their integrity and right to privacy. (See figure 4 for participants’ demographic profiles.) More than ten

Rectors have been in the Rectorate since the founding of the university. The terms

Rector, which is interchanged with Vice Chancellor, does not refer to any particular individual, but a common practice ascribed to the Rectorate in participants’ views. The study pursued the research questions in relation to the themes created and used in reporting the findings at the University of the Gambia. Therefore, the same themes are used to report and analyze the data on the University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Perspectives of Leadership Style

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style was studied by investigating faculty’s views on the substantive leadership style of their university and their perspectives of the ideal higher education leadership style. Banna, a

50-year-old female said a particular Rector is “a democrat, a transformative [leader] and very encouraging of innovation. It should be noted that some before him, were autocratic and too bureaucratic.” Sereignbi, a 43-year-old male, indicated that the leadership style of

University of Cheikh Anta Diop is “a bit tricky to define” because of the influence of the state, as “the laws mandate the head of state to appoint the Rector.” Like, Sereignbi, O-

Man, another male member of faculty, aged 35, said the leadership style is mixed in that 168 it is “democratic, but with a bit of laissez faire tendencies, sometimes.” Kalifa, a 45-year- old male, Kaaba Mambi, a male member of faculty, aged 43, Tiramakhang, a 49-year- old female, and Dandemayoo, a 47-year-old male, stated that the leadership style is open, flexible, and democratic. The general view is that the institution has a democratic leadership, though the origin of the democratic leadership has not been specified. No participant refuted the claim by Banna and Sereignbi that some Rectors practiced autocratic leadership at some point.

Sereignbi observed that the ideal leadership style for his university is one that is open and democratic but that it requires autonomy from the government which uses funding as the license to influence the policies of the institution. He said:

The leadership style would depend on the degree of autonomy universities have.

As long as we’re financially dependent on governments our leaders will continue

to be used by the governments. To me the leadership style depends on how

independent we are as institutions of higher education, even though I don’t

believe that economically motivated reasons should be a license for political

control of the universities. For us to reach that level of transparency, of

democracy … aah … we need, first of all, financial autonomy. And I don’t think

that the way the governments are managing universities is somehow … aah …

something you could label authoritarian.

Kaaba Mambi, Tiramakhang, Banna, and Kalifa described their ideal leadership style as open, accessible, flexible, courteous, democratic, just, and dialogical. Dandemayo said his ideal leadership style is “one which encourages collegiality, collaboration, and 169 openness.” For O-Man, the ideal leadership style for his university is “dialogical, frank, and pragmatic.” Faculty’s ideal leadership style for a Senegambian university is, therefore, not much different from the general perspective of their substantive leadership style. The general perspective of the ideal leadership is expressed in a truly democratic light where the areas for improvement observed by Banna, for example, would be improved on.

Justification of Leadership Style Description

This category that entails the reasons for which participants described their substantive and ideal leadership styles as they did. Like Kalifa who justified his description of the leadership style of his institution as democratic because it has functional democratic structures for decision-making and implementation which it follows, Tiramakhang stated that there is decentralized decision-making. Decisions are taken by the University Council – which is the highest rank in the hierarchy consisting of the Vice Chancellor or Rector as the Chair, Deans representing their Schools, and full

Professors – the School Councils – comprising of faculty representatives of the various

Departments of the School and/or Faculty), and Department Councils (consisting of faculty in the various Departments). Kaaba Mambi added the leader’s embodiment of charisma to the democratic factors raised by Tiramakhang and Kalifa. Banna and O-Man, both agreed with all three of their colleagues (Kalifa, Tiramang, and Kaaba Mambi), but

Banna observed that some Rectors were autocratic and that it was “Rector Tamba who changed the game; the approach he has introduced is dialogical, collaborative, and transformational.” O-Man said that it is “pragmatic.” Sereignbi indicated the reason why 170 he described the leadership style of his University as “tricky to define” is that it continues lose autonomy to the government due to its dependence on state funding and the mandate of politicians to appoint the Rector. He said some of these politicians use their financial and statute powers to influence the university’s policies to their advantage:

We have public universities that are dependent completely on funding that comes

directly from the government. … the Rector himself is appointed by the head of

state. And some of the policies that are applied by the University are directly

edited by the government.

The influence of politicians in the decision-making process of the university has been widely decried by various interview participants. It is a theme that keeps appearing in different parts of the data as not only undesirable but also a source of conflicts between stakeholders.

On the justification of his description of the ideal institutional leadership style,

Sereignbi emphasized the need for financial autonomy by saying that: “The leadership style would depend on the degree of autonomy universities have. As long as we’re financially dependent on governments, our leaders will continue to be used by the government.” Talibeh expressed a similar view on the influence politicians have on the substantive leadership and the need for autonomy from the State in his description of the ideal leadership style. Kaaba Mambi, Tiramakhang, Dandemayo, O-Man, Banna, and

Kalifa justified professional democratic leadership as the ideal style for their university on the grounds that it commands the respect of subordinates by building trust and 171 confidence in the leadership and cultivating a peaceful organizational culture and climate based mutual respect.

Conditions Affecting Perspective of Institutional Leadership Style

The organizational culture of University of Cheikh Anta Diop, according to

Sereignbi and Kalifa is both top-down – when government decisions are imposed on academic staff – and bottom-up – when decisions are taken by the decentralized decision- making bodies [Councils] of the University. They claimed that when decisions are taken by the Councils there is democratic practice, fair, transparent, and accountable recruitment, retention, and promotion for faculty. Dandemayo said that leadership “places a strong emphasis on good governance and justice.” Banna observed that: “The organizational culture advocated by the Rector is based on merit. That suits me and therefore motivates me highly.” Kaaba Mambi said that the Rector emphasizes community service.

The factors influencing perspectives of organizational culture at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop were described by Tiramankhang, Sereignbi, Dandemayo, and Kalifa as fair, transparent, and accountable recruitment, retention, and promotion. Kalifa added to the list the element of equal access to information leading to peaceful relationship among faculty and between faculty and the Rector. O-Man described the recruitment, retention, and promotion processes of the university as “often credible, though sometimes slow and marred by conflict of interests.” Banna described the factors that influence her perspectives as comprising of two facets: “exclusive decision-making, prior to Rector

Tamba’s tenure” and “bottom-up democratic decision-making” since then. Kaaba 172

Mambi, like Tiramankhang, Sereignbi, Dandemayo, and Kalifa, claimed that respectable faculty recruitment, retention, and promotion are hallmarks of the organizational culture.

All of them indicated that a regional accreditation Board called Conseille Africain et

Malgache d’Enseignement Supréieur (CAMES) African and Malagasy Council for

Teaching in Higher Education, researcher’s transl.] determines promotion based on clear evaluation standards. Criteria-based decision-making is therefore a common practice, based on the information given by participants.

Organizational climate at University of Cheikh Anta Diop has been described by

Banna as “highly motivating, sometimes … but other times there is slow communication of decisions at school level.” Kaaba Mamba stated that the University has “democratic organizational structures and practice.” Sereignbi and Kalifa described the campus climate as peaceful, trustworthy, satisfactory, accountable, and transparent. Sereignbi said it “minimizes conflicts between leadership and faculty and among faculty … builds trust and confidence in the recruitment system which gives satisfaction in the outcome because of the accountability, transparency, and collaboration in the system.”

On the effects of the organizational culture on campus climate Banna indicated that:

Within Faculties or Schools, sometimes communication does not pass, or one is

informed at the last moment. This can create a sense of rejection and discontent.

Because everyone likes to feel respected and considered. So, communication must

be fluid and information shared on time. …Slow communication causes feelings 173

of rejection, anger, and disappointment … and intergenerational conflict at

University Council level.

On the other hand, O-Man said: “Decisions are mainly taken by university authorities such as the Rector, Deans of Schools, in consultation with various bodies.” Sereignbi indicated that: “adherence to fair and just criteria has led to a peaceful campus climate.”

Kalifa observed that the organizational culture has created trust and confidence in the system.” Kaaba Mambi declared that it created a: “peaceful, amicable and conducive work environment.” O-Man, Dandemayo, Tiramakhang, and Sereignbi stated that democratic decision-making characterizes the influence of organizational culture on campus climate leading to good collegiality. Generally, there is agreement among participants that the organizational climate is conducive to teaching and productivity.

The effects of campus climate on faculty’s mood have been generally described in positive terms, though a few critical observations show that the campus climate is mixed, particularly due to political influence. Banna observed that the effects of campus climate on faculty’s mood at work has been “sometimes, promising, other times discontentment, frustration, feeling of disrespect, and sense of disregard.” Kaaba Mambi and Sereignbi said: “Political decisions such as ‘massification’ have negative effects on faculty’s mood at work such as frustration and low morale.” Like O-Man and Dandemayo, Tiramakhang declared that the campus climate has little or no effect on her mood. Sereignbi described the effects as “positive impacts which favor good interpersonal relations among faculty between departments, … mutual trust, and cooperation.” Kalifa echoed similarly views with Sereignbi by saying that the trust is also at the level of faculty-Rector relationship. 174

However, Kalifa observed, that “tensions arise from State imposition of policies on the

Rector causing unionist and student demonstrations on campus.” Kalifa and Sereignbi expressed disapproval of politicians’ mandate to appointment the Rector.

Conditions of work in which faculty practice their daily teaching and research duties as well as factors affecting their professional development are varied. The following conditions of work were adduced by Banna, Kaaba Mambi, Sereignbi, and

Kalifa: inadequate and insufficient infrastructure, facilities, fiscal support, and equipment. Respondents indicated the insufficient scholarships for faculty training, understaffed Schools and Departments leading to overburdened faculty, overpopulated classes and too many courses to teach per semester for individual faculty. They also lamented the dual functions of some teaching staff as a result of lack of enough competent administrative staff in some Schools, and Departments and inadequate funding for research. Most complained of inadequate office space, ill-equipped laboratories, limited teaching resources, unstable campus internet service, poorly ventilated classrooms, and lecture halls. Faculty who shared their views with this researcher expressed difficulty using visual teaching aids such as projectors as students at the back of the overcrowded classrooms and those peeping through the windows in the corridors

(for lack space inside) have great difficulty seeing what is projected in front of the class.

However, Dandemayo and Tiramakhang expressed near-perfect condition of service leading to feeling of satisfaction for faculty. Although, Tiramakhang acknowledged the problem of understaffing as a reality, she said the “number of faculty is not important because the timetable is prepared in consultation with faculty.” O-Man described the 175 conditions of work as “fairly OK,” but said “there’s room for improvement.” Generally, faculty decried the inadequacy and inappropriateness of various aspects of the conditions of service that affect their practice in the institution.

Despite differences in the views of a few members of faculty, at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop, faculty seem to have different expectations from the Rector’s social and professional relationships with them than at the University of The Gambia. (The reasons for this will be discussed in Chapter 5.) In describing the faculty-Vice

Chancellor/ Rector relationship at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Sereignbi and Banna, said that faculty have no personal relationship with previous Rectors; that Rectors stayed aloof from faculty; and that there was a cumbersome bureaucracy to reach the Rectors.

Sereignbi specified that politicians have great influence over the policies of the institution with regrettable consequences thus:

And it makes a great difference because … ahh … you may have some

educational policies that are … aah … supported by faculty … by staff … aah

which go against the policies at the government level. That might be the main

issue and sometimes it ends up in a conflict between unions …ahh … not directly

against the university leadership but against the government.

Banna, explained that Rector Tamba was one of those who revolutionized the Rectorate by introducing an “open-door policy.” Kaaba Mambi had a different view from his colleagues and stated that he had “no relationship with the Rector but I have a good relationship with my Dean of School and Head of Department.” Despite the sense of social distance between faculty and the Rector stated by some members of faculty, the 176 participants seem to have less emotional feelings about this aloofness. Moreover,

Sereignbi, Banna, Dandemayo, and O-Man maintained that faculty have a cordial, respectful, and collaborative relationship with the Rector. Kalifa felt that the Rector is excusably aloof from faculty due to their busy schedule and amount of administrative responsibility by indicating that:

The Rector is somebody who is somehow aloof from faculty. It is understood and

accepted that the Rector should be there to do their work in the most efficient and

effective manner but not to be going about building social relationships with each

individual on faculty. There is a line of communication which is clearly stipulated

and observed to address issues at the University. It is not necessary to go to the

Rectorate for every situation at the University.

Kalifa continued to say that: “There is highly professional and less personal relationship between Rector and faculty. … The professionalism with which the Rector relates with faculty ensures good collegiality among faculty and between faculty and the leadership.”

Influence of Perspectives of Leadership Style Description on Motivation

Sereignbi and Banna described the influence of the organizational leadership style on faculty motivation for some previous Rectors as: “demotivating” but claimed that generally the Rector’s leadership style is “motivating” because it is respectful, peaceful, trustworthy, transparent, and accountable, despite room for improvement. Sereignbi maintained that some members of faculty try to prevent the negative influence on their motivation because of their commitment to their students. Kalifa, Kaaba Mambi, and

Dandemayo maintained that it has positive effects on faculty’s motivation as a 177 democratic organizational culture based on justice. The positive effects raised by Kalifa,

Kaaba Mambi and Dandemayo come from the satisfaction that faculty have with the professional leadership style highlighted by faculty as manifested in criteria-based assessment and evaluation of their professional and research performances for recruitment, retention, and promotion. Kambi Mambi observed that “promotion based on criteria of productivity encourages faculty to work hard to attain the standards.”

Tiramakhang responded thus: “It has no direct influence on my commitment to the university.” Despite responding that the substantive leadership style of her university has no direct influence on her motivation, Tiramakhang’s response to the question on the influence of the leadership style on general faculty motivation is that: “The awareness that our promotion does not depend directly on the Rector can be a source of motivation for us to work freely knowing that our promotion depends only on us; and that can include scientific production.” It is a consensus therefore that the substantive leadership style of the university motivates faculty.

The effects of faculty’s mood on their work attitude as a result of the campus climate was described by Banna thus: “I make lot of efforts to prevent big negative influence of bad mood from campus climate to influence my work attitude.” Kaaba

Mambi said it is “demotivating.” Tiramakhang, Dandemayo, and Kalifa said it is

“motivating as it encourages teaching and research and promotes intellectual productivity.” Sereignbi revealed that it “encourages interdepartmental and intradepartmental collaboration” and gave two examples of such situations. In one example of such a collaboration the participant said their colleagues from other 178

Departments sought his help with the translation of their materials from English to

French and French to English without any hesitation. Another example given was that a member of faculty from a different School was invited by another School to conduct a workshop on teaching methods. O-Man claimed that: “The leadership style does not have a significant influence on my engagement.” He maintained that his motivation comes from Dean, Head of Department, and students but not the Rector. This may be because of the distance between the Rector and faculty discussed above.

For the influence of conditions of work on faculty’s attitude towards work, Banna and O-Man responded that they have “negative influence on professional attitude, as they reduce teaching and research preparation times. Kaaba Mambi claimed that “they lead to demoralizing, demotivating, and carefree attitude to work, and frequent conflicts between unions and leadership.” Sereignbi agreed they are sometimes demoralizing but observed that in some Schools, faculty’s conscience guides them to sacrifice in the national interest, despite high costs to their health. He gave the example of a government policy which required his School to introduce two intake cohorts, instead of the usual one intake cohort, per year. He said the policy was frowned upon but as trainers of professionals they decided to comply. He revealed that without any increase in the teaching staff their student population increased very much thereby increasing their workload tremendously.

He explained that by the end of the academic year several members of faculty broke down and when they were hospitalized, they were diagnosed with excessive fatigue. He also revealed the challenges of inadequate facilities by saying that: 179

You may have a classroom that is too small aah … to accommodate the number

of students you have for a course. Aah … you may have to run to campus too

early to make sure that the classroom that you want to use … aah … is not going

to be used by someone else. Aah … Faculty are not provided with offices for

them to conduct individual work, research and run office hours aah … to meet

students individually. I think we have only two offices in my department for …

aah …faculty that turns around twelve instructors. Aah … so, people just don’t

stay at the College if they’re not teaching. They prefer to go home where they

have their own offices which are more comfortable. But as you may guess, you

cannot run office hours at home.

Aah … I think infrastructure is partly very old. Aah … you still have the

same structures, very few new buildings constructed. So, like I said a while ago,

in terms of classroom for educational delivery, it is a serious problem.

Kalifa indicated that they are demotivating as conditions such as inappropriate equipment and apparatus, overcrowded classrooms requiring the use of a megaphone, overwork leading to health hazards, are hectic but that some members of faculty “remain enthusiastic” because of empathy, while others develop a “carefree attitude towards their work.” Dandemayo and Tiramakhang claimed that they have positive effects on faculty motivation, as Dandemayo observed that: “People feel fairly treated. So, they work accordingly” and Tiramakhang said: “There are no negative effects as faculty work quite freely.” The general opinion is that they are indeed demotivating. Sereignbi’s example of the effect of political decision imposed on his School to have a second admission in a 180 year shows that exhaustion takes its toll on the health of many members of faculty due to understaffing and “massification.”

The influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor/ Rector relationship on faculty motivation was described by Kaaba Mambi as one of mutual respect by saying: “As a democratic leadership style, it is reassuring because it enables dialogue between all the members of faculty before any decision is taken. Faculty are informed of all that is going on at the University.” Dandemayo, Tiramakhang, and O-Man, also claimed that the relationship between faculty and the Rector is “motivating.” Banna stated that some

Rectors have been “inconsiderate and demotivating” but others’ relationship with faculty is motivating, and holistic.” Sereignbi shared a similar impression with Banna and said this a particular Rector:

I feel highly indebted … aah … for being granted this study leave for two years

… two full years! I am assuming that not any other Rector would have granted

that to me. Maybe it is because of the perception he had about me without even

knowing me. … He must have heard of certain sacrifices I made earlier, and he

probably said: ‘Yes, this probably the right guy to grant study leave.’ And aah …

because of that, at the end of my program, no what opportunity I have in the US

here, it will not keep be back. I’m going back home to serve the institution. I think

this is what makes the difference in leadership.

Finally, on the general influence of leadership style on faculty motivation, Banna observed that: being “respected and respectful [for the Rector] is somehow motivating.”

Dandemayo stated that the Rector is “motivating but for him greater motivation comes 181 from passion for the job and love of students.” Tiramankhang observed that the criteria- based promotion leads to motivation for individual members of faculty to work hard to meet the requirements for promotion. Kaaba Mambi stated that: “By making every opinion count, promoting trust, and collaboration, the Rector’s leadership style is very promising and very motivating.” Kalifa observed that: “By creating collaboration and culture of accessibility to faculty … and using ceremonies as opportunities for building interpersonal relationship with faculty, the Rector motivates faculty.” Sereignbi claimed that: the leadership style encourages “greater loyalty to the institution due to the Rector’s concern for his welfare.”

General Explanation of the Cases

The coding process led to the identification of themes and categories which have shown patterns and trends in the data. These patterns and trends based on themes of the study are the premises of the analysis of the data reported above for each case. They have facilitated the examination of the data for the general explanation of the properties of each of the cases. Yin (2014) explained that although there may be differences in the particular qualities of individual cases in multiple case study, researchers should look out for the general explanations which the cases share for the purpose of comparisons in a cross-case analysis. The purpose of the within-case analysis in a multiple case study is to make a detailed description of the properties of individual cases to arrive at a general case description for each. The general description of the cases provides therefore a summary of each case. Rubin and Rubin (2018) argue that seeing together the different angles presented on the same topic or theme suggests the complexity or richness of the world” 182

(p. 192). The general description of the data on University of the University of The

Gambia will facilitate the cross-case analysis with University of Cheikh Anta Diop. This section entails the general descriptions of the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop as a comprehensive case, each. The general explanations of the dynamics of both the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop as cases can be understood and determined by the complexity and richness of the data through the themes and categories identified. The general descriptions will be done based on the themes identified and used above in the within-case analysis.

University of The Gambia

Faculty interviewed at the University of The Gambia have general perspectives of the substantive leadership style of their institution and the ideal leadership style for their university. Faculty’s general perspective of the substantive leadership style of their institution is that it is incompetent and authoritarian, while their perspective of the ideal leadership style is professional and democratic. Some faculty’s justification for describing the substantive leadership style as such are that the university is run by an incompetent group of non-academics, close associates who are more loyal to their interests than the development of the institution. They claim that the leadership is divisive, disrespectful, and condescending. For the justification of their description of the ideal leadership for the University of The Gambia they claimed that a faculty-led professional democratic style will be more efficient and effective because academics know the problems of academia and how to address them more than non-academics and unprofessional staff. They indicated that a faculty-led professional democratic leadership 183 will maintain peace among staff because decisions would be criteria-based and empowering.

On conditions determining their perspectives of the institutional leadership style, participants indicated that the University of Gambia is “negatively unique” in that the leadership has instituted a culture of discrimination and laissez faire attitude in administration as a result of its “lack of commitment to the vision, mission, and goal of the university,” as well as popularizing double standards, what a participant referred to as

“un poids, deux mesures.” The disinclination to adhere strictly to criteria-based recruitment, retention, and promotion of staff (including faculty), inadequate facilities and equipment, and the lack of research support have also been cited by participants as some factors that formed their opinion on the substantive leadership style at the

University of The Gambia. They described the campus climate emanating from the organizational culture created by the leadership as one of mutual suspicion, antagonism, hatred, disunity, mistrust, and conflict. Even the only member of faculty who described the campus climate as conducive on the grounds that there is no physical fighting revealed seeing victims of what he described as “spiritual fighting” which, according to him, has scared many well-meaning staff resulting in what he called “square pegs in round holes.” Research participants have described the campus climate as discouraging academic productivity and effective teaching. They claim that name-calling has aggravated the bad relationship between faculty and the leadership.

The conditions of work have been described as poor, frustrating, discouraging, and disenchanting., On the relationship between faculty and the Vice Chancellor or 184

Rector, they reported that the Vice Chancellor is aloof from faculty and that even what a respondent called the “apparent open-door” policy of the Vice Chancellor emanates from the Staff Association’s pressures on the Rectorate. They maintained that apart from the

Deans of School, Heads of Department, and Heads of Unit who come from faculty, the leadership of the university and faculty have little or no interpersonal or professional relationships, according to faculty interviewed. They said that the Rector has virtually no presence on campus as most Rectors appear there only once in their term of office, and even on such an occasion it would be in response to a scandal that could trigger a student unrest, except for ceremonies. Some of the participants observed that the Rector depends too much on the ill-advice of a circle of close associates. The influence of factors which determine faculty’s perspectives of the substantive leadership style on their attitude towards work has been described as hectic and demotivating. They claimed that the influences of mistrust, frustration, disillusionment, disenchantment, distension, conflict, and indifference resulting from their perspectives of the substantive leadership style have resulted to care-free attitude towards work for some members of faculty. They also identified high attrition, moonlighting, part-time engagement outside of the university, low self-esteem, antagonism, and organizational failure as the results of their perspectives of the substantive leadership style of their institution. They claimed the few whose motivation is apparently unaffected negatively by the autocratic leadership style are driven by intrinsic values such as theological reasons (fear of, and accountability to, God) nationalism, conscience, and empathy. 185

University of Cheikh Anta Diop

As with the University of The Gambia, the general description of the properties of

University of Cheikh Anta Diop as the second case of this study are drawn on the themes of the study which have been used to report the findings above. The general explanations of the case categories make up the case description because they are based on the emergent themes of the interview data and the study, in general.

Faculty’s perspective of the substantive leadership style of their university is that it is democratic, transformative, open, flexible, and innovative. However, a few members of faculty are of the view that this is true only of some Rectors. They felt that some previous Rectors were autocratic and contemptuous. They described their ideal leadership style as one that is open, frank, flexible, collaborative, respectful, pragmatic, considerate, autonomous, and democratic, though occasionally autocratic. They justified their description of the substantive leadership on the grounds that the institution has functional democratic structures for decision-making which it respects, though government interference with the policies disempowers the decentralized structures (University,

School, and Department Councils) sometimes. The practice of decentralized decision- making is said to be a hallmark of democratic leadership, though, according to them, there are variances in the Rectorate. Hence, the government’s imposition of policies on the university renders the institutional decision-making practice both top-down and bottom-up. They decried the dictatorial decision-making imposition on the institution and the appointment of the Rector by the government, rather than their colleagues. They complained that the State’s mandate to select the Rector from faculty’s ranks and the 186 institution’s dependence on the government as its major source of funding are the two main reasons why the university leadership has lost total autonomy. They claimed that the state imposes on the university major decisions such as “massification” and the admissions calendar in some schools with severe health consequences on faculty, sometimes. Respondents said that such impositions also diminish faculty’s time for academic productivity. They said that the professional organizations serve as the bulwark against such policy impositions and their resistance to such impositions, rather than dissatisfaction with the leadership style of the Rector, continues to be the source of conflict on campus. The justifications of their ideal leadership style are that it would command the trust, confidence, and respect of staff, be considerate, autonomous of state interference and thereby be academic-oriented, and peacebuilding.

The factors affecting faculty’s perspective of the substantive leadership style of their university include the presence of bottom-up decision making (when decisions are taken by the councils of the university) and top-down (when the State imposes policies on the institution through the Rector). They claimed that recruitment and retention of faculty are determined by the Schools and Departments of the University, though administrative staff appointment is said to be, sometimes, arbitrary. They observed that promotion for faculty is also based on fair guidelines laid down by CAMES to ensure accountability and transparency. They described the organizational culture of the university as credible, though sometimes slow and frustrating. They stated that access to information for faculty is generally fair and equitable. The influence of the organizational culture on the campus climate has been described as motivating (though frustration arises from slow 187 communication, sometimes), peaceful, satisfying due to criteria-based processes, and collaborative. The effect of the campus climate on faculty’s mood is reported as mixed because there is general discontentment with the influence of political leaders on policy making, frustration from feelings of disregard, and disrespect from slow communication.

However, they claimed that it is promising because of the democratic leadership style adopted which has led to good interpersonal relationships, trust, confidence, and freedom of association and expression. The campus climate has been said to be conducive because it is motivating, productive, and healthy because it enhances intra- and inter-departmental collaboration on and off campus.

About the conditions of work, there is said to be a feeling of overwork from the government’s “massification” policy and understaffing, inadequate research funds, infrastructure, furniture, and office space, overcrowding in poorly ventilated classrooms and lecture halls posing health and security risks, unreliable power supply, and insufficient and inadequate equipment. The conditions of work have been said to have some negative influence on faculty’s professional attitude, generally. It was reported that they have resulted in loss of valuable lecture, research, and mentoring time due to insufficient and inadequate facilities and equipment, physical exhaustion from overburden, poor health from exhaustion, demoralization from emotional stress, care-free attitude to work from disillusionment, disappointment, and frustration on the part some members of faculty, and confrontations between unions and the leadership, including politicians who are said to impose policies on faculty in their own interest without regard for the consequences on faculty’s physical, mental, and emotional health. 188

Similarly, the faculty-Rector relationship has been described as generally cordial, respectful, collaborative, although a few Rectors are said to have been aloof from faculty.

This perspective of the substantive leadership style is said to have positive effects because it enhances respect, peace, justice, trust, transparency, and accountability. Few members of faculty complained of unfairness and undemocratic leadership style. Yin

(2014) states that after the within-case analysis on each case, the researcher should proceed to do the cross-case analysis based on the general patters or themes or categories of the findings to highlight the similarities and differences between the cases. Presenting the data as given by the interview participants without adding any value to them is one such way of presenting the findings. (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Such a format of presentation is done using the main themes of the study as the basis of the reporting and analysis.

Presentation of the Cross-Case Findings

The cross-case analysis in this study depends on the general descriptions of the individual cases (2014). The particular qualities of each case are based on the major themes and categories of the study which have been used for the within-case analysis and general descriptions of the individual cases for a uniformed format of reporting the study findings. 189

Table 4

Comparison of Themes and Subthemes in the Findings

Themes Subthemes University of The University of Cheikh Anta Gambia Diop Perspective Substantive Incompetent Blend of democratic and of leadership leadership autocratic/authoritarian authoritarian, open, style style transformational, flexible, innovative, participatory, collaborative Ideal Professional-/ Faculty- Democratic, autonomous, leadership led democratic person of integrity, style accessible, inclusive, collaborative, dialogical, pragmatic, flexible Justification Substantive “cabal”-led, non- Democratic decision-making, of institutional professional/academic- innovativeness, two-way perspective leadership led, divisive, communication system, description style discriminatory, heavy dependence on contemptuous, government funding and inefficient & susceptibility to government, Ideal ineffective charismatic institutional Professional-/Faculty- Autonomy and leadership led democratic, independence, style efficient & effective, just and fair, peaceful, peacebuilding, commands respect and collaborative respects, trust and confidence, courteous, collaborative Conditions Description of Negatively unique, Democratic and autocratic, affecting organizational unprofessionalism, collaborative, innovative perspective/ culture muddled, “dead,” Perspective dysfunctional Determinants Factors Marginalization, Equality, professionalism influencing distention, top-down, relationship with Rector, description of lack of commitment, intra-/inter-departmental organizational arbitrary recruitment/ collaboration, criteria-based culture retention/ promotion, recruitment/ retention and poor communication, promotion, democratic poor job specification, decision-making, bias, “net degradation occasionally slow decision of research funding making

190

Table 4 continued

Themes Subthemes University of The University of Cheikh Anta Gambia Diop Conditions Description of Unhealthy: problem- Motivating, amical, affecting campus ridden, “dead” climate, trustworthy, reassuring, perspective/ climate flagrant disrespect, occasionally frustrating Perspective dissatisfaction, determinants mistrust, disunity, no social campus, “spiritual” fighting, “unionist,” lack of collaboration cooperation ` Effects of Conflicts with host Confidence among/ between organizational institutions over faculty and Vice Chancellor, culture on facilities, confidence in the system, campus unnecessary huge mutual trust and confidence, climate bureaucracy, Loss of trust in the system, good valuable instructional collegiality, conducive time, mediocrity in environment, occasionally administrative service demotivating to faculty, poor benefits to staff on study leave, discrimination between staff on matters of travel/ study support Description of Inadequate staff Understaffed, insufficient conditions of welfare inadequate, and inadequate facilities, work inadequate facilities, furniture, equipment, furniture, equipment, overpopulated classes, research funding/ exhaustion, inadequate information, poor funding for research and electricity training, unstable internet Faculty-Vice Little professional and High professional Chancellor/ social relationship, relationship, cordial, Rector some bad advisers for respectful, trustworthy, relationship some VCs considerateness, mutual respect, openness

191

Table 4 continued

Themes Subthemes University of The University of Cheikh Anta Gambia Diop Influence of Organizational Generally Motivating and perspective culture demotivating, demotivating, less determinants dissatisfaction, stressful, mutual trust, on mood/ frustration, anguish, reassuring, sense of work attrition, moonlighting, security, productivity, attitude/ underperformance, lack innovation, unionism motivation of collaboration/ against autocratic cooperation practices Campus Mutual suspicion, Promising, freedom of climate mistrust, unproductive choice, cooperation, conflict, indifference, collaboration, mutual attrition, trust and confidence, demoralization, occasionally slow carefree attitude, decision-making causing institution seen as discontentment, “steppingstone” frustration/ disregard, frequent strikes Conditions of Demotivation, carefree Loss of teaching and work attitude, dissatisfaction, research time, disillusionment, exhaustion, frustration, demoralization, disappointment occasional demotivation, health hazards, less effective teaching and research Faculty- Vice Negative conflict, Respectful, mutual trust, Chancellor/ mutual suspicion, confidence, mutual Rector hatred, name calling regard, relationship (“cabal” & “Boko commitment to Haram”) institution, some degree of social/ high degree of professional relationships General Some VCs considered Respectful, modelling, leadership too old for pragmatism, source of loyalty to style unqualified, institution, low attrition, antagonistic, general commitment to discriminatory, institutional mission and suspicious, vision demotivating 192

Perspectives of Leadership Style

As at the University of The Gambia, faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop have their perspectives on the substantive leadership style of their university, as well as their perspective of the ideal leadership for their institution. Unlike University of The

Gambia where faculty see the substantive leadership style of their university as incompetent and autocratic or authoritarian, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop faculty perceive the leadership style of their institution as a blend of open and democratic and autocratic. Sereignbi and some colleagues stated that the leadership style of University of

Cheikh Anta Diop is sometimes democratic and other times autocratic depending on the prevailing circumstances of decision-making. They claimed that when decisions are taken by democratic structures consisting of the Department Councils, School Councils, and

University Council the policy formulation and implementation is democratic, transformative, and decentralized. They revealed that when the state imposes policies on the University through the Rector, which according to them, it always does, the leadership style becomes autocratic as the Vice Chancellor or Rector is forced to seek compliance from faculty, even though, according to Sereignbi and his colleagues, such policies often have severe consequences for faculty. On the other hand, at the University of The Gambia, Kanja and her colleagues said that the substantive leadership is a dysfunctional autocratic style. As with faculty at the University of The Gambia, at

University Cheikh Anta the ideal leadership style for their institutions is a democratic one. Faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop described their ideal leadership as a professionally led open, democratic leadership style which is collaborative, dialogical, 193 pragmatic, and flexible. Faculty at University of The Gambia described their ideal leadership style as professionally led and democratic.

Justification of Faculty’s Description of Their Leadership Styles

Unlike faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, who justified their description of the substantive leadership style of their university on the grounds that it is democratic, faculty at University of The Gambia justified their description of the substantive leadership style of their institution by saying that it is led by a Senior Management Team, who Malcom X and some his colleagues described as a “cabal” in an unprofessional manner. Faculty of University of The Gambia said the leadership style of their university is incompetent, divisive, discriminatory, and contemptuous. This description was corroborated in the document review from a memo written by a Staff Association of the

University to a Vice Chancellor entitled: Request for the Dissolution of the Senior

Management Team (SMT) and the Resignation of the Vice Chancellor, the Two Deputy

Vice Chancellors, the University Secretary and the University Registrar of the University of The Gambia due to Incompetence, Inefficiency and Misplaced Priorities (UTGFSA,

Memo, 21 February 2017). In this memo UTG Faculty and Staff Association justified their call for the dissolution of the Senior Management Team and the resignation of the

Administration on the bases of incompetence and misplaced priorities.

Faculty at University of The Gambia justified their ideal leadership style as one which is professionally led and democratic. They claimed that such a leadership style would be composed of faculty rather than non-academics. Elvis said: “Academics are the ones who know the problems facing them in academia and should therefore be the ones 194 to take decisions concerning those problems.” A professionally led democratic leadership style, according to faculty from both institutions, would be participatory, respectful, and considerate.

On the other hand, faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop claimed that the substantive leadership style of their university is both democratic and autocratic because

“decisions are taken based on top-down and bottom-up approaches.” They stated that decisions concerning the needs of any specific department are taken by the Department

Council consisting of all faculty of the Department and then taken up for validation to the

School Council concerned, which submits it to the University Council, where the Rector is the Chair. They said that sometimes decisions of wider university application are imposed on the institution by the government through the Rector without regard for faculty opinion, in which case the policy is top-down and authoritarian. Sometimes, the policy may be intended for a specific School/ Faculty or Department of the University.

Sereignbi gave the example of such top-down decision-making in a scenario where the government imposed on the Faculty of Education two-cohorts admission per year policy and indicated that although it was implemented faculty did not approve of it.

Faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop justified their description of the ideal leadership for University of Cheikh Anta Diop on the grounds that such a leadership would be democratic, autonomous of government policy imposition, considerate, courteous, and collaborative. They argued that such a leadership style would earn the confidence and respect of subordinates, including faculty, and be flexible. Banna Said: “I like the democratic style to consider and respect each other’s opinions. … A good leader 195 must be able to adapt to all kinds of situations. … the right type is the one which approaches with respect and consideration.”

Conditions Affecting Perspective Determinants

This refers to conditions form faculty’s daily experience at the workplace. Such conditions are likely to determine faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style. They include organizational culture, campus climate, conditions of work, social professional and social relationships with leadership. The organizational culture of the University of

The Gambia, unlike University of Cheikh Anta Diop, was described in negative terms by participants. Suda and Elvis described it as “negatively unique” because it is characterized by Administration’s marginalization of faculty. Suda said: “In a proper university, faculty are very powerful because they are the engine in the sense that they make universities the educational institutions that they are. But at the University of The

Gambia, faculty are not important.” Elvis said that the organizational culture is a

“muddled” one in that non-academics, rather than faculty, take decisions for academics.

Mah Kuyateh referred to it as a “dead” culture. She said that there is little, if any, support for research and that: “Lecturers’ and students’ initiatives are not given much attention … in the budgeting. For example, for a long time there has not been any funds for research

… conferences or similar academic activities. This leads to a “dead” academic culture.”

Lalo Kebba examined that despite the presence of democratic administrative structures for decentralization in decision-making, Administration’s attitude towards the empowerment of faculty is so undermining of the democratic process that “Faculty 196 manning some of the structures felt demotivated to carry out their functions.” He said the culture is characterized by improper communication and discrimination.

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, faculty interviewed have a more positive image of their organizational culture, though there are similarities with that of the

University of The Gambia. They described it as a mixture of a democratic as well as an authoritarian culture. As a democratic culture, they described it as collaborative and supportive of innovation. Dandemayo said that as a democratically-led institution, the leadership is inclusive in that it encourages participation in decision-making and places strong emphasis on good governance” through decentralized structures called Department

Council, School Council, and University Council all of which are composed of faculty only. Banna and Sereignbi both traced the origin of the democratic system a certain

Rector whose predecessors, they said, were autocratic. Banna claimed that before the time of the Rector in question, the leadership style was sometimes autocratic. She indicated that since the Rector’s tenure of office, the leadership style has been democratic with emphasis on good governance. Banna went on to state that some previous Rectors were “autocratic and too bureaucratic. … For example, previous Rectors did not often take faculty decisions into account. Kalifa and Sereignbi pointed out that it is when politicians interfere with decision-making that the university culture of decision-making and communication system becomes top-down and autocratic.

At the University of the Gambia, faculty justified their description of the institutional culture on the grounds that faculty are marginalized and discriminated against by the Administration in favor of the administrative staff. They claimed that 197 recruitment, retention and promotion are done arbitrarily. Elvis said the Administration is not committed to the mission, vision, and goals of the organization. Malcom X said the basic elements of organizational culture such as clear terms of reference are non-existent at the university. Talibeh observed that research funding has been seriously neglected in the University. He went on to indict the Administration for discrimination by indicating that:

The environment is not even set [for] academic development. For example, in

most universities the different units have journals [to] encourage staff to engage in

research and publish. But here we don’t have anything like a journal. … There is

“net degradation” for research funding.

The poor performance in knowledge production at the University of The Gambia was echoed in a local newspaper on 4 November 2020. A Foroyaa Newspaper reporter stated that at the presentation of a University of The Gambia’s activity report and financial statement to The Gambia National Assembly Select Committee on Education, the Chairperson of committee told the institution’s Administration that the University should close down if it is incapable of knowledge and skills production. He said that it is unacceptable that the University has been in existence for long without making any significant contribution to knowledge and skills creation (Touray, November 4, 2020).

About discriminatory practices, Talibeh observed that:

The nepotism I’m referring to, I can tell you, is something I found in this

university. [Poor internet connection] It was here. It was something that has been

happening since I came to the University. It was here. It was here. I met it around. 198

For example, in terms of the implementation of the University Act or even the

UTG Conditions of Service for Senior Staff, it’s like what the French refer to as

“un poids deux mesures.” You have the same Act or conditions of service that

refers to promotion, but it is applied differently to different people based on their

affiliation to people responsible for signing the final document. So, it’s like, even

for promotion, you can be on the same rank as second-degree holders or first-

degree holders and this one is employed as ahh … Lecturer I and that other one is

employed as Lecturer II, for instance.

Also, at the University of The Gambia Lalo Kebba and Malcom X enounced the administrative system by indicating that some people in the Administration are interested in promoting their own interest over the larger interest.

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, unlike the University of The Gambia, participants gave both positive and negative justifications for their organizational culture, though emphasizing more on the positive. They claimed that the professional democratic leadership style exercises fairness, justice, equality of opportunities to all staff, accountability, and transparency in the administration of the institution. Kalifa, Banna,

Sereignbi and Dandemayo indicated that recruitment and promotion are based on clear and just criteria. Dandemayo stated that there are “very transparent and accountable procedures for recruitment, retention, and promotion through councils of the University and Conseil Africain et Malagache pour l’Enseillement Supréieur (CAMES)” (African and Malagasy Council for Teaching in Higher Education). They said University of

Cheikh Anta Diop is affiliated to the regional organization, CAMES, which determines 199 promotion for faculty of member universities in Francophone institutions of Africa.

Faculty’s claim of affiliation with the regional body responsible for determining promotion for faculty of member institutions has been documented on the CAMES website (CAMES, 2000). The CAMES evaluates faculty’s application for promotion based on scientific productivity and quality of service. They identified professional relationship with the Rector, Rector’s interest in community service, and intradepartmental and interdepartmental collaborations between and among faculty as the indicators of the democratic organizational culture at University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Kaaba Mambi said that: “The Rector exercises open-door policy, which is motivating, despite political influences, sometimes and promotion is based on CAMES standards and evaluation criteria.” They decried negative tendencies emerging from state interference in the decision-making of the university and the occasional lapses in communication between the Schools and their lined Departments and government imposition of policies on the University. Banna said sometimes frustration arises from slow communication from some Schools to the Departments.

Similarities and differences in the campus climates exist in the reports between faculty participants at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Unlike faculty interviewed at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, those at the University of the Gambia described their campus climate as unhealthy. At University of The Gambia

Mah Kuyateh said that it is a “dead” campus climate which originates from a “dead” organizational culture. Some other faculty interviewed said that the campus climate is problem-ridden. Kanja described it as marked by suspicion and apprehensiveness. Suda 200 said faculty and Administration “are often looking out for each other’s troubles.” Suda,

Mah Kuyateh, Lalo Kebba, Elvis, and Talibeh said there is discrimination against faculty in favor of administrative staff in matters of study leave, information access, international travel support, and office provisions, which has affected the campus climate. They said as a result of this discrimination there are suspicion, mutual mistrust, hatred, disunity, disrespect, absence of collaboration, lack of cooperation, especially between faculty and administrative staff. Malcom X claimed that there is intensive “spiritual” fighting (use of esoteric knowledge to harm or kill) at the University. The element of “spiritual” fighting has been well documented in modern academic discourse. Hoffman (2000), for example, observed that due to infighting for a leadership position among griots themselves, these highly esteemed artisans (griots) turned the secret powers for which they were feared by others against each other and destroyed generations among themselves in the process.

Spiritual fighting is a silent war which reveals protracted and deep-seated animosity between or among people, particularly in traditional societies. Its presence in a community is therefore an indication of serious feud.

However, differences exist in the climate condition at University of Cheikh Anta

Diop. Faculty interviewed reported that the campus climate is often cordial, collaborative, and cooperative. A member of faculty who participated in this study gave the example of collaboration at intradepartmental level in which he said faculty seek assistance from each other on the job quite often. He cited the case of a member of faculty who often does translation work for their colleagues on their requests. As an example of interdepartmental collaboration, he said colleagues in one School invited another from a 201 different School to give them a talk on issues of pedagogy. Interview participants described the professional leadership style as reassuring and that it creates trust and confidence among staff. The work environment is not however perfect at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop. Like University of The Gambia, frustration arises from slow decision- making, state policy imposition, and sometimes climate conditions, though less frequently than at the University of The Gambia, according to participants. Sereignbi observed that the situation is different from the time when the leadership style was autocratic. He stated were that:

Instructors and students were expected to only engage in teaching and learning.

They were not supposed to interfere with decision making. I think that is why

they have unions. … I don’t think they were even involved … at the level that

they should have been. That’s why they had frequent strikes.

The literature review showed that activism and unionist attitudes have been common phenomena at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. In their inaugural speech, a president of the Fondation UCAD (UCAD Foundation) indicated, among other things, that the frequent demonstrations at the university are unfortunate and regrettable as they have transformed the institution into an arena of insecurity and impunity but that their role is to change that trend. Frequent strikes at University of Cheikh Anta Diop have been covered by media sources such as Garda World News Alert and VOA. A violent student demonstration was reported in Garda World News that police clashed with student union demonstrators who were said to be causing destruction to the institution’s property. The media source predicted series of others in the future at University of Cheikh Anta. Banna 202 and O-Man indicated that the climate is sometimes frustrating due to occasional communication breakdown and slow decision-making.

The influence of the organizational culture on the campus climate at the

University of The Gambia was said to be discontentment, dissatisfaction, disillusionment, and conflict. Participants claimed that because of the lack of adherence to a criteria-based administrative system, Administration has been appointing administrative staff without any regard for the rules and regulations, nor are employees guided by any clear terms of reference thus creating a huge and unnecessary bureaucracy. They said the practice has resulted to wastage of institutional resources which could have been saved to procure teaching and learning materials for greater instructional effectiveness. They said this common practice explains why there is much mediocrity and unprofessionalism in administrative service delivery, generally. They indicated that faculty on study leave benefit little from incentives and that there is often discrimination among “faculty who belong” and “faculty who don’t belong,” and between faculty and other staff on matters of international travel support and information on research funds, where available, for international conferences.

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the influence of the organizational culture on campus climate was described by participants as positive, despite occasional demotivation. They indicated that the professional leadership has fostered good collegiality among faculty and between faculty and the Rector. They observed that the leadership style has created a conducive environment for peaceful work relationship by eliminating the potentials for suspicion, envy, hatred, jealousy, and antagonism. They 203 maintained that the professional leadership style has enhanced trust and confidence among staff, as none suspects the other of being favored for spying on others nor for reasons of social ties. Kaaba Mambi said: “Generally, the campus climate is peaceful, amicable, and conducive.” Sereignbi observed that the “Rector’s adherence to fair and just criteria leads to peace and a high level of camaraderie among faculty. However, he added that the undemocratic leadership style of some Rectors, sometime in the past, created a culture which influenced the campus climate negatively. Kalifa indicated that:

“The democratic leadership creates mutual trust and confidence among faculty and between faculty and the leadership of the University. … However, tension may arise when the state hands down a policy on the Rector and expects unquestioned acceptance and compliance.” Kaaba Mambi and Banna further explained that discontentment, disappointment, and frustration arise from political influence in decision making, as these influences, sometimes, have serious health implications for faculty about which the politicians tend to be unconcerned.

At both University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop, participants described the conditions of work as poor, despite differences in some details that are highlighted below. However, unlike faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, respondents at the University of The Gambia indicated that faculty’s welfare is inadequately profiled in the conditions of service. They claimed that it is ambiguous.

Mah Kuyateh and Malcom X indicated that because of inadequate information and ambiguity regarding staff welfare in the conditions of service, confusion regarding their entitlements abounds, especially for those on study leave. Like University of Cheikh Anta 204

Diop, faculty at the University of The Gambia complained about poor facilities, equipment, and furniture. Faculty at both University of The Gambia and University of

Cheikh Anta Diop complained that there is acute shortage of office space for them.

Unlike University of Cheikh Anta Diop where a university campus is existent, at

University of The Gambia, no such campus exists. The Schools, Faculties, and

Departments are hosted on campuses of other institutions with numerous problems, according to faculty who shared their views with this researcher. Elvis indicated that because of the inadequate office space for faculty of his School and those of the institution on whose campus they are hosted, faculty of his School are not only cramped in designated offices but often experience skirmishes indicative of being unwelcomed. He explained that apart from the lack of adequate classrooms for lectures and overcrowding in the offices designated for them on campus, they are not in control of their offices nor the classrooms. About the situations concerning the office designated to him and some of his colleagues he said:

I share it with three other lecturers. One a day I went there. I wanted to gain

access but I … couldn’t open the office. I had to check through my bunch of keys

several times over to see if I was not mistakenly trying the wrong keys. I never

knew that the Management of [the host institution] took over the office and

changed the lock. I have all my materials and equipment in that office. But up to

now I cannot access that office. This is the situation for all of us who occupied the

office. 205

At the University of The Gambia, a former Dean’s report on the state of facilities on a shared campus validates the points raised by faculty on the lack of a university campus, poor conditions of facilities, equipment, and utilities on the campus where his

School is hosted. The Dean’s report stated that:

The UTG [University of The Gambia] since inception has been using facilities

belonging to the School of Nursing in Banjul, The Gambia Technical Training

Institute in Knifing, and the Gambia College Campus in Brikama.

What started with a few hundred students now has over seven thousand

students in various undergraduate and graduate programmes. However, whereas

the student population increased over the years, the facilities remained the same.

There were no new buildings in host institutions that could host the huge student

population. The result is that there has been constant struggle and scramble for

lecture halls and furniture and therefore the need to expand facilities. This need to

decongest facilities in Brikama has resulted in decisions to use facilities which are

still under construction. (Preamble)

The Dean’s report was accompanied with photos of the facilities on campus and descriptions on them. What the Dean’s report did not include on the condition of facilities on the Brikama campus, for example, is that sometimes, faculty take classes under the trees and on the grass on campus for lack of classrooms and furniture, as shown in some photographs examined by this researcher. Like students at University of Cheikh Anta

Diop, the “struggle and scramble” mentioned in the report refer to students rushing on campus hours before their lectures to secure furniture or carry furniture about as reported 206 in a local newspaper in The Gambia under the title: UTG Students Married to Their

Chairs, seen in a video documentary and Polgreen’s (2007) article on degenerating conditions at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. It also refers to the serious confrontations among students at the University of The Gambia, between students of the University of

The Gambia and those of the host institution, and between faculty of the two institutions.

Sereignbi’s description of the furniture scarcity situation requiring them to mark individual students’ occupancy of tables and chairs in classrooms by going to campus well before the lecture time and placing a stone on the furniture also supports this view about the generation of conditions of facilities and furniture at Cheikh Anta Diop

University, as well.

Kaaba Mambi, Sereignbi, and Banna said the classrooms are insufficient, inadequate, and poorly ventilated and the furniture seriously limited. Even the member of faculty who said that “the conditions of service are fairly OK, though there is room for improvement,” reiterated “poorly ventilated classrooms, overpopulated classrooms, insufficient furniture, and research laboratories either non-existent or ill-equipped with most of the existing laboratories self-financing.” A VOA reporter indicated that

University of Cheikh Anta Diop which was meant for not more than 25,000 students, had a student population of more than 100,000 by 2018. Some documents reviewed on the facilities and furniture at University of Cheikh Anta showed that their conditions are not different from those that obtain at the University of The Gambia, as pointed out above.

Faculty who shared their views with this researcher at University of The Gambia, like their colleagues at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, decried the inadequacy of the 207 library and materials for serious research. They said there are few white boards for which adequate provision of makers is a challenge, as a result there is heavy dependence on chalkboards many of which are in poor conditions. They also lamented the unreliable electricity supply which often either terminate evening classes or leads to students using their mobile phones lights to complete interesting sessions at the University of The

Gambia. According to Talibeh, there are too few projectors, forcing some members of faculty to look for their own. At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, unlike University of

The Gambia, the lack of proper staffing has been reported to be one of the major problems causing exhaustion to faculty. Banna claimed that due to the lack of enough competent administrative staff at the levels of Schools/ Faculty and Departments, some members of faculty are obliged to undertake the dual responsibilities of teaching and administration. She complained that this is another major cause of exhaustion for staff.

The problems of inadequate research funding and scholarships for training have been common queries for faculty of both institutions. Kaaba Mambi, Sereignbi, and

Banna said the problem of “massification” [tremendous increase in student population] imposed on the university by politicians mainly for political reasons has been another major cause of exhaustion and poor health at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. These conditions which are said to be prevalent at University of Cheikh Anta Diop have also been documented by various news reporters. A VOA reporter indicated that the student- faculty ratio was 1 teacher for 75 in the Law Faculty and 1 teacher for 158 students in the

School of Humanities in 2018. The level of exhaustion from such massive class sizes was described picturesquely by one of the reporter’s interviewees, a French Lecturer, who 208 said that at the end of a class he feels exhausted or even “dead”. Faculty at both

University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop indicated that the lack, inadequacy, and insufficiency of some key facilities, equipment, and utilities such as running water (in the case of the University of Gambia) and electricity, lead to loss of crucial lecture time and stress for faculty and students.

Unlike at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, at University of The Gambia faculty said the three years contractual appointment should be abolished. The matter of contractual appointment has been challenged by the Staff Association at the University of

The Gambia for long but with little success. From the minutes of a recent meeting held by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research, Science, and Technology, UTG Faculty and Staff Association, UTG Administration, and UTGSU to address the threats of a pending Faculty and staff sit down strike because UTG Administration had not still committed to a timeline for the repeal of contractual appointment for faculty, no promise was made to abolish the three-year contractual appointment policy. At both universities, faculty and staff unions play key roles in bringing out some degree of changes in the conditions of work for faculty. Unlike at University Cheikh Anta Diop where demonstrations by such organizations is frequent, as documented in the inaugural speech of one of the presidents of UCAD Foundation, The University World News on Senegal, on 20 June 2014, Garda World News Alert of 9 December 2019, and a VOA report the

University of Gambia has seen fewer, but by no means less effective, student and faculty demonstrations. 209

The faculty-Vice Chancellor Relationship at the University of The Gambia, unlike

University of Cheikh Anta Diop has been described as apprehensive, mutually antagonistic, and confrontational. Faculty interviewed at the University of The Gambia claimed that there is little social and professional interaction between faculty and the

Vice Chancellor. They claim to have better relationships with their Deans of School,

Heads of Department, and Heads of Unit, but not with the Administration (Rector and/ or his team). Faculty interviewed said that the Vice Chancellor depends too much on advisers who mislead him about faculty issues. They claimed that this creates a misconception of faculty intent and goals in the Chancery, further aggravating the mutual suspicion, mistrust, and antagonism between the Vice Chancellor and faculty. Elvis said:

“I have no direct connection with the main university leadership. However, I have direct connection with the immediate School leaders such as the Dean and Head of Department.

Talibeh had this to say about faculty’s social and professional relationships with the Vice

Chancellor: “Yes, for the rapport as faculty … we have no rapport with the Vice

Chancellors. Many came only once to our school…. We have no such connection with most of them.”

On the hand, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, faculty respondents indicated that there is a great deal of professional relationship between faculty and the Rector as well as the Deans of School and Heads of Department. They claimed that there is some degree of social relationship as well with the Rector, though they do not expect this relationship on a grand scale due to the nature of the Rector’s engagements as the overall head of the institution. They described their relationship with the Rector as respectful, 210 cordial, trust-building, open and encouraging. They indicated this mutual trust and confidence is a major contributor to the peaceful and collaborative environment on campus at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Although Sereignbi and Banna claimed that the positive relationship between faculty and the Rector is relatively recent, the general perspective is that it is progressive at the professional level and encouraging at interpersonal level. O-Man said: “I have a very friendly relationship with my bosses.

They are friendly and collegial relationships. This cordial relationship contributes to my development in my work environment and therefore motivates me.” Dandemayo and

Tiramakhang also observed that the faculty- Rector relationship is cordial, mutually respectful, and collaborative.

Influence of Faculty’s Perspective Determinants on Motivation

This consists of the emotional and attitudinal effects of the factors that determine faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles of their institutions. It is composed of the influence of faculty’s perspective of institutional leadership style on their commitment, influence of organizational culture on motivation, effects of mood on work attitude, influence of conditions of work on attitude to work, influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor/

Rector relationship on motivation, and general perspective of faculty-Vice Chancellor/

Rector relationship on faculty motivation.

The influence of the organizational culture on faculty motivation at the University of The Gambia, unlike at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, was described in relative terms (based on individual differences). Some participants at the University of The

Gambia claimed that the negative organizational culture does not have any significant 211 influence on their motivation. They indicated that they are driven by their conscience, nationalism, and/ or religious convictions. Such faculty went on to say that it has negative effects on some other faculty’s motivation. Suda says: “How it influences faculty’s motivation towards work differs from one person to another.” A second category admitted that it has negative effects on their own motivation. Such faculty revealed that the organizational culture demotivates them. They admitted that they feel disappointed, discouraged, disillusioned, and/or frustrated. The results for such emotional feelings were reported as indifference to the demands of their job, underperformance at work, lack of collaboration with colleagues. These manifestations of demotivation, according to them have led to poor quality teaching, failure of policies and programs due to either lack of participation or half-hearted participation. Kanja said the lack of collaboration among staff members reflects the overall leadership style.” This leadership style’s failure was raised by Lalo Kebba said: “the organizational culture is set for failure” and Malcom X observed that: “The decision-making … is centralized and when the policies implementation is not always communicated to the right people, those policies fail.”

Unionism was a major factor reported to have emerged from the widespread discontentment of faculty at both University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh

Anta Diop as a manifestation of faculty’s bargaining power to resistance to unpopular policies decisions. Talibeh and Elvis explained that the UTG Faculty and Staff

Association emerged as a result of faculty’s feelings of insecurity and the need to protect themselves from arbitrary or discriminatory policies and that it has achieved major gains for general staff welfare. However, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop faculty attributed 212 unionism not only to the negative effects of their conditions of work, but also the imposition of state policies on the university without regard for faculty opinion. Kalifa stated:

The unions are highly representative of faculty. Faculty are affiliated to one union

or another at the university. Most the decisions from the Rector to faculty are

transmitted through the unions. There are major issues about faculty which the

Rector transmits through the unions. … The unions are really active in

influencing decisions that are not in the interest of faculty.

Faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop described the influence of the organizational culture on their motivation as, generally, positive. They claimed that it is motivating, less stressful, peaceful, trustworthy, reassuring, and guaranties security. They remarked that unionism serves as a bulwark against the dictatorship of politicians in the affairs of the university in their own interest. Sereignbi and Kalifa said the unions challenge unfavorable political decisions. However, they said the democratic culture gives faculty satisfaction and confidence that their efforts will be recognized and rewarded accordingly. Kalifa said: “It gives faculty a high level of motivation because they know that cannot be treated unfairly. … The second reason is that they know that promotion is based on specific criteria rather than the subjective decisions of a Rector.”

The motivational influence of campus climate was said to be highly negative at the University of The Gambia, unlike University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Faculty participants at University of The Gambia said such effects include underperformance, lack of enthusiasm, collaboration, innovation, apathy, part-time job seeking, 213 moonlighting, high degree of attrition, indifference, unproductive conflict, frustration, demoralization, and using the university as a steppingstone where one waits for a better opportunity. Elvis said there is gross dissatisfaction, as a result of the discriminatory and unjust organizational culture. However, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop the motivational effects were described as mixed. They stated that they are both positive and negative. The positive influence arises from the organizational culture of democratic decision making and the negative effects from the external environment of political interference in the policy making of the institution. They described the positive motivational influence of the factors determining faculty’s perspectives of the campus climate as cooperative, collaborative, mutually trustful, reassuring, confidence building.

On the other, they described the negative motivational influence of the factors determining faculty’s perspectives of the campus climate in much the same ways as faculty at the University of The Gambia: discontentment: frustration, low morale, disrespect, disregard, and conflict prone. They claim that discontentment, frustration, and sense of disrespect arise from occasional lapses in the communication of policies from some Schools to their Departments. They observed that the negative feelings come mainly from the dictatorship of the state on the university, which according to them is often the source of the unionist manifestations on campus. Some of these manifestations were said to be violent, as shown in various documents reviewed such as the University

World News of 14 June 2018 publication on a violent student union demonstration. The reporter stated that the violent demonstration which led to severe damage to campus facilities resulted from a government policy to cut student scholarship funds and review 214 the graduate admission policy from the Bachelor’s, level at the institution. Also, a president of the UCAD Foundation alluded to the university being transformed into an arena insecurity and impunity in their inaugural speech.

The influence of conditions of work on faculty’s motivation at University of the

Gambia are similar to those at University of Cheikh Anta Diop in various ways. At

University of The Gambia, like University of Cheikh Anta Diop faculty said the influence of the organizational culture on motivation is one of demotivation, frustration, disillusion, dissatisfaction, and disappointment. Elvis observed about the influence of conditions of service on his motivation thus:

You know, it creates a sense of dissatisfaction. It creates a sense of exclusion and

low self-esteem. I remember some Vice Chancellors expressed dissatisfaction

with faculty having taken part-time teaching in secondary schools, but they were

told that it is because of the poor remuneration at the University. Some people

told them that their salaries were not enough; that they had to do that to survive.

… And this affects students’ learning negatively because it is the time that faculty

should have used to prepare lectures and attend to other needs of their students

that is used to conduct part-time classes in other institutions.

Similarly, some members of faculty interviewed at University of Cheikh Anta

Diop added that conditions of work are demoralizing, and a cause of student and faculty union strikes as reported by Camara and Bodian (2016) and the “cycle of violence” which the president of the UCAD Foundation mentioned earlier alluded to in their speech. They indicated that it is a cause of ill-health for some faculty members some of whom 215

Sereignbi indicated, are diagnosed with fatigue by the end of the semester. Faculty at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop, as at University of The Gambia, described the influence of these conditions of service on motivation sometimes as loss of valuable lecture time looking for vacant classes to hold lectures, insufficient time for research, and overcrowded classrooms and lecture halls. Kalifa and Sereingbi claimed that sometimes the lecture halls are so full that the professor cannot even move unless the students squeeze together to create room for them to do so.

Pictures in Polgreen’s (2007) article on the degenerating conditions of facilities, furniture, and equipment at University of Cheikh Anta Diop showed pictures of an overcrowded lecture hall where students who cannot find furniture sitting on the floor in the alleys and others standing at the back of the class with their writing materials in their hands taking notes. Another picture showed a Chemistry lab where a student on research tried to use a partly broken glass cylinder for measurement. Similarly, on the conditions at one of the campuses hosting University of The Gambia Schools, a Dean’s report showed broken doors, unkept buildings, a heap of broken furniture students “manage” to sit and write on, if they find any, a wreckage of school buses students and faculty rely on for transport to other campuses and field trips, and unreliable water supply. According to faculty at both universities, the conditions of work are generally demotivating. Even for those who claim to find motivation from intrinsic sources such as sense of nationalism, concern for student affairs, and fear of God or spiritual reasons, the general effect of the conditions of work is said to be demotivating. 216

The influence of faculty-Vice Chancellor relationship on faculty motivation at the

University of The Gambia, unlike University of Cheikh of Anta Diop, is said to be generally negative. Faculty interviewed at the University of Gambia indicated that their relationships with the Vice Chancellor is typically negative. Talibeh, Lalo Kebba, Suda,

Elvis, Mah Kuyateh and Kanja all indicated that the faculty- Rector relationship generally is unhealthy, demotivating, mutually suspicious, hateful, confrontational (especially for the UTG Faculty and Staff Association which represents faculty views and emotions), stressful, and antagonistic. They indicated that the result is general demotivation, even for those who claim to be driven by factors other than their relationship with the Vice

Chancellor. Even the few who claimed to be driven by other factors than their relationship with the Vice Chancellor say that the general influence is one of demotivation. Elvis said this about the general influence of the leadership style on his motivation:

Generally, it demotivates me. I’m not happy with the way things are. If it were not

for the fact that I’m passionate about my work, I wouldn’t have been putting in

much. Yea, because you’re out to provide your best but the system doesn’t

provide you the conducive atmosphere to work. It’s very, very demotivating.

On the other hand, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop the influence of faculty-

Rector relationship has been described as generally positive, though reservations exist in individual experiences. Occasional dissatisfaction with Rectors trying to push government agenda or policies on faculty have been at the roots of the faculty unions conflicting with the Administration or government and therefore prove occasionally 217 demotivating. Faculty interviewed expressed high regard for the Rector because of what they referred to as his respect for, and confidence in, faculty. They claim that although their immediate leaders are the Deans of School and Heads of Department with whom they have closer and more direct contact, they feel the Rector’s presence in their work motivation through these leaders. Banna claimed to have had direct contacts with the current a particular Rector who brought open-door policy at the Rectorate, whom she described as a phenomenal leader. Sereignbi also described Rector the same Rector as a humanist leader who takes great interest in the welfare of faculty. He described how the

Rector’s considerate leadership style has imbibed in him a sense of loyalty to the

University. Nevertheless, both claimed that some Rectors have been different.

Finally, Faculty’s perspective of the influence of the general leadership style of their institution at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop have been described differently in some significant ways. Unlike faculty at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop, at the University of The Gambia faculty indicated that the influence of the general leadership style on their motivation is demotivating due to various reasons.

Talibeh based his observation on age, experience, and qualification. He said some have been too old, inexperienced, and unqualified to lead a higher education institution as the

University of The Gambia. Other members of faculty claimed that the unhealthy relationship between faculty and the Vice Chancellor emanates from contemptuous and unprofessional leadership style. They said that the failure of the leadership can be seen also in the tensions between staff and between faculty and Vice Chancellor. They indicated that the leadership style at the university which has been consistently 218 authoritarian from inception has led to demotivation and demoralization resulting in underperformance, high attrition rate, moonlighting, carefree or laissez faire attitude, and mutual abhorrence.

On the other hand, faculty the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the influence of the general leadership on faculty motivation has been described in more positive terms.

Faculty claimed that the general influence is motivational because of the professional leadership style of the Rector. They indicated that the leadership style gives motivation to faculty because of its encouragement of peace and mutual respect, and trust and confidence in faculty. Sereignbi revealed that because of the humane manner in which his application for study leave was treated at the university, he has promised himself to return to his institution to serve as a mark of appreciation of the recognition, regardless of what prospects he might have in his country of study (US), which many see as a “land of opportunities.”

Summary

This chapter reports the data of the study. The findings have been reported in the chapter based on the main themes and categories compiled using the findings coded in the interview data, the documents reviewed, literature review, and the conceptual framework. As a multiple case study, the reporting was done at two stages. The findings were first reported in a within-case analysis to determine the general description of each cases. Then a cross-case analysis was conducted on the general descriptions of each case.

A summary of the particularities of each case was done separately. Then a cross-case analysis was done to draw out the similarities and differences between the two cases. 219

The next chapter will consist of the Discussion, recommendations, and

Conclusion. The findings reported in this chapter will be discussed and conclusions arrived at based on inductive reasoning through the data. Suggestions will be made for enhancing more progressive perspectives of the leadership styles at the University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop for greater faculty motivation. The chapter will end with recommendations for further research.

220

Chapter 5: Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusion

Introduction

This chapter entails the discussion on the findings of the research to arrive at conclusions emerging from the analysis. The discussion on the data on Chapter 4,

Findings, leads to conclusions. The discussion is based on the themes of the three research questions: Faculty’s perspectives of the influence of leadership style on their motivation at UTG; faculty’s perspectives of leadership style on faculty motivation at

UCAD; extent of leadership style influence on motivation at UTG; extent of leadership style influence on motivation at UCAD; similarities between the motivational experiences of faculty at UTG and UCAD; and differences between the motivational experiences of faculty at UTG and UCAD. The conclusions determine the suggestions to enhance better faculty perspectives of the Vice Chancellors at University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop and thereby leading to higher faculty motivation.

The chapter ends with recommendations for further research.

Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Style on Their Motivation at

UTG

Understanding faculty’s perspectives of the influence of the substantive leadership style on their motivation requires insight into what they perceive as the ideal leadership style for their institutions. The difference between what faculty think they experience at their institution as the substantive leadership style and their view of the ideal leadership style will greatly affect their perspective of the influence of the substantive leadership style on their motivation. At the University of The Gambia, faculty 221 perceive a professional democratic leadership style as the most suitable for their institution. Consistent with the literature reviewed, findings on faculty’s perspectives of the substantive leadership style at University of The Gambia can be understood by first determining their perspectives of the characteristics, knowledge, and skills and then analyzing how those perspectives affect their conception of the leadership style and how their conception of the leadership style influences their motivation (Sawyer, 2002).

Sawyer shows that good leadership consists of specific characteristics, knowledge, and skills. A leader’s characteristics, knowledge, and skills have high influence on how their leadership style is perceived by subordinates. Sawyer (2002) and Germano (2010) indicate that four styles of leadership dominate the leadership styles landscape: autocratic leadership which is characterized by the leader administering by imposing directives and instructions on subordinates with emphasis on task completion. The second is democratic leadership style which is participatory, empowering, supports subordinates to develop knowledge and skills for better performance, and encourages interpersonal relationships for better job satisfaction through collaboration, cooperation, and sense of responsibility.

The third basic leadership style identified by Sawyer (2002) is laissez faire where the leaders take little responsibility of the operation of the organization and leave “decision- making and problem solving to subordinates” (p. 110). The final basic leadership style identified by Sawyer is charismatic leadership which refers to a leadership style that depends on their innate qualities for trust and influence on subordinates.

The characteristics of a good leader include: “Enthusiasm, sound judgement, visionary, creativity, openness/ flexibility/ adaptability, tolerance, achievement- 222 orientation, honesty/justice/ fairness, courageousness/ resoluteness/ perseverance, optimism, trustworthiness/ dependability/ reliability, tolerance, risk-taking, stability, commitment to common good, personal integrity, and high values /moral standard”

(Sawyer, 2002, p. 106). The requisite knowledge and skills for good leadership outlined are: “excellent interpersonal communication skills, tactfulness/ sensitivity to diversity/ respect, ability to motivate others, good networking/ planning/ organizing, supportiveness of colleagues, effective conflict management, good time management, good stress management, good problem-solving skills, and proper goals alignment” (Sawyer, 2000, p. 106). This kind of leadership style creates an organizational culture and campus climate which fosters collaboration and cooperation among subordinates, staff, and faculty leading to higher motivation and productivity. The congruence of leadership behavior with these characteristics, knowledge, and skills determines a leader’s effectiveness, while lack of congruence with such characteristics, knowledge, and skills reflect leadership ineffectiveness. The difference between the ideal leadership characteristics, knowledge, and skills and the emergent characteristics, knowledge, and skills of the substantive leadership of their institutions reflect faculty’s perspective of the leadership styles of their institutions.

The two basic styles of leadership discovered in the data are autocratic/ authoritarianism and democratic leadership. Based on the findings of this study and literature reviewed faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style of their institution is an important determiner of their participation in the activities of the university. Oke,

Okonula, Oni, and Adetoro (2010) observed that: “the lecturers’ level of perception of the 223 of their Vice Chancellors’ leadership behavior has a significant relationship with their level of participation in the university activities” (p. 135). Faculty at the University of

The Gambia described the leadership style of their institution as dysfunctional and autocratic/authoritarian, based on their perspectives of its characteristics and strategies.

The following five characteristics and skills grouped into four categories have been identified as the attributes of the substantive leadership of their institution: Inefficient and ineffective group, unprofessionalism, divisiveness/ discrimination, and contemptuousness.

Inefficient/ Ineffective Group

Based on the data, participants have described the leadership as driven by advice from a group of close associates who seem to have different goals than the institution, at the University of The Gambia. Various factors adduced influenced this perspective. At some point in the management of the University, the institution is reported to have been directed by a team of close associates and confidants on whom some Vice Chancellors began to be increasingly dependent. Based on the data collected, various faculty members interviewed have explained that this team has changed in name and composition but not in spirit and practice, depending on the substantive Vice Chancellor of the time in that members have been found to apply similar strategies with the same results of frustration, discouragement, anguish, and a sense of marginalization for faculty. The term “cabal” was used to describe the management team by a participant who shared similar views on the team as some of his colleagues. The University of The Gambia Faculty and Staff

Union’s memo calling for the Vice Chancellor and the other members of the Senior 224

Management Team to resign for what they called “incompetence,” failing which the

Association would declare a sit-down strike is an indication of faculty’s perspective of the Vice Chancellor and his Senior Management Team described by most, if not all, of the research participants.

Unprofessionalism in Leadership

The description of the leadership style as unprofessional by some participants is premised partly on the behavior of name-calling for the Staff Association composed of professionals and other members of staff. The Administration’s reference to the Staff

Association as Boko Haram, which is a terrorist organization in the subregion of West

Africa, as reported by some participants, shows the amount of disapproval, disgust, hatred, and disrespect it has for the Executive as well as the ordinary members of the

Association. It is equally correct that some faculty who shared their views with this researcher have referred to the Administration as a “cabal” which is equally name- calling. However, professional leadership, requires respect, tolerance of dissenting views and, above all, transformation of negative energy into positive administrative results for the achievement of the organizational goals. Based on the data the conflict between faculty and most Vice Chancellors at University of The Gambia seen in the rivalry between the two is related to the mutual mistrust and hatred.

Divisiveness/ Discrimination

Based on the substantial data, the leadership style of the University of The

Gambia has been inclined towards discriminatory administrative practices. Such practices have been said to marginalize faculty and disempower them in favor of the administrative 225 staff. Various participants pointed out the discriminatory nature of the Administration.

The data shows that various Vice Chancellors have applied the “divide and rule” strategy at the University of The Gambia by sowing the seeds of discord among staff of different sections of the institution, the teaching and administrative staff. The data indicates that antagonism between faculty and Vice Chancellor and others in Administration as well as faculty and the administrative staff has been manifested at different times with different

Vice Chancellors. Also, allusion of rift among faculty themselves can be seen in the information given by some participants who claimed that some faculty members are favored over others in terms of access to information on research funding (when such funds were available) and international conference travel support, for example. The research also found dissatisfaction and grudge against each other among even faculty for the preferential treatment by the Administration in matters of access to such information and promotion based on affiliations to some people who matter in the decision-making process. Dividing staff in order to control and direct them, as one wishes is a “strategy” by autocratic leaderships whose basic objective is to achieve their ultimate goal, regardless of its impacts on the wellbeing of others. As can be deciphered in the data, the discrimination has succeeded in wedging discord among staff of the University who need each other for social and professional support through collaboration, cooperation, and collegiality. Their numerical power which could have served their collective interest has been weakened by the mutual suspicion and hatred that divides them, as can be seen in the data. A sense of vulnerability and insecurity therefore haunts faculty on the job, while

Administration is always suspicious of their growing power and influence through the 226

UTG Faculty and Staff Association and looking for ways of neutralizing them due to a sense of fear, as the data suggests.

Contemptuousness

Information of nepotism and belligerence have been reported by various respondents one of whom gave an example from his experience when he was treated with scorn and spite at the door of a Senior Management Team member who snubbed him when he kept him waiting at his office door for about two hours while allowing others from administrative staff to enter and leave his office as they liked. This discrimination gives a sense of disrespect and contempt which is inimical to good collegiality with the discriminatory members of the Administration, as well as with fellow staff who are seen to be favored over the others. Acts of belligerence such as this experience have created a chasm between the leaders and their subordinates at the University of The Gambia where a member of faculty said that at the university faculty and Administration are in two different “worlds.”

Consistent with the literature reviewed on McGregor’s (1960) Theory X and

Theory Y, the findings of this study show that at The University of The Gambia the leader has certain basic assumptions of faculty which has created animosity between the

Administration and faculty. Administration’s attempt to penetrate the ranks of the

Association’s Executive is a way of seeking protection from a perceived rival group by taking over of the mantle of authority from faculty. This is in line with McGregor’s

Theory X model which assumes that employees are lazy, irresponsible, and unmotivated individuals who need strong control and keen supervision with the incentive of reward to 227 make them work, while managers are selfless and hardworking (McGregor, 1960). This type of thinking about employees in relation to management brews discord and conflicts between the two. Thus, rather than engaging in peacebuilding in a divided body of staff for greater cooperation and organizational success, the leadership of the University of

The Gambia has been concerned with protecting itself from, and maintaining its grip on, faculty. This is evident from the leadership practice of the university, because a leadership with peacebuilding objectives does not seek to discriminate and stigmatize subordinates, as is manifest in the name-calling and favoritism adduced by interview participants. The descriptions of faculty who shared their views in this research show an evolutionary authoritarian leadership style reaching its peak, as they openly indicated, during the tenure of a certain Rector who attempted to silence all voices of dissidence by coercion, despite differences in some Rectors’ practices.

This does not exonerate faculty from responsibility as both segments of the university have been reacting to each other in some ways, as can be seen in the data. An extension of McGregor’s Theory Y shows faculty as hardworking, empathic, and loyal individuals and groups without whom there would be no University of The Gambia. Yet, faculty perceive themselves as being constantly undermined and discriminated against by their leadership. Faculty’s attempt to maintain their grip on the influential Staff

Association is a demonstration of the fear of continued dominance and control from

Administration on the one hand, and administrative staff’s “bossiness” reported by some interview participants. The conviction to have an exclusive faculty union and the idea that faculty-led Administration is the best for the University of The Gambia (as expressed in 228 the interview data) are expressions of the fear of the perpetuation of this dominance and control over faculty by Administration and the need to end it. Some members of

Administration’s attempt to surround themselves with relatives and confidants, as reported by some participants, may be regarded as a manifestation of the need to protect themselves from faculty’s anguish and rivalry. The lack of support for faculty returning from higher education and training is a similar insulation attempt from the reversal of power and control by faculty whose numerical, knowledge, and skills powers (Fowler,

2013) are increasing with every additional member of faculty returning with a higher degree. Faculty continues to pose a threat to Administration who see them as archrivals over the leadership of the institution, particularly if the faculty-led leadership type they clamor for is instituted.

However, this view would be difficult to defend because despite their numerical power, faculty lack the authority to influence decisions as they are marginalized and far from the circles of decision making and power. Rather, it is apparent that

Administration’s fear of faculty emanates from the consequences of their own oppressive strategies because oppression creates a sense of insecurity in the oppressor as in the oppressed (Freire, 1970/2000). Faculty feels vulnerable and tries to find greater security in professional associations dominated and controlled by faculty; the Administration’s fear of losing out to faculty rises with faculty’s increasing capacity and control of a highly influential staff association. Administration had a rude awakening to this potential threat when the UTG Faculty and Staff Association demanded the resignation of the Vice

Chancellor and other key members of the Senior Management Team and the dissolution 229 of the Senior Management Team in 2016, with the threat of a university-wide sit-down strike if they did not comply. The Minister of Higher Education, Research, Science, and

Technology had to intervene and dissolve the Senior Management Team, among other reforms, to avoid a major setback to the growth and development of the University. Such memories signal a danger of losing out to colleagues seen as “enemies” rather than collaborators. At the same time, these developments have convinced management of their perceived vulnerability to the Staff Association. The appointment of loyalists is therefore a “strategic” move for the Administration as it creates a form of sanctuary for their perceived insecurity in their positions because such employees are less likely to be allies of the Association against their employers who give them greater privileges than they are likely to enjoy from the Association. This is in line with Bandura’s postulation of defensive behavior which stipulates that: “A prime function of most anticipated behavior is to provide protection against potential threats” (1973, p. 12). However, protecting oneself from potential rivals in academia will be more effective by winning their confidence by allaying their fears and commanding their respect through sound judgment, fairness, justice, accountability, and transparency, than by creating greater hostility.

Fullan (2005) indicated that competent organizational leaders do not fear differences in opinion, that they value them because dissenting voices provide leaders with alternative perspectives which may bring new insight in the organization. In order words, the

University of The Gambia’s leadership could have neutralized the potential threats and hostilities by being more professional and inspirational: accommodating, accountable, transparent, and peacebuilding for sustainability, rather than confrontational. 230

Oke, Okonula, Oni, and Adetoro (2010) found that inspirational leadership behavior in higher education is a major source of faculty motivation. Other researchers also argue that it is the role of leaders to motivate their followers (Jean Francois, 2015;

Sawyer, 2002). For leaders to motivate their followers their own attitude must be deemed positive by those followers. Hence, at the University of The Gambia, faculty’s low motivation towards work results from their negative perspective of the leadership style of their institution. Oke, et al. (2010) observed in their study that “most of the lecturers who showed an uncooperative attitude to the authorities of the universities were in universities where the Vice Chancellors were perceived to have uncaring leadership behaviours” (p.

136). Faculty interviewed at the University of The Gambia believe that they see the leadership style of their institution as autocratic and confrontational, as a result they try to resist its dictatorship through defiance, lack of cooperation, conflict, threats of industrial action, as indicated in the memo of the UTG Faculty and Staff Association of February

21, 2017, and attrition.

Faculty’s Perspectives of the Influence of Leadership Style on Their Motivation at

UCAD

Faculty who participated in this study at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop described their ideal leadership style as one which is democratic, innovative, autonomous, respected, respectful, considerate, confident, trustworthy, confident, and collaborative. They indicated that their substantive leadership style is democratic, despite occasional autocracy. Consistent with the literature on the features of democratic leadership style, faculty’s description of the substantive leadership style of their 231 institution at University of Cheikh Anta Diop outlines some characteristics and skills of a democratic system. Most faculty participants’ list of the features which include participation, innovation, openness, consideration, professionalism (transparency and accountability in appointments, recruitment, and promotion), and effective communication are in line with the literature on democratic leadership style in organizations (Germano, 2010; Oke, et al., 2010; Sawyer, 2002). Slow decision making resulting in frustration has been added to the list by some faculty, as a mark of intermittent autocracy.

Participation

Democratic policymaking requires the direct participation and/or representational participation of members of the institution in the decision-making process (Oke, et al.,

2010; Sawyer, 2002). From the participants’ responses, participation is a key feature of decision-making at the University of Cheikh Anta. Such participation requires the requisite structures through which individuals and groups demonstrate their franchise such as participatory decision-making bodies. However, having the democratic structures in place does not necessarily translate into democratic decision-making if the structures are not operationalized as envisaged. The participants indicated that the leadership has not only put in place such structures, but also operationalized them accordingly, which is consistent with the literature. For example, Fullan (2005) observed that “built-in checks and balances … help sort out productive conflict from dysfunctional conflicts” (p. 72).

The University has three basic levels of decision-making each of which is democratically operationalized. The Department Councils consist of faculty of the departments of each 232

School. Each School Council consists of representatives of all the departments of the

School. The third level is the University Council, which is the highest level of organizational decision-making making, with the Vice Chancellor or Rector as the Chair and representatives of each School as members with equal rights in the Council.

Similarly, the communication system is both top-down and bottom-up as explained by the participants. Each level takes decisions appropriate to it and pushes them either up or down for validation or implementation depending on its mandate in the democratic system. Departments engage in the recruitment process of new faculty, for example, at their own level and submit their decisions to their School Council who also transmit them higher up to the University Council where the Rector endorses the decision after the approval of the Council. The approval of the Council does not depend on their independent choices but on the Departments’ adherence to the rules of the University.

General university-wide and specific School and Department policies may come from the

University Council to the Schools or Departments through the School Councils for implementation.

The composition of these structures and their operational method reveals a high level of participation in the decision-making process at the University of Cheikh Anta

Diop. Sacchetti’s (2015) conceptual framework used in this study shows, a public university such as the University of Cheikh Anta Diop ought to be run inclusively to avoid what Fullan (2005) called “dysfunctional conflict” (p. 72). Participation in the decision-making process has a positive influence on faculty’s job satisfaction and wellbeing. Participation through the dialogical process which is referred to in the 233 analytical framework as “collaborative inquiry” gives faculty a sense of belonginess to the institution. Because they take responsibility of the decisions they make in the decision-making process, their level of commitment rises higher to ensure organizational success. Oke, et al. (2010) discovered that positive leadership behavior of Vice

Chancellors encourages faculty to increase their commitment towards their work. These psychological consequences lead to greater satisfaction to faculty and affects their mood, attitudes, and motivation positively towards work at the university.

Professional leadership creates an organizational culture and campus climate which increase faculty well-being through high job satisfaction. High job satisfaction gives faculty the conviction that they are valued members of the institution rather than mere instruments of production whose only value lies in the degree to which the leadership can exploit their labor. Well-being increases with the level of job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction can be enhanced through democratic participation and recognition. Job satisfaction, well-being, and motivation are interrelated. Since it is the role of Vice

Chancellors to motivate faculty and faculty motivation depends largely on their level of job satisfaction, Vice Chancellors can raise faculty job satisfaction, well-being, and motivation through a blend of democratic and transformational leadership styles.

Innovation

Consistent with the characteristics of democratic leadership style literature, faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop pointed out that innovation is a feature of their institutional leadership style. Yulk (2008) observed a causal-effect relationship between empowerment through the democratic process of participation and innovation. Innovation 234 is a characteristic of democratic leadership style (Germano, 2010). At the University of

Cheikh Anta Diop, the creation of the UCAD Foundation to supplement the relatively dwindling government financial support through alumni donations has gone a long a way in enhancing scholarships for students, constructing new infrastructure, and procuring rehabilitated vehicles for handicapped students’ use, as was contained in the inaugural speech of one of the Foundation’s presidents. Such innovations have the advantage of minimizing the violent student demonstrations over the government policy aimed at cutting scholarships as well as giving opportunities to needy students. The creation of the

Ombudsman’s Office for fair and just treatment as well as faculty and student sensitization on their rights is another innovation that was found in the documents reviewed.

Although, the innovations are major steps towards greater faculty and student wellbeing through a healthier campus climate, much remains to be done in that respect because. Conditions such as the shortage and inadequacy of infrastructure, furniture, equipment, and other facilities continue to be a major concern for faculty at the

University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Interview data supported by national and international news reports indicate that some of the conditions in which faculty work such as lack of adequate office space, reliable electricity supply, and basic laboratory and other equipment, insufficient furniture, and overpopulated classes due to understaffing and

“massification” continue to affect the lecturers and students negatively. These conditions have been reported as some of the major causes of Faculty and Student Unions’ demonstrations. 235

Professionalism, Openness and Criteria-Based Administration

Democratic institutions are known for the openness of their leaderships to new ideas and practices (Myers, 2016). Participants in the study observed that the leadership style of their institution follow open, fair, and just criteria in their recruitment, retention, and promotion decision making. The leadership exercises transparent and accountable recruitment through a bottom-up approach where new faculty positions are identified, applications invited publicly, applicants short-listed and interviewed based on the strength of their CVs, and selections done accordingly by the Councils of the

Departments affected. The list of selected candidates is submitted to the School Council which takes it further up on the hierarchy to the University Council for endorsement. The results of the interviews and decisions taken are published based on a rubric applied across the board. Decisions on faculty promotion are within the purview of a regional higher education teaching assessment organization for Francophone countries – CAMES.

The CAMES have clearly spelt out the criteria for staff promotion at their website

(CAMES, 2000).

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, power sharing is also seen at the governance level, which is consistent with the analytical framework. The framework stipulates that organizational leaders in non-profit institutions such as public universities have the choices of increasing or decreasing organizational failure through the choices that they make called social preferences regarding how they combine strategy making and governance structure: the more inclusive the combination between these dimensions, the less the tendency for strategic failure or organizational failure to maximize individual 236 wellbeing, and societal wellbeing. The more exclusive the social preferences on strategy making and governance structure the higher the risk of organizational failure or strategic failure. In order words, empowerment through inclusive decision-making and inclusive governance increases the organizational performance through greater job satisfaction and motivation. The literature reviewed shows that empowerment is not only a key component of a democratic system but also a product of autonomy and the causal effect of innovation (Yulk, 2008). The principles of accessibility of information, transparency, and accountability in decision-making are also supported by some degree of autonomy at the Department and School levels at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The Rector’s direct influence is not quite conspicuous at the lower cadre of faculty. However, Heads of

Department take charge of running the affairs of the Departments and Deans are responsible for the day-to-day running of their Schools. This devolution of powers is major a characteristic of a democratic leadership style.

Consistent with the literature reviewed, the sense of autonomy, fairness, justice, transparency, and accountability have resulted to faculty having confidence and trust in, and respect for, the Rector in particular, and the leadership cadres in general, at the

University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Faculty’s confidence, trust, and respect are requisites for good collegiality and institutional success, as can be seen the University. Good collegiality can be seen at the University in terms of the high level of cooperation and collaboration between faculty, examples of which include faculty from different

Departments and/ or Schools inviting each other to train, lecture, or conduct workshops 237 for colleagues in their Departments and/ or Schools as well colleagues collaborating at problem-solving interpersonally.

Recognition

Recognition, care, or consideration for subordinates has been found to be a motivating factor at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, in line with the literature reviewed

(McCoy, et al, 2013; Oke, et al., 2010). Some members of faculty reported that they had close interpersonal relationship with, at least some Vice Chancellors of the University and that the interpersonal contacts have benefitted them professionally as well as personally. Talibeh described how deep the Rector’s compassionate and selfless attitude made him benefit from the training he is undergoing abroad and vowed that not only would he churn any opportunity that might come his way to stay and work abroad, but that he would even make sure he writes to him a personal letter thanking him for his contribution to his professional and social development even before he completes his program and returns to Senegal, but that he would also take it upon himself to meet him and express his gratitude to him. Some other faculty interviewed who claimed to have had meaningful interpersonal relationship with the Rector expressed their satisfaction with his level of consideration and care for others’ welfare. Oke et al. (2010) discovered that uncaring leadership was at the roots of the uncooperative behavior of most of the lecturers who were found to be uncooperative.

However, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the major causes of conflict were the political influence on the University’s policies. Those conflicts were directed mainly at the institution’s facilities as state facilities, rather than the person or property of the 238

Rector. The Rector was seen as a scapegoat being used by some politicians in their own interest. Therefore, the violent conflicts over such policies have always been directed at the properties of the University which are seen as the property of the state. Since such demonstrators, who are mainly student unions, according to the documents reviewed, find it easier to vent their anger on the university’s property than the politicians who make the policies.

Occasional Slow Decision-Making and Communication Weakness

Occasional slow communication has been adduced by some faculty interviewed as marking occasional authoritarianism with frustrating results for them. This is a misunderstanding of the democratic leadership style. Consistent with the literature, slow decision making and delays in communication with the resultant frustration are common features of the democratic leadership style (Germano, 2010). That is why to think that democratic leadership is a perfect form administrative style is a mistaken view.

Democratic leadership style is neither a perfect leadership style nor the same as transformational leadership style. The process of decision making in a democratic setting is slow and cumbersome, as it requires the active participation of all members, or at least, their representatives. The dissemination of information is not always fast, either, as channels of communication may be long in some settings, as the University of Cheikh

Anta Diop. These processes are time consuming in some cases. Where urgent decisions are required it can even be counterproductive in the sense that by the time the views of all members are taken on board, it might be too late to act, and the damage would have been made or the loss incurred. Transformational leadership is different in that it prepares each 239 member as a leader and empowers them to take decisions in the best interest of the organization, rather than being concerned with their personal ego. Therefore, what the members think is an indication of intermittent or occasional dictatorship is, in fact, a hallmark of the democratic leadership style.

The interview data on the democratic leadership style at the University of Cheikh

Anta Diop therefore is consistent with the literature reviewed and the frameworks used in this study in that democratic leadership increases the wellbeing of employees by developing their potentials and giving them a sense of belongingness. These general factors which embed various psychological and professional forms of satisfaction have the effect of motivating faculty at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop. It is not therefore surprising that there is general motivation among faculty, despite infrequent instances of demotivation from conditions of work.

However, the appointment of the Rector by the head of state and the University’s heavy dependence on government funding render the Rector less autonomous and highly dependent on government funding for the University, although flexible. The literature on democratic leadership does not ascribe lack of autonomy and flexibility to democratic organizational administration. In the qualities and characteristics listed for their ideal leadership style of their University, faculty emphasized independence from politicians.

Most of the policies that lead to strike action by the professional unions and sometimes violent demonstrations by student unions come from policies imposed on the institution, rather than the Rectorate. 240

Therefore, the democratic leadership style is in the process of evolution, as shown by some faculty members who claimed that the practice is somehow recent and that some previous Rectors were autocratic and condescending. What direction the development of the democratic leadership style in the institution takes in the future is open to investigation. What is evident is that the democratic leadership style is evolving and not perfect because of the lack of autonomy. There cannot be democracy without independence. Also, the democratic leadership requires tact, to contain violence and transform it positively, rather than allowing it to flare up intermittently and cause ruptures or transforming the institution into a battlefield, as indicated by a UCAD Foundation

President.

As the literature reviewed and conceptual framework illustrated, the findings of this study underscore the significance of leadership style to subordinate’s motivation. The conceptual framework shows that as public institutions, the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop require specific governance and strategic decision social preferences to fulfill their role in society or attain their goal of increasing the welfare of stakeholders – the culminative effects of the organizational choices (Sacchetti,

2015). The findings of this study are consistent with the literature reviewed and analytical framework on the extent of the influence of institutional leadership behavior on faculty motivation. As Sacchetti’s (2015) inclusive and exclusive social preferences model suggests, the choices that Vice Chancellors in the universities make regarding inclusivity or exclusivity in decision making and governance are crucial in determining the effects on faculty’s mood, motivation, attitudes, and performance. Employees’ mood, motivation, 241 attitude, and performance emanate from the organizational culture, climate, and conditions of work created by the leaders (Denison, 1996; Oke et al., 2010). In line with the literature on motivation, the consequences of what Herzberg (1966) called motivation and hygiene factors as seen in the organizational culture, climate, conditions of work, and interpersonal relationships adduced by participants reveal five basic factors reflecting the extent of the influence of the leadership styles on their motivation at the University of

The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop. The extent of faculty’s motivation or demotivation found in the study can be gleaned from the circumstances Herzberg (1966) called “motivators” and “hygiene factors” such as: Relationships, emotional feelings and conflict, attitudes, and organizational performance. The concepts of social preferences for choices between inclusivity and exclusivity in the governance structure and strategy making are used to analyze the extent of the influence of these factors on faculty’s motivation. The extent of their influence on faculty’s motivation can be deciphered from their responses to the influences of the factors at both University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Such responses reflect in faculty’s work attitudes and the influences on their performance, accordingly.

In their correlational study, McCoy, Newell, and Gardner (2013) found that there is a strong correlation between faculty’s sense of job satisfaction and their retention in the university. They argued that faculty retention is significant in the global higher education competition. The greater the level of job satisfaction in a university the less likely faculty would want to leave the institution. Conversely, the less satisfied in the job setting faculty are the higher their wish to change jobs or institutions (McCoy, Newell, & Gardner, 242

2013). This so because faculty’s job satisfaction has a positive impact on their wellbeing measured in terms of “job satisfaction and mental and physical health” (McCoy, Newell,

& Gardner, 2013, p. 311). The higher faculty’s job satisfaction, the lower their attrition rate (citation). In line with the data, at the University of The Gambia where faculty’s job satisfaction has been described as very low, faculty attrition is very high, whereas at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop where job satisfaction is less negative, faculty attrition is negligeable, if existent at all.

Extent of Leadership Style Influence on Faculty Motivation at UTG

Relationships

Relationships at the University of The Gambia have been found to be affected by what Herzberg (1966) called hygiene factors. Very tense relationships found at different levels of the organizational units have affected faculty’s job satisfaction, as postulated by

Herzberg. Faculty’s relationship with some Vice Chancellors and the Senior Management

Teams have been found to be highly antagonistic. An atmosphere of mutual suspicion, mistrust, envy, hatred, and abhorrence has prevailed at the University between faculty and the leadership. This is evident from the unionist actions and apprehensive interactions described by the interview participants. According to Lalo Kebba, some Vice

Chancellors and their teams are “disconnected with the needs of faculty, greedy, inexperienced, unqualified, and influenced by personal aggrandizement, indolence, and belligerence.” Faculty therefore consider themselves as the victims of what some of them called their “unprofessional leadership style.” This mutual suspicion has always heightened tensions between the two units of the university. Faculty who shared their 243 views with this researcher gave the examples of colleagues who were either dragged to court or threatened with court action for expressing their views of the leadership style.

Similarly, there is tension between faculty and administrative staff many of whom are said to have been hand-picked by the Administration without due qualifications and favored over faculty to serve the interest of the Administration rather working to attain the goals of the institution. At this level, too, mutual suspicion and distention characterizes the relationships between staff of the university.

Thus, some participants expressed remorse regarding the kind of treatments they received from some administrative staff who may even be their juniors in the institution in the execution of their duties to such faculty members. What is even more interesting is that despite the superficial unity among them, there is mistrust among some faculty themselves. Some faculty members think that the Administration has succeeded in infiltrating their ranks by identifying a few among them and giving them privileged treatments over their colleagues and thereby earned their loyalty. Such faculty members tend to be sidelined with confidential matters and sensitive positions in their interaction with other colleagues because they are suspected of being potential spies on, or betrayers of, their colleagues to the “enemy.” This multidimensional disunity, suspicion, and distention has led to faculty, the Administration, administrative staff, and some other colleagues generally waiting to react to each other’s provocation or disapproving or taunting attitudes, thus heightening emotional feelings. Such emotional feelings and their consequences at the University are the subject of discussion in the next subsection. 244

Emotional Feelings and Conflict

The culture of discrimination and the “divide-and-rule” behavior described by faculty has created an environment of hostility sometimes visible and other times other times quite subtle. The contemptuous treatment of faculty has led to low self-esteem garnered from the faculty’s description of their own condition as “roaming like the

Rohingyas.” This expression shows that the psychological impact of some

Administrations’ biased treatment of marginalization and disrespect meted out to them has created among faculty a low self-image. Behavioral psychologists argue that people tend to accept, internalize, and reproduce the image that superiors tell them about themselves over a long time. That is why, when Talibeh, for example, made the remark that faculty roam like Rohingyas and followed the remark with a scornful laughter, he was not only expressing an image that lay deep down in his subconsciousness but also reproducing it, though contemptuously. It is the psychological effect of being stigmatized for long that was being displayed, just as Administration’s stigmatization of the

University of The Gambia Faculty and Staff Association as Boko Haram. The

Administration was not merely ridiculing the membership but also expressing a sense of fear they have for the UTG Faculty and Staff Association. Fullan (2005) observed that effective leaders draw lessons from differences of opinion, rather than suppress them.

Emotional feelings have also been deciphered from another hygiene factor called conditions of service as observed by Herzberg (1966). According to Herzberg, the lack of hygiene factors creates a tendency of demotivation. The greater the absence the factors the greater the extent of demotivation. Conversely, the greater the extent of motivation 245 factors the higher the motivation level of employees (Herzberg, 1966). Faculty at the

University of The Gambia described strenuous conditions of service which continue to affect their motivation towards work negatively. The inadequate stipulation of faculty’s welfare in the institution’s conditions of service has been a cause of great dissatisfaction for most faculty members. However, this may be seen as a deliberate attempt to keep staff ignorant of their rights in the University and thereby technically deny them their due. This kind of suspicion aggravates faculty’s distention with the leadership. Poor working conditions such as lack of enough classrooms with members of faculty teaching in unfinished buildings or roaming around in search of a place to hold their lectures, insufficient and inadequate furniture in the classrooms, and acute shortage and insufficiency of office space, as noted in a Dean’s report, has led to confrontations between some faculty of the University of The Gambia and other staff of some host institutions over facilities and furniture. Consistent with the concepts of the analytical framework, the insufficient and inadequate equipment and arbitrary appointment and promotion in the system add to faculty’s disappointment, discontentment, frustration, and disillusionment as the cumulative outcomes from the procedural outcomes and process outcomes, especially for highly enthusiastic faculty about academia (Sacchetti, 2015).

Faculty’s attitudes towards work as a result of the emotional conditions and conflicts is the subject of the next subsection. The section will examine the effects of specific conditions on faculty’s feelings and responses to the conditions based on the feelings. 246

Attitudes

The data from the findings at the University of The Gambia shows that faculty responded in various ways to these high-level hygiene factors. As consistent with the literature reviewed, this study observed that faculty’s attitude towards work is highly influenced by their views on the leadership style which, according to the conceptual framework, is determined by the agent’s (the organizational leader’s) social preference on strategy making and social preference on governance structure. The decisions create either the “motivation factors” or the “hygiene factors” (Herzberg, 1966) which in turn form a gamut of emotions. The emotions, according to Oke et al. (2010), have a bearing on employees’ attitudes. At the University of the Gambia, the following attitudes were observed as resulting from the organizational culture, campus climate, conditions of works, and relationships: carefree/laissez faire, part-time work, moonlighting, high attrition, and some degree of conscientiousness. The study discovered that carefree or laissez faire attitude was prominent as an expression of faculty’s disappointment, disillusionment, and frustration with the conditions of their organizational environment.

Some faculty members are said to be not only perpetually late for classes and meetings but also notoriously absent from work without any genuine reason. Some others only appear to be working but in reality, they are not doing effective teaching, according to some participants. That is manifested in the lecturer repeating the same content for most of the semester and giving marks to students as they please without marking their assignments, out of disillusionment. The data shows that the appalling conditions in which faculty perform their daily routine of teaching has made many to develop a 247 carefree attitude to their job, manifested in forms of lateness for, and absenteeism from, classes and meetings, disregard for students’ welfare.

Other faculty members have developed the attitude of putting in part time work in other institutions, as a result of the low remunerations they have been getting from the

University of Gambia. Consequently, much of the preparation time they would have had for their students at the University was dedicated to students in other educational institutions such as secondary schools, where they take part-time jobs. Thus, students at the University of The Gambia receive lower instructional, counselling, and tutorial quality of service than they would have had if the instructors had dedicated to them the time they used to prepare and teach students in other schools. Moonlighting which has been reported as equally prominent among other faculty at the University of The Gambia, has even greater consequences because it is an act of part-time taking in other institutions without the knowledge or approval of the authorities of one’s institution. If the authorities are not aware of the faculty member taking up such engagement, they can hardly factor it into their budget plans. The high attrition rate for faculty also has been reported as a direct consequence of their frustrations exhibited in the course of their work. Some faculty decide to stay abroad after their education due to poor conditions of work at the

University. Resignation from their job or secondment in other national or international institutions due to poor conditions of work is also very common at the University of The

Gambia, as a way of getting away from the troubles of the institution, at least for some time. A few claimed to be motivated by their students’ needs and sense of patriotism, though they acknowledged that the conditions of work are demotivating. 248

There is generally, therefore, very low motivation among faculty at the University of The Gambia. This is due to the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style manifested in the culture and climate it has created – the prevalent poor conditions of work, and the disruptive relationships in the institution. The effects of faculty’s attitude towards the institution and their work have bearings on the organizational performance which are the culminating outcomes of their attitude in terms of the organizational performance at the University of The Gambia.

The final subsection of the discussion of the extent of the influence of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style on faculty motivation at the university of The Gambia follows. In this subsection, the relationship between faculty’s motivational conditions and behaviors will be discussed in relation to their effects on organizational performance.

Organizational Performance

The analytical framework illustrates that organizational performance hinges on the higher education leaders’ choices among the dimensions of social preferences such as choice of governance form (governance) or structure and choice of strategy making

(policy making) among social preferences of inclusive decision making (participatory) and exclusive decision making (non-participatory/marginalizing). These choices determine the degree of collaborative enquiry (dialogue) and strategic failure (impact on individual/societal wellbeing). A combination of high strategic failure and low collaborative enquiry has the effect of low individual and social wellbeing (satisfaction and benefits for individuals and other stakeholders) whereas high enquiry and low strategic failure has the effect of high individual wellbeing and social wellbeing. 249

Consistent with the analytical framework, the organizational performance at the

University of The Gambia is a reflection of the strategic failure of the institution to produce the desirable outcomes for faculty through higher motivation. The carefree attitude, part time engagements and moonlighting due to very low motivation at the

University affect faculty’s performance negatively as they have less time for their instructional and research work. With less time to prepare for lectures at the University and loss of enthusiasm from disappointments and disenchantment, faculty’s contributions to the development of the teaching and learning process at the University of The Gambia is very low. This is seen in Elvis’ observation that:

The early graduates of UTG, for example, have been absorbed in key

administrative and professional positions around the world. Many have risen to

the ranks of Associate Professors and Professor in universities around the world.

But many recent graduates have not benefited from the rigorous education and

training fo their predecessors due to the leadership failure to motivate faculty to

give their best to the University.

The low organizational performance reported by faculty is therefore a reflection of the extent of the influence of their low motivation. Faculty, generally, do not consider it worthwhile to devote their time and energy to maximal output in the institution. The organizational performance is therefore an indication of organizational failure because of high strategic failure demonstrated in social preferences of faculty exclusivity in both governance structure and strategy making choices. This failure has implications for the staff and students (cumulative outcomes) at the University and the larger society in the 250 form of lower quality education and training for the country’s agents of change

(culminative outcomes). The better educated the students at a university, the higher the quality of their services are expected to be when they enter the work force. However, if faculty’s impact on their students is low due to low motivation, mediocrity is likely to reign in the public and private sectors of the country. Institutions become less productive, as a result individuals and the public are rendered mediocre service. The result is a catastrophic failure of both the public and private sectors due to a corresponding failure of the university system to train students efficiently and effectively. Organizational failure, in this case, is therefore a product of high strategic failure induced by exclusivity in the social preferences among the organizational dimensions of governance structure and strategy making. It has adverse effects on individuals and the larger society.

Extent of Leadership Style Influence on Faculty Motivation at UCAD

At University of Cheikh Anta Diop, as University of The Gambia, findings of the study on the organizational culture, campus climate, conditions of work and interpersonal relationships are used to understand the extent of the influence of the leadership style on faculty motivation: Relationships, emotional feelings conflict, attitudes, and organizational performance.

Relationships

In line with the literature reviewed, the findings from University of Cheikh Anta

Diop reveal a close connection between relationships in the institution and the degree of influence on employee motivation. Nanjundeswara and Swamy (2014) discovered that transformational leadership has very strong impact on job satisfaction and motivation 251 through the positive interpersonal relationship of the leadership style. Faculty who participated in this study at University of Cheikh Anta Diop indicated that the Rector of their institution has close professional relationship with faculty. Data collection from the university shows that various members of faculty have positive image of the leadership style through memories of beneficial interactions. The interactions have inspired faculty in various ways. Some members expressed that they owe a certain Rector a debt of gratitude for the considerate leadership style they have experienced with him. Consistent with the literature, the positive leadership style at University of Cheikh Anta through its criteria-based assessment, adherence to principles in recruitment and promotion, and respect for decentralization have earned him the respect and trust of faculty.

Furthermore, it is the basis for good collegiality on campus as faculty have no cause to develop grudge for each other for other staff. In other words, a healthy organizational culture has created a healthy campus climate at University of Cheikh Anta

Diop, in line with the literature reviewed. In line with the observation by Nanjundeswara and Swamy (2014) that “leadership style, organizational commitment, and work satisfaction are interrelated” (p. 58), the data from University of Cheikh Anta Diop shows that democratic, just, transparent, and accountable decision-making account for the cooperation and collaboration between the Rector and faculty, faculty and non-academic staff, and among faculty in the institution. Fullan (2004) observed that it is only when leaders create a favorable culture for collaboration that organizational members voluntarily share knowledge. Interdepartmental and intra-departmental collaborations have been observed among faculty on professional matters in the data. There is a high 252 degree of fraternity between faculty within the same Departments as well as between different Departments due to the mutual trust, confidence, and collaboration adduced by interview participants. Even the social aloofness of the Rector has been justified by most faculty on the grounds of his workload as the supreme leader overseeing all sections of the University and the physical distance between the Rectorate and the Schools. Though the physical distance issue may not be a valid argument for the Rector’s aloofness from the social campus, the responsibilities of overseeing a university with a student population of about 100,000 and faculty consisting of about 1,100, is too cumbersome a task for the Rector to attend to the needs of each individual directly. That is why faculty have closer relationships with the Deans of Schools and Heads of Department who are closer to them because they work together on a daily basis. It is for this reason that faculty do not expect much of a social relationship with the Rector.

As Fullan (2004) stated, it is indispensable for effective leaders to build a progressive culture and climate for positive emotional engagements that lead to sustainable positive behavior change. The conviction that the Rector continues to work in faculty’s interest, even if they do not see him frequently, gives them satisfaction and motivates faculty highly. Attrition and moonlighting have not been seen in the data from

University of Cheikh Anta Diop. It is therefore assumed that it must be negligeable, if it exists all, because it would have been reported by participants in the same way as they raised other unpleasant issues such as political interference in the policy making and its consequences on faculty. The findings are consistent with the literature that these positive relationships emanate from the leadership style adopted at the University. Even if this 253 leadership quality is rather recent, as adduced by some members of faculty, it is an indication of the evolution of a leadership style which fosters positive relationship and inspires faculty significantly.

Emotional Feelings and Conflicts

The good relationships faculty have had with the Rector have created a bond of emotional attachment and loyalty to the university for most faculty interviewed. This emotional attachment may be the reason why some members of faculty continue to devote their time and personal resources to enrich the teaching and learning in their courses, despite limited personal financial resources. Faculty thereby contribute their personal resources voluntarily to ameliorate the effects of poor conditions of services such as inadequate and insufficient facilities, infrastructure, and equipment on their teaching. Conditions of service such as “massification,” inadequate and insufficient infrastructure, facilities, and equipment have been found to be demotivating and frustrating. Although, the magnitude of the disillusionment has led to frequent demonstrations by faculty through their unions, violent demonstration by faculty has not been found in the data. Nevertheless, the sit-down strikes have disrupted the teaching and learning at the University significantly. Documents reviewed showed that in recent years the Rectorate has introduced innovations which have had some impact reducing the violent demonstrations from funding issues and perceived denial of rights, including those of students. The UCAD Foundation was initiated to supplement government funding of the University and support student scholarships, as well as the creation and consolidation of the Office of Ombudsman at the University, which tends to have some 254 positive effects on the campus climate. The 2006-2007 Plan of Action of The

Ombudsman includes such initiatives as creating a culture of tolerance and respect for freedom of speech and association, respect for diversity of opinions, maintaining standards of fairness and transparency, sensitization on the culture of peace and non- violence, collaboration with professional and student organizations of the institution,

NGOs, researchers, and other stake holders (UCAD Ombudsman’s Plan of Action for

2006-2007).

However, political interference in the decision-making process of the University due the institution’s dependence on the state for funding and the appointment of the

Rector by presidential decree. The data shows that the government imposes policies on the institution which have the potential to disrupt the collegiality between faculty and the

Rector. When the government imposes unpopular policies on the University, the Rector is trapped between maintain solidarity with colleagues and manifesting allegiance to the government that employed them. Various articles and documents reviewed show that such policies have been the major causes of conflicts between faculty through unions and the state through the University leadership (Camara & Bodian, 2016; Christensen, March

29, 2018; Garda Wollof News Alert, December 9, 2019; Gueye, June 14, 2018; Polgreen

2007). Faculty interviewed indicated various government policies such as those on revising the policy of automatically admitting undergraduate students into graduate programs and limiting the extent to which a student can remain on their program without graduating. As seen in the data, these policies have led to violent student demonstrations causing severe damage to the relatively few property of the institution. 255

Similarly, the policy to increase the annual admission window to two in a particular School of the institution led to severe health hazards for some faculty who had to be hospitalized from exhaustion by the end of the academic year. Thus, faculty’s call for autonomy from the Senegalese Government is the result of some “selfish” politicians who seemed to be only interested in increasing the number of students for their political gains than the result of the policy on the lives of others. The state’s decisions imposed on the University have been the main causes of emotional outbursts among faculty and students who see in the policies attempts by such politicians whose soul objective is to exploit them for their own political ambitions, regardless of the consequences on their welfare. These ambitions still continue to be a source of displeasure and even industrial actions on the university campus. This is evident from the fact that despite the existence and mandate of the Ombudsman and the UCAD Foundation, some of the demonstrations and strikes found in the media and academic articles reviewed are quite recent (Camara &

Bodian, 2016; Christensen, March 29, 2018; Garda Wollof News Alert, December 9,

2019; Gueye, June 14, 2018; Polgreen 2007).

Ostroff (1992) argued that it is imperative to take into account the sentiments and attitudes of employees because these factors influence the extent to which they collaborate. Thus, the next subsection discusses faculty’s attitudes towards work as an indication of the extent of the influence of the conditions of services, culture, climate and interrelationships on their motivation. 256

Attitudes

Consistent with the findings of Oke et al. (2010), this study found that the influence of the environmental conditions created by the leadership style of University of

Cheikh Anta Diop is manifested in faculty’s attitude towards work. Faculty’s attitude towards work, in turn, is a reflection of the extent of their motivation. Consistent with

Ostroff’s (1992) and Fullan’s (2004) observations about the significance of employees’ attitudes and sentiments to their voluntary collaboration, this study discovered that at

University of Cheikh Ant Diop, faculty’s feeling of satisfaction with their institutional leadership style manifested in the culture of healthy relationships among staff, fairness, justice, and principled professional leadership nurtures collaboration.

Despite the frustrations arising from poor and inadequate facilities, research support, and equipment, faculty show little cause for dividing their time between the needs of their students and part-time work, moonlighting, or engaging in carefree attitude towards their work. No evidence exists in the data showing nonchalance behavior from faculty as a result of sentiments originating from poor conditions of work. Faculty tend to be guided by progressive thinking shaped by their satisfaction with the leadership style of their institution. In fact, the democratic style of leadership has a high positive influence on faculty’s motivation which, despite poor working conditions values work in the interest of their students, institution, and country above personal comfort. For example,

Polgreen (2010) reported that despite overpopulation due to “massification” and other poor conditions of work such as inadequate infrastructure, facilities, and research support, 257 faculty who could have been enjoying greater benefits in more attractive conditions of work, remain at the University to serve their country and students.

Consistent with Hofstede’s (2010) six-dimension cross-cultural theory, the sense of nationalism guiding faculty’s dedication to the institution, is consistent with their national cultures. Faculty’s values of being generally recognized and respected by the democratic and transformational leadership, shows that, at least in the Senegambian

Region, the culture of the people is low on power distance, high on collectivism, and low on restraints. The culture of the people of the Region values being considered as human beings – recognized as important members of the institution or being respected. The practice of democratic and transformational leadership of considering and respecting others is in tandem with the regional cultural values of the Senegambia. The influence on faculty motivation arises from the positive assumptions of the leadership style about the characteristics of employees, practice of human relations, and communications (Sawyer,

2002). As an institution whose leadership values the human relationships, practices inclusivity in governance structures and strategy making through collaborative enquiry, the leadership of the institution has succeeded in injecting impetus for loyalty to, and diligence in, the institution.

Organizational Performance

The description of the research conditions as appalling by faculty who shared their views with the researcher is consistent with the literature reviewed, documents reviewed, and media reports on the subject at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Using scientific productivity as a principal criterion for determining faculty’s promotion without 258 creating the requisite conditions for such empirical research is inconceivable. Faculty might find it strenuous to find the requisite resources for research and thereby lose hope in achieving the requirement if the resources are not available. This situation is frustrating, discouraging, and counter-productive, as faculty find this requirement for promotion by the CAMES extremely difficult to attain. As a result of this inconsistency, knowledge production in the institution becomes negatively affected. The level of knowledge productivity is crucial for other reasons in a university such as increasing the body of educational resources available to faculty and students, as well as raising the institution’s ranking locally, nationally, internationally, and globally. This lack of adequate research support which is published in various media and journal articles is amplified by the voices of research participants at University of Cheikh Anta Diop in this study (See Camara & Toure, 2010). Nevertheless, faculty continue to struggle to meet the scientific production requirement for their personal and professional appraisals.

However, as Hofstede’s (2010) model shows, the motivation of faculty at the

University is less influenced by the research conditions than the relationships and participatory decision-making and governance form manifest in the leadership style. In accordance with the analytical framework, the empowering homogenous social preferences of inclusive choices among the dimensions of governance form and strategy making in the institution has been a major driving force of faculty’s motivation.

Participation in the governance structures of the University and in decision-making processes either directly at the Departmental Council or through elected representatives at the School and University Councils empowers faculty and gives them a sense of 259 belonging which they value above other factors such as inadequate facilities, equipment, and research support in relation to their motivation. Therefore, faculty complain about such hygiene factors, but they have exhibited less motivational effect from them than the motivators of participation and empowerment they enjoy at the University (Herzberg,

1966). Oke et al. (2010) found high levels of commitment to work among lecturers in universities where Vice Chancellors were perceived to exhibit positive leadership behaviors. Participatory leadership style, also, ensures that faculty at the University of

Cheikh Anta Diop are highly motivated and thereby work hard to attain the organizational goals, though in some difficult conditions. Despite occasional poor emotional and physical health from overcome and policy imposition, which, according to

McCoy, Newell, and Gardner (2013), are important conditions of conducive institutional environment, some Rectors have cultivated a respectable organizational culture, campus climate of good collegiality, and practiced justice in administration.

Similarities Between the Motivational Experiences of Faculty at UTG and UCAD

Political Mandate to Select the Vice Chancellor/ Rector

Similarities exist in the data on faculty’s motivational experiences from the influence of their perspectives of the political influence at University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop. One area of similarities is the mandate of the heads of state to appoint the Vice Chancellors, as public institutions. This mandate tends to give politicians the presumed right to interfere with the running of the universities, though such an influence is more pronounced at the University of Cheikh Anta. Feelings of disapproval of politicians making decisions for faculty are very common among faculty 260 interviewed at both universities because of political control over Vice Chancellors. The political influence, though at varying degrees at the two institutions, causes dissatisfaction at both universities. Such an influence is more common and direct at the

University of Cheikh of Cheikh Anta Diop than at the University of Gambia. This is because at the University of Anta of Diop there is greater dependence on government funding for students’ scholarships, stipends, and facilities, including student accommodation in the University’s hostels (as most students are sponsored by the government) and other running costs of the University. At the University of Gambia, the leadership relies mainly on scholarships from NGOs, Samaritans, and other organizations, students’ and their families’ resources, and little government financial support in the form of scholarships and subventions, which take long to be paid to the institution.

The presidential mandate to appoint the Rector at University of Cheikh Anta Diop and the institution’s heavy reliance on government funding have led to loss of autonomy for the university. Politicians continue to promulgate laws and develop policies affecting the university without consulting them, regardless of the consequences on faculty who are expected to implement the policies. This imposition of polices on the institution has been the major cause of conflicts on campus, some which turn violent even if those conflicts are often between the student unions, Administration, and security forces.

Faculty unions’ demonstrations are often peaceful sit-down strikes that take long time in some cases, sometimes. Such demonstrations are not often directed at the Rector but the government. However, as the conduit of the unpopular government policies, the Rector is 261 not deemed completely neutral nor completely innocent in the confrontations. That is perhaps why the violent student demonstrations target university property because in that way the students feel that both the Rector and the state are affected though to varying degrees. Similarly, at the University of The Gambia, the public declaration of support for a particular Vice Chancellor by a former head of state gave the former a sense of invincibility, which aggravated the sour faculty-Vice Chancellor relationship. Such dissatisfactions have led to greater demotivation at University of Cheikh Anta Diop than

University of The Gambia, where they hardly lead to any form of demonstration. Even the student demonstration against a Vice Chancellor’s unilateral policy imposition on faculty and students was non-violent.

Differences Between the Motivational Experiences of Faculty at UTG and UCAD

Centralized and Decentralized Decision-Making

A major difference in the factors of motivation between faculty of the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop is in the choices the Vice

Chancellors make between social preferences of inclusive and exclusive governance forms and strategy making (Sacchetti, 2015). The practice of power sharing in governance through decentralized structures at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop serves as driving force for faculty whose level of job satisfaction increases with the experience of being recognized and valued in the institutions. Job satisfaction raises faculty’s morale higher and serves as an impetus for enthusiasm in the drive towards the attainment of the organizational goals. Faculty tend to align their goals with the goals of the university, if they feel recognized (Oke, et al, 2010). Thus, the professional 262 democratic leadership style at University of Cheikh Anta Diop succeeded in raising faculty’s wellbeing by creating a conducive organizational environment for harnessing their collaboration, cooperation, and innovation. Fullan (2017) indicated that leadership for sustainability in education train others who would replace them to keep the institution effectively functional when they have left. If a leadership fails to create such an environment of collaboration for continuity by grooming others for succession, the institution is likely to “die” with the departure of the leader.

Unlike University of Cheikh Anta Diop, at the University of The Gambia, strategy making, and governance form are exclusive. The leadership has built a hostile institutional organizational environment through a culture of marginalization and undermining of the democratic structures of the institution, as explained by most faculty who shared their views in this research. As a result, “hygiene factors” such as low job satisfaction, high level of attrition, and poor emotional and physical health have affected motivation levels negatively (McCoy, et al, 2013). It is not therefore surprising that the

University has been experiencing such a high rate of attrition for long, as described by some participants in this study. McCoy et al. (2013) emphasized the need for faculty retention in the global competition between institutions of higher education. For the

University of The Gambia to ignore the factors that have led to high faculty attrition over a long period of time can be seen as a lack of interest the development of the University, as alleged by some participants in this study. 263

Similar Conditions of Work Producing Dissimilar Work Motivational Effects

Faculty at both University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop work under similar conditions of work such as massive class sizes, poor and scarce equipment, inadequate and inappropriate facilities, and little research support, as seen in the interview data, Dean’s report and Polgreen’s (2010) article. However, faculty at the two institutions exhibit different motivational behaviors from these conditions. Though the inadequate research support and poor facilities and infrastructure have given rise to dissatisfaction and demoralization to a certain degree at both universities, the influence does not seem important enough to affect the general motivation of faculty at University of Cheikh Anta Diop negatively. At the University of The Gambia, however, the conditions of work have contributed greatly to faculty’s frustration, disillusionment, and general demotivation. Hence, faculty’s commitment to the institution and productivity have been lower than at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, despite similar conditions of work, such as massive class sizes, insufficient and inadequate facilities, equipment and research support. For example, whereas what Herzberg (1966) called “hygiene conditions” at the University of The Gambia account mainly for the high attrition rate at the University of Gambia, at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the attrition rate is less important and hardly attributed to poor conditions of work.

Conclusion

Faculty at the University of The Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop are motivated by similar as well as different factors in similar and different ways. Faculty interviewed at both universities have perspectives of their substantive and ideal 264 leadership styles. The data shows that differences between their substantive and ideal leadership styles have negative effects on their motivation. On the other hand, similarities between their substantive and ideal leadership styles raise their motivation. The choices leaders make between participatory governance and decision making in the institutions affect faculty’s perspectives of the leadership style and influences their motivation, accordingly.

Faculty at the two institutions have different perspectives of their substantive leadership styles, though their ideal leaderships are identical. There are differences between their perspectives of the substantive leadership and ideal leadership styles. These differences account for the varying impact of the influences of their perspectives of the institutional leadership styles of their universities on their motivation. Inconsistency between their ideal and substantive leaderships, in their perceptions, have led to tremendous demotivation on faculty at the University of The Gambia. On the other hand, close semblance between the perspectives of faculty on the substantive and ideal leadership styles at University of Cheikh Anta Diop has been a cause of strong faculty motivation at the institution. Differences in faculty’s expectations of the role of the leadership which is also influenced by the sizes of the two institutions and the anticipated workload of the Vice Chancellors influence their expectations from the university leader in terms of their interpersonal relationships with others and affect their perspectives on how the leadership styles influence their motivation significantly. Other factors such as the conditions of work have strong influence on the perspectives of faculty at the

University of The Gambia but not so much on their colleagues at University of Cheikh 265

Anta Diop. The cultures and campus climate of the two institutions are affected by the leadership styles and the leadership styles in turn influence faculty’s perspectives on their how those leadership styles influence their motivation.

Recommendations: What Faculty at UTG and UCAD Can Learn from Each Other

There are various learning points in the experiences of faculty of the University of

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop on the influence of the leadership styles of their institutions on their motivation for faculty and Administration. First, in the

Senegambian region, a transformative democratic leadership style led by faculty will ensure greater cooperation and collaboration between faculty and other staff because of the human orientation which characterizes it. Such a blend of transformational and democratic leadership styles as obtains at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, according to the participants from UCAD, can serve as a synonymous learning point for faculty the leadership of the University of The Gambia. In accordance with the culture of the

Senegambia, faculty are highly motivated by a sense of recognition and respect. From the views of faculty who shared their opinions with the researcher, faculty have greater motivation from such considerations than the conditions in which they work. This is evident in the data from both institutions studied as both institutions have similar experiences with their conditions of work but exhibit different responses to these conditions of work due to different perspectives in their institutional or substantive leadership styles.

These different perspectives of their substantive leadership styles also account for their different motivational experiences from these leadership styles. The relationship 266 between faculty perspectives of their substantive leadership styles and their motivation shows that faculty may be unhappy about the conditions of work and even complain about them, but their motivational level would not be significantly affected if they had a positive perspective of the leadership styles of their universities, as seen at University of

Cheikh Anta Diop. This is because the cultures of the Senegambian Region have great regard for humanitarian consideration and mutual respect which they experience at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

Also, the leadership at University of The Gambia can learn to minimize the problem of attrition by learning from the relationships experience at University of Cheikh

Anta Diop, where faculty interviewed feel highly satisfied with the professional and interpersonal relationships with the leadership. This is important because in the

Senegambian Region where government support for universities, especially public higher educational institutions, is dwindling and poverty levels are hardly showing signs of decrease in the face unfavorable economic globalization realities, organizational productivity can be raised and maintained by practicing a leadership style which is transformational, democratic and faculty-led, while administration works towards improving the conditions of work for faculty over the long-term. In this way, the high attrition rate and similar consequences of faculty demotivation can be reduced effectively.

Similarly, Vice Chancellors need to be what Fullan (2005) called “systems thinkers” (p. 42) who create the necessary conditions for change through collaboration and participation. Such leaders do not only create democratic structures at the university 267 but also empower them to engage in dialogue or what Sacchetti (2015) called collaborative enquiry in problem solving and decision making and value faculty’s inputs.

The leadership at the University of The Gambia can learn from the implementation of democratic strategies at University of Cheikh Anta Diop. Genuine devolution of powers through decentralized and democratic structures provides an effective way of implementing democratic leadership style, as seen at University of Cheikh Anta Diop.

The structures for democratic participation exist at the University of The Gambia. What remains for organizational success is the commitment to strengthen those structures by eliminating all undemocratic practices and empowering faculty to participate effectively in the governance structures and decision-making process. That would require having trust and confidence in faculty and entrusting them with such responsibilities through

Unit Councils, Department Councils, School Councils, and University Councils which clear democratic guidelines and mandates. The trust, confidence, and democratic practices based on transparency and accountability will minimize, if not eliminate, antagonism between staff of the University and enhance cooperation and collaboration, because faculty will reciprocate the trust and confidence given to them by the

Administration.

Also, the leadership of The University of The Gambia can learn the values of accommodation of dissenting views and transform them into progressive energy for organizational development, as obtains at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop. By respecting faculty’s views, the leadership of the institution would create a campus climate 268 less animus and more productive. This is also important for faculty retention in the global higher education competition.

Creating an Ombudsman’s Office at the University of The Gambia, as at

University of Cheikh Anta Diop, would ensure greater faculty confidence in the leadership because they know the structures for redress are there for them if they feel unfairly treated. As at University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the leadership of the University of The Gambia should be strategic, visionary, and socially connected to staff. They should also be fair in their administrative decisions. They can do this effectively by being transparent and accountable. Criteria-based administration is a prerequisite for the all- important respect condition of acceptance and collaboration in universities in the

Senegambian Region. The students, too, will benefit from such an institution of redress at the university because they could seek justice and fair play at the Ombudsman’s Office which serves as the impartial arbitrator between aggrieved students and staff as between aggrieved staff themselves.

On the other hand, faculty at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop may learn from the experience of their colleagues at the University of The Gambia the practice of less disruptive demonstration and greater recourse to dialogue, even if it means involving the oversight ministry as a mediator. The UTG Faculty and Staff Association have resorted more to dialogical and interventional strategies in meeting their demands and reacting to policies than engaging in disruptive strikes.

Also, the appointment of Vice Chancellor by politicians has been a case for concern for faculty at both institutions. However, the leadership of the University of The 269

Gambia have been less influenced by politicians because of their relatively limited dependence on government funding. The leadership of University of Cheikh Anta Diop will earn greater respect and trust from faculty by being autonomous. The leadership needs to be less dependent on government funding to assert their independence.

Similarly, both institutions need to minimize the role of non-academics in the running of the institutions. Non-academics such as politicians, businesspersons, persons from social organizations and other walks of life may be encouraged to work with the university, especially in the area of revenue diversification in the face dwindling government funding for universities. However, their role should be in the area of fiscal collaboration but not the policy making and administration of the universities. University administration should be exclusively the domain of academics. The universities can ensure greater independence from the states or private sector by diversifying their revenue base through investments in bonds, hotel services for students, investing in pumping stations and other areas pf strategic investment to increase their avenue base.

Like University of Cheikh Anta Diop where a university campus has been in existence to facilitate social and academic interactions among faculty and students, The

University of The Gambia’s leadership should create a social and academic campus for healthy social and academic activities. This will motivate faculty and students to participate in academic and social campus activities in healthy campus climate.

When faculty are highly motivated students are expected to benefit from the increased quality of their input in the teaching and learning process. Motivated faculty give their utmost in terms of teaching, mentoring, and research. Their students benefit 270 from the high instructional quality and mentoring. Also, as their productivity increases students learn from their new experiences, the body of new literature, inventions, and innovations that faculty produce as additional resources that their students can utilize in their own research.

Like University of Cheikh Anta Diop, the University of The Gambia ought to create a foundation that includes alumni and other benevolent donors to reduce their dependency on tuition and fees in a poor country. In this way, students can benefit from a new source of funding their tuition and tapping research grants from them.

Furthermore, both universities need to diverse their resource base for sustainability. The universities may invest in hostels, pumping stations, cement factories and other lucrative business ventures to increase their revenue base and enhance their capacities to survive in the global competition with more endowed institutions. In this way, the tuition could be reduced for students as the institutions would not have to rely heavily on tuition and fees to meet running costs. Thus, students many students who might have dropped out due to lack of funds would have the opportunity to stay and continue in their programs.

A good higher education leadership style for the Senegambian Region can therefore be achieved through a combination of transformational and democratic leadership styles. By blending these two leadership styles, higher education leaders in the

Senegambian Region can effectively improve the wellbeing of faculty, students, and citizens, as well as improve government service delivery. A conducive organizational culture and climate will increase faculty motivation at the UTG and UCAD and lead to 271 greater cooperation and collaboration. Highly motivated faculty will work hard to align their goals with those of their universities in The Gambia and Senegal. The job satisfaction they gain from the recognition, respect, and participation that such a visionary leadership style creates would increase their trust in the leaders of the universities and encourage them (faculty) to improve on their job performance such as tutoring and mentoring. Students will thus benefit from the increased instructional value of faculty and thereby acquire greater skills that would employ at their workplaces when they graduate. The graduates would have a greater sense of self-fulfillment and even self- actualization. In this way, the Gambian and Senegalese people would benefit from more professional service delivery from the graduates in the workforce. The people of both countries will benefit from the increased skills and expertise of the graduates of the universities.

The governments of the two countries, also, stand to benefit from the better trained graduates of the universities. This could lead to higher living standards for the people of the two countries due to better educated and skilled in key sectors of the two countries such as health, education, and agriculture. Thus, highly motivated faculty are essential to national development through their diligence and positive attitude towards work.

Recommendations for Further Research

It would be imperative to study the impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic on faculty’s perspective of how the leadership styles at the University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop influences their motivation to work. Also, the influence 272 of faculty’s perspectives on their motivation at the University of The Gambia and

University of Cheikh Anta Diop having been investigated in a qualitative multiple case study in this research, quantitative research is required to further investigate the impact of faculty’s perspectives of the leadership styles on their motivation at the University of The

Gambia and University of Cheikh Anta Diop to determine causal relationship deductively. Also, the Mixed method approach might elucidate even more explicit an implicit information in research on this problematic by converging the different data sets: qualitative and quantitative data. A Mixed Method research approach would strengthen the results on this research problem. The results of such investigations would also contribute significantly to policy reforms for higher education in the Senegambian

Region.

273

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Appendix A: IRB Approval

Project Number 20-X-46

Project Status APPROVED

Committee: Social/Behavioral IRB

Compliance Robin Stack ([email protected]) Contact:

Primary Saiba Suso Investigator:

Project Title: Faculty's Perspectives of The Influence of Leadership Style on Motivation Toward Work at University of The Gambia (The Gambia) and University of Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegal)

Level of EXPEDITED Review:

Social/Behavioral IRB reviewed and approved by expedited review the above referenced research. The Board was able to provide expedited approval under 45 CFR 46.110(b)(1) because the research meets the applicability criteria and one or more categories of research eligible for expedited review, as indicated below. 287

IRB Approved: 04/06/2020 09:47:40 AM

Expiration: 04/06/21

Review 7 Category:

Waivers: No waivers. If applicable, informed consent (and HIPAA research authorization) must be obtained from subjects or their legally authorized representatives and documented prior to research involvement. In addition, FERPA, PPRA, and other authorizations / agreements must be obtained, if needed. The IRB- approved consent form and process must be used. Any changes in the research (e.g., recruitment procedures, advertisements, enrollment numbers, etc.) or informed consent process must be approved by the IRB before they are implemented (except where necessary to eliminate apparent immediate hazards to subjects). The approval will no longer be in effect on the date listed above as the IRB expiration date. A Periodic Review application must be approved within this interval to avoid expiration of the IRB approval and cessation of all research activities. All records relating to the research (including signed consent forms) must be retained and available for audit for at least three (3) years after the research has ended. It is the responsibility of all investigators and research staff to promptly report to the Office of Research Compliance / IRB any serious, unexpected and related adverse and potential unanticipated problems involving risks to subjects or others. This approval is issued under the Ohio University OHRP Federalwide Assurance #00000095. Please feel free to contact the Office of Research Compliance staff contact listed above with any questions or concerns. The approval will no longer be in effect when the Primary Investigator is no longer under the auspices of Ohio University, e.g., graduation or departure from Ohio University. 288

Appendix B: Letter of Access to UTG

289

Appendix C: Letter of Access to UCAD

290

Appendix D: English Version of Research Instrument

Section 1: Faculty Profile

1. Age: 2. Gender: 3. Ethnicity:

4. Institutional affiliation:

5. School/Faculty:

6. Program:

7. Years of experience

Section 2: Interview questions in English

Themes Main & Probing Question (s)

Leadership style How would you describe the leadership style in your

institution?

What factors influence your perspective of the leadership style

of your institution as such?

How does the leadership style influence your commitment to

the institution?

Organizational culture Could you describe the organizational culture in your

institution?

What makes you perceive the organizational culture of your

institution as such?

Organizational climate In your view, how does the organizational culture of your

institution influence the campus climate?

What makes you think of your campus climate as such? 291

How does the campus climate affect your mood at work?

How does your mood affect your attitude towards work?

Influence of How would you describe the conditions of service for faculty? conditions of service In what ways do the conditions of service for faculty

influence work attitude, generally?

Personal relationship What is your relationship with your leader?

How does this relationship affect your motivation towards

work?

General perspective How does your general perspective of the leadership style in and motivation your institution influence your motivation towards work?

How would describe your ideal leadership for a university?

Thank you for valuable time.

292

Appendix E: French Version of Research Instrument

Section 1: Profil de la faculté

Age: 2. Sexe: 3. Ethnicité:

4. Affiliation institutionnelle:

5. École/Faculté:

6. Programme:

7. Années d’expérience:

Section 2: Questions d'entrevue en francais

Thèmes et Questions

Style de leadership:

• Comment décririezvous le style de leadership dans votre institution?

• Quels facteurs influencent votre point de vue sur le style de leadership de votre in

stitution en tant que member de faculte?

• Comment le style influence-t il votre engagement envers l'institution?

Culture organisationnelle:

• Pourriez-vous décrire la culture organisationnelle de votre institution?

• Qu’estce qui vous fait percevoir la culture organisationnelle de votre institution co

mme

telle?

Climat organisationnel:

• À votre avis, comment la culture organisationnelle de votre établissement influenc

e-t-elle le climat du campus? 293

• Qu'estce qui vous fait penser au climat de votre campus en tant que tel?

• Comment le climat du campus affect’il votre humeur au travail?

• Comment votre humeur influe-t-elle sur votre attitude envers le travail?

Influence des conditions de service:

• Comment décririez-vous les conditions de service des professeurs?

• De quelle façon les conditions de service du corps professoral influencent-elles

elles généralement l'attitude professionnelle?

Relation socialle:

• Quelle est votre relation avec votre chef? Comment cette relation affecte-t elle

votre motivation au travail?

Perspective générale et motivation:

• Comment votre perspective générale du style de leadership dans votre institution

influe-t-elle sur votre motivation à travailler?

• Comment decrivez-vous votre style de leadership prefere?

Merci de votre temps precieu. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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