s,dsrbto,adrpouto naymdu,poie h rgnlwr spoel cited. properly is work original the Creative provided the medium, of any terms antiquity the in under reproduction distributed and article, distribution, ( Access use, Open licence an Attribution is This Commons 2018. Ltd, Publications Antiquity © tlat24pol ne o ebemud(ide&Kjølbye-Biddle & (Biddle mound pebble low a under people 264 least at ewe 90ad18,ivsiain ntevcnt fS ytnscuc tRpo in Repton at church Wystan’s St of vicinity the ( in Derbyshire investigations 1986, and 1980 Between Introduction Ramsey Bronk Christopher & Jarman charnel L. Catrine Repton the from dates England: new in Army Great Viking The ∗ 3 2 1 nA 7–7,acrigt h nl-ao hoil (Swanton Repton Chronicle in Anglo-Saxon overwintered the that Army to Great according Viking 873–874, the AD of in those be to hypothesised were bones eevi effects reservoir Keywords: lodsoee xesv vdneo ag eesv ic n ubro furnished of number a and ditch defensive large a of evidence extensive discovered also N 0km xodRdoabnAclrtrUi,Uiest fOfr,DsnPrisBidn,SuhPrsRa,Oxford Road, Parks South Building, Perrins Dyson UK Oxford, 3QY, of UK OX1 UK University 1UU, 7HA, Unit, BS8 OX2 Accelerator Bristol Oxford Radiocarbon Road, Road, Woodland Oxford Banbury 43 276 Bristol, Unit, of Research University Winchester Anthropology, and Archaeology of Department uhrfrcrepnec (Email: correspondence for Author 231(08:183–199 (2018): 361 92 K etn iigAe iigGetAm,rdoabndtn,marine dating, radiocarbon Army, Great Viking Age, Viking Repton, UK, iue1 Figure 400 noee hre eoi otiigtedsriuae ean of remains disarticulated the containing deposit charnel a uncovered ) 1, ∗ atnBiddle Martin , http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ [email protected]) Repton London 3 183 2 o Higham Tom , orcin a lrfidterelationship the uncertainty. resolved previous has the and interments, clarified the between reservoir has marine correction, appropriate remains, the the of applying re-dating Recent disagree. the to tended of have remains results the radiocarbon Army, were Great these that belief the corroborated in evidence buried numismatic goods. Although were grave Scandinavian-style others with deposited while graves were charnel, remains a 873– the in AD of in Many Army 874. Great over- the the to of attributed wintering been in have here 1980s excavated Derbyshire.the burials of in numbers Repton St Large around at area church is the Wystan’s 865 on AD particularly in focused England invaded that Great Army Viking the for evidence Archaeological https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.196 ,wihprisursrce re- unrestricted permits which ), 3 2000 1992 .Teexcavators The ). , 2001 .The ).

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al.

Figure 1. Location of Repton and site plan. burials with distinctly Scandinavian-style grave goods. Numismatic evidence assigned both the charnel and the Viking graves to AD 872–75 (Biddle et al. 1986; Pagan 1986; Biddle & Kjølbye-Biddle 1992, 2001). Radiocarbon date determinations of bone collagen from the charnel deposit, however, seemed to disagree with the archaeological findings. Although several samples were consistent with a ninth-century date, a number dated to the seventh and eighth centuries AD, and thus seemed to belong to an earlier phase of activity (Biddle © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

184 antd fSadnva irtost nln nteerymdea eidi still is period medieval early the in England Sawyer to (Richards (e.g. migrations disputed rare Scandinavian are of population, century magnitude ninth migrant evidence the osteological a in direct thereby England for and in inhumations, presence Scandinavian identified Scandinavian securely a AD, for evidence significant Despite ideadBrh jly-ide ihteiiilamo netgtn h rgn fthe of origins the investigating (Taylor of Wystan aim St initial Martin of Taylor, the Harold church by with Anglo-Saxon 1980 Kjølbye-Biddle, and Birthe 1974 and between Repton Biddle in out carried were Excavations Background Richards (e.g. question into brought been has Army Great the of members Kjølbye-Biddle & te om fevidence. of forms other salse ntetidqatro h eet etr Bdl Kjølbye-Biddle & (Biddle abbess, century an seventh by of ruled the women kingdom of and Anglo-Saxon quarter men for the third monastery the in double in a centre of established ecclesiastical location the and was royal It Mercia. significant a was Repton particular in the MREs, England, for where Age material fully or Viking account burials of to secondary context need with the working the when Beyond demonstrates event. here the consistent presented ninth-century are constrain deposit material late on to charnel the single (MREs) modelling from remains a effects Bayesian dated with all reservoir with that marine show information results account The contextual further. into dates use take and We bone, deposit. human charnel the of dating improving for the essential areas. therefore estimate these is to in Repton proxy knowledge at a our chronology Sawyer as the (cf. of results used understanding divergent been accurate with has An but camps forces, winter invading the Army of Great size of nature and size The etni D83 rvn h eca igBrhe noeiei ai (Swanton Paris in exile into Burghred king Mercian in the quarters driving winter 873, up took AD Army in Great Repton Viking the Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon the to According on eet on ntevcrg adnt h eto tWsa’ church Wystan’s St of west the to garden vicarage the in Kjølbye-Biddle mound & (Biddle a beneath found oprmn faprilylvle,tocle uligo eet-t ihhcnuydate, eighth-century to seventh- of building two-celled levelled, partially a of compartment values with commensurate region (Budd a Scandinavia in southern up was from grew expected (G.511) both hammer they Thor’s one that silver which demonstrated a has of and around individuals M, men, and type two Peterson within of of ( sword discovered pendant grave a were double including artefacts a type ( with was Scandinavian furnished north notable distinctly the Most to a with enclosure. defence gatehouse, of this of a goods as line church grave natural the a with using enclosure, forming Trent D-shaped excavations, a River the of the during part discovered as was interpreted church Wystan’s was St and abutting ditch defensive large A h aeadietfiaino h etncanli motn o ubro reasons. of number a for important is charnel Repton the of identification and date The eew rsn e aicro ae fbn aeilfo etnt lcdt the elucidate to Repton from material bone of dates radiocarbon new present we Here h asbra fa es 6 epe agl opie fmnae 84,was 18–45, aged men of comprised largely people, 264 least at of burial mass The iue2 Figure .Srnimadoye stp nlsso ot nmlfo hs two these from enamel tooth of analysis isotope oxygen and Strontium ). 2001 1957 .A eut h dnicto ftoebre ntecanlas charnel the in buried those of identification the result, a As ). 1992 Hadley ; h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The , 2001 2006 .Ti hre eoi a lcdisd h eastern the inside placed was deposit charnel This ). Leslie ; 185 tal et 1989 . 2002 ide&Kjølbye-Biddle & Biddle ; 2004 tal. et Redmond ; ). 2015 14 ae emicnitn with inconsistent seem dates C niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © esa Røyrvik & Kershaw ; 1962 iue1 Figure 2007 Hadley ; .Tentr and nature The ). .Svrlburials Several ). tal et 1992 tal. et . 2004 , 2016 2016 2001 1985 2000 ). ). ). ). ). ).

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al. thought to have been a chapel forming part of the Anglo-Saxon monastery. Despite the wholesale disturbance of the bones when the deposit was first uncovered in the seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries (Degg 1727; Bigsby 1854), some of the long bones found in 1982 were still stacked charnel- wise in position. A layer of clean red marl had been placed beneath the bones in preparation, demonstrating that deposition occurred as a single event. Artefacts found among the bones included an iron axe, two fighting knives and five silver pennies datable to AD 872–874 (Pagan 1986). Following the closure of the mound over the bone deposit, burial continued in the area around St Wystan’s from the later ninth century onwards. Importantly, a number of burials, referred to as cemetery 3M, were cut directly into the mound itself, over the charnel deposit. Of particular significance is a grave (feature F940) found immediately outside the mound to the south-west. This contained four juveniles aged between 6 and 17, carefully arranged with a sheep jaw placed at their feet (Figure 3). A square stone setting beside the grave seems to have held a substantial marker of unknown type. The location of this grave and the deliberate arrangement of the four bodies suggest that it could have been a sacrificial deposit intended to mark the completion of the charnel mound. In 1995, a set of 22 samples were AMS 14CdatedattheVandeGraaf Laboratorium at the University of Utrecht (Biddle & Kjølbye-Biddle 2001). Terres- trial calibration of these determinations resulted in dates that, in many cases, were either inconsistent with the archaeological Figure 2. Plan of the double grave (G.511 and G.295); evidence, or yielded imprecise calibrated and photograph of G.511 (© M. Biddle). ranges. Notably, dated bones from the charnel appear to fall into two separate groups (Figure 4). One group of at least four different individuals seemed to date from as early as the seventh or eighth century, with the remainder fitting with a ninth-century © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

186 iue3 lnadpoorp ftejvnl rv,F90( .Biddle). M. (© F.940 grave, juvenile the of photograph and Plan 3. Figure h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The 187 niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity ©

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al.

Figure 4. Plot of the terrestrial calibration of the Utrecht radiocarbon dates. date. This suggested, therefore, that the bones were not all from a single contemporaneous group, making them incompatible with a population derived from the Viking Great Army of AD 873–874. An alternative hypothesis (Richards et al. 2004) suggested that some of the charnel bones may have come from the older cemetery of St Wystan’s church, uncovered during the excavation of the ditch for the winter camp in AD 873–874 and reburied beneath the mound in the vicarage garden. Another explanation for the apparent disparity between the radiocarbon dates and the archaeological evidence may lie in a lack of MRE corrections. 14C is not equally distributed across the biosphere and marine ecological zones. After production, it is incorporated into the terrestrial food chain by being fixed from atmospheric CO2 via photosynthesis. Carbon © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

188 G59.Egtsmlswr eetdfo ihntecanldpst hc a endated 872–875 the been AD has are to which dated deposit, These charnel coins the deposit. five within with charnel from grave selected the were a samples and with Eight G.295) (G.529). contemporaneous and north (G.511 be the grave to to double 3 Viking thought cemetery in church, burials from the came of samples Three dates. published previously the nu h odcan thsbe eosrtdeswee(..Ascough (e.g. elsewhere the demonstrated influence been significantly has It can chain. MREs food the up on (Aitken years 400 around ieo h ca abnrsroradteso aeo iigtruhu,teei noffset an is there throughout, mixing large of the rate to slow due the yet and the reservoir and between carbon waters, ocean ocean the sea-surface of size with equilibrium dynamic in exchanges h e ape ( samples new The Materials methods and Materials n ifrne ewe h lblaeaemrn eevi fstadlclvariations local and offset reservoir marine average global the (Cook between differences Cook (e.g. any rivers and effects lakes Similar as proteins. such marine-derived contexts consumed freshwater have in may seen are that fauna and humans from niomna odtos(Szpak conditions environmental al eivlpro,adteipto itr rti rmfehae odsucscan sources food freshwater from protein dietary (Cook interpretation of their input obscure the also and period, medieval early n R corrections. MRE and and ore ugs htteGetAm a ciei nln o tlatadcd before decade a least at for England in active historical (Swanton was As Repton Army death. their in Great dated preceding collagen arrival the years the 10–15 that the childhood; suggest over their southern diets to sources a recent relates suggests more of this to grave range men, pertains double mobile two here a the those highly from from for a assimilated data origin be carbon isotope Scandinavian to the represents appears Although probably what sources. collagen for geographic whose value people, ‘local’ of appropriate group an of determination the enn rntiinlsrs eg Fuller (e.g. stress nutritional or weaning Chenery hscnb eosrce rmsal stp aai ubro as l fwhich review, of a all (for ways, confidence of of number degrees a varying in with data associated Phillips isotope see are stable and from approximations reconstructed are be can This accurate provide would ebr htrpeetaflytretilo ul aiede eg Arneborg (e.g. diet marine fully or terrestrial fully a represent that members egahcdfeecsin differences geographic uaso nml osmn nytretilo aiepoen epciey Both respectively. proteins from marine measured or values terrestrial against only compared consuming are animals individual or given humans a from data isotope whereby ocretfrME,alclrsrorvle( value reservoir local a MREs, for correct To ti loncsayt siaetepooto fmrn od nec niiulsdiet. individual’s each in foods marine of proportion the estimate to necessary also is It δ 15 tal. et a eue nti a,but way, this in used be can N tal. et tal. et 14 2015 ocnrto nteoenadta fteamshr.Ti fstaverages offset This atmosphere. the of that and ocean the in concentration C 2014 2014 Russell ; al 1 Table .Cneunl,w sdonly used we Consequently, ). .Tesmls ehd eyo ieritroain ewe end- between interpolations linear on rely methods simplest The ). ausfrteeindividuals. these for values R δ eeslce opoieamr ealddtn eunethan sequence dating detailed more a provide to selected were ) 2013 15 tal et ausbtenSadnvaadteBiihIlsfo the from Isles British the and Scandinavia between values N 2000 h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The . .Teedfeecsaerflce ncnuesadpassed and consumers in reflected are differences These ). 2015 2014 ,i sucranwehrSadnva eeec data reference Scandinavian whether uncertain is it ), 14 .Apriua hleg o h etnmtra is material Repton the for challenge particular A ). ,adcnas ayfrpyilgclraos uhas such reasons, physiological for vary also can and ), tal. et ocnrto frdoabndtsdetermined dates radiocarbon of concentration C tal et δ 189 15 . 2001 ausaepriual estv olocal to sensitive particularly are values N 2005 )ms eetbihdt aeit account into take to established be must R) Bonsall ; .I diin hr a esystematic be may there addition, In ). δ 13 ausfrdeayreconstruction dietary for values C tal et niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © . 2007 tal. et Pollard ; 2001 tal et ). tal. et . tal. et 2012 1999 2012 )that δ 13 C ), ;

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al. tusk mandible Sus scrofa Ovis aries Clinear 13 δ Contextual date (AD) Sex Age Species # C 20.2 873–874 U adult human 20.0 873–874 U adult human 20.0 874 or soon after M adult human 20.3 872–875 M adult human 19.9 873–874 U adult human 13 δ − − − − − 23 27 38 30 22 ± ± ± ± ± CBP 14 Nvalues. 15 δ Cand % marine Lab. ID 13 δ ∗ C 19.1 22.4 U-1435 1207 18.9 24.7 – – – 873–874 U adult human 20.7 3.5 – – – 874 or soon after – – 19.0 23.5 – – – 874 or soon after M adult human 18.6 28.2 U-4020 1192 19.7 15.3 U-4011 1193 19.2 21.2 – – – 700–800 U juvenile human 19.7 15.3 – – – 874 or soon after U juvenile human 18.3 31.8 – – – 900–1000 M adult human 20.1 10.6 – – – 874 or soon after U juvenile human 20.0 11.8 – – – 874 or soon after U juvenile human 18.7 26.7 U-4137 1293 18.2 32.9 – – – 873–874 M adult human 19.1 22.4 – – – 873–874 M adult human 18.7 27.1 – – – 873–874 F adult human 18.9 24.7 – – – 873–874 F adult human 21.6 0 – – – 874 or soon after – – 20.5 5.9 – – – 874 or soon after U juvenile human 19.2 21.2 U-4136 1292 13 δ − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − ∗ N 15 δ IRMS derived ORAU Utrecht C dates, stable isotope data and calculations of % marine consumption through 25 10.4 25 10.7 29 5.2 27 12.0 25 12.3 27 11.2 24 10.0 24 10.0 25 10.3 25 9.8 25 11.7 25 10.7 28 11.7 22 10.5 28 11.9 27 11.6 27 6.0 25 12.2 26 10.2 = 14 ∗ ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± CBP 14 Cvalue, 13 δ AMS derived = F359 charnel OxA-12002 1223 Table 1. Material sampled with uncalibrated Grave or charnel bone IDG97 Cemetery Lab. ID 1 OxA-31451 1298 F391 charnel OxA-12003 1230 interpolation. # G.511/7109 3 OxA-14570 1215 G295 3 OxA-12004 1209 G511 3 OxA-12023 1250 G529 3 OxA-12024 1281 G360 F.940 OxA-12005 1230 G387 3M OxA-12009 1233 G361 F.940 OxA-12006 1193 G362 F.940 OxA-12007 1218 G363 F.940 OxA-12008 1236 H-537 charnel OxA-31611 1333 X-70 charnel OxA-31450 1217 X-23 charnel OxA-31449 1267 X-17 charnel OxA-31524 1256 X-03 charnel OxA-13076 1273 RF.3391 F.940 OxA-12364 1199 U-480 charnel OxA-12001 1271

© Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

190 topei uv n aie3mrn airto uv (Reimer curve calibration marine Marine13 and curve atmospheric eevi correction reservoir where same the of aliquot an on for GC-C-IRMS used using collagen Ramsey determined prepared Bronk were prepared in compositions were collagen outlined with weight isotopic (ORAU), methods dry Unit 500–1000mg Accelerator the Radiocarbon approximately following Oxford of the samples at dated bone AMS 2015, and 2002 Between Methods a provides grave this dated. the also in than were included (G.360–63) later 940 jaw stratigraphically feature sheep is from one individuals The which young charnel, 3M, four the The cemetery of mound. date from charnel end selected the was constrain To (G.387) evidence. sample numismatic using 872–874 AD to eaiet h eeec tnad inaPeDeBlmie(-D)adatmospheric and (V-PDB) Belemnite Dee Pee Vienna for (AIR) standards nitrogen reference the to relative egtdma au o ctaddtrie yRussell by determined Scotland for value mean weighted cmtr )wsas nldd(.7.I re ocmaetevldt fteformer the of validity the cemetery compare monastic to eighth-century order In to (G.97). seventh- included the also was from 1) sample (cemetery a Finally, diet. terrestrial aclt h rcino aiedeaypoen(f protein dietary marine of fraction the calculate eivlcnet nNrhr uoe(Kosiba Europe Northern in contexts medieval hrfr eaeetrl odfeigcnupino aiefo ore.Fraterrestrial a For sources. food marine of consumption a differing end-member, to entirely relate therefore (Arneborg r vial o nln.W loasse eaiedfeecsbtenti n other bulk and of interpolation this linear between on based differences relative assessed also We England. possible for available are he a rmfaueF4 ( F940 feature from jaw sheep h stpcvle fflytretiladflymrn n-ebr epciey hr are There respectively. C end-members of marine fully sources and known terrestrial no fully of values isotopic the ae,fieo h eetdsmlswr ae rmidvdaspeiul ae nUtrecht. in dated previously individuals from taken were samples selected the of five dates, au smr ifiutt banbcueteeaen ersnaieflymrn consumers marine fully of representative value no reference are the there Instead, because Repton. obtain from to difficult more (Ambrose is account value into taken is consumer and Cook fbt hsooia n ehdlgclfcosafc h siae (Hedges estimates the affect factors methodological and physiological both of used. was Greenland, from study a in xa .. a sdt airt h aicro eemntosuigteIntCal13 the using determinations radiocarbon the calibrate to used was v.4.2 OxCal tbeiooedt eeue opoiemrn itr siae o ahindividual each for estimates dietary marine provide to used were data isotope Stable uniyn h ro soitdwt iigmdl scmlctd sawd range wide a as complicated, is models mixing with associated error the Quantifying tal et δ 13 C aust etwehrtecnlsosta erahdsilhl true. held still reached we that conclusions the whether test to values R . tal et n 2015 stemaue au o sample for value measured the is . δ 1999 13 .Atog ehd o uniyn n rpgtn roshv been have errors propagating and quantifying for methods Although ). Cvalueof δ 13 Cook ; Cand Rvalueof 4 od,wihcncueelevated cause can which foods, 14 δ tal et − h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The − nlss n r eotduigsadr et notation delta standard using reported are and analysis, C 15 10 a sd nacrac ihvle sdelsewhere used values with accordance in used, was 21.0‰ f 16) hna1 fstfrfatoainbtendiet between fractionation for offset 1‰ a when 21.6‰), respectively. N m . − 2015 = 47 δ δ 13 ± δ 13 .Ti scoet the to close is This ). olgnvle,uigtefloigeuto to equation following the using values, collagen C 13 52 C C mar 191 n − 14 25,sgetdb Arneborg by suggested 12.5‰, er a sdfralsmls fe the after samples, all for used was years C − tal. et tal. et − n m ,and δ 14 naygvnindividual given any in ) δ 13 13 2007 aefo naia ihapurely a with animal an from date C 1997 C tal. et C terr δ terr 13 .Vrainin Variation ). tal. et .Arlal aieend-member marine reliable A ). C δ 13 ( terr 2004 niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © Cvaluesinconsumers,from δ ( and 2015 13 au esrdi the in measured value C .Cro n nitrogen and Carbon ). δ ,a osmlrvalues similar no as ), 13 tal. et C δ mar 13 ausshould values C n 2013 orsodto correspond tal et .Alocal A ). .( 1999 2004 14 C ) ;

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al. demonstrated elsewhere (e.g. Phillips & Gregg 2001), these may be less applicable to an archaeological context where the accuracy of the dietary end-members is uncertain. Therefore, despite compromising on precision, we add an unquantified general uncertainty of ±10% to each marine estimate here in accordance with common practice (Cook et al. 2015). Where possible, Bayesian modelling was used to constrain calibrated 14Cdates further by employing stratigraphic information and associated dated artefacts.

Results and discussion With the exception of one sample (G. 529), 14C dates of material previously dated at Utrecht agreed within instrumental uncertainty for all samples, indicating the validity of the former 14C determinations. It is not currently possible to correct for MREs in the full Utrecht dataset, as independently determined stable isotope data are not available from those samples. The published δ13C values (Biddle & Kjølbye-Biddle 2001) were obtained via the AMS measurements and were probably affected by some form of fractionation associated with the sample preparation or measurement process. This is evidenced by comparing the Utrecht AMS and ORAU IRMS δ13C values of the replicated samples, which gives an average difference of 1.1‰ (range 0.9–1.4‰). This corresponds to an average variation in marine consumption of 12.9±10%, which suggests that the Utrecht δ13C values cannot be reliably used for MRE corrections. Our δ13C interpolations demonstrate some degree of marine protein consumption in all individuals, ranging from 5.9±10% to 32.9±10% (Table 1). As seen in the Utrecht dataset, terrestrial calibrations demonstrate that the age ranges of all samples are affected by a plateau in the calibration curve, giving dates that span the eighth and ninth centuries AD at 95.4% certainty (Table 2). Precision is further affected by the MRE corrections, whereby the necessary uncertainties applied to our calculations make the calibrated age ranges even wider. For several of the graves, however, contextual and stratigraphic evidence, combined with Bayesian modelling, significantly refines the age estimates. We evaluated our choice of R value to test the effect that this had on our conclusions by calibrating the date for G.529, which has a terminus post quem (TPQ) date of AD 872 (see below), using ten different R values from a range of other Northern European locations. Although the range of reference values is high (from −131±40 to 83±48), the results show relatively little variation and are all consistent with the archaeologically derived date (Table S1). This demonstrates the robustness of our chosen value.

Individual and double graves The sample from the monastic cemetery (G.97) is consistent with the archaeologically derived date of between the seventh and eighth centuries AD; this is true for both the terrestrial and marine calibrations (AD 663–769 and AD 686–885 respectively at 95.4% certainty). Grave 529 provides the clearest evidence of the need for marine reservoir corrections at Repton. The sample yielded an uncalibrated 14C date of 1281±27 BP, which provides a terrestrial calibration of AD 670–770 at 95.4% certainty. This individual was buried with five silver pennies, two of Burghred and three of Alfred, dated to no earlier than © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

192 si ssrtgahclyltrta h osrcino h on.Fo nuncalibrated an From mound. the of deposit, construction charnel the the than among found later coins stratigraphically the is of date it further 872–874 as be AD the can post-date grave must the grave account, into TPQ the 15.3 Taking 873–939. of which date. AD input certainty), to coin (95.4% constrained dietary the 690–939 marine AD with of estimated consistent date an is a With gives early. calibration too marine/terrestrial mixed years 100 least very 14 (Biddle 873 AD 1233 1209 OxA-12009 1250 1215 OxA-12004 1281 OxA-12023 1298 OxA-14570 OxA-12024 3M OxA-31451 3 3 3 3 G387 1 ID Lab. G.511/7109 G295 Cemetery G511 G529 G97 ID bone charnel or Grave Calibrated 2. Table vdne h rv od ev iteduta oteSadnva utrliett of identity cultural Scandinavian the to as doubt archaeological little and historical leave the goods of grave understanding for The current date our evidence. early The with confidence). inconsistent (95.4% respectively is 715–890 G.511 AD and 677–866 AD of dates archaeological the with agreement good with in Therefore, actually above. described is finds evidence. date coin this the correction, from appropriate 872–990 AD the to 31.8 limited of the be using can with input correction which inconsistent MRE dietary An is marine 3M. result cemetery estimated for this an 900–1000 unfeasible, AD entirely of date not derived While archaeologically certainty. 95.4% at 879 31canlOA1031230 1223 OxA-12003 OxA-12002 1271 1333 charnel OxA-12001 1217 charnel OxA-31611 1267 OxA-31450 1256 charnel OxA-31449 1273 charnel OxA-31524 charnel F391 OxA-13076 charnel 1236 1199 F359 charnel 1218 U-480 OxA-12008 OxA-12364 charnel 1193 H-537 OxA-12007 1230 X-70 OxA-12006 F.940 F.940 X-23 OxA-12005 F.940 X-17 F.940 X-03 F.940 RF.3391 G363 G362 G361 G360 eemnto f1233 of determination C iia euti vdn rmgaeG37fo eeey3.Fo t oain this location, its From 3M. cemetery from G.387 grave from evident is result similar A niiuly h ul ersra airtoso h obegaeo .1 n .9 give G.295 and G.511 of grave double the of calibrations terrestrial fully the Individually, 14 tal. et ae,uigbt ersra n ie aietretilclbaincurves. calibration marine/terrestrial mixed and terrestrial both using dates, C 1986 ± h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The .Ti P aemkstetretilclbaina the at calibration terrestrial the makes date TPQ This ). 5B,atretilclbainyed aeo D689– AD of date a yields calibration terrestrial a BP, 25 14 ± 193 CBP 0 ie airtdaeo D778–990, AD of age calibrated a gives 10% ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 77580773–972 772–975 690–939 686–885 715–890 677–866 670–770 663–769 27 25 27 24 96589– 778–990 689–879 695–889 25 29 56081773–981 773–980 690–942 675–876 780–1017 690–881 693–948 695–884 724–977 667–775 – 694–951 649–765 25 696–888 25 682–894 677–773 26 720–968 672–866 25 770–980 665–775 28 720–966 721–893 22 687–877 28 696–887 27 730–893 27 690–881 25 25 25 24 er D 95.4% AD, years airto (cal calibration Terrestrial certainty) niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © marine/terrestrial er D 95.4% AD, years calibration(cal certainty) Mixed ± 0,a 10%,

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al.

Figure 5. Plot of the combined mixed marine/terrestrial calibration of G.511, G.295 and the boar’s tusk. this individual, yet a date before AD 873 seems unlikely, as there is no evidence for a Scandinavian presence in Repton prior to this date. MRE corrections based on marine diet amounts of 28.2±10% and 23.1±10%, however, give calibrated dates of AD 772–975 and AD 773–972 for G.511 and G.295 respectively. A boar tusk buried with G.511 yielded a calibrated date of AD 695–889, assuming a terrestrial calibration. As the three samples are clearly coeval, we can apply OxCal’s Combine function to obtain a modelled date of AD 778–886 (95.4% confidence, Acomb = 116.4%, Figure 5). Assuming a TPQ of AD 873 on the basis of the historical evidence narrows the date for the double grave to AD 873–886.

Juvenile grave, feature 940 Terrestrial calibrations of all four juveniles fall between AD 687 and 893 at 95.4% certainty, and the sheep jaw from the same deposit dates to AD 721–893. Marine foods appear to have formed a relatively small part of the diet of these individuals (ranging from 5.9– 15.3±10%), yet MRE corrections move the calibrated dates to between AD 695 and 990. As the deposition of the four individuals and the sheep jaw was clearly simultaneous, we can use OxCal’s Combine function to constrain a modelled and MRE-corrected date of AD 778–885 (Figure 6). The juvenile grave is located just outside the edge of the stone kerb surrounding the charnel mound. There is no evidence that any of the graves in cemetery 3M pre-date the construction of the mound, and the grave cut of F940 carefully follows the alignment of the remaining burials. For this reason, it is highly unlikely that the grave pre-dates the AD 872 TPQ date for the construction of the mound. Therefore, we can tentatively accept © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

194 D83 hssosta h gseuvln oA 7 ag iey u htdiscerning that but widely, range 873 AD to equivalent ages the OxCal’s of that plateau, age this shows true of This a effect assuming 873. the distributions, AD model calibrated To generate site. Repton, randomly the Therefore, in can of presence deposit. function use Viking R_Simulate charnel monastic attested of the historically period for the latest of case the plateau period and the a the also to both is due encompass wide This dates are the curve. ranges calibration age terrestrial the the dates, in derived archaeologically the with consistent teh ae,wt oeecmasn h rsmdlt it-etr ae n others and date, ninth-century late ( presumed it the pre-dating the to pattern substantially encompassing grouped some similar a with in dates, fall samples Utrecht charnel the calibrations, terrestrial fully With AD of range date narrow Charnel very a with us provides which grave, juvenile 872–885. the (F.940). grave for juvenile the TPQ in this burials the of calibration marine/terrestrial mixed combined the of Plot 6. Figure 32.9 1 Table h ean r ovl hspoie obnddt fA 7–8 o h charnel the for 779–887 AD of date that combined assumption a the A provides on certainty, function, This (95.4% Combine deposit coeval. a apply are indicates, further context remains can archaeological we the the evidence, then as numismatic If, deposit, here. and one dated archaeological is samples the this bone by the suggested all with as consistent 872–874, is AD of date a such, l ape oa es h aennh fnttetnh etr D( AD century tenth, the not if ninth, late the least at to samples all ti motn ont htatog h airtdsmlsfo eeeis1ad3are 3 and 1 cemeteries from samples calibrated the although that note to important is It ± 0 o apeX0 niiulMEcretossittelts osbedt for date possible latest the shift corrections MRE Individual X70. sample for 10% htsm niiul a osdrbemrn itr nu,u oamxmmof maximum a to up input, dietary marine considerable had individuals some that ) iue4 Figure comb h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The = 79.9%). .I scerfo the from clear is It ). 195 δ 13 Cvalues( niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © al 2 Table − 92to 19.2 ; iue7 Figure − 18.2‰; .As ).

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al.

Figure 7. Plot of the combined mixed marine/terrestrial calibration of the new charnel samples. samples from AD 873–874 from earlier periods, such as around AD 750 or AD 800, is possible. The plateau in the calibration curve artificially spreads ages to be too old, rather than too young. It is notable that the graves in cemetery 3, which yielded Viking Age grave goods, share a similar spread of calibrated date ranges with the charnel deposit.

Summary and conclusions The data presented here clearly demonstrate that the apparent groupings seen in the previously published charnel 14C dataset are a result of MREs, rather than a reflection of the true age of the samples. Significantly, our calibrations show that the deposit is fully © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2018

196 h otiuin ftelt iteKøbeBdl,woeefrst xaae lnaditrrttegraves the interpret and Repton. plan on acknowledge research excavate, to ongoing to like for and efforts also paper would whose this and Kjølbye-Biddle, to fundamental dataset, Birthe were the late here on described the discussions of early contributions for Knowles the Tim and Evershed Richard Acknowledgements inaccurate to lead if may so reassessment do interpretations. from to failure erroneous benefit as even applied, datasets or been strongly such previously is not shows, MREs have corrections example for these correcting Repton evidence, the of As forms recommended. seem other dates with radiocarbon MRE incompatible where or cases unclear, about for anomalous Similarly, inform or events. to migration used lacking contain be or may be therefore dynamics are can remains population can data burial, stratigraphy commingled bioarchaeological and that populations; secondary and large burials information for of multiple context evidence with types of where Sites other range essential. scenarios are and the other corrections charnels for as For ever means well alone. This than as remains rapidly. potential human improving greater from are now obtained methods is aDNA practice from standard there and increasingly dates that origins becoming radiocarbon is geographic to tissues studying corrections human implications for subsequent of MRE broader analysis the applying has Isotope and In study of bone. human this burial. Army importance England, Great for the in the surroundings the emphasising population confirms in its of Scandinavian further and movements a church and the of Wystan’s Army, settlement understand St Great helping of Viking to use the addition Viking of the members of of chronology remains the contains its to attests mound the of edge the to jaw proximity as sheep close charnel. the grave in the individuals, this to marker four relationship of grave these interpretation possible of an the arrangement Although deliberate and the charnel. uncertain, the is for sacrificial association Viking argument. of a line support this support not do (Richards dates bones radiocarbon the the the that of cemeteries, on show some entirely monastic results for founded the suggestions are accepted from Previous enclosure, previously originated D-shaped AD. dates charnel the earlier century of the ninth construction in the late remains during the skeletal disinterred the to of dating some event that single a with consistent hsrsac a upre hog nAR otrlgat(HK0971 wre oCJ h Utrecht The C.J. to awarded (AH/K502947/1) grant doctoral AHRC an through 14 supported was research This ae eefne yteBC n h xoddtstruha RUfclt rn.W r rtflto grateful are We grant. facility ORAU an through dates Oxford the and BBC, the by funded were dates C h e aapeetdhr ul upr h yohssta h etncharnel Repton the that hypothesis the support fully here presented data new The that: show dates radiocarbon new the summary, In helps grave juvenile the for 872–885 AD of range date narrow very the Importantly, r r r arwdt ags(D8386adA 7–8 epciey,wihare to which constrained respectively), be 872–885 evidence. historical both AD and can and archaeological the grave 873–886 with juvenile consistent (AD the ranges and date century. ninth grave narrow late the double in warrior deposit single The corrections. a such with of consistent lack is a charnel early by The material—the caused Repton were the charnel the dating from accurately dates for vital are calibrations MRE h iigGetAm nEngland in Army Great Viking The 197 niut ulctosLd 2018 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © tal. et 2004 .Tecurrent The ).

Research Catrine L. Jarman et al.

Supplementary material To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy. 2017.196

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