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The Role of Quantification in Qualitative Research in Education

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The Role of Quantification in Qualitative Research in Education ~"i~HiJf~~¥~ 1993, ~J\~, 19-27 Educational Research Journal 1993, Vol. 8, pp.19-27 The Role of Quantification in Qualitative Research in Education TAM Tim-kui, Peter University of Hong Kong The term "qualitative research" is used by researchers with different understanding and is not represent­ ing one single approach, it stands for a variety of methods including ethnography, educational connoisseurship and criticism, naturalistic inquiry, vignette analysis, case study, analysis of ecological specimen records, and so on. In this paper, different types of qualitative research are classified on the basis of epistemologies and approaches. It is argued that some inquiries are truly qualitative, but some are not. Furthermore, it is also argued that, at the level of epistemologies, one should combine interpretivism and positivism in looking at educational problems. At the level of procedures, quantifying qualitative informa­ tion can make data analysis more efficient and manageable. Modem-day ethnographers should also be well­ trained in certain areas in quantitative methods, particularly in research designs and non-parametric statis­ tics. However, it is important to observe that in the process of quantification, the interpretive stance and the subjective elements of the qualitative information are not distorted nor eliminated. Otherwise, the qualitative inquiry will be "engulfed" by the quantitative paradigm. rw~m~J~~~~~-m¥-m~~~~~M·®~~~-m%M~m~~~~~~·~~:~•tt·~· EB&~-·~~~~~~~·~~~~~·m•m~·~D~*~fi&~~~··o*~~~~--&~~-* •~&M•%•~•~&•~m~~~•·~mww~m~~~~•~•~~·oo•~m~~-~•m~••*o *~#mW·~~--~~*~·~•~•&•m~•~u~B·~~~•••~~-~ 0 ~~~~-*~·•~ m~~-~m~#~U~~~~om4~-~~·-~m~ft&S~-~-~~~~~~-·~X~~HW~H~ ~:g~fH~Y:;f!E~ts9:;;oa o {£1.o/Z~a• • 'ltfltfr~t-Jit1t~~-Jfl:JnW1ijtf-l-ffi':f • ~~~1iti!!.t~::Wli~f-l-s9~!lilmm &~ ••*m~·N~·•~m~M*~*X~~~~-·~ffi':f#•••~m~~rfimJ 0 As reflected in the cuiTent literature, qualita­ research, i.e., to what extent can qualitative re­ tive research in education has become increasingly search employ quantitative concepts and proce­ popular. Tracing it back to its relatively short his­ dures? The purpose of this paper is to make an tory, qualitative research in education emerged as introductory discussion of this question. It first be­ significant in England in the late 1960s (Atkinson, gins to clarify the nature of qualitative research, Delamont, & Hammersley, 1988), and then spread then it will examine the role of quantification in to the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and doing qualitative research. Germany in the 1970s (Erickson, 1986). Accord­ ing to Fetterman (1988), educational evaluators are increasingly turning away from traditional The Concept of Qualitative Research positivist approaches toward the acceptance of Although the term "qualitative research" is a qualitative or phenomenological approaches. To­ familiar one, its meaning is relatively confusing. day, qualitative research has become a "part of the Before discussing some of its characteristics, let us intellectual landscape in educational evaluation". look at two misconceptions. This change in direction in educational research is The first one is that qualitative research is depicted by Fetterman as a "silent scientific revo­ sometimes regarded as if it were one single lution in evaluation" (p. 17). method. But this is not true. In a review of qualita­ Today, this "revolution" is not yet over, be­ tive research traditions, Jacob (1987) included the cause wars of words on various issues are still following: ecological psychology, holistic ethnog­ often seen in the literature, and one of the heated raphy, ethnography of communication, cognitive debates is on the issue of combining quantitative anthropology, and symbolic interactionism. She and qualitative research methods (Howe, 1985, also discussed how researchers can adapt these 1988; Donmoyer, 1985; Smith & Heshusius, 1986; traditions to educational research. Fetterman Fetterman, 1988). Relating to this issue is the (1988) introduced some of the qualitative research question of the role of quantification in qualitative methods in education, including: ethnography, 19 20 TAM naturalistic inquiry, generic pragmatic qualitative is that the term qualitative has been used to refer inquiry, connoisseurship and criticism, and the to research classified in each of the first four cells. more novel approaches, such as metaphors and In order to explain the meaning of different types phenomenography. Fetterman concluded: "Quali­ of qualitative research, two examples are listed in tative educational evaluation is not a monolithic each cell (except for cell 3), the first one referring entity. A multitude of qualitative approaches ex­ to a research tradition, e.g., holistic ethnography, ist" (p. 17). Erickson ( 1986, p. 119) also cited and the second one referring to a technique, e.g., some similar but "slightly different" alternatives vignette analysis. Due to limited space, not all the of qualitative research, including ethnographic, examples are elaborated. It should be noted that, participant observational, case study, symbolic due to variations within a tradition or a technique, interactionist, phenomenological, constructivist, or the line of distinction between these five cells is interpretive. However, Erickson prefers to use the not rigid, e.g., the synoptic report is based on the term interpretive because it points to the key fea­ results of vignette analysis, ethnography of com­ ture of qualitative research. Erickson's point is munication can use both quantitative and qualita­ correct, nevertheless, the term qualitative is re­ tive techniques in data analysis, the ecological tained in this paper because it can be used to cover specimen records can be used on a positivistic or a wider range of methods in the literature. the interpretive stance. The purpose of creating The second misconception lies in matching such a framework as shown in Figure 1 is more to "qualitative research" with the "thick descriptive" help understanding of the diversity of meaning of approach. It is true that qualitative research often qualitative research than to classify the <;lifferent uses thick descriptions, but thick descriptions do types of studies. In the following, each type of not automatically make the study qualitative in na­ research in this figure will be briefly explained. ture. Take for instance, Erickson ( 1986) illustrated that, since the last decade of the 19th century, Procedures "continuous narrative description", which is a Non-numerical Numerical "play-by-play account of what an observer sees observed persons doing" (p. 119), has been used in (1) (2) social and behavioral psychology, and some of e.g. e.g. • Holistic • Ethnography of these narrative techniques are not interpretive Ethnography Communication becauce they are used in a "positivist and • Vignette Analysis • Synoptic Reports behavioral orientation that deliberately excludes from research interest the immediate meanings in (Qualitative) (Qualitative) actions from the actors' point of view" (p. 120). (3) Thus, according to Erickson, studies using thick Cll 'en(!.) Ecumenical descriptions but excluding the interpretive focus 0 Blend of 0 and intention are not qualitative studies. However, E Procedures &/or Epistemologies as discussed later under Type 4 research, some ·c.. other researchers, e.g., Jacobs (1987), would disa­ u.l* gree with Erickson on this point. (Qual./Quant.) Types of "Qualitative-Quantitative" Research (4) (5) e.g. e.g. As illustrated in above, the term qualitative • Human Ethology • Process-Product research has been used with different meanings. • Ecological Research One reason is that this term can be defined at the Specimen Records • True Experiments level of epistemology (i.e. generally meaning in­ (Qualitative?) (Quantitative) terpretive) and/or at the level of procedures (i.e., generally meaning non-numerical). Complications arise because some qualitative researchers prefer FIGURE 1. Types of "Qualitative-Quantitative" Research. to take an ecumenical stance as well. Combining the ecumenical· stance together with the dimen­ Type 1 research takes the interpretive stance sions of epistemologies and procedures, a diagram which attempts to understand human behaviour with five cells can be formed as shown in Figure from the "insider's" perspective in a natural, 1. In this figure, each cell represents one type of uncontrived, and unobtrusive setting. A typical ex­ research. The reason for the confusion of meaning ample is the anthropologists' method of ethnogra- Quantification in Qualitative Research 21 phy, which is "a monograph-length description of validity of these assertions by examining details of the lifeways of people who were ethnoi, the an­ particular instances, such as narrative vignettes cient Greek term for 'others' - barbarians who and direct quotes from interviews. The narrative were not Greek~" (Erickson, 1986, p. 123). Devel­ vignette is a vivid portrayal of the conduct of an oped first by Franz Boas in the United States and event of everyday life, and because of its high­ Bronislaw Malinowski in England, the purpose of lighted information, it gives the reader a sense of holistic ethnography seeks "to describe and ana­ being there in the scene. The function of the vi­ lyse all or part of a culture or community by de­ gnette is rhetorical, analytic, and evidentiary. The scribing the beliefs and practices of the group vignette provides concrete particulars of an event studied, and showing how the various parts con­ for supporting
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