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Ethnic Minority Elites in Post-Communist Countries: the Case of Estonia

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Ethnic Minority Elites in Post-Communist Countries: the Case of Estonia ETHNIC MINORITY ELITES IN POST-COMMUNIST COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF ESTONIA Jüri Ruus I. Introduction and Background The elite theories maintain that elites Interethnic relations and multicultural are the decisive force for regime change and policies are one of the major factors for se- democratic development. The role of new curity and stability in the Baltic region. Es- political elites is of particular importance in tonia has considerable ethnic diversity com- multiethnic societies and in transition to lib- prising 32% of ethnic minorities and 68% of eral democracy or in acguiring liberal values. Estonians. These people are not recent im- Each of the post-communist states had migrants common to many European coun- its peculiar and complex process for estab- tries, but living permanently in Estonia the lishing new political elites. Common to most second or third generation after forceful in- post-communist states, however, is that new clusion into USSR. How to integrate the two elites broadly and effectively exploited na- numerous communities — this is the acute tionalistic rhetoric to win over and mobi- question that has caused wide and lively de- lize electorate. In this respect recirculated bates for many years after regaining indepen- old communist elites were often more rad- dence and today. In this situation the state`s ical than the new ones.Their emphasis on main concern is to avoid any potential in- ethnic solidarity and the rights of nation al- terethnic conflict and separatist movements. lowed them in some sense to justify commu- In the context of Estonia national and local nist past. community should be open to the dialogue After Estonia regained independence in between different ethnic groups. 1991, the political elite adopted the state res- Robert A. Dahl`s five criterias for evalu- toration model in order to guarantee the con- ating democratic processes are widely recog- tinuity of the Republic of Estonia as a sub- nized by international community of social ject of international law. The restorationist scientists. These five criterias are: effective approach, however, constituted the rejection participation, voting equality, enlightened of democratic inclusive approach to the legal understanding, control of the agenda, and status of ethnic minorities. According to the inclusion of all adults. They are criterias that declared principle of legal restoration, only a process for governing association would pre-1940 Estonian citizens and their descen- have to meet in order to satisfy the require- dants were recognized as having automat- ments that all the members are equally en- ic right to citizenship. Thus, Estonia’s quite СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ПОЛИТИКА • 3 (9) / 2012 ПОЛИТИКА СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ titled to participate in the associations deci- large population of permanent residents sion about his policies1. without roots in pre-1940 Estonia became Political equality (equal consideration) stateless. The policy of “leave aside” was not is the underlying key terms (rationale) for the so much intentional, as it reflected the situ- choice of these five. Although most elites lack ation among political elites-there were sim- strong unity in a democracy, the main issue is ply not any constructive ideas how to deal to what extent elite agrees on basic values re- with those highly complicated issues. After lated to the political regime. Political stabil- new parliamentary elections in 1992 (also in ity in democracies rests on a minimum lev- Latvia 1993) the takeover of ethno-political el of normative integration among the elite. power was complete: all 101 deputies in the 126 СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ЛОКАЛЬНОГО ОПЫТА new Estonian parliament (Riigikogu) were 2000 those problems were transformed in- ethnic Estonians, some 90 percent of the to ordinary subjects of discussion, standing deputies in the Latvian parliament (the Saie- side by side with questions of educational ma) were ethnic Latvians2. The democrat- options, job preferences, crime rates, joining ic ideal of the representativeness of minority EU and NATO4. Therefore, the paradigm of groups was perceived to be a direct menace to collective fear and danger has gradually been national independence. The new legal regu- replaced by the paradigm of increasing indi- lations changed dramatically the situation in vidual recources and social capital. society. At the same time it created high un- Today Estonia has considerable ethnic certainty among Russians as it was common diversity comprising 32% of ethnic minori- in those time to suspect some sort of hidden ties and 68% of Estonians. These people are agenda concerning repatriation or indirect not recent immigrants common to many Eu- expulsion. The need of securing national in- ropean countries, but living permanently in dependence from Russia has resulted in an Estonia the second or third generation after indigenous elite consolidation by ethnic re- Soviet occupation. How to integrate the two cruitment, safeguarding basic national inti- numerous communities — this is the acute tutions from external influence. question that has caused wide and lively de- After years of silence, in 1996, the first bates for many years after regaining indepen- official efforts involving the elaboration of dence and today. In this situation the state`s future models for the Russian minority in main concern is to avoid any potential in- Estonia was launched. Importantly the bod- terethnic conflict and separatist movements. ies elaborating the first principles of minori- In the context of Estonia national and local ty policy were not so much political parties community should be open to the dialogue but rather academic circles. At the beginning between different ethnic groups. of the year 2000 the most observable chang- Social science is defining the elites as so- es occurred at the level of political as well as cial category possessing power and influence public discourse. A serious attempt was made and minority is regarded as a group not be- at switching the paradigm from the ethnic ing politically dominant. Elites have exten- centered model to a liberal (civic) one. The sive effects in socio-political development. interstate aspect in the Estonian citizenship The thinking, mentalities, appeals and ac- policy was represented by the internation- tions of elites are prime shapers of collective al security and political policies of the EU, consciousness, identities, and actions out- the OSCE, the Council of Europe, which side the political arena. became more visible. Imposed political stan- According to V. Pareto and H. Lasswell dards on citizenship legislation, minority understanding the elite is not homogenous protection and human rights, as well as their block but segmented into various elites re- framework of interstate mediation and con- lated to functional systems- politics, busi- COMPARATIVE POLITICS • 3 (9) / 2012 COMPARATIVE sultation started to contribute to the shaping ness, science, culture etc. G. Mosca (1939) of nationality policies of Estonia3. stressed the variability of elite organisation, Integration as a prospective and polit- cohesion and collective will. In many Euro- ical concept became natural part of Esto- pean countries the dominant focus on ethnic nian political opinion. At the same time the minorities has been so far in terms of under whole field of relations between Estonians class with low educational level, unemploy- and Russians lost gradually its vital and ex- ment etc. The vertical mobility of minorities tremely emotional position in public debate. is largely underresearched. Current research While in 1990’s the majority of Estonians and is unique since the issues of ethnic elites in non-Estonians considered the majority–mi- multiethnic societies have not been sepa- nority conflict to be one of the most critical ratley included to the focus of elite studies. in the country, at the beginning of the year So far the research done in this area is incor- 127 СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ЛОКАЛЬНОГО ОПЫТА porated into political elites framework. The as non-unified elites, the criteria leading a scientific literature dealing with elites ad- state away from consensus democracy. For dresses many key questions such as: Who are non-unified or divided elite is characteris- they and how unified they are? How impor- ic weak or no shared ethos, reciprocal dis- tant they are for democratization and policy trust and suspicion, dense and segmented outcomes? Whether there exist identifiable network6. power elite marked by continuity, cohesion Thus, the focus is on patterns of elite re- and joint interests? How integrated or divid- cruitment, representation, orientations, how ed the elites are? they are shaped and their consequences for Elite theory is promoting the idea that democratic stability and rebuilding of the in democratic society the ruling class must state. This is done by analyzing the empirical be able to integrate multiple social forces. data from minority elite interviews carried In new democracies a consensual unifica- out in the fall 2009- 2011 in Estonian Riigik- tion of disunified elites is a vital step in cre- ogu and Ida-Virumaa. Total amount of re- ating democratic stability. Only consensual spondents was 64 (42 females, 22 males) rep- elites provide the “unity in diversity” that is resenting wide variety of high social statuses essential for a Schumpeterian democratic re- and professions — members of parliament gime that is also stable5. Hence the shape of (elected 2007), civil servants, members of lo- elites matters. It might matter for example, if cal municipal governments and city councils. the leadership class is more or less represen- Several cities and towns were included into tative (demographically) of the general pop- the sample: Narva, Kohtla-Järve, Sillamäe, ulation. It might matter if the elite is unified Tallinn. In these cities and towns the propor- or divided, well educated or poorly educat- tion of those speaking the Russian language ed, cosmopolitan or parochial, etc. Open- is bigger than 30%. For example in Narva ness, where the “elite doors” are open for all (remote city in EU Eastern border) 98% of talented persons, assumes high level of free the population is Russian-speaking.
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