Global and Conservation 26 (2021) e01476

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Global Ecology and Conservation

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Original Research Article The threat of invasive to IUCN-listed critically : A systematic review

Manuel-Angel Duenas~ a, b, *, David J. Hemming a, Amy Roberts a, Hilda Diaz- Soltero c a CABI, Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, OX10 8DE, UK b UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, UK c US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 20250, USA article info abstract

Article history: We conducted a comprehensive review of the research literature on interactions between Received 29 October 2020 invasive species and species included in the category of the Inter- Received in revised form 21 January 2021 national Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. This review reveals that, Accepted 22 January 2021 globally, invasive species threaten 14% (28% on islands) of critically endangered terrestrial vertebrate species (, mammals and ), with critically endangered birds (25%; Keywords: 47% on islands) the most affected, threatened predominantly by a few invasive mammal Biodiversity loss predators (mainly rodents and ). The chytrid fungal pathogen is the main threat for Invasive species IUCN critically endangered amphibians. The control and management of the invasive species fi Systematic review identi ed in this study should be a high priority for global biological conservation, thereby risk contributing towards the achievement of the goals of the Post-2020 Framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Further research on the impacts of invasive species and interactions with other drivers will be essential for the conservation of highly threatened species. © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The loss of biodiversity is a major environmental issue globally (Dirzo and Raven, 2003; Ceballos et al., 2010). Current and projected rates for the extinction of species exceed normal geological background rates by several orders of magnitude, and are considered to constitute the ongoing sixth major extinction event (e.g. Barnosky et al., 2011; Dirzo et al., 2014; Ceballos et al., 2017). Identification of the drivers of biodiversity loss and extinction-prone taxa is one of the most important tasks in conservation biology (Didham et al., 2007). The main drivers of biodiversity loss are alteration, overexploitation and invasive species, along with other lower-ranked threats (Gurevitch and Padilla, 2004; Maxwell et al., 2016; WWF, 2016); the same rankings also apply to threatened vertebrates globally (Hoffmann et al., 2010; Ducatez and Shine, 2017). Invasive species are often considered the second most important threat (but see Duenas~ et al., 2018). Invasive species are listed as a driver of extinction, along with other threats, for half of species since 1500 CE for which any information exists. The cause of extinction is known for one quarter of current species extinctions. Invasive species are recorded as the sole driver of extinction in about 20% of species extinctions (Clavero and García-Berthou, 2005; Bellard

* Corresponding author. UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, UK. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.-A. Duenas).~ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01476 2351-9894/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). M.-A. Duenas,~ D.J. Hemming, A. Roberts et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 26 (2021) e01476 et al., 2016a). In the case of terrestrial vertebrates, overexploitation and invasive species are identified as the main drivers (Loehle and Eschenbach, 2012; Bellard et al., 2016a). More than 80% of the species affected are island-endemic (Doherty et al., 2016; Bellard et al., 2016b). It is estimated that 27% of the currently threatened terrestrial vertebrate species worldwide included on the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) Red List (mammals, birds and reptiles), and 40% of the critically endangered species in particular, are threatened by invasive species, amongst other threats (Bellard et al., 2016b). The IUCN Red List is recognized as the most comprehensive list of threatened species worldwide (Rodrigues et al., 2006; Mace et al., 2008). The classification of the species listed according to their extinction risk is based on an explicit, scientifically strict framework (IUCN, 2017). By contrast, the information on the threats to these species relies on observation and expert opinion and less on quantitative assessment, as has been suggested (e.g., Hayward, 2009); and some is not based on reliable information (Gurevitch and Padilla, 2004), thereby increasing the degree of uncertainty regarding the threat. In order to overcome these limitations, species-specific knowledge of the individual drivers contributing to species decline is critical for the development of efficient and successful conservation strategies. A scientific evidence-based approach has been suggested (Gurevitch and Padilla, 2004). Despite extensive efforts to assess the impacts of invasive species on biodiversity, there has been no global comprehensive synthesis of the current state of research. The aim of this study was to find the science-based evidence in published scientific literature of the interactions between invasive species and species included in the IUCN Red List’s critically endangered category (which face an extremely high risk of extinction in the near future) (IUCN, 2014). It was possible to ascertain whether some taxonomic groups were more affected than others and which invasive species were mainly involved, along with the mechanism of the impact and the geographical location.

2. Methods

The method followed a systematic review framework to search available literature and identify reliable sources of evi- dence. Unlike conventional reviewing, systematic reviewing involves a method that minimises bias and improves trans- parency, repeatability and reliability (Roberts et al., 2006). This systematic review was carried out following the guidelines specific to conservation interventions developed by Pullin and Stewart (2006). The search for relevant research literature was undertaken using the following electronic databases: ISI Web of Science, Scopus and CAB Direct, covering the period 1900e2015. Our search terms (see appendix, supplement S1 for searching method) were designed to retrieve references that focused on the interactions of invasive species with threatened species. Additional searches for grey literature were under- taken using Google Scholar. Further references cited in retrieved publications and review studies on the impacts of invasive species were examined for relevant sources. The selection of references followed the PRISMA flow diagram (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines adopted from Moher et al. (2009). We used the following inclusion/exclusion criteria for the se- lection of references: (1) only species listed in the critically endangered category (4,635 species) as downloaded from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (version 2014.3; IUCN, 2014) were included. These species were classified as either island-endemic or mainland using the information provided by the IUCN Red List. (2) any interactions between invasive species and critically endangered species, in respect of population size, species range, growth, interference with reproduction, and alteration of gene pools were included. (3) crops, livestock and commercial trees (timber) were not accepted as being invasive species. (4) both experimental (e.g. exclosure or controlled and replicated manipulation) and observational (e.g. time-series data, geographical comparisons) study designs were included. (5) we did not retrieve literature written in lan- guages other than English. For each case study, the following data were recorded: scientific name of the critically endangered species and the invasive species; taxonomic group; location of the study (mainland or island); country; environment (marine, freshwater or terrestrial); and mechanisms of interaction (, competition, hybridization, disease, herbivory or habitat alteration), according to the classification by Blackburn et al. (2014). This systematic review did not attempt to quantify the impacts of invasive species, nor did it compare the direction of the impacts. The main aim was to identify the number of highly threatened species impacted by invasive species based on published scientific evidence. We used a chi-squared test to assess the proportion of impacted species among taxonomic groups and location (mainland versus island); and to compare the principal mechanism of impact and geographical distri- bution of the threatened species.

3. Results

This review selected 193 research papers with evidence of interactions between invasive species and critically endangered species (see appendix, Fig. S1 and supplement S2), with a total of 304 case studies (appendix, Table S1), as some references contained more than one species. Of these, 269 case studies were unique (after the duplicates were removed). The total number of critically endangered species researched in the references selected was 189 (4% of critically endangered species), of which 176 species were reported as being impacted negatively (3.8% of critically endangered species). It should be noted that the selection of these species found in the review did not mean that they were solely impacted by invasive species, as the majority of them were also impacted by other drivers.

2 M.-A. Duenas,~ D.J. Hemming, A. Roberts et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 26 (2021) e01476

The number of affected terrestrial species was higher on islands (107) than of those located on continents (67), (c2 44.1, ¼ df 1, p < 0.001); the remaining one was a marine species. The impacts of invasive species differed across taxa between ¼ islands and continents (c2 93.3, df 6, p < 0.001) (Fig. 1). The majority of impacted species were terrestrial vertebrates (124 ¼ ¼ species, 71% of which were on islands), and the most affected groups were birds (54 species, 98% on islands), and amphibians (40 species, 80% on continents). According to this study, 14% (84 species, n 594, with 28% on islands; 78 species, n 283) of ¼ ¼ , mammal and species included in the critically endangered category were affected by invasive species, with critically endangered birds (25%; 54, n 213, with 47% on islands; 53, n 113) the most affected. ¼ ¼ Mammals was the group of invasive species that threatened the highest number of species (affecting 45% of the total number of species identified in this study). The main mammals included in this group were rodents (mainly black rat (Rattus rattus)), and feral cat (Felis catus), which impacted mainly bird species. The next group of mammal predators in terms of threat were two species of Asian mongoose: the Javan mongoose (Herpetes javanica) and the small Indian mongoose (H. auro- punctata) (hereafter Herpetes spp.), (see appendix, supplement S3 for further information), impacting reptile and bird taxa. After mammal predators, another group that threatened a significant number of species was the disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), affecting mainly amphibian species. The fresh- water fish group impacted mainly freshwater native species, with a hotspot in Lake Victoria (Africa), where the invasive fish species Nile perch (Lates niloticus) impacted a significant number of haplochromine cichlid fish species. The next group was invasive taxa (mainly the snail species, Euglandina rosea), followed by herbivores, mainly goats (Capra hircus), and feral pigs (Sus scrofa)(Fig. 2). The mechanism of impact by invasive species was not evenly distributed among the different types of species interactions (appendix, Fig. S2). Predation alone was the principal interaction, mainly by mammal predators, followed by disease (associated exclusively with chytridiomycosis disease), affecting mainly amphibian species. Regarding geographical location, the majority of species identified in the literature review that were impacted negatively by invasive species were located on islands worldwide, mainly the Pacific islands (29%), and the islands (17%), and in continental North and Central America (27%) (Fig. 3).

4. Discussion

Biological invasions are widely recognized as a key driver of current global change (e.g. Vitousek et al., 1997). In contrast, invasive species as a threat to biodiversity ranks lower compared with overexploitation and habitat change (Maxwell et al., 2016). For example, based on the information contained in the IUCN Red List, Gurevitch and Padilla (2004) determined that invasive species threaten 6% of threatened species; WWF (2016) reported a similar percentage (5%); and Duenas et al. (2018) found that invasive species threatened 6.2% of endangered and threatened species on the ESA list (USA). According to the published scientific evidence reviewed in this study, the proportion of species identified is 3.8%, albeit this percentage relates to critically endangered species, a subset of threatened species on the IUCN Red List. However, the number of species affected is non-random across taxa: the study shows that invasive species are responsible or co-responsible globally for extinction risks to 14% (28% on islands) of critically endangered terrestrial vertebrate species (birds, mammals and reptiles), which are threatened predominantly by invasive mammal predators (rodents and feral cat). A previous assessment found that 26% of critically endangered birds, mammals and reptiles are impacted by invasive species (Bellard et al., 2016b), and 20% are impacted exclusively by invasive mammal predators on islands (Bellard et al., 2017; Doherty et al., 2016; McCreless et al., 2016). This group of invasive species has been responsible for more documented terrestrial vertebrate extinctions on islands worldwide than any other invasive species (Bellard et al., 2016a). In general, most extinctions have been on islands as opposed to continents. In respect of the specific threat of invasive species (Sax et al., 2002), the main mechanism of impact is predation, which has caused the extinction of a disproportionate number of terrestrial vertebrates on islands (Sax and Gaines, 2008).

Fig. 1. Number of critically endangered species across taxonomic groups (marine species not included) that are impacted by invasive species on continents and islands.

3 M.-A. Duenas,~ D.J. Hemming, A. Roberts et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 26 (2021) e01476

Fig. 2. (a) Number of critically endangered species impacted by invasive species across taxonomic groups; (b) Invasive mammal taxa are shown separately, split into the more common invasive groups referred to in biological invasion literature.

Fig. 3. Distribution of critically endangered species impacted by invasive species on continents versus islands.

The group most affected by invasive species is birds. The review shows that 25% (47% on islands) of critically endangered birds are chiefly affected by mammal predators. The majority of bird extinctions since 1600 have been on islands (Bellard et al., 2016a; Johnson and Stattersfield, 1990), with a continuing steady decline (Blackburn, 2004; Clavero et al., 2009; Harper and Bunbury, 2015; Bellard et al., 2016b, 2017), especially of seabirds (Jones et al., 2008; Spatz et al., 2014), although other drivers such as overexploitation also affect their decline and extinction (Owens and Bennett, 2000; Bellard et al., 2016a). The other invasive mammal predator identified in this study is the mongoose (Herpetes spp.), mainly threatening reptiles on Caribbean islands. Mongooses have been introduced to many different parts of the world, chiefly onto islands for the biological control of rats and snakes in plantations (Barun et al., 2013), and they are responsible for the decline of many reptile species (Hays and Conant, 2007), mainly island-endemic reptiles in the Caribbean islands (Doherty et al., 2016). Globally, however, the main drivers are habitat alteration and overexploitation (Bohm€ et al., 2013). In contrast, other invasive mammal predators (mustelids, dogs and foxes) are known to affect island species and ecosystems in some situations, but their global impacts are not well studied or reported (Hays and Conant, 2007). Another invasive mammal group, herbivores such as feral pigs (Sus scrofa), are an important threat to endangered species on islands by predation (Spear and Chown, 2009), but our results suggest that they are not the most important drivers of extinction risk at a global scale. After birds, this study identified that amphibians is the next group most affected by invasive species. The infectious chytridiomycosis panzootic, caused by the chytrid fungal pathogen, is the main cause of amphibian declines. This disease has caused the decline of at least 6.5% of described amphibian species across the globe (Stuart et al., 2004), and it is implicated in recent extinction events (Skerratt et al., 2007; Wake and Vredenburg, 2008; Bellard et al., 2016a), and represents the greatest loss of biodiversity attributable to a disease affecting amphibians worldwide (Scheele et al., 2019). For global fish taxa, this review found that the main group impacted is freshwater species, which are threatened by different drivers, especially harvesting (Olden et al., 2007). This study retrieved a negligible number of marine species with some evidence of impact by invasive species; this is as corroborated by recent studies (Anton et al., 2019). There are no documented global extinctions attributed to marine exotic species (Gurevitch and Padilla, 2004). This can be explained by the fact that the main drivers leading extinctions of marine species are harvesting and pollution (Olden et al., 2007).

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The research effort identified in this review shows that few critically endangered species are threatened by invasive species. This group shows a high decline, with more than half of the species affected by habitat loss and pollution; invasive species are considered a lesser threat (Sanchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019), although there is no documented research on the causes of extinction of a large number of (Dunn, 2005). The terrestrial mollusc is identified in the review as being impacted mainly by the snail, Euglandina rosea, in the oceanic islands. The introduction of this predatory mollusc species on islands for the purposes of biological control is responsible for one-third of known mollusc extinction (Regnier et al., 2009). The review found that very few critically endangered plants are impacted by invasive species, and that these were mainly on islands. It has been argued that this is in part because of the existence of time-lags between invader introduction and impacts, and the existence of extinction debts has been hypothesized (Gilbert and Levine, 2013). It has also been suggested that extinctions of invasive plants should be seen as a trajectory rather than as an end-point process (Downey and Richardson, 2016). Nevertheless, the main driver of plant extinctions globally is habitat alteration (Bellard et al., 2016a). The geographical focus of research efforts has been mainly on the oceanic islands, where the highest declines and the highest risks of extinction by invasive species have been identified in previous studies (Pacific Ocean, including New Zealand, the islands of Hawaii and the Caribbean islands, as well as mainland Central America and Australia) (Bellard et al., 2016b, 2017; Doherty et al., 2016). In these geographical areas, 87% of terrestrial vertebrates have become extinct (Bellard et al., 2016a; Doherty et al., 2016). Most amphibian declines have occurred in the tropics of Mesoamerica and South America e geographical areas that have a greater richness of amphibian species than elsewhere in the world (Wake and Vredenburg, 2008) e and in Australia (Scheele et al., 2019). As regards Australia, in contrast to other continents, the general pattern of extinction of land mammals is most likely due to the introduction of mammal predators and changed fire regimes (Woinarski et al., 2015; Kearney et al., 2019). Australia’s terrestrial mammals are the most distinctive in the world (Holt et al., 2013) because their long in isolation has made an imprint on these species’ susceptibility to the impact of invasive species (Cox and Lima, 2006). In general, extinction rates have been higher on islands than on continents (Sax and Gaines, 2002). These extinctions have been unevenly distributed among taxonomic groups: a disproportionate number of birds have become extinct by predation whereas comparatively few plants have become extinct by competition (Sax et al., 2008). It has been asserted that the risk of extinction is greater on islands because they have more endemic species, small population sizes, reduced geographical ranges; and species on islands have low rates of reproduction, and lack of anti-predator behaviour (Blumstein and Daniel, 2005; Kier et al., 2009). In particular, islands harbour nearly 41% of critically endangered species and represent 4% of the world’s threatened species, which are distributed on 0.3% of all islands worldwide (Spatz et al., 2017). There are limitations to our systematic review approach. It is likely that the number of critically endangered species impacted by invasive species is underestimated, as some of the research documents (e.g. grey literature) are not widely accessible by conventional means. It is difficult to obtain quantitative and experimental data that evaluate the impact of invasions on highly threatened species in low abundance, and the time-lag phenomenon in invasions implies that many introduced species remain harmless for long periods before becoming invasive (Crooks, 2005). It is also difficult to distinguish threats from other synergistic drivers (Didham et al., 2007). Moreover, research is biased towards some taxa (e.g. birds and mammals) (Hulme et al., 2013): whereas the majority of vertebrates have been assessed (Baillie et al., 2004), data for invertebrate species are less comprehensive. This systematic review, and others (e.g. Medina et al., 2011), found that many publications based on observational studies did not quantify the magnitude of interaction and that estimates of invasive species’ abundance are biased (e.g. rodents, Ruffino et al., 2015). In general, the quantification of the impact of invasive species is not well represented in biological in- vasion literature (Esler et al., 2010), and there is therefore a high degree of uncertainty about such impacts. Nevertheless, invasive species with the greatest impact are most likely to be studied (Pysek et al., 2008). Despite these limitations, the research undertaken on the impact of invasive species on critically endangered species largely mirrors the pattern of invasive- caused extinction identified in previous studies, in that invasive species have their greatest impact on islands, where the majority of species extinctions have occurred (Bellard et al., 2016a). This systematic review supports the assertion that the management of invasive vertebrates, mainly invasive mammal predators on islands, is a prerequisite for conserving global biodiversity (Loehle and Eschenbach, 2012; Jones et al., 2016; McCreless et al., 2016). An important strategy for preventing the introduction of non-native species on islands is the implementation of biosecurity measures (Russell et al., 2017); this is the most cost-effective long-term strategy (Moore et al., 2010), although control and eradication is the most widespread method currently used in conservation management (Courchamp et al., 2003). Eradication has been demonstrated to be a successful conservation measure in recovering more than 200 threatened vertebrate species. It is predicted that 6% of highly threatened birds, mammals and reptiles are likely to have benefited from the eradication of invasive mammals from islands (Jones et al., 2016). There is some level of public opposition to eradication measures (Temple, 1990; Towns et al., 2006), and the implementation of these control projects can be very costly (Helmstedt et al., 2016). Alternative conservation measures have been proposed, such as enhanced restoration and an increase in conservation areas (Linklater and Steer, 2018).

5. Conclusion

This study provides a more comprehensive global review than has been available previously of research efforts undertaken on the impact of invasive species that potentially contribute to the decline of critically endangered species globally. This

5 M.-A. Duenas,~ D.J. Hemming, A. Roberts et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 26 (2021) e01476 systematic review reveals that a small number of invasive species are leading extinction risks: invasive mammal predators threatening terrestrial vertebrates mainly on islands, with chytrid fungus pathogen representing the main extinction threat to amphibians. This study provides valuable information in support of the aims of the Post-2020 Framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 2020), which calls for the identification and management of invasive species in order to reduce extinction risks. We call for more rigorous studies investigating the impacts of invasive species, and a better understanding of interactions with other drivers. This will be essential for the mitigation of biodiversity loss by invasive species.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was commissioned and funded by the United States Department of Agriculture under the Invasives Causing Extinction (ICE) Program. We thank the two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on this manuscript. The pictograms are courtesy of PhyloPic (http://phylopic.org).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01476.

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View publication stats Supplementary material

The threat of invasive species to IUCN-listed critically endangered species: a systematic review

Manuel-Angel Dueñas*, David J. Hemming, Amy Roberts and Hilda Diaz-Soltero

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

This supplementary material document contains Supplements S1, S3 and Figures S1, S2.

Supplement S1. Additional information on Methods

We searched the ISI Web of Science, Scopus and CAB Direct for all records through 12/31/2015 using the following keywords (TS = topic) adapted for specific databases for the retrieval of relevant references that focused on the interactions of invasive species with threatened species (critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable categories) on the IUCN Red List, but only species in the category of critically endangered were selected.

TS = (endangered OR threatened OR population$ OR native$ OR endemic OR rare OR indigenous OR resident$ OR relict) AND (invasive OR invasion* OR invade* OR introduced OR alien OR exotic OR "non-native*" OR nonnative* OR "non- indigenous" OR nonindigenous OR naturali$ed OR feral OR imported) AND (extinct* OR extirpat* OR declin* OR endanger* OR threat* OR mortality OR competiti* OR predation OR hybridi$ation OR herbivory OR disease). Note: wildcard: $ just one character or none * one or more than one character.

Supplement S3. Additional information on Results

Two species of Asian mongoose were retrieved in the review: the Javan mongoose Herpetes javanica and the small Indian mongoose Herpetes auropunctata. These species have been shown recently not to be conspecific (Veron et al. 2007), and most of the previously published studies ascribed to H. javanicus were, in fact, on H. aurupunctata (Veron, et al 2017). The Asian Herpetes species form a monophyletic group that should be placed in the Urva, following the recommendations of Patou et al. (2009), but this study retains the earlier name for the time being (hereafter Herpetes spp). References: Veron G, Patou M, Pothet G, Simberloff D, Jennings AP (2007) Systematic status and biogeography of the Javan and small Indian mongooses (Herpestidae, Carnivora). Zoologica Scripta 36: 1-10. Patou ML, McLenachan PA, Morley CG, Couloux A, Jennings AP, Veron G (2009) Molecular phylogeny of the Herpestidae (Mammalia, Carnivora) with a special emphasis on the Asian Herpestes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 53: 69-80. Veron G, Jennings A (2017) Javan mongoose or small Indian mongoose–who is where? Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde, 87:62-70.

Figure S1. Flow chart detailing the process of identification, screening and selection of publications based on PRISMA flow diagram (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Moher et al. 2009).

Records identified through Additional records database searching identified through other (n = 42,985) sources (n = 121)

Identification

Duplicates records removed (n = 13,116)

Records screened by title Records excluded and abstract level (n = 25,335) (n = 29,869)

Screening

Full-text articles assessed Full-text articles excluded, (n = 4,534) (n = 4,341) Eligibility

Studies included in the systematic review (n = 193)

Included

Figure S2. Percentage of critically endangered (CR) species that are affected by different types of impact mechanism.

Supplementary material

The threat of invasive species to IUCN-listed critically endangered species: a systematic review

Manuel-Angel Dueñas*, David J. Hemming, Amy Roberts and Hilda Diaz-Soltero

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

This supplementary material document contains Supplement S2 and Table S1.

Supplement S2. List of references selected in this systematic review.

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Table S1. Database with the 304 case studies identified in this systematic review.

Critically Continen Invasive Invasi Direction endangered CR Tax Habitat Mechanism of impact tal vs. Location Reference species ve Tax of impact (CR) species Islands

Abutilon Invertebr Aphis Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Messing et al. menziesii ates gossypii brates browsing/grazing (2007)

Achatinella Invertebr Euglandina Inverte Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Hadfield et al. mustelina ates rosea brates (1993)

Achatinella Invertebr Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative Predation Islands Hawaii Hadfield et al. mustelina ates als (1993)

Achatinella Invertebr Euglandina Inverte Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Hadfield (1986) vulpina ates rosea brates

Acrocephalus Birds Felis catus Mamm Freshwater negative predation Islands Mariana Camp et al. luscinius als Islands (2009) (USA)

Acrocephalus Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Freshwater negative predation Islands Mariana Camp et al. luscinius als Islands (2009) (USA)

Acrocephalus Birds Boiga Reptile Freshwater negative predation Islands Mariana Camp et al. luscinius irregularis s Islands (2009) (USA)

Acrocephalus Birds Boiga Reptile Freshwater negative predation Islands Mariana Reichel et al. luscinius irregularis s Islands (1992) (USA)

Aegotheles Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. savesi als Caledonia (2002)

Aegotheles Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. savesi als Caledonia (2002)

Agalychnis Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Panama Woodhams et lemur ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. 2008 dendrobatidis

Alauda razae Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial neutral Islands Cape Verde Donald et al. als Islands (2005)

Alopecoenas Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands French Monnet et al. erythropterus als Polynesia (1993)

Alsinidendron Plants Deroceras Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Joe and Daehler obovatum laeve brates browsing/grazing (2008)

Alsinidendron Plants Limacus Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Joe and Daehler obovatum flavus brates browsing/grazing (2008)

Alsinidendron Plants Limax Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Joe. and obovatum maximus brates browsing/grazing Daehler (2008)

Alsinidendron Plants Meghimatium Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Joe and Daehler obovatum striatum brates browsing/grazing (2008)

Alsophis Reptiles Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Antigua Daltry et al. antiguae als Island (2001)

Alsophis Reptiles Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Antigua Tolson and antiguae als and Henderson Barbuda (2011) Alsophis Reptiles Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation islands Antigua Daltry (2006) antiguae als and Barbuda

Alsophis Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Lesser Powell and antiguae javanicus als Antillean Henderson (2005)

Amazona Birds Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Puerto Rico Engeman et al. vittata auropunctatu als (2006) s

Amazona Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Puerto Rico Engeman et al. vittata als (2006)

Amazona Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Puerto Rico Engeman et al. vittata als (2006)

Ambystoma Amphibi Oreochromis Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Mexico Alcaraz et al. mexicanum ans niloticus (2015)

Ameiva Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands U.S. Virgin Fitzgerald et al. polops auropunctatu als Islands (2015) s

Anas Birds Cenchrus Plants Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Flint and laysanensis echinatus Rehkemper (2003)

Anas Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Reynolds et al. laysanensis als 2007

Anguilla Fish Silurus glanis Fish Freshwater neutral Continent France Martino et al. anguilla (2011)

Anguilla Fish Anguillicola pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Europe Bracamonte et anguilla crassus ens disease/parasitism al. (2015)

Aphanius fish Oreochromis fish freshwater negative predation/competition Continent Jordan Khoury et al. sirhani aureus (2012).

Aphanius Fish Gambusia Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Turkey Yoğ urtçuoğ lu transgrediens holbrooki and Ekmekç ı̇ (2014)

Aphrastura Birds Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative competition Islands Alejandro Gonzalez masafuerae als Selkirk (2014) Island

Aphrastura Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Alejandro Hahn et al. masafuerae als Selkirk (2004) island

Aphrastura Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Alejandro Hahn et al. masafuerae als Selkirk (2004) island

Aphrastura Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Alejandro Hahn et al. masafuerae norvegicus als Selkirk (2004) island

Aphrastura Birds Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Alejandro Hahn et al. masafuerae als Selkirk (2004) island

Aromobates Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Venezuela Lampo et al. meridensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Ecuador LaMarca et al. bomolochos ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2005) dendrobatidis Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Venezuela Lampo et al. carbonerensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Panama Berger et al. chiriquiensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Continent Venezuela Bonaccorso et cruciger ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. (2003) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Venezuela LaMarca et al. mucubajiensi ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2005) s dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Puschendorf et senex ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. (2006) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Venezuela Lampo et al. sorianoi ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Panama Berger et al. varius ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Cheng et al. varius ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2011) dendrobatidis

Atelopus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Panama Lips et al. zeteki ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Barbus Fish Sandelia Fish Freshwater negative predation/competition Continent South Impson et al. erubescens capensis Africa (2007)

Bettongia Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Australia Wayne et al. penicillata s als (2015)

Bolitoglossa Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial neutral Continent Honduras Kolby et al. diaphora ans rium ens (2010) dendrobatidis

Brachylophus Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Fiji Harlow et al. vitiensis als (2007)

Brachylophus Reptiles Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration islands Fiji Harlow et al. vitiensis als (2007)

Brachylophus Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation islands Fiji Harlow et al. vitiensis als (2008)

Bufo Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. haematiticus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Burramys Mammal Vulpes Vulpes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Australia Green and parvus s als Osborne (1981)

Burramys Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Australia Doherty et al. parvus s als (2015)

Camarhynchu Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Isabella Fessl et al. s heliobates als island (2010) (Galapagos )

Camarhynchu Birds Philornis Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Isabella Fessl et al. s heliobates downsi brates disease/parasitism island (2010) (Galapagos )

Camarhynchu Birds Philornis Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Floreana O'Connor et al. s pauper downsi brates disease/parasitism Island (2010b) (Galápagos )

Camarhynchu Birds Philornis Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Floreana O'Connor et al. s pauper downsi brates disease/parasitism Island (2010a) (Galápagos )

Capoeta Fish Sander Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Turkey Kucuk et al. pestai lucioperca (2009)

Celestus Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Jamaica Lewis et al. duquesneyi auropunctatu als (2011) s

Charadrius Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands St Helena Oppel et al. sanctaehelen als (2014) ae

Charadrius Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands St Helena Oppel et al. sanctaehelen als (2014) ae

Charadrius Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands St Helena McCulloch sanctaehelen als (2009) ae

Charadrius Birds Acridotheres Birds Terrestrial negative competition Islands St Helena McCulloch sanctaehelen tristis (2009) ae

Charadrius Birds Carpobrotus Plants Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands St Helena McCulloch sanctaehelen edulis (2009) ae

Charadrius Birds sp. Plants Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands St Helena McCulloch sanctaehelen (2009) ae

Cherax Invertebr Cherax cainii Inverte Freshwater negative hybridisation Continent Austarlia Bunn et al. tenuimanus ates brates (2008)

Cherax Invertebr Cherax cainii Inverte Freshwater negative competition/hybrisatio Continent Australia de Graaf et al. tenuimanus ates brates n (2009)

Cherax Invertebr Cherax cainii Inverte Freshwater negative hybridisation Continent Australia Guildea (2015) tenuimanus ates brates

Coleura Mammal Pueraria Plants Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Seychelles Gerlach and seychellensis s phaseoloides Taylor (2006)

Colubrina Plants Pennisetum Plants Terrestrial neutral Islands Hawaii Cabin et al. oppositifolia setaceum (2002) coracina Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Reunion Salmona et al. newtoni als Island (2012) coracina Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Reunion Salmona et al. newtoni als Island (2012)

Corvus Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial positive Islands Rota in the Amar and kubaryi diardii als Mariana Esselstyn Islands (2014)

Corvus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Northern Zarones et al. kubaryi als Mariana (2015) Islands Corvus Birds Boiga Reptile Terrestrial negative predation Islands Guam Wiles et al. kubaryi irregularis s (2003)

Craugastor Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Cheng et al. andi ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2011) dendrobatidis

Craugastor Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Puschendorf et andi ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. (2006) dendrobatidis

Craugastor Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Cheng et al. angelicus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2011) dendrobatidis

Craugastor Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Panama Lips et al. tabasarae ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Ctenosaura Reptiles Ctenosaura Reptile Terrestrial Neutral Islands Honduras Pasachnik et al. similis bakeri s 2009

Cyanoramph Birds Mustela mamm Terrestrial negative Predation Islands New O’Donnell us malherbi erminea als Zealand (1996)

Cyanoramph Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Girardet et al. us malherbi als Zealand (2001)

Cyclura Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Turks and Iverson (1978) carinata als Caicos Islands

Cyclura Reptiles Canis Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Turks and Iverson (1978) carinata domesticus als Caicos Islands

Cyclura collei Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Jamaica Lewis et al. auropunctatu als (2010) s

Cyclura collei reptiles Canis Mamm Terrestrial Negative Predation Islands Jamaica Woodley (1980) domesticus als

Dendrotriton Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Continent Guatemala Rovito et al. bromeliacius ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2009) dendrobatidis

Didunculus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands American Collar (2015) strigirostris als Samoa

Diomedea Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial neutral Islands Amsterdam Thiebot et al. amsterdamen als island (2014) sis

Diomedea Birds Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Gough Cuthbert et al. dabbenena als Island (2013a)

Diomedea Birds Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Gough Cuthbert et al. dabbenena als Island (2013b)

Diomedea Birds Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Gough Davies (2015) dabbenena als Island

Diomedea Birds Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Gough Wanless et al. dabbenena als Island (2009)

Dipodomys Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial neutral Islands San José Espinosa- insularis s als Island Gayosso and (Mexico) Alvarez- Castañeda (2006) Dryococelus Invertebr Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Lord Howe Carlile et al. australis ates als Island (2009) (Australia)

Dryococelus Invertebr Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Lord Howe Carlile et al. australis ates als Island (2009) (Australia)

Dryococelus invertebr Rattus rattus mamm Terrestrial negative predation islands Lord Howe Priddell et al. australis ates als Island (2003) (Australia)

Ducula Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Nuku Hiva Thorsen et al. galeata als (2002)

Ducula Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Nuku Hiva Thorsen et al. galeata als (2002)

Eleutherodact Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Islands Puerto Rico Burrowes et al. ylus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) karlschmidti dendrobatidis

Eleutherodact Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Islands Puerto Rico Burrowes et al. ylus locustus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) dendrobatidis

Eleutherodact Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Jamaica Wilson (2011) ylus orcutti ans rium ens disease/parasitism dendrobatidis

Eleutherodact Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Islands Puerto Rico Burrowes et al. ylus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) richmondi dendrobatidis

Emoia Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation islands Christmas Doherty et al. nativitatis als island 2015 (Australia)

Emoia slevini Reptiles Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Sarigan Kessler (2002) als browsing/grazing island (USA)

Emoia slevini Reptiles Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Sarigan Kessler (2002) als browsing/grazing island (USA)

Epioblasma Invertebr Dreissena Inverte Freshwater negative Competition Continent USA Schloesser et al. torulosa ates polymorpha brates (2006)

Epioblasma Invertebr Dreissena Inverte Freshwater negative Competition Continent USA Schloesser et al. torulosa ates polymorpha brates (1998)

Eretmochelys Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Marine negative predation Islands Barbados Leighton et al. imbracata javanicus als (2011)

Eretmochelys Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Marine negative predation Islands Barbados Leighton et al. imbricata javanicus als (2009)

Eretmochelys Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Marine negative predation Islands Barbados Leighton et al. imbricata javanicus als (2008)

Eretmochelys Reptiles Rattus rattus Mamm Marine negative predation Islands US Virgin Witmer et al. imbricata als Islands (2007)

Eretmochelys Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Marine negative predation Islands US Virgin Coblentz and imbricata auropunctatu als Islands Coblentz (1985) s

Eretmochelys Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Marine negative predation Continent Qatar Ficetola (2008) imbricata als Eretmochelys Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Marine negative predation Islands U.S. Virgin Nellis and imbricata auropunctatu als islands Small (1983) s

Eretmochelys Reptiles Sus scrofa Mamm Marine negative predation Continent Australia Whytlaw et al. imbricata als (2013)

Erythrolampr Reptiles Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Martinique Caut and Jowers us cursor als island (2015)

Erythrolampr Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Martinique Henderson us cursor auropunctatu als island (1992) s

Erythrolampr Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Lesser Powell and us cursor javanicus als Antillean Henderson (2005)

Eumeces Reptiles Pitangus Reptile Terrestrial negative predation Islands Southampto Davenport et al. longirostris sulphuratus s n Island (2001) (Bermuda)

Eumeces Reptiles Anolis Reptile Terrestrial negative predation Islands Southampto Davenport et al. longirostris grahami s n Island (2001) (Bermuda)

Eumeces Reptiles Bufo marinus Amphi Terrestrial negative predation Islands Southampto Davenport et al. longirostris bians n Island (2001) (Bermuda)

Fregetta Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Rayner et al. maoriana als Zealand (2015)

Fregetta Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Rayner et al. maoriana exulans als Zealand (2015)

Gallicolumba Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tuamotu Blanvillain et al. erythroptera als Archipelag (2002) o

Gallicolumba Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tuamotu Blanvillain et al. erythroptera exulans als Archipelag (2002) o

Gallicolumba Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tuamotu Blanvillain et al. erythroptera norvegicus als Archipelag (2002) o

Gallicolumba Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tuamotu Blanvillain et al. erythroptera als Archipelag (2002) o

Gallirallus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. lafresnayanus als Caledonia (2002)

Gallirallus Birds Canis Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. lafresnayanus domesticus als Caledonia (2002)

Gallirallus Birds Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. lafresnayanus als Caledonia (2002)

Gallirallus Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. lafresnayanus als Caledonia (2002)

Gallotia Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands La Gomera Nogales et al. bravoana als (Spain) 2001

Gallotia Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands El Hierro Rodríguez- simonyi als (Spain) Domínguez et al. (1998) Gardenia Plants Aphis Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Messing et al. brighamii gossypii brates browsing/grazing (2007)

Gardenia Plants Aphis Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Messing et al. brighamii spiraecola brates browsing/grazing (2007)

Gonatodes Reptiles Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands St. Vincent Bentz et al. daudini als and the (2011) Grenadines

Gonatodes Reptiles Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands St. Vincent Bentz et al. daudini als browsing/grazing and the (2011) Grenadines

Gymnomyza Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. aubryana als Caledonia (2002)

Gymnomyza Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Ekstrom et al. aubryana als Caledonia (2002)

Halichoeres Fish Pterois sp. Fish Marine negative predation Belize Rocha et al. socialis (2015)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s niloticus Victoria (1992) apogonoides (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s argenteus niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s bareli niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s beadlei niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s cassius niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s cinctus niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s longirostris niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s niloticus Victoria (1992) macrognathu (Africa) s

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s michaeli niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s parvidens niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s perrieri niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s niloticus Victoria (1992) pyrrhopteryx (Africa) Haplochromi Fish Lates Fish Freswater Negative Predation Continent Lake Witte et al. s xenostoma niloticus Victoria (1992) (Africa)

Hemignathus Birds Rattus rattus mamm Terrestrial negative Predation Islands Hawaiian Atkinson (1977) lucidus als

Heteromirafr Birds Parthenium Plants Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Continent Somalia Mills et al. a archeri hysterophorus (2015)

Hibiscus clayi Plants Aphis Inverte Terrestrial neutral Islands Hawaii Messing et al. gossypii brates (2007)

Himantopus Birds Himantopus Birds Terrestrial negative hybridisation Islands New Steeves et al. novaezelandi himantopus Zealand (2010) ae leucocephalus

Himantopus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Pierce (1986) novaezelandi als Zealand ae

Himantopus Birds Mustela sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Pierce (1986) novaezelandi als Zealand ae

Himantopus Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Pierce (1986) novaezelandi norvegicus als Zealand ae

Holcaspis Invertebr Pinus radiata Plants Terrestrial positive Islands New Brockerhoff brevicula ates Zealand (2005)

Hyla rivularis Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Panama Lips et al. ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) dendrobatidis

Hyophorbe Plants Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Mauritius Maunder et al. lagenicaulis als browsing/grazing (2002)

Hypomesus Fish Corbula Inverte Freshwater neutral Continent USA MacNally et al. transpacificus amurensis brates (2010)

Hypsirhynchu Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Jamaica Hays and s ater javanicus als Conant (2007)

Icterus Birds Molothrus Birds Terrestrial negative competition Islands Bahamas Price et al. northropi bonariensis (2011)

Icterus oberi Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Montserrat Hilton et al als Island (2003)

Icterus oberi Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Montserrat Allcorn et al. als Island (2012)

Isthmohyla Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Costa Rica Cheng et al rivularis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2011) dendrobatidis

Juniperus Plants Juniperus Plants Terrestrial Negative Hybridisation Islands Bermuda Adams and bermudiana virginiana Wingate (2008)

Kokia Plants Aphis Inverte Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Hawaii Messing et al. drynarioides gossypii brates browsing/grazing (2007)

Kokia Plants Pennisetum Plants Terrestrial neutral Islands Hawaii Cabin et al. drynarioides setaceum (2002)

Leiopelma Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Islands New Shaw et al. archeyi ans rium ens disease/parasitism Zealand (2013) dendrobatidis Leptodactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Islands R. Carter et al. fallax ans rium ens disease/parasitism Dominican (2009) dendrobatidis a

Leptodactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision islands R. McIntyre (2003) fallax ans rium ens disease/parasitism Dominican dendrobatidis a

Leptophryne Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Islands Indonesia Kusrini et al. cruentata ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) dendrobatidis

Leptotila Birds Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Grenada Bolton et al. wellsi auropunctatu als (2016) s

Linum Plants Lantana Plants Terrestrial negative competition Islands Galapagos Mauchamp et cratericola camara al. (1998)

Linum Plants Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Floreana Simbaña and cratericola als browsing/grazing Island Tye (2009) (Galápagos )

Litoria lorica Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1999) dendrobatidis

Litoria Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. nyakalensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1999) dendrobatidis

Litoria Amphibi Salmo trutta Fish Terrestrial negative predation Continent Australia Gillespie (2010) spenceri ans

Litoria Amphibi Salmo trutta Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Australia Gillespie (2001) spenceri ans

Litoria Amphibi Oncorhynchu Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Australia Gillespie (2001) spenceri ans s mykiss

Litoria Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. spenceri ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Litoria Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. spenceri ans rium ens disease/parasitism 1999 dendrobatidis

Loxioides Birds Ovis aries Mamm Freshwater negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Banko et al. bailleui als (2013)

Loxioides Birds Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Banko et al. bailleui als (2009)

Loxioides Birds Felis catus Mamm Freshwater negative predation Islands Hawaii Pletschet and bailleui als Kelley (1990)

Loxioides Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Freshwater negative predation Islands Hawaii Pletschet and bailleui als Kelley (1990)

Loxops Birds Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Behnke et al. caeruleirostri als (2015) s

Mannophryne Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Venezuela Lampo et al. cordilleriana ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Medicago Plants Oryctolagus Mamm Terrestrial Negative hervibory/ Islands Cabrera Latorre et al citrina cuniculus als browsing/grazing Island (2013) (Spain) Medicago Plants Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial Negative hervibory/ Islands Cabrera Latorre et al citrina als browsing/grazing Island (2013) (Spain)

Melamprosop Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Malcolm et al. s phaeosoma als (2008)

Melamprosop Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Malcolm et al. s phaeosoma exulans als (2008)

Melamprosop Birds Oxychilus Inverte Terrestrial negative Competition Islands Hawaii Mountainspring s phaeosoma alliarius brates et al. (1990)

Melamprosop Birds Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Mountainspring s phaeosoma als et al. (1990)

Mesocapromy Mammal Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative competition Islands Cuba Alvarez and s s als Gonzalez sanfelipensis (1991)

Mimus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Socorro Martinez- graysoni als island Gomez and (Mexico) Curry (1996)

Mimus Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Champion Curry (1986) trifasciatus als island (Galapagos )

Mimus Birds Philornis Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Galapagos Wiedenfeld et trifasciatus downsi brates disease/parasitism al. (2007)

Munroidendr Plants Aphis Inverte Terrestrial neutral Islands Hawaii Messing et al. on spiraecola brates (2007) racemosum

Mustela Mammal Neovison Mamm Terrestrial negative competition Continent Spain Santulli et al. lutreola s vison als (2014)

Mustela Mammal Neovison Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Spain Põdra et al. lutreola s vison als (2013)

Mustela Mammal Neovison Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Russia Maran et al. lutreola s vison als (1998)

Myadestes Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Snetsinger et al. palmeri als (2005)

Myadestes Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Tweed et al. palmeri als (2006)

Myrsine Plants Miconia Plants Terrestrial negative competition Islands Tahiti Meyer and longifolia calvescens Florence (1996)

Mystacina Mammal Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Lloyd (2001) robusta s exulans als Zealand

Nimbaphryno Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial neutral Continent West Penner et al. ides ans rium ens Africa (2013) occidentalis dendrobatidis

Oreochromis Fish Oreochromis Fish Freshwater neutral Continent Lake Angienda et al. esculentus niloticus Victoria (2011) (Kenya)

Oreochromis Fish Oreochromis Fish Freswater Negative competition Continent Lake Goudswaard et esculentus niloticus Victoria al. (2002) (Tanzania)

Oreochromis Fish Oreochromis Fish Freswater Negative competition Continent Lake Goudswaard et variabilis niloticus Victoria al. (2002) (Tanzania) Oreomystis Birds Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Hawaii Behnke et al. bairdi als (2015)

Oreomystis Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial neutral Islands Hawaii Hammond et al. bairdi als (2015)

Palmeria Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Simon et al. dolei als (2001)

Palmeria Birds Culex Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Hawaii Scott et al. 1986 dolei quinquefascia brates disease/parasitism tus (Plamodium relictum)

Partula invertebr Euglandina inverte Terrestrial negative predation islands Tahiti Coote and affinis ates rosea brates Loève (2003)

Partula Invertebr Euglandina Inverte Terrestrial negative predation Islands French Pol Murray et al affinis ates rosea brates ynesia 1988

Partula clara invertebr Euglandina inverte Terrestrial negative predation islands Tahiti Coote and ates rosea brates Loève (2003)

Partula clara Invertebr Euglandina Inverte Terrestrial negative predation Islands French Pol Murray et al ates rosea brates ynesia 1988

Partula invertebr Euglandina inverte Terrestrial negative predation islands Tahiti Coote and otaheitana ates rosea brates Loève (2003)

Peromyscus Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Mexico Mellink et al. guardia s als (2002)

Peromyscus Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Estanque Vazquez- guardia s als Island Dominguez et (Mexico) al. (2004)

Peromyscus Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Coronados Alvarez- pseudocrinitu s als island Castaneda s (Mexico) (1998)

Peromyscus Mammal Peromyscus Mamm Terrestrial Negative competition Islands Catalina Alvarez- slevini s fraterculus als island Casteneda et al. (Mexico) 2009

Phalacrocora Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Macquarie Taylor (2000) x onslowi als Island

Phyllomedusa Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Panama Lips et al. lemur ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2008) dendrobatidis

Phytotriades Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Republic of Hailey and auratus ans rium ens disease/parasitism Trinidad Cazabon- dendrobatidis and Tobago Mannette (2011)

Placostylus invertebr Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation islands Lord Howe Recher and bivaricosus ates als island Clark (1974) (Australia)

Plagopterus Fish Cyprinella Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent USA Holden et al. argentissimus lutrensis (2001)

Plectrohyla Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Honduras Kolby et al. dasypus ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2010) dendrobatidis

Plectrohyla Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Honduras Kolby et al. exquisita ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2010) dendrobatidis Podarcis Reptiles Podarcis Reptile Terrestrial Negative Competition Islands Aeolian Capula et al. raffonei sicula s Islands 2002 (Italy)

Podiceps Fish Oncorhynchu Fish Freshwater negative competition Continent Argentina Lancelotti et al. gallardoi s mykiss (2015)

Podiceps Birds Neovison Mamm Freshwater negative predation Continent Argentina Roesler et al. gallardoi vison als (2012)

Pomarea Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Marquesas Thibault et al. mira als Islands (2002)

Pomarea Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tahiti Blanvillain et al. nigra als French (2003) Polynesia

Pomarea Birds Acridotheres Birds Terrestrial negative competition Islands Tahiti Blanvillain et al. nigra tristis French (2003) Polynesia

Pomarea Birds Pycnonotus Birds Terrestrial negative competition Islands Tahiti Blanvillain et al. nigra cafer French (2003) Polynesia

Pomarea Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Tahiti Thibault et al. nigra als (Society (2002) Islands)

Pomarea Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Marquesas Thibault et al. whitneyi als Islands (2002)

Pseudalopex Mammal Canis Mamm Terrestrial Negative Competition Continent Chile Moreira-Arce et fulvipes s domesticus als al. (2015)

Pseudobulwe Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Fiji Priddel et al. ria als (2008) macgillivrayi

Pseudobulwe Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Fiji Priddel et al. ria als (2008) macgillivrayi

Pseudonestor Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Hawaii Knight (2001) xanthophrys als

Pseudonestor Birds Culex Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Hawaii Scott et al. xanthophrys quinquefascia brates disease/parasitism (1986) tus (Plamodium relictum)

Psittirostra Birds Rattus rattus mamm Terrestrial negative Predation Islands Hawaii Atkinson (1977) psittacea als

Psittirostra Birds Culex Inverte Terrestrial negative transmision Islands Hawaii Scott et al. psittacea quinquefascia brates disease/parasitism (1986) tus (Plamodium relictum)

Pterodroma Birds Trichosums Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Chatham Crockett (1994) magentae vulpecula als island (New Zealand)

Pterodroma Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands San Cruz-Delgado et phaeopygia als Cristobal al. (2010) Island (Galapagos ) Pterodroma Birds Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Santiago Cruz-Delgado et phaeopygia als Island al. (2010) (Galapagos )

Puffinus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Mexico Martinez- auricularis als Gomez and Jacobsen (2004)

Puffinus Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Japan Kawakami et al. bryani als (2012)

Pyrrhula Birds Clethra Plants Terrestrial negative competition Islands Sao Miguel Ceia (2011a) murina arborea (Azores)

Pyrrhula Birds Clethra Plants Terrestrial negative competition Islands Sao Miguel Ceia (2011b) murina arborea (Azores)

Rhacophorus Amphibi Lantana sp. Plants Terrestrial neutral Continent India Harpalani et al. pseudomalab ans (2015) aricus

Rowettia Birds Mus musculus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Gough Cuthbert and goughensis als Island Hilton (2004)

Samoana Invertebr Euglandina Inverte Terrestrial negative predation Islands American Cowie and abbreviata ates rosea brates Samoa Cook (2001)

Samoana invertebr Euglandina inverte Terrestrial negative predation islands Society Coote and attenuata ates rosea brates Islands Loève (2003) French Polynesia

Sapheopipo Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Japan Jogahara et al. noguchii als (2003)

Scalesia Plants Capra hircus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Galapagos Mauchamp et atractyloides als browsing/grazing al. (1998)

Scardinius Fish Scardinus Fish Freshwater negative predation/competition Continent Italy Bianco (2014) scardafa erythropthalm us

Scaturiginicht Fish Gambusia Fish Freshwater negative competition Continent Australia Nicol et al. hys holbrooki (2015) vermeilipinni s

Sephanoides Birds Turdus Birds Terrestrial neutral Islands Robinson Martínez et al. fernandensis falcklandii Crusoe (2015) island

Sephanoides Birds Oryctolagus Mamm Terrestrial negative habitat alteration Islands Juan Roy et al. fernandensis cuniculus als Fernandez (1999) Islands

Sephanoides Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Juan Roy et al. fernandensis als Fernandez (1999) Islands

Sephanoides Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Juan Hahn and fernandensis als Fernandez Romer (2002) Islands

Serianthes Plants Cervus Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Mariana Wiles et al. nelsonii mariannus als browsing/grazing Islands of (1996) Micronesia

Serianthes Plants Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Mariana Wiles et al. nelsonii als browsing/grazing Islands of (1996) Micronesia Spondylurus Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands U.S Virgin Hedges and semitaeniatus auropunctatu als Islands Conn (2012) s

Spondylurus Reptiles Herpestes Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands U.S Virgin Hedges and sloanii auropunctatu als Islands Conn (2012) s

Strigops Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands New Karl & Best habroptilus als Zeland (1982)

Sylvilagus Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands San Jose Espinosa- mansuetus s als Island Gayosso et al. (Mexico) (2006)

Taudactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. acutirostris ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Taudactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Schloegel et al. acutirostris ans rium ens disease/parasitism (2006) dendrobatidis

Taudactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. eungellensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism (1998) dendrobatidis

Taudactylus Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Australia Berger et al. eungellensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism 1999 dendrobatidis

Tectiphiala Plants Sus scrofa Mamm Terrestrial negative hervibory/ Islands Mascarene Maunder et al. ferox als browsing/grazing Islands (2002)

Telmatobius Amphibi Batrachochyt Pathog Freshwater negative transmision Continent Argentina Barrionuevo atacamensis ans rium ens disease/parasitism and Mangione dendrobatidis (2006)

Telmatobius Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Ecuador Merino-Viteri et niger ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. (2005) dendrobatidis

Telmatobius Amphibi Batrachochyt pathog Terrestrial negative transmision Continent Ecuador Merino-Viteri et vellardi ans rium ens disease/parasitism al. (2005) dendrobatidis

Terpsiphone Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Seychelles Currie et al. corvina als (2005)

Terpsiphone Birds Rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Seychelles Currie et al. corvina norvegicus als (2005)

Terpsiphone Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Seychelles Currie et al. corvina als (2005)

Todiramphus Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands French Kesler et al. gambieri als Polynesia (2012)

Todiramphus Birds Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands French Kesler et al. gambieri als Polynesia (2012)

Tokudaia Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Japan Yamada et al. muenninki s als (2010)

Valencia Fish Gambusia Fish Freshwater negative competition Continent Greece Kalogianni et al. letourneuxi holbrooki (2010)

Valencia Fish Gambusia Fish Freshwater negative predation Continent Greece Perdikaris et al. letourneuxi holbrooki (2010)

Xyrauchen Fish Ictalurus Fish Freshwater Negative Predation Continent Arizona Marsh & texanus punctatus (USA) Brooks (1989) Xyrauchen Fish Pylodictis Fish Freshwater Negative Predation Continent Arizona Marsh & texanus olivaris (USA) Brooks (1989)

Xyrauchen Fish Procambarus Inverte Freshwater Negative predation/competition Continent Arizona Lenon et al. texanus clarkii brates (USA) (2002)

Zosterops Birds Rattus sp. Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Norfolk Dutson (2013) albogularis als Island (Australia)

Zosterops Birds Rattus rattus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Mauritius Maggs et al. chloronothos als (2015)

Zosterops Birds Macaca Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Islands Mauritius Nichols et al. chloronothus fascicularis als (2005)

Zosterops Birds Dicrurus Birds Terrestrial negative Predation Islands Northen Craig and rotensis macrocercus Mariana Taisacan (1994) islands

Zyzomys Mammal Felis catus Mamm Terrestrial negative predation Continent Australia McDonald et al. pedunculatus s als (2015)