with
Graham
the
Museum
of
Faunus,
Christi
British
deity
identified
The
statuette
©
Pan.
rural
PAST
Romans
god
bronze
Nicholls
Italian
a
the
is
LUPERCALIA
Greek
Nick
and
the
ancient
whom
This
THE
FESTIVALS:
AND
as
to
the
the
so
and
Cae
on
B.C.E
who
fa
the
try
fes
strik
gave
thong of
birth
art
have
render
merri
elabo
place
priests
or
of
slaves
Chris
Mardi
under
Luperci
a
44
calen
Faunus.
During
Janeiro.
in
and
to
part,
were
presents.
most
these
fields
the
of
city,
to
Julius
and
the
de
Christmas.
agricultur with
took
male
restrictions
countryside.
in with
to
them
converted
their
to
as
(Shakespeare’s
Church
during
the
of
him.)
dog
goats
The
an
calendar. instead
business
Rio
Lupercalia,
a
that
loved
Roman
the
conceived
and
permitted
dancing,
Purification
them
parties,
young
which moral
of
25th
ROMAN and
after
the
today crown
and
church
sure
represented
fertility
adopted
them.
not
Lupercalia
exchanged around
associated
Saturn,
the
the
private
god
near
wild
of
customs
of
Christian
religious
Antonius
Both
dedicated,
sacrificed
Romans
liked;
were
Pan.
had
masters of
the
royal
goats
celebration
later
festivals,
was
named
occurs
made
a
and
Orleans
presents, the
24.
naked
the
at
the
own
irrepressible
came
is
god
Lupercalia,
was
many Saturnalia,
the
Italian
of
typically
pagan
they
Christian
who
December
abolish
of
and
to bringer
still Romans
ENCOUNTERING
Feast
its
ran
Marcus
loved
the
New
was
celebrated
the
to
gambling,
Iwo who
the
the
17
might
think
public
offered
them?
was
the
for
sacrificed
It
goat
children
that the
Greek
of
SATURNALIA
what
adapt
and
skins
Saturnalia,
giving
and
then
like
try
as
celebrations
all
ancient
and
Saturday became
Christianity Women
C.E.,
you to
do
Why
the
day
consul
half
contained
the the
the
into
Romans
more
15,
the
woman
do
Lupercalia
names
them.
established Mary.
abolish
Faunus 494
than
cities
feasting,
Jesus,
that
revelry
Antony)
Luperci
(Our
and the
Saturnalia
eased;
like
dar mous
the
he
Luperci
In
December
of
in
man,
meals,
of
fertile.
from
to
any
chosen
tivals? ing
Why
On
The
say
During
124
The god.
Virgin
sar. festival
Mark
that
struck
wanted
cut
her
ing
called
The
ment
half
flocks,
Worshipped
Faunus,
rate
date including
tianity
Rather
were to
THE
Gras
kind
this way
al different
popular
from February T
B.
to
127
and
elo
and
and
they
to
pub
be
all
at
York:
no some
ve
did
has
free
under
your Richard
be
their after
body
and Sarah
these
made
intellec
to
with
gods
them.
be Uprising
repeal
able
not
to
a
(New
was she
women
by
with
for
friends
were
they
to
If
devices;
be
of grammar
439.
in
try
and
Harvard
with
years
was
cannot
long-forgotten
EMPIRE
seize
Killian,
men’s
which
begin of
they
cited
girl
should
even Slaves
there
educated
and
even who
to to TO
vote
control
will
Mass.:
“Women’s
themselves
veto
them things.
and
crowd her
413—419,
Roger
will
rules
parity
myself
with
superiors.”
they
Sims,
twenty
that
licence
I
you
obscure,
of
pp.
shouldn’t
a
of
rhetorical
by
appear
them
also
the
would
such
sacrifice
to
necessary
John
viii,
Wives,
on
all
RIPULIC
your
use
what
laws
Cambridge,
that
cites
correct
proposal,
scarcely
greater
is
After
wrench
(See
their
husbands;
trans.
Wives
be
i—ui;
and
quote
threat
suffer
repealed
man,
tribes
about
classics—there
and
moment
172.
the
and
her
wants
Stage
this,
FROM
a
can
and
even
Whores,
those
p.
think understand.
can
T.
placed
will
their
the
as
the
you
the
all
let
baths.
was
alone.2
in XXXIV,
still
shouldn’t
an
of
cared
The
be
one
If
to
tribunes.
Evan
you
all
6.434—456,
you
all
who Rowland,
1975),
ROME:
don’t
they public,
law
she
Rome.”)
mistake
dress
colleagues’
1935),
restrained “moderation
day by
to
win
J.
by
until they
men’s
if
a
do
men
the
•
doors
in
that
this?
Goddesses
read
if
her
husband
Review
The
them?
trans.
Press,
the
Satires
Books,
4
next
one
by
in
bonds
somebody
subject
they
woman
of passed.
their
And,
the
let
women
Robert
lesson:
equals,
make
in
a
her
finally
desist
Livy,
law.
“If
The
speakers;
was
Republican
tempt? these
them
forefathers
What
endure
bonds and husbands,
your appeared beset
toing
drawn question
the
not
it
from
University
tuals.”
quent,
pher’s shouldn’t
things stand
bathe lic
never
correct
leave in
poets—as
2juvenal,
Pomeroy
Schocken
Lynch,
CHAPTER
is
a
is
in
to
re
by
the
for
her
did
be po
the
and
per
this
will
hus
con
It
con soon
tribe
get
Still,
loose
think
speak
in
would
adopt
All
proper
which
home?
unless
critics,
to
not
and
as
women
philoso
and century
(Heaven
the
personal
blocking same
enjoined
to
be
and
to
at
they
practice
crashing
yourselves
which
desire.
Give
you’d
Forum
and
women
the
interfere
begs
their
we
meetings
and poets
the
there
of
at
first
primitive
ancestors
women’s
and
wish
even
to
of
clanging.
under
injustice.
licence;
is
on
were
that
the
modesty
that
things
they
learned
intervene
should
who
education.
rhetoricians,
learn
age
professors,
the
sort
we
if
be of
them
Young
woman—can’t
Our
law
to
made
nature
education
was some
Concern
crotchety
streets
husband,
the
rate
other
if
even
that
class
By
the
visit
their
to
a
and
sessions.
as
laws
limits
a
or
to
of
kitchen
husbands;
to
expect
the
of
woman
should
conduct
to enough
to
no
by
higher
‘What
town
discourse
have
Homer;
their
own
home,
now
the
permit
another
the
feeling
you
to
such
in
noise
what them
to
the
rather,
poets.
republic. She
into at least
licence
and
guardian
and in
a
not
repealed.’
formal
at
from
is
said,
of
their
with
a
you
custom
or
bell
or,
your
or
them
out
bounds the
late
if on
much
married
brothers,
speaking
pans
yes,
within
you
dinner,
But
and
by
even
of
with
uncontrollable is
.
philosophers
become as
have apparently
wished
eclipse.
complaints
the
set
Virgil to
.
woman
continued
every
and
consultations it
.
and
place
creature
complete
not
allow
liberty an
in
writers
rattles
without
question
this
danger
the
each
pursuing
no
their
Could
with
they usually
that
running
were
fathers,
did
affairs,
pots
makes
exasperating
Satirist: down
this
women
matrons
should
submit
the
She
us!)
yet,
of
or
auctioneersven
to
secret of
informal act,
boys
roads
away
the
truth,
she
women
prose
in
“I
sits
were
were in.
comparing
there
study
more
all
floor
lectively.
and
greatest this,
the
quests,
bands? keep
And
rights, with ed
trol
mitted business behalf;
our
help themselves
public
rein untamed upon
they complete the
you
provoke
she
they
among not
men some came
C.E.,
to servative
Still
as etry,
lawyers, word
that the
chasing
herself
I
is
to
of
and
for
than
were
upper
a
at
as
by
re
‘re
lib
travel
part
coY
fashion
the least
less
law
the
rhetoric
of
even
men
them
a
prae
Romans’
to
at
the
by
day
They
our undertook
of
trodden
Porcius
Hellenistic
the
evidence rather
the
all
with
violence,
the
have
the
them of
from
consul,
is,
kept
of
allow
of
dared
them
study
of
the
de and
the
it
the
study
in
War,
larger
to
not
one
girls
Cicero, home
as
of
distinctions
dread women
teachers
they
ROME Marcus
should
female
they
equivalent
made
determined husband
Which
consuls,
at
world.
should
education. B.c.E.).
grew
but
careful
a
favour
we
Punic
It
have
fortunes
that
come
crushed
broadened
by
we
increasingly
orator
Though
coming
describes
as
the
Since
had
great
Soon
whole;
in
is
former
the
when we
culture
urged:
they a
goals?
to
boy’s
Greek
had
tutors
sure
was
G.E.)
postgraduate
a
as
women
great
Second
now
with
education
adamant,
home
7
private
(234—149
control,
officials,
culture.
their
thus
the
as
WORLD
be
by
dignity
of
spouse’,
of
their
being
Forum
they
an
sex
the
citizens,
call
at
education
the
wider
did?
in
districts.
appeal
protest
Women
the
through
because
and
were
Cato important? it
study
and
G.E—i
can
of
have
other
us,
the
was
the
under
own
found
like
3.
spoke
for
and
and
as
to
increasing,
crowd
to
and
stages
taught
of understand.
rural school,
in
world
ANCIENT
might
we
achieve
during
when
the
his
(59
they
most
style
to
received
a
rights
with
to
too
end
to
political
The
repeal
they
who
and
we
Porcius
THE
to
Some,
destroyed
each
language
here
daily
older
early
and
for
philosophy
abroad
his
Livy
IN
try
were
state,
This
earlier
“If
approach
REPUBLICAN
affair
going
the probably
classes
Education limited,
needed
eign
the world,
understanding
and
ing
man. what
individually
even
erty, underfoot,
spect trouble
sert
Cato,
public
whose
tors, least,
towns
to
day;
stored.
the
woman
were
they
Marcus
think the
IN
rare
unfairly.
a
did
of
decades to
his
the
of as
did
the
you
by rich
a the
but
suit
who
had
gar
half
in
kept
into
CIVILIZATION
peo
a
in
inci
occa
public
oppo
gentle-
do
having
serious
two
to
either
usually
matter.
How
or
polished
why
rights
be
studying
down
with
War,
an
the
advanced
boys
the
by
than
and
the
staged
Capitoline
which,
of
orders,
traditionalist
not
and
by
Oppius to
condition
on
included
their
were
City
geometry,
speeches
wars,
abrogation
passed famous
WESTERN
and
came
Punic
those
subject
developed
behavior cultured
but
the
come,
more
he
on
OF
Sometimes
the
.tTjhe
philosopher
the
complain? could
law
of
for to
.
approaches
the
Gaius
converse
women
his
parti-coloured
past
they
great
except a
.
assemblies,
some
in
tribunes
charges
their
learning limited
.
of a
fully
supporters
declaim
Sometimes
education.
as
of
went
as
in
relate,
of
husbands’
to
to
and
UPRISING the
could.
prosperous
possess
of
soon aroused,
Greek
the
arithmetic,
instructors
sit
to
the
could
women
heat
and
of a
it
TwoJ
their
wear
matrons he
or
Roman response
men
assembly
Sometimes
the
thereof,
boys
or
especially
repeal
carriage higher
festival their
believed
for
the
the
or FOUNDATIONS
The
a
in
the
son
streets a
.
The should
the
The himself
the
crowds
. literature
in
the
occasions.
acquire
what
trivial
vote
anxieties
to
mile
.
did
B.C.E.,
speech
in
The
objections
to
they some
support
dialectic,
a
gold
ill.
passions
trained
and
the
music.
His
finished
that,
law. on
law
and
•
not
memorize,
with
by
the
of rhetoric,
195
learn
Latin
religious
fine
contention.
ride
the all
Why
the
go
1
rhetoric.
woman
begging
and
of
necessary
a
this
Cato’s did
attached
•
affair
which
to
In manded
of
of
different would
of
They
or taught
within
scarce
occurred,
mid of
and
in
not
no
filled
sixteen,
Forum home.
write,
proposed
Oppian
home
ounce
PART
for
WOMEN’S
also
violent
At
the
forum,
at
blocked
nents
sion was
town
an ment
that
carried
the
a ple,
dent reason
A
thought
own
philosopher
speaker
Roman
student
able
them
Greek. models
study
elements would
tronomy,
Greek He 126 CHAPTER 4 • ROME: FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 131
THE RUIN OF THE ROMAN FAMILY FARM AND THE GRACCHAN REFORMS
The independent family farm was the backbone both of the Greek polis and of the early Roman Republic. Rome’s conquests, the long wars that kept the citizen-soldier away from his farm, and the availability of great numbers of slaves at a low price, however, badly undercut the traditional way of farming and with it the foundations of republican society. In the following passage, Plutarch describes the process of agricultural change and the response to it of the reformer Tiberius Gracchus, tribune in 133 B.C.E. • Why did Roman farmers face troubles? What were the social and political conse quences of the changes in agricultural life? What solution did Tiberius Gracchus propose? Why, besides selfishness and greed, did people oppose his plan?
f the territory which the Romans won in filled with gangs of foreign slaves, by whose aid Q war from their neighbours, a part they the rich cultivated their estates, from which sold, and a part they made common land, and as- they had driven away the free citizens. signed it for occupation to the poor and indigent And it is thought that a law dealing with in- among the citizens, on payment of a small rent justice and rapacity so great was never drawn up into the public treasury. And when the rich in milder and gentler terms. For men who ought began to offer larger rents and drove out the to have been punished for their disobedience poor, a law was enacted forbidding the holding and to have surrendered with payment of a fine by one person of more than five hundred acres of the land which they were illegally enjoying, land. For a short time this enactment gave a these men it merely ordered to abandon their in- check to the rapacity of the rich, and was of as- just acquisitions upon being paid their value, sistance to the poor, who remained in their and to admit into ownership of them such citi places on the land which they had rented and zens as needed assistance. But although the rec occupied the allotment which each had held tification of the wrong was so considerate, the from the outset. But later on the neighbouring people were satisfied to let bygones be bygones rich men, by means of fictitious personages, if they could be secure from such wrong in the transferred these rentals to themselves, and fi- future; the men of wealth and substance, how nally held most of the land openly in their own ever, were led by their greed to hate the law, and names. Then the poor, who had been ejected by their wrath and contentiousness to hate the from their land, no longer showed themselves lawgiver, and tried to dissuade the people by al eager for military service, and neglected the leging that Tiberius was introducing a re-distrib bringing up of children, so that soon all Italy ution of land for the confusion of the body was conscious of a dearth of freemen, and was politic, and was stirring up a general revolution.
From Plutarch, “Tiberius Gracchus,” in Lives 8—9,Vol. 10, trans. by Bemadotte Perrin and William Heinemann çLondon and New York: C. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1921), PP. 159—167.
Tiberius understood the danger he would face if They appear to have had some success, for many of he stepped down from the tribunate, so he an Tiberius’s supporters did not come out to vote. At nounced his candidacy for a second successive term, the elections a riot broke out, and a mob of senators striking another blow at tradition. His opponents and their clients killed Tiberius and some three feared he might go on to hold office indefinitely, to hundred of his followers and threw their bodies into dominate Rome in what appeared to them a dema the Tiber River. The Senate had put down the threat gogic tyranny. They concentrated their fire on the to its rule, but at the price of the first internal blood constitutional issue, the deposition of the tribune. shed in Roman political history.
In
in
the
the
133
sen
ade
land
these
made
to expan
Senate; Senate.
collect
and
an
nor
supplied
served had
the
the
and
themselves.
time,
provinces.
as
EMPIRE
purchase who
they Roman
warfare
to
the
TO
state
appealing peasants
in
the
rank
against
guarantee
provinces
of
of in
outlook
to because
-.
profits
the
Roman
neither
interest
REPUBLIC
in
Most
struggle
ii’. same continuOus
senatorial
ground
the
their
called
were
businesspeople
his
to
FROM
the
‘
granaries rich.
special
exploitation
(so
in
new
used
reach
a
had
were
Almost
collection the
ROME:
to
cavalry)
order
had
them
services
they
in
broke
•
tax
men
try
building
of
Some
taxes.
4
and
supply.
they
for and
equestrians to
Roman
its Gaius
Still,
ed sion
equestrian many the ators. and
The goods wealthy
need
volved quate generally,
CHAPTER
of of of
of
of
an
no
© in-
the
the law
and and
was
of
true
two
chil
there
be
by
Grac a
when
the
from
neigh
of by
danger homes.
friends.
father
in
holding
brought
as ©
poverty,
colonies:
meet
Carthage.
variety
state which
member
Copyright unlimited
Decline
of
his
it
man
could
a
late
came
tribunes
Musei
young Sallust,
to
fundamental
permission
of
Gaius
reelection
nothing commission,
and their
violated
more
images
Republic”
a
by
the the
to
Because new
strife, through
by
preferred
1963).
or gave
day of
powerful
left
from
the
the
Photograph
the
snatched the
Roman
site
there
Rome,
Marble.
a
of
finally
and
unknown
probably put
from
handful
civil
NY
the
much
then
so
Catiline
in
who
Italy. All
lapse. which old
land
an
a
Classics,
agrarian
of
he
illustrates services
by
till
were
have
power
carries
parents
Reproduced
nobility,
of
For
appealed
Decline
to
establish
was
respecting
ancestors.
the
Rome,
to
the
He of
tribunate
grain
Resource
driven
the
with
1963.
to
Factions war
permitted hs
Penguin acts,
power
ancestors,
greed,
public
on
of
of
statue
and
grandfather.
century,
be
Roman
Conspiracy
of
sacred,
on
his
Tiberius.
to
dominion: The
supporters,
law military
soldiers’
program
allowed one
custom. of and Scala/Art
busts Capitolini,
This the first The
downfall.
good
revived
Tiberius)
of
shared
Handford,
foundations Handford
price well
his
happened
factions
popular
the
of
rose he A.
everything,
A.
War:
spoils
Ltd.
and
proposed
possession
with ruthless
its
on
S.
S. own been
recent unjust
and
“Sallust the
nothing
that
of
to
they
a
by
were
Gaius’s
he
to
the
enough
its
the
to
Books
might
other
if
first,
Italy
had
Gracchus
(See
“Sallust
and
Estate
Jogurthine
(brother
than
in
not
B.C.E. Republic.”)
The translated Penguin
shaken earthquake.
dren, From
Thus scope about The glory
Meantime, noblemen while generals bour, holding burdened plundered
123
Gaius tribunes. demand, stabilizing
ous two
chus veto, was
the which Among times. groups,
or
as
the
the
for
own
were
most
advo
were
other
ambi
repub
tes, the
cynical
in
and
had
the
sup-
torn
were
split peo with party from
of
their
being and
could
the
multi-
they
offices,
its doubt,
reform,
of
for
hitherto
the
were
of for
sincere
he
was
was
passions, Fundamental
optima peace
no Is
but
political
on
people
the
the
power
huge
parties
and
fall
all,
land
Senate, in
opti people,
public
only
been
politicians
oligarchs a
of
what
the
which
dispas
of
the faction
The selfish course,
called the
Most,
democratic
the
after
the
events?
advantage
adversity.
of
for
of
to
have of
about alike
most
of
issues and
the organization, political
discipline,
community their
Roman position,
the
were
seizing
allies,
among politicians.
the
monograph
same the
interest DECLINE
like may
provinces,
fair period
not
beginning
political
position. Republic,
those
had
power group
the and
loose
triumphs.
their
his
leaders,
vehicles
party the
than
control
the
the
whole
few
gratify
as used
the Senate
the two,
Gracchus
WORLD
Italian
whereas
its
the
the
were seem republic?
use
Opponents
and
in
to
and
of its
the by
dispersed
a
from
the
the
the
to
common
small
who
bitter nobility
and
Some
THE
merely
to
body, in
So
of of
of unorthodox
popular
principled
and snatching
men.” versus
treasury,
groups events
the
marked a
ANCIENT
evaluated Tiberius
and
The
liberty, party,”
being
of troubles
One
role
of
of
than
of
started
best
man
THE
programs
Some
selection
parties,
weakened
been
have
distinctions These
harmful mixture
Caesar their
himself. IN
AND
a
close-knit cates
ambitions.
sell-seekers
lic. time
problems—divided semblies
treatment
questions—such tions
mal more
“the
tional
all
this war—the
everything tude.
porters a
was asunder.
Carthage
had
into
for every
ple
nobles
grievous
Rome’s
account
In
of
democratic
Julius
a at
of
REPUBLIC
his of
nobility” tn
not Ro
of of
and
for
de- the
inevitably
tradi
due
called
“the
as
more men
quiet explain
strug
war-
CIVILIZATION
the
vices, on,
“the people
was
Senate
effective
republic, the
changed
Does
the
as rarely
vices
to
Tiberius,
-
of
adversity
result
bloodshed
with
of
and
nobility.”
honor B.C.E. to
into were encouraged
aristocracy; even
the
an
a
of
destruction
that of
which
coalitions and
the
THE
then
to
compete
here
supporter
tries
“parties” use
be were preserved
and
as
for
146
political be
the “the
or WESTERN
a
of
the
rule
peace
state
to or
attendant not
in
Down
when time
Of FACTIONS
favourite
as
supported
Republic?
career
From
Gracchus member
OF
backing it,
resort
people
was
the
in
a
its
issues
Sallust did before,
the might
But
think Roman
pride—appeared
proposals
within
prosperity enemies
here
who
families
all
for
translated
struggles Tiberius’s
the
Roman
century
peaceably
such
factions
ON
its
Thus
War,
Roman blessing.
fear, B.C.E.) failure.
Carthage
senatorial
would and
years
of
political
state. of
Ttherius
the obtained
those last
with people
great a
of
citizens
Sallust
been
senatorial
the
FOUNDATIONS
his
longed of this
material
of
the sought
fear influence How
of
some
Heretofore
they
the
the the
of
did
(86—35
translated
situation.
fundamental
the
of
THE populares, Carthage,
greatest
had
that
on
pursue
government
In
revolutionary
existence
who
Jugurthine
• challenge
whereas
of
and
of
between
factions,
despite
the
Why
and
new
from
when
power; consequence.
generally
division
1
they
the the
to sionate?
decline
a
.
destruction the
as
called mates, Sallust
tribunate
politics. The and
or relieved
morals
solely
could
ring he
originated families.
had
PART
SALLUST
The
proved,
which
natural
were prosperity—licence
good
glory
restraint,
shared
struction
regard
peace
T had
substitute. politicians
populares,
pressure
based mans imitation
created bunate
stake. however,
such
reputation
Roman gles
$
132 ,,-,