Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J

Cambridge University Press 052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J. McIntosh Index More information

Index

Note: Locators for figures appear in italics.

abandonment, 199 anomie, 131 Jenne-jeno site, 177, 181, 199 Anyang (China), 221 Me´ma Basin, 177 Aougoundou, Lake, 69 accommodation systematics, 32, 56, 112 archaeological record in an unpredictable environment, 71 Pulse Model supported by, 128 clustered settlements, 106, 108, 109, recognition of specialist/ 185 corporate groups, 131, 148, 158 specialist groups, 106, 107, 110, 117, archaeologists 119 habits of mind, 29 rules of interaction, 112–114, 117, 120, implicit social values, 23, 25 122, 132 interpretation of data, 107 self-organization as, 58, 102, 130 archaeology serial evolution of, 71, 110 See also Pulse cognitive, 187 Model The Archaeology of City-States actual evapotranspiration (AET), 92 (Nichols and Charlton), 21 Adams, Robert M. architecture Hans Nissen and, The Uruk Countryside, city walls, 175, 224 193, 211 monuments, 15, 25, 26 Heartland of Cities, 193 mosques, 177 Adepts, 139 Arma people, 120 AET (actual evapotranspiration), 92 art African Union, 4 monumental, 15 agrarian lifestyle, 96 symbolism of, 160 agricultural intensification, lack of, 175, Aryans, 24 176 Ashmore, Wendy, 55, 58 agro-literate states, 21 Attarian, Christopher J., 132–133 Akle´dune system, 71 authority Akumbu site, 127, 128, 166 harvested by nyamakalaw, 188 Albright, W. F., 24 persuasive and contractual, Aldred, Cyril, 217 207 alienation, 132 resistance to, 188, 189, 205, Allen, P. M., 31, 33, 36, 40 215, 222 Allen, T. F. H., 204, 205, 206 authority axis, 35, 40 Alley, R. B., 79 autonomy, 28 Amadou, Se´kou, 122 See also freedom American Southwest, 75 axes, groundstone, 127 Ancestral Puebloans (North America), 75, Azawad Basin (Mali), 141 60, 70, 117 Andrews, Anthony P., 15 Azawagh paleochannel, 49 First Cities, 13–14 Aztec social order, 130

251

252 Index

Babylon Painted Ware, 147 creation epic, 20 Tellem footed bowl, 176 Larsa kingdom, 214 Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware, 147, Baleé’s premises, 50–52 169, 174, 200 Bambara millet farmers, 68, 113, 120, 122, Chad, Lake, 75, 82, 83, 84 179 Chang, K.-C., 210, 221–225 Bani River, 61 chaos, 56, 227 banishment, 96 Sahelian climate as, 58, 73, 79 Baoule´paleochannel, 49 charcoal burners’ corporation, 152 Bara-Issa, 65, 68 Charlton, T. H., D. L. Nichols and, The Barke´rou site, 127 Archaeology of City-States, 21 The Basin of Mexico (Sanders, Parsons, and Childe, V. Gordon, 13, 17 Santley), 193 China Bayo, Laminigbe´, 134 clustered settlement patterns, 221–225, beads, glass, 175, 176 226 Bedaux, Rogier M. A., J. D. Van der Waals Shang dynasty, 221 and, Djenne´. Une Ville Milleńaire au chronology, 15, 46, 49, 147 Mali, 131 anchoring sequence, 165, 180 Beńe´dougou, 146 ecological clustering (800–400 BC), Be´re´touma people, 126–127 164–167, 174 Bida (great snake), 49, 138 early cities (400 BC–AD 400), bifurcation, 33 173–175 biosphere, affected by human activity, 51, globalization of Middle Niger cities 55 (AD 1600), 179 birds, 94 stable city island (AD 1400–1600), blacksmiths, 137, 138 163–164, 179 technical knowledge and occult prowess, urban prosperity (AD 400–1000/1100), 151, 153, 155 175–177 Bosumtwi, Lake, 80, 84 urban shake-up (AD 1000/ boundaries, 108, 109, 114 1100–1400), 177–179 Boundou Boubou North cluster, 129 Cincinnatus, 228 Boundou Boubou South cluster, 128 cities Bozo people, 120, 121–122, 149, 167 with citadels, 11, 175, 224 bracelets, polished stone, 127 definitions, 13, 17–18, 129, 149–151, Bradley, R. S., 79 163, 192 braided channels, 61 as emergent intelligence, 44 Bras de Nampala paleochannel, 71 Greco-Roman, 23–24 Breasted, James Henry, 24 heterogeneity in, 148 Breuning, Peter, 95 as metaphors, 25 bronze, 148 origins south of the Sahara, 3 Brooks, George E., 85 as pattern-amplifying machines, 42, 136 burial practices, 169, 177 proto-cities, 164–167, 174, 210 with state-level organization, 6, 10–12, Cariaco Basin (Venezuela) 13, 14 monsoons, 85 traditional theories of, 10–12 sediments as proxy measure for without state-level organization, 12, 14, precipitation, 78 16, 43 See also urbanism catastrophic discontinuities, 79, 81, 84 city walls, 175, 224 cattle civilization, 13 terracotta statuettes, 127 See also cladograms, 29, 30 herders Clark, Mary, 184, 200 causation, levels of, 50 Clay, Albert, 24 ceramics, 128, 174, 199 climate Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147 growing seasons, 91 Jenne-jeno sequence, 147 Holocene proxy measures, 77

Index 253

land–atmospheric–oceanic system, 76, 79 of reputation, 41–42, 114, 135–137, 149, Sahelian, as chaotic, 58, 73, 79 See also 205, 208 meteorological data; paleoclimate specialists and, 129 climate change, 76, 80, 111 core values anthropogenic, 46 distribution of environmental risks, 96, deglaciation, 79, 81 111, 205 human response to, 53 corporate, definition, 16–18 time scale corporate diversity, 16–18, 40 102, 86 corporate groups 103, 85, 115 archaeological recognition of, 148 104, 84, 115 collaboration of, 141 105, 78 identity, 108, 134–135, 149, 160, interannual, 87 160–162 inter-decadal, 87 proxy measure of, 162 climate modes, 79 See also ethnic groups; specialist groups anomaly types, 85–87, 86 corve´e labor, 215 climate phases co-speciation, 32 Phase I: Oscillatory Transition, 81 Covenantial Piety, 22, 23 Phase II: Stable (First Holocene Pluvial), creation epics 80, 81 Babylonian, 20 Phase III: Stable (Second Holocene Mesopotamian, 14 Pluvial), 82 crops, 63, 95–96, 117 Phase IV: Fluid Frontiers, 83 Cultural Ecology, 45 Phase V: Big Dry, 84 culture areas, 174 Phase VI: Stable Optimum, 84 Phase VII: High Unpredictability, 84–86 Dahl, G., 101 climatic pulses, 89 dalimasigi. See knowledge quests See also Pulse Model (dalimasigi) clustered settlements Dantu site, 225 Chinese, 221–225, 226 Daounas highlands, 69 Egyptian, 217 data Iron Age, 123, 128–129 freedom from bias, 193 Mesopotamian, 211, 225 goodness of fit, 193, 194 Middle Niger, 128–129, 139, 141–142 non-comparability of, 193 clustering Dean, Jeffrey, 87 as a proto-urban process, 164–167, De´bo, Lake, 65, 66, 68 174 debt, salutary and undischargeable, 113, 203 of specialist groups, 102, 210 decentralization, 208, 214–216 in an unpredictable environment, 106, decision making 108, 109, 185 coercive, 132 co-evolution, 32, 33, 42, 56 by consensus, 132 cognitive archaeology, 187 deglaciation, 79, 81 Colombijn, F., 132 deltas colonization hypotheses, 173 bird foot, 66 communication via criers, 7 dead, 60, 70 See also Me´ma Basin (Mali) community good, 139 live, 61 complexity, 32 DeMenocol, Peter, 75 conflicts democracy, 12 inter-ethnic, 121–122 desertification, 53 over land use, 112, 121 determinism, 29, 51 Conrad, David, 134, 139 diagnostic artifacts, 163, 170 copper, 147, 148, 157 Diaka channel, 65 core–periphery, 223, 224 Dia Urban Cluster, 167–170, 168, 174, core rules (Mande) 177, 181–183, 182 power (nyama) and, 136–138, 203 hinterlands, 168, 200–201, 201

254 Index

discovery, 5 ex astra state hierarchy, 18–23, 19, 26, 143, definition, 1 211, 223 discrimination, typology of, 162 excavation, 183, 184 diversification, 149 Jenne, 184 vs. specialization, 119 Jenne-jeno, 170–173 within specialization, 52 Feature 21, 155, 156 diversity House 10, 153–155, 154 corporate, 16–18, 40 mille-feuille strata, 145 ecological, 141, 142, 143, 188 SM-O wall complexes, 178 divine right of kings, 25 unit LX, 170 Djenne´. Une Ville Mille´naire au Mali (Bedaux units and cores, 172 and Van der Waals), 131 mechanical coring, 184 Doˆ, Lake, 69 test strategy, 163, 164 Dogon people, 113, 120, 155 exchange, 127, 141, 149, 175, 205 donkey-carts, 3, 4 gold trade, 6 Doupwil site, 179 Dyula (Wangara), 146–147, 148, 167 Faguibine, Lake, 64, 69 Faita people, 127 Early Dryas, 81 Fala de Molodo paleochannel, 71 Echinocloa stagnina, 66 farmers, 103, 105 ecological abstractions, 111, 120 Bambara millet, 68, 113, 120, 122, 179 via mythology, 112 Marka (Nono) rice, 65, 112–113, 120, Ecological Resilience, 149 120–122, 149, 167 economy, urban, 129, 133 Ferlo Valley, 117 Ecosocial Interdependence, 222, 225 field journal, 3 ecosystems, hierarchical concept of, 28, 55, Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147 139, 140, 142 Fineware. See Upper Inland Niger Delta edaphic conditions. See soils Fineware Egypt, 1 First Cities (Andrews), 13–14 Predynastic period, 209–210,216–221,218 fish, 94 See also Nile Valley fisherfolk, 103, 108, 120, 149, 150 El-Ahmar paleochannel, 49, 70–71, 117 flexibility, 41, 58, 73, 143 elites, 15, 21, 150, 217 Flohn, H., 34 lack of, 189 flood area, 90–92 emergent intelligence, cities as, 44 floodplains endogamy, 113 comparison of, 71 energized crowding, 130, 134 Middle Niger, 56–57, 61–63 environment, 33, 45 Nile, 56–57 erg, definition, 66 Tigris/Euphrates, 1, 53, 56–57 Erg of Bara basin (Mali), 65, 67–68, 120 vegetation, 66 Erg de Ouagadou, 71 flora, 92–94 Etheria elliptica (freshwater oyster), 123 crops, 63, 95–96, 117 ethnic groups floodplain vegetation, 66 ecological abstractions and, 114 grasses, 93 identity, 106, 110, 112, 130 foraminifera, planktonic, 74 subsistence-defined geokistic map, 121 Frank, Barbara E., 158 See also corporate groups; specialist freedom, 22, 25 groups freedom from bias, 193 Euphrates River Friedman, Rene´e, 220 floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57 fruits, 94 See also Mesopotamia Fulani (Peul) herders, 65, 66, 120, evidence 122, 179 high preponderance of, 162 funerary features, 171 inferential testimony of, 162 See also burial practices evolutionary mutation, 24 Furon, Raymond, 71

Index 255

Galia site, 179 Hierakonpolis (Egypt), 210, 217–221, 218 Gao (Mali), 92 hierarchical segmentation, 223, 225 Gao Trough, 60 hierarchies Gaou, Lake, 69 advantages of, 27–28 Garrard, Timothy, 157 alternatives to, 189, 211 gatekeepers, 15, 19, 139 collapse of, 207, 227 gatherers, 96 ex astra state hierarchy, 18–23, 19, 26, generalists vs. specialists, 125–126, 127 143, 211, 223 Geni. See Jenne (Mali) fused, 28–29, 135 geokistic maps social/political structure, 15–16, 17, 177, Me´ma Basin, 98, 100 202 Nile Valley, 97 hierarchy–heterarchy nesting, 215, 222, subsistence-defined ethnic groups, 121 223, 225, 227, 228 geokistics, as a predictive model for High Amplitude Variability (HAV), 79, 87 settlement patterns, 98 See also High Temporal Variability (HTV), 79, 87 geokistic maps Hilprecht, Hermann, 24 geology historical documents, 130 faulting and subsidence, 60–61 Historical Ecology, 45–46, 50, 53–56, 119 satellite image of folded rocks, 64 Bale´e’s premises, 50–52 See also geomorphology, 57, 59, 60–63 landscape anastomosing rivers, 60, 61, 215 Hoekstra, T. W. (Allen et al.), 204, 205, 206 Me´ma Basin, 70–73, 72 Hoffman, Michael A., 219 Ghana Empire, 12, 49, 177 Holocene Pluvial gold, 157, 176 First, 80, 81 gold trade, 6 Second, 82 goldweights, 157 Hopewell peoples (North America), 138 goodness of fit, 193, 194 Hopkins, Anthony E., 147 Gorgol paleochannel, 49, 117 horizontal authority, 141 See also Goundam Hills, 69 heterarchies Gourma-Rharous (Mali), 69 horses, introduction of, 177 granary/altar, 185 households, 149 grasses, 93 Human Ecology, 45 Greco-Roman cities, 23–24 hunters, 96, 138 Green, F. W., 219 hydrology, 46, 46–48, 47, 59, 72 grinding stones, 144–147 hypotheses growing seasons, 91 colonization hypotheses, 173 Guinea, coast deep-drilling project, 73 orbital monsoon hypothesis, 76

Hambarketolo site, 3, 152, 184 Ice Age–Holocene hinge, 80 Hamdallahi site, 180 identity Han dynasty, 175 ambiguity of, 109, 114 Haribomo, Lake, 69 corporate groups, 108, 134–135, 149, Hassan, Fekri, 79, 96, 98, 217, 219 160, 160–162 Heartland of Cities (Adams), 193 ethnic groups, 106, 110, 112, 130 herders, 95, 103, 126 as one’s place in the environment, 107 Fulani (Peul), 65, 66, 120, 122, 179 See representation of, 120, 135 also pastoralism social self-selection, 133–134 heterarchies specialist groups, 130, 133–134 ethos of resistance to authority, 188, 189, Imperial Tradition, 177 205, 215, 222 Inca social order, 130 logic of, 43, 141, 187–189 infanticide, 96 Middle Niger, 44, 208, 228 infestations, 96 phase transform diagram, 207 interaction spheres, 224 as superordinate systems, 28 intermarriage, regulation of, 113 heterogeneity in cities, 148 invisibility function, 162

256 Index

Iron Age sites, 127 Kolimbine´paleochannel, 49 clustered, 123, 128–129 Konare´, Adam Ba, 208 Me´ma Basin, 124 Konare´, Alpha Oumar, 4, 12, 162, 207–208 iron ore, 147 Koran, 161, 180 iron production, 108, 138, 151–156, 176 Korientze´, Lake, 65, 68, 69 Islam, 160, 161, 177 Kostof, Spiro, 130, 134 Israel, 24 Kuhn, Thomas, 29 Issa-Ber River, 68 Kutzbach, J. E., 76

Jacobsen, Thorkild, 14 Lakes Region (Mali), 68–69 Jantsch, Erich, 34 landscape, 55–56 Jenne (Mali), 131, 174, 179–180, 202 archaeological analysis of, 129 alternative spellings and names, 6 knowledge quests and, 139 hinterlands, 120, 198 perceptions of, 50, 58, 89, 100, 111, 149 SM-O wall complexes, 178 Mande, 139–142, 149, 187–191 surface collection, 183 self-organizing, 42, 44, 52, 136–137, 205, Jenne-jeno site 225 See also phase transform abandonment, 177, 181, 199 diagrams alternative spellings and names, 7 co-evolution and, 32–33 ceramic sequence, 147 Level I, 102–104, 103 cladograms, 30 Level II, 104, 104 discovery, 1–5 Level III, 105, 106 excavation, 170–173 Level IV, 105, 107 Feature 2, 155, 156 as ‘‘over-engineered,’’ 43 House 10, 153–155, 154 specialist groups knowledge of, 101 mille-feuille strata, 145 total landscape phenomena, 51–53 unit LX, 170 traits units and cores, 172 chaotic matrix of biophysical, 56 hinterlands, 108, 183 wealth of resources, 56, 96 mound, 2 landscape amplification, 140, 142 relationship to Dia, 183 Larsa kingdom, 214 research strategy, 183–185 Late Glacial Maximum, 80 Urban Complex, 184, 186, 187 laterite, 63, 69 Johnson, Steven, 43–44, 150 Lates niloticus (Nile perch), 126 Judaism, 26 Late Stone Age, 174 Me´ma Basin sites, 124 Kangousa site, 108–109 migrations, 84 Kaniana site, 122, 184 settlement patterns, 123–128 Kauffman, Stuart, 32, 33 Late Stone Age–Iron Age transition, Keightley, David, 221 164–167 Kemp, Barry J., 217–219 LaViolette, Adria, 180 kinship bonds, fictive, 113 Levant, 24 Knapp, A. B., 55, 58 Levtzion, Nehemia, 12 knowledge, occult, 121, 141, 153, 190 Liangchengzhen site, 225 of blacksmiths, 151, 153, 155 Little Ice Age, 75, 84 knowledge quests (dalimasigi), 138–139, locust, desert (Schistocerca gregaria), 96 140, 190, 203 looters, 8, 160 Knox, P. L., 150 Lorenz, Edward, 34, 76, 87 Koanta lineage, 167 Kobadi people, 126–127 MacDonald, Kevin, 123–128, 194 Koechlin, Jean, 87, 92 Macina Basin (Mali), 54, 66–67, 67 Koli-Koli channel, 68 magic square, 161, 180 Kolima cluster, 127 Makaske, Bart, 61 Kolima Sud, 127 Malfante, Antonio, 6 Kolima Sud-Ouest, 127 Mali Empire, 12, 177, 190, 202

Index 257

mammals, 94 map, 54 domesticated, 95 See also herders Pulse Model and, 117 Mande people satellite image, 99 core rules of reputation, 41–42, 114, settlement patterns, 123–129 135–137, 149, 205, 208 sites, 123–129, 124 heroes and heroines, 134, 137, 138, 190, vehicular survey, 195 203 Mesoamerica, 11 sacred power-places, 138, 139–142, Mesopotamia 187–191 creation epic, 14 view of landscapes, 139–142, 149, Early Dynastic hierarchy, 214 187–191 floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57 Mangabe´ra site, 194, 196, 197 geomorphology, 57 Manzanilla, L., 11 Mashkan-shapir, 214–216 mapping of sites, 184 urban history, 24, 130, 211 maps Uruk period, 209, 209–210, 211–214 geokistic Warka Survey, 212 Me´ma Basin, 98, 100 metalworking, copper–bronze–brass Nile Valley, 97 evolution, 176 subsistence-defined ethnic groups, 121 meteorological data, 73, 85 Macina Basin, 54 methodology Me´ma Basin, 46, 46–48, 54 judgmental survey, 192–197 Upper Delta Basin, 57 master units, 170 Mara site, 167–170, 168 surface recording, 184 Marka (Nono) rice farmers, 65, 112–113, systematic survey, 197–199, 200, 225 120, 120–122, 149, 167 micro-desertification, 53 Mashkan-shapir (Mesopotamia), 214–216 Middle Niger basins, 16, 56, 58 masons’ corporation, 158 Azawad, 60, 70, 117 material culture, 111 Erg of Bara, 65, 67–68, 120 Mauny, Raymond, 22 floodplain, 56–57, 61–63 Tableau Ge´ographique de l’Ouest Africain, geology/geomorphology, 59, 60–63 9–10 hydrology, 47 Mauritania, 117 Lakes Region and Niger Bend, 68–69 coast deep-drilling project, 73 Macina, 54, 66–67, 67 Maya peoples Me´ma, 46, 46–48, 72 sacbeob roadway, 138 abandonment, 177 social order, 130 dead delta, 60 McIntosh, Susan geokistics map, 98, 100 on copper–bronze–brass evolution, 176 geomorphology, 70–73, 72 on culture areas, 174 hydrology, 46, 46–48, 72 diversification within specialization, 51 map, 54 Jenne-jeno impressions, 3, 5 Pulse Model and, 117 Middle Niger as the ‘‘Island of Gold,’’ satellite image, 99 176 settlement patterns, 123–129 on neoevolutionary theory, 36 sites, 123–129, 124 reorganization of production centers, 155 vehicular survey, 195 reorganization of trade, 183 Upper Delta, 46, 46–48, 63, 64–66 Timbuktu hinterland survey, 194 geomorphology, 57 McNaughton, Patrick, 137, 140 migrations, 84, 116, 174 Medieval Warm period, 84 See also Pulse Model Me´ma Basin (Mali) Milankovitch (orbital-beat) cycles, 76–79 abandonment, 177 millet (Pennisetum americanum), 63, 68, 95, dead delta, 60 105 geokistics map, 98, 100 Millinski, Manfred, 42, 114 geomorphology, 70–73, 72 Missions Pale´oenvironnements du Sahara hydrology, 46, 46–48, 72 Occidental et Central, 1980–88, 81

258 Index

monoculture, dangers of, 119 Oryza glaberrima (African rice), 63, 95, 120 Monod, The´odore, 22 Oriya sativa (Asian rice), 63, 120 monsoons ‘‘over-engineering,’’ , 43, 207 Atlantic data, 74 See also flexibility Cariaco Basin (Venezuela), 85 oyster, freshwater (Etheria elliptica), 123 global patterns, 76 Monteil, Charles, 167 pacemakers, 136 monuments, 15, 25, 26 Painted Ware, 147 Mopti (Mali), 92 paleochannels, 47, 49, 65, 68, 70–71, 117 Morris, I., 21 paleoclimate, 80 mosques, 177 climate change mud brick, cylindrical, 158 interannual time scale, 87 mythology, 112, 114, 120 inter-decadal time scale, 87 as legitimization, 161 102 time scale, 86 reinforcing rules of interaction, 122 103 time scale, 85, 115 104 time scale, 84, 115 Naqada (Egypt), 217–221 105 time scale, 78 Nara Trough, 60 Late Glacial Ice Age, 65 Ndondi Tossokel people, 126–127 Pleistocene dry phase, 65 nesting of hierarchy–heterarchy, 215, 222, proxy measures, 73–75, 80 223, 225, 227, 228 reconstruction, 75, 85 Neumann, Katharina, 95 trends, 73 Niakene´Maoudo paleochannel, 71 Pale´o-De´bo, Lake, 65, 66 Niane, D. T., 179 paradoxes Niangay, Lake, 69 diversification within specialization, 52 Nicholson, Sharon, 73, 85–87 of specialization, 109, 119 nickpoints, climatic, 79 Sustainability Paradox, 203–204, 206 Niessouma cluster, 128 Park, Thomas K., 73 Niger Bend, 68–69 Parsons, Jeffrey R., William T. Sanders, Niger–Chad Sudanian ichthyological Robert S. Santley and, The Basin of province, 94 Mexico, 193 Niger River, 46, 61, 62 pastoralism, 105, 117 Nile Valley, 100 See also herders floodplain, 56–57 patchiness, climatic, 75 geokistic map, 97 pattern-amplifying machines, cities as, 42, geomorphology, 57 136 settlement patterns, 218 Pennisetum americanum (millet), 63, 68, 95, See also Egypt 105 Nissen, Hans, Robert M. Adams and, The perceptions of landscape, 50, 58, 89, 100, Uruk Countryside, 193, 211 111, 149 Nono rice farmers. See Marka (Nono) rice perch, Nile (Lates niloticus), 126 farmers permanence, signposts of, 14 Nubia, 216 PET (potential evapotranspiration), 92 nucleation, 52 Petit-Maire, Nicole, 81 nyama (power), 140, 153, 188–191 phase (intransitivity) diagrams, 34 core rules and, 136–138, 203 phase transform diagrams, 34–40 Nyansanare levee, 65 of heterarchical cities, 207 Middle Niger, 35–39, 43, 44, 79, 201, 202 occult knowledge, 121, 141, 153, 190 See also self-organizing landscape of blacksmiths, 151, 153, 155 phase transitions, 33, 76, 79, 87, 104 onomasticon, 138, 139, 140 piety, 26 orbital-beat cycles, 76–79 planktonic foraminifera, 74 orbital monsoon hypothesis, 76 polities, 220 origin traditions, 167, 170–173 peer, 217 Oryza barthii spp. (wild rice), 63, 66 regional, 216

Index 259

Pollock, Susan, 214 reciprocity, 42, 114, 137, 141, 206 polynucleated sprawl, 181, 185 reductionism, 29–31, 34, 51 Pondori depression, 65 reputation, 43 population axis, 35, 40 core rules of (Mande), 41–42, 114, population density, 7 135–137, 149, 205, 208 potential evapotranspiration (PET), 92 research strategy, 163, 183–185, 197–200 potters’ corporation, 105, 158 resilience, 53 power definition, 205–206 3-D spatial blueprint of, 139, 141, 188 ecological, 149 despotic, 143 vs. sustainability, 206 nyama, 140, 153, 188–191 within sustainability, 207 core rules and, 136–138, 203 resources, availability of, 56, 96 of place, 138, 139–142, 187–191 responsibility, definition, 41 resistance to, 188, 189, 205, 215, 222 rice, 63, 68, 105 of the state, 26 rice, African (Oryza glaberrima), 63, 95, 120 of symbols, 162 rice, Asian (Oryza sativa), 63, 120 precipitation rice, wild (Oryza barthii spp.), 63, 66 Cariaco Basin sediments as proxy Rimaibe people, 120, 122, 149 measure for, 78 risk management, 96, 111, 205 Jenne (Mali), 88 rivers Timbuktu (Mali), 88 braided channels, 61 precipitation patterns deltas, 60, 61, 66, 70 anomaly types, 85–87 paleochannels, 47, 49, 65, 68, 70–71, 117 Prigogine, I., 31, 33, 36, 40 rulers, divine right of, 25 Projet d’Inventaire des Sites Archeólogique, La rules of interaction, 112–114, 117, 120, 132 Zone Lacustre (Raimbault and Sanogo), mythology reinforcing, 122 194 See also core rules (Mande) proto-cities, 164–167, 174, 210 al-Saqdi, 177 proto-polities, 210 Ta’rikh es-Sudan, 6–8 proxy measures Cariaco Basin sediments, 78 Saharan–Sahel frontier, 116 for Holocene climate, 77 Sahel Drought, 75, 86 paleoclimate, 73–75, 80 Sahelian climate modes, 86 of specialization, 131 salination of soils, 92 Pulse Model, 102–106, 114, 115, 116 salinity of ocean water, 74 predicting settlement patterns, 110, 119, salt, 148 165 Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, resolving the paradox of specialization, Robert S. Santley and, The Basin of 109, 119 Mexico, 193 serial evolution of accommodation and, Sanogo, Kleńa, Michel Raimbault and, 71, 110 Projet d’Inventaire des Sites testable implications of, 106–108, Archeólogique, La Zone Lacustre, 194 117–119, 123–125, 128 Santley, Robert S., Jeffrey R. Parsons, undercounting diversity, 149 William T. Sanders and, The Basin of See also accommodation systematics Mexico, 193 satellite communities, 181, 189 Quibell, J. E., 219 Schistocerca gregaria (desert locust), 96 sea surface temperature (SST), 74–75 radiocarbon dating, 164 as proxy measure for Holocene climate, Raimbault, Michel, Kleńa Sanogo and, 77 Projet d’Inventaire des Sites Sebi-Marigot paleochannel, 65 Archeólogique, La Zone Lacustre, sedentarism, 105, 125 194 sediments, Cariaco Basin, as proxy measure Raynaut, Claude, 96 for precipitation, 78 reality, social construction of, 111 Se´gou Basin (Mali), 60

260 Index

self-definition, 130, 133 archaeological recognition of, 131, 158 self-interest vs. superordinate interest, 28 clustering of, 102, 210 self-organization, 31, 36–40, 43, 211 core rules and, 129 as accommodation, 58, 102, 130 identity, 130, 133–134 self-organization and complexity studies, 27 knowledge of landscape, 101 self-organization dynamics, 33–34 settlement patterns, 96, 157, 158, 220 self-organizing landscape, 42, 44, 52, in an unpredictable environment, 106, 136–137, 205, 225 107, 110, 117, 119 co-evolution and, 32–33 vs. generalists, 125–126, 127 Level I, 102–104, 103 See also corporate groups; ethnic groups; Level II, 104, 104 specific specialities Level III, 105, 106 specialization, 96, 117, 206 Level IV, 105, 107 diversification within, 52 as ‘‘over-engineered,’’ , 43 paradox of, 109, 119 See also phase transform diagrams proxy measures of, 131, 158 Senegal, 117 vs. diversification, 119 Senegal River, 46 SST (sea surface temperature), 74–75 Senegal Valley, 57 as proxy measure for Holocene senilicide, 96 climate, 77 settlement patterns states geokistics as a predictive model for, 98 agro-literate, 21 See also geokistic maps cities with state-level organization, 6, Iron Age, 129 10–12, 13, 14 Pulse Model predicting, 110, 119, 165 infrastructure, 16 of specialist groups, 96, 157, 158, 220 power of, 26 Shangqiu Project, 224 urbanism and, 211, 217–219 Shoma site, 167–170, 168, 200 See also ex astra state hierarchy Shukla, Jagadish, 45, 73 statuettes, terracotta, 8, 158 signal amplification, 139, 141 of cattle, 127 Smith, Andy, 101 male–female pairs, 155 Smith, Monica L., 132, 133, 181 as proxy measure of social complexity, Smith, Zeric, 208 158 snake, great (Bida), 49, 138 Stone, Elizabeth, 214–215 Social Memory, 89 stories. See mythology social organization, 21 subsistence, 134, 174, 176 horizontal, 189, 223 Sundstro¨m, Lars, 122 individual’s position within, 223 survey methodology oscillation between heterarchy and judgmental survey, 192–197 hierarchy, 227 systematic survey, 197–199, 200, 225 terracotta statuettes as proxy measure of, sustainability, 29, 52, 53, 205 158 definition, 204–205 urbanization theory, 132 resilience within, 207 See also heterarchies; hierarchies vs. resilience, 206 social values sustainability axis, 35 archaeological testing of, 188 Sustainability Paradox, 203–204, 206 implicit, of archaeologists, 23, 25 symbiosis, 27, 122 sodalities, 137 symbols soils, 89–92, 116 of belonging, 161 solar radiation, 76, 79 magic square, 161, 180 Somono people, 108, 120, 121, 149 power of, 162 Songhai Empire, 120, 177, 202 Tableau Ge´ographique de l’Ouest Africain Soninke´merchants, 183 (Mauny), 9–10 Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), 63, 68, 95, 105 Tainter, J. A. (Allen et al.), 204, 205, 206 Sorko Bozo people, 95, 149 tales. See mythology specialist groups Taoudenni syncline, 60, 70

Index 261

Ta’rikh es-Sudan (al-Saqdi), 6–8 theocratic, 26 Tegdaoust, 183 See also cities Te´le´, Lake, 69 urbanization Tellem footed bowl, 176 criteria, 222 tells, 22 theory of, 132 definition, 12 urban society, 209 Thomas, David, 21 criteria, 13 Tichitt (Mauritania), 95 The Uruk Countryside (Adams and Nissen), Tigris River 193, 211 floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57 See also Mesopotamia Valle´e du Serpent, 48–50, 138 Timbuktu (Mali), 69, 91 hydrology, 47 hinterlands, 194 Van der Waals, J. D., Rogier M. A. Bedaux survey, 196 and, Djenne´. Une Ville Mille´naire au Togola, Te´re´ba, 123, 128–129, 166–167, Mali, 131 194, 194 Vansina, Jan, 111, 160 Tossaye Sill, 60 variability, 53, 86, 87, 163, 168, 170 total landscape phenomena, 51–53 in the archaeological record, 163 trade, 147–148 vegetation local, 148 of the floodplain, 66 long-distance, 148, 175 zones, 91 networks, 147 Vernet, Robert, 80, 84, 85, 89 riverine exchange system, 176 Vieillard, G., 8 trans-Saharan camel trade, 148 reorganization of, 183 Wagadu Empire, 49 traders, 146–147 Walado, Lake, 66 Tragedy of the Commons, 41, 43, 114 Wangara. See Dyula (Wangara) Traore´, Baukassou, 162 Warka Survey, 211, 212 Traore´, Salumoy, 155 Waso Boran people (Kenya), 101 Trigger, Bruce, 17, 149, 192, 217–219 water balance, 92 Tuareg people, 122 water management, 215 tumuli, 177 water spirits, 112, 138, 149, 153, 190 twins, ancestral, 113 wealth, 90 Typha swamp, 92 West Africa, 5–8 West Africa craton, 60 Underhill, Anne P., 225 Wilkinson, T. J., 192, 215 universals of life in large concentrations, Wilkinson, Toby A. H., 216, 219 131–132 Wilson, John, 210, 217 unpredictability, 58, 119 Wright, Rita, 211, 215 Upper Delta Basin (Mali), 46, 46–48, 63, 64–66 Xolimbine´Valley, 117, 118 map, 57 Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware, 147, Yahwism, 22, 23–27, 227 169, 174, 200 Younger Dryas, 80 Urban Complexes, 181, 188 urbanism, 10, 22, 23, 36–40, 224, 225 Zeder, Melinda, 129, 133 definition, 185 Zhengzhou (China), 221 statehood and, 211, 217–219 Zimansky, Paul, 214–215