Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J
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Cambridge University Press 052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J. McIntosh Index More information Index Note: Locators for figures appear in italics. abandonment, 199 anomie, 131 Jenne-jeno site, 177, 181, 199 Anyang (China), 221 Me´ma Basin, 177 Aougoundou, Lake, 69 accommodation systematics, 32, 56, 112 archaeological record in an unpredictable environment, 71 Pulse Model supported by, 128 clustered settlements, 106, 108, 109, recognition of specialist/ 185 corporate groups, 131, 148, 158 specialist groups, 106, 107, 110, 117, archaeologists 119 habits of mind, 29 rules of interaction, 112–114, 117, 120, implicit social values, 23, 25 122, 132 interpretation of data, 107 self-organization as, 58, 102, 130 archaeology serial evolution of, 71, 110 See also Pulse cognitive, 187 Model The Archaeology of City-States actual evapotranspiration (AET), 92 (Nichols and Charlton), 21 Adams, Robert M. architecture Hans Nissen and, The Uruk Countryside, city walls, 175, 224 193, 211 monuments, 15, 25, 26 Heartland of Cities, 193 mosques, 177 Adepts, 139 Arma people, 120 AET (actual evapotranspiration), 92 art African Union, 4 monumental, 15 agrarian lifestyle, 96 symbolism of, 160 agricultural intensification, lack of, 175, Aryans, 24 176 Ashmore, Wendy, 55, 58 agro-literate states, 21 Attarian, Christopher J., 132–133 Akle´dune system, 71 authority Akumbu site, 127, 128, 166 harvested by nyamakalaw, 188 Albright, W. F., 24 persuasive and contractual, Aldred, Cyril, 217 207 alienation, 132 resistance to, 188, 189, 205, Allen, P. M., 31, 33, 36, 40 215, 222 Allen, T. F. H., 204, 205, 206 authority axis, 35, 40 Alley, R. B., 79 autonomy, 28 Amadou, Se´kou, 122 See also freedom American Southwest, 75 axes, groundstone, 127 Ancestral Puebloans (North America), 75, Azawad Basin (Mali), 141 60, 70, 117 Andrews, Anthony P., 15 Azawagh paleochannel, 49 First Cities, 13–14 Aztec social order, 130 251 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J. McIntosh Index More information 252 Index Babylon Painted Ware, 147 creation epic, 20 Tellem footed bowl, 176 Larsa kingdom, 214 Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware, 147, Bale´e’s premises, 50–52 169, 174, 200 Bambara millet farmers, 68, 113, 120, 122, Chad, Lake, 75, 82, 83, 84 179 Chang, K.-C., 210, 221–225 Bani River, 61 chaos, 56, 227 banishment, 96 Sahelian climate as, 58, 73, 79 Baoule´paleochannel, 49 charcoal burners’ corporation, 152 Bara-Issa, 65, 68 Charlton, T. H., D. L. Nichols and, The Barke´rou site, 127 Archaeology of City-States, 21 The Basin of Mexico (Sanders, Parsons, and Childe, V. Gordon, 13, 17 Santley), 193 China Bayo, Laminigbe´, 134 clustered settlement patterns, 221–225, beads, glass, 175, 176 226 Bedaux, Rogier M. A., J. D. Van der Waals Shang dynasty, 221 and, Djenne´. Une Ville Mille´naire au chronology, 15, 46, 49, 147 Mali, 131 anchoring sequence, 165, 180 Be´ne´dougou, 146 ecological clustering (800–400 BC), Be´re´touma people, 126–127 164–167, 174 Bida (great snake), 49, 138 early cities (400 BC–AD 400), bifurcation, 33 173–175 biosphere, affected by human activity, 51, globalization of Middle Niger cities 55 (AD 1600), 179 birds, 94 stable city island (AD 1400–1600), blacksmiths, 137, 138 163–164, 179 technical knowledge and occult prowess, urban prosperity (AD 400–1000/1100), 151, 153, 155 175–177 Bosumtwi, Lake, 80, 84 urban shake-up (AD 1000/ boundaries, 108, 109, 114 1100–1400), 177–179 Boundou Boubou North cluster, 129 Cincinnatus, 228 Boundou Boubou South cluster, 128 cities Bozo people, 120, 121–122, 149, 167 with citadels, 11, 175, 224 bracelets, polished stone, 127 definitions, 13, 17–18, 129, 149–151, Bradley, R. S., 79 163, 192 braided channels, 61 as emergent intelligence, 44 Bras de Nampala paleochannel, 71 Greco-Roman, 23–24 Breasted, James Henry, 24 heterogeneity in, 148 Breuning, Peter, 95 as metaphors, 25 bronze, 148 origins south of the Sahara, 3 Brooks, George E., 85 as pattern-amplifying machines, 42, 136 burial practices, 169, 177 proto-cities, 164–167, 174, 210 with state-level organization, 6, 10–12, Cariaco Basin (Venezuela) 13, 14 monsoons, 85 traditional theories of, 10–12 sediments as proxy measure for without state-level organization, 12, 14, precipitation, 78 16, 43 See also urbanism catastrophic discontinuities, 79, 81, 84 city walls, 175, 224 cattle civilization, 13 terracotta statuettes, 127 See also cladograms, 29, 30 herders Clark, Mary, 184, 200 causation, levels of, 50 Clay, Albert, 24 ceramics, 128, 174, 199 climate Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147 growing seasons, 91 Jenne-jeno sequence, 147 Holocene proxy measures, 77 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J. McIntosh Index More information Index 253 land–atmospheric–oceanic system, 76, 79 of reputation, 41–42, 114, 135–137, 149, Sahelian, as chaotic, 58, 73, 79 See also 205, 208 meteorological data; paleoclimate specialists and, 129 climate change, 76, 80, 111 core values anthropogenic, 46 distribution of environmental risks, 96, deglaciation, 79, 81 111, 205 human response to, 53 corporate, definition, 16–18 time scale corporate diversity, 16–18, 40 102, 86 corporate groups 103, 85, 115 archaeological recognition of, 148 104, 84, 115 collaboration of, 141 105, 78 identity, 108, 134–135, 149, 160, interannual, 87 160–162 inter-decadal, 87 proxy measure of, 162 climate modes, 79 See also ethnic groups; specialist groups anomaly types, 85–87, 86 corve´e labor, 215 climate phases co-speciation, 32 Phase I: Oscillatory Transition, 81 Covenantial Piety, 22, 23 Phase II: Stable (First Holocene Pluvial), creation epics 80, 81 Babylonian, 20 Phase III: Stable (Second Holocene Mesopotamian, 14 Pluvial), 82 crops, 63, 95–96, 117 Phase IV: Fluid Frontiers, 83 Cultural Ecology, 45 Phase V: Big Dry, 84 culture areas, 174 Phase VI: Stable Optimum, 84 Phase VII: High Unpredictability, 84–86 Dahl, G., 101 climatic pulses, 89 dalimasigi. See knowledge quests See also Pulse Model (dalimasigi) clustered settlements Dantu site, 225 Chinese, 221–225, 226 Daounas highlands, 69 Egyptian, 217 data Iron Age, 123, 128–129 freedom from bias, 193 Mesopotamian, 211, 225 goodness of fit, 193, 194 Middle Niger, 128–129, 139, 141–142 non-comparability of, 193 clustering Dean, Jeffrey, 87 as a proto-urban process, 164–167, De´bo, Lake, 65, 66, 68 174 debt, salutary and undischargeable, 113, 203 of specialist groups, 102, 210 decentralization, 208, 214–216 in an unpredictable environment, 106, decision making 108, 109, 185 coercive, 132 co-evolution, 32, 33, 42, 56 by consensus, 132 cognitive archaeology, 187 deglaciation, 79, 81 Colombijn, F., 132 deltas colonization hypotheses, 173 bird foot, 66 communication via criers, 7 dead, 60, 70 See also Me´ma Basin (Mali) community good, 139 live, 61 complexity, 32 DeMenocol, Peter, 75 conflicts democracy, 12 inter-ethnic, 121–122 desertification, 53 over land use, 112, 121 determinism, 29, 51 Conrad, David, 134, 139 diagnostic artifacts, 163, 170 copper, 147, 148, 157 Diaka channel, 65 core–periphery, 223, 224 Dia Urban Cluster, 167–170, 168, 174, core rules (Mande) 177, 181–183, 182 power (nyama) and, 136–138, 203 hinterlands, 168, 200–201, 201 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape Roderick J. McIntosh Index More information 254 Index discovery, 5 ex astra state hierarchy, 18–23, 19, 26, 143, definition, 1 211, 223 discrimination, typology of, 162 excavation, 183, 184 diversification, 149 Jenne, 184 vs. specialization, 119 Jenne-jeno, 170–173 within specialization, 52 Feature 21, 155, 156 diversity House 10, 153–155, 154 corporate, 16–18, 40 mille-feuille strata, 145 ecological, 141, 142, 143, 188 SM-O wall complexes, 178 divine right of kings, 25 unit LX, 170 Djenne´. Une Ville Mille´naire au Mali (Bedaux units and cores, 172 and Van der Waals), 131 mechanical coring, 184 Doˆ, Lake, 69 test strategy, 163, 164 Dogon people, 113, 120, 155 exchange, 127, 141, 149, 175, 205 donkey-carts, 3, 4 gold trade, 6 Doupwil site, 179 Dyula (Wangara), 146–147, 148, 167 Faguibine, Lake, 64, 69 Faita people, 127 Early Dryas, 81 Fala de Molodo paleochannel, 71 Echinocloa stagnina, 66 farmers, 103, 105 ecological abstractions, 111, 120 Bambara millet, 68, 113, 120, 122, 179 via mythology, 112 Marka (Nono) rice, 65, 112–113, 120, Ecological Resilience, 149 120–122, 149, 167 economy, urban, 129, 133 Ferlo Valley, 117 Ecosocial Interdependence, 222, 225 field journal, 3 ecosystems, hierarchical concept of, 28, 55, Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147 139, 140, 142 Fineware. See Upper Inland Niger Delta edaphic conditions. See soils Fineware Egypt, 1 First Cities (Andrews), 13–14 Predynastic period, 209–210,216–221,218 fish, 94 See also Nile Valley fisherfolk, 103, 108, 120, 149, 150 El-Ahmar paleochannel, 49, 70–71, 117 flexibility, 41, 58, 73, 143 elites, 15, 21, 150, 217 Flohn, H., 34 lack of, 189 flood area, 90–92 emergent intelligence, cities as, 44 floodplains endogamy, 113 comparison of, 71 energized crowding, 130, 134 Middle Niger, 56–57, 61–63 environment, 33, 45 Nile, 56–57 erg, definition, 66 Tigris/Euphrates, 1, 53, 56–57 Erg of Bara basin (Mali), 65, 67–68, 120 vegetation, 66 Erg de Ouagadou, 71 flora, 92–94 Etheria elliptica (freshwater oyster), 123 crops, 63, 95–96,