ºðºì²üæ Äºî²î²ü Ð²ø²èê²ð²ü Yerevan State University Foreign Languages for Special Purposes

ºðºì²ÜÆ äºî²Î²Ü Ð²Ø²Èê²ð²Ü YEREVAN STATE UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES

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YEREVAN STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS

YEREVAN 2013 úî²ð Èº¼àôÜºðÀ Ø²êÜ²¶Æî²Î²Ü Üä²î²ÎÜºðÆ Ð²Ø²ð

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ºðºì²ÜÆ äºî²Î²Ü Ð²Ø²Èê²ð²ÜÆ Ðð²î²ð²ÎâàôÂÚàôÜ

ºðºì²Ü 2013 Recommended by the Scientific Council of the Department of Romance and Germanic Philology, Yerevan State University, Republic of Armenia

Editor-in-Chief: Margarita Apresyan Head of ESP Chair N1, PhD in Linguistics, associate professor, YSU, RA. Honourable Dora Sakayan members of the Doctor of Philology, professor, McGill University, Canada. editorial board: Svetlana Ter-Minasova Doctor of Philology, professor of Moscow State University, Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Hans Sauer Doctor of Philology, Institute of English Philology, Munich University, Germany Charles Hall PhD, Associate professor of Applied Linguistics, University of Memphis, USA Donna Brinton Associate Director for the Center of World Languages, UCLA, USA Editorial board: Samvel Abrahamyan Dean of the Department of Romance and Germanic Philology, PhD in History, associate professor, YSU, RA. Jura Gabrielyan Doctor of Philology, professor, Head of German Philology Chair, YSU. RA. Albert Makaryan Doctor of Philology, professor, YSU RA. Karo Karapetian Head of Translation Chair, PhD in Pedagogics, associate professor, YSU, RA. Svetlana Vardanyan Associate professor at the Department of English Philology, PhD in Linguistics, YSU, RA.

Foreign Languages for Special Purposes, Yerevan. Yerevan State University Press, 2013, p. 232 FLSP international journal, published once a year, is a collection of scientific articles presented by FLSP practitioners inside and out Armenia targeting at professional experience exchange and concurrent development of FLSP methodologies. Letters and articles for publishing should be sent to the editor. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

¶ÉË³íáñ ËÙµ³·Çñª Ø³ñ·³ñÇï³ ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý ºäÐ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ÃÇí 1 ³ÙµÇáÝÇ í³ñÇã, µ³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»ÏÝ³Íáõ, ¹áó»Ýï

ÊÙµ³·ñ³Ï³Ý ¸áñ³ ê³Ï³Û³Ý ËáñÑñ¹Ç ´³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¹áÏïáñ, åñáý»ëáñ å³ïí³íáñ ³Ý¹³ÙÝ»ñª Øù·ÇÉ Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, ØáÝñ»³É, Î³Ý³¹³ êí»ïÉ³Ý³ î»ñ-ØÇÝ³ëáí³ ´³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¹áÏïáñ, ØáëÏí³ÛÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³ÝÇ åñáý»ëáñ, úï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ ý³ÏáõÉï»ïÇ ¹»Ï³Ý Ð³Ýë ê³áõ»ñ ´³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¹áÏïáñ, åñáý»ëáñ ²Ý·ÉÇ³Ï³Ý µ³Ý³ëÇñáõÃÛ³Ý ÇÝëïÇïáõï, ØÛáõÝË»ÝÇ Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý Ò³ñÉ½ ÐááõÉ ´³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»ÏÝ³Íáõ, Ïñïë»ñ åñáý»ëáñ, Ø»ÙýÇëÇ Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, ²ØÜ ¸áÝÝ³ ´ñÇÝïáÝ Ð³Ù³ßË³ñÑ³ÛÇÝ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ Ï»ÝïñáÝÇ ÷áËïÝûñ»Ý, Î³ÉÇýáñÝÇ³ÛÇ Ð³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, ²ØÜ

ÊÙµ³·ñ³Ï³Ý ê³Ùí»É ²µñ³Ñ³ÙÛ³Ý ÏáÉ»·Ç³ª ºäÐ éáÙ³Ý³·»ñÙ³Ý³Ï³Ý µ³Ý³ëÇñáõÃÛ³Ý ý³ÏáõÉï»ïÇ ¹»Ï³Ý, å³ïÙ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»ÏÝ³Íáõ, ¹áó»Ýï Úáõñ³ ¶³µñÇ»ÉÛ³Ý ºäÐ ·»ñÙ³Ý³Ï³Ý µ³Ý³ëÇñáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÙµÇáÝÇ í³ñÇã, µ³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¹áÏïáñ, åñáý»ëáñ ²Éµ»ñï Ø³Ï³ñÛ³Ý ´³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¹áÏïáñ, åñáý»ëáñ, ºäÐ Î³ñá Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý ºäÐ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ï»ëáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ åñ³ÏïÇÏ³ÛÇ ³ÙµÇáÝÇ í³ñÇã, Ù³ÝÏ³í³ñÅ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»ÏÝ³Íáõ, ¹áó»Ýï êí»ïÉ³Ý³ ì³ñ¹³ÝÛ³Ý ºäÐ ³Ý·ÉÇ³Ï³Ý µ³Ý³ëÇñáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÙµÇáÝÇ ¹áó»Ýï, µ³Ý³ëÇñ³Ï³Ý ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»ÏÝ³Íáõ

úï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÁ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ, ºñ.: ºñ¨³ÝÇ Ñ³Ù³Éë. Ññ³ï., 2013, 232 ¿ç:

¶Çï³Ï³Ý Ñá¹í³ÍÝ»ñÇ ëáõÛÝ ÙÇç³½·³ÛÇÝ å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝÁ Ýå³ï³Ï áõÝÇ Ñ³í³ù»Éáõ ¨ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»Éáõ Ð³Û³ëï³ÝÇ ¨ Ð³Û³ëï³ÝÇó ¹áõñë §úï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÁ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ¦ (FLSP) áÉáñïÇ Ù³ëÝ³·»ïÝ»ñÇ Ùß³Ï³Í Å³Ù³Ý³Ï³ÏÇó Ù»Ãá¹Ý»ñÁª ÷áñÓÇ ÷áË³Ý³ÏÙ³Ý ¨ ¹ñ³Ýó Ñ»ï³·³ ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý Ýå³ï³Ïáí: © ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý Ø. ¨ áõñÇß., 2013 © ºäÐ Ññ³ï., 2013 JURA GABRIELYAN Doctor of Philology, Professor, 10 Head of German 10 Philology Chair, YSU. RA

KARO KARAPETIAN Head of Translation Chair, PhD in Pedagogics, Dear colleagues and friends, associate professor, YSU, RA At Christmas Eve of 2014 we're happy to celebrate the 10th anniversary of FLSP – the international journal that is expanding its popularity among FLSP academics and practitioners worldwide. In that spirit of celebration I'd like to express my SVETLANA VARDANYAN gratitude to all those who played an immense Associate professor at the role in journal's foundation, its rapid growth and Department of English Philology, serious advancements. PhD in Linguistics, YSU, RA Due to their dedicated service and commitment we're able to keep the on-going interest to FLSP methodologies which promote effective teaching to learners with focused language goals. Welcome to the 10th anniversary issue! May your reading inspire you to try out new ideas and projects in the coming year! ALBERT MAKARYAN Happy birthday and Merry Christmas! Doctor of Philology, Professor, YSU RA Editor-in-Chief MARGARET APRESYAN Head of ESP Chair N1 in YSU, RA PhD in Linguistics, associate professor 10 10

SVETLANA TER-MINASOVA DORA SAKAYAN Doctor of Philology, professor Doctor of Philology, Professor, of Moscow State University, McGill University, Canada Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages

HANS SAUER CHARLES HALL Doctor of Philology, PhD, Associate professor Institute of English Philology, of Applied Linguistics, Munich University, Germany University of Memphis, USA

SVETLANA TER-MINASOVA DORA SAKAYAN Doctor of Philology, professor Doctor of Philology, Professor, of Moscow State University, McGill University, Canada Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages

HANS SAUER CHARLES HALL Doctor of Philology, PhD, Associate professor Institute of English Philology, of Applied Linguistics, Munich University, Germany University of Memphis, USA

DONNA BRINTON SAMVEL ABRAHAMYAN Dean of the Department of Associate Director for the Romance and Germanic Philology, Center of World Languages, PhD in History, associate professor, UCLA, USA YSU, RA JURA GABRIELYAN Doctor of Philology, Professor, 10 Head of German 10 Philology Chair, YSU. RA

ÞÝáñÑ³íáñ³Ï³Ý áõÕ»ñÓë Ñ»é³íáñ Î³Ý³¹³ÛÇó ï»ë³ÝÛáõÃáí ÑÕ»Éáõó Ñ»ïá, áõ½áõÙ »Ù ³Ûë ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ïáÕáí Ëáëùë ³Ùñ³·ñ»É Ý³¨ ·ñ³íáñ Ó¨áí: ØÇ ³Ý·³Ù ¨ë áõ½áõÙ »Ù ³ÙµáÕç ëñïáí ßÝáñÑ³íá- ñ»É §úï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÁ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ¦ (FLSP) ³Ùë³·ñÇ 10-³ÙÛ³ÏÁ: ¸Åí³ñ ã¿ å³ïÏ»ñ³óÝ»É, Ã» ³Ûë å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝÇ ëï»ÕÍÙ³Ý ¨ ³ÝË³÷³Ý ³ßË³ï³ÝùÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ ³Ûë Å³Ù³Ý³Ï³Ñ³ïí³ÍáõÙ ÇÝãåÇëÇ ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ¿ Ñ³ÕÃ³Ñ³ñ»É Ýñ³ ·ÉË³íáñ ËÙµ³·Çñ Ø³ñ·³ñÇï³ ²åñ»ëÛ³ÝÁ: àõëïÇ ³é³çÇÝ Ñ»ñÃÇÝ Ýñ³Ý »Ù Ñ³ÛïÝáõÙ ÇÙ ç»ñÙ ËÝ¹³Ïóáõ- ÃÛáõÝÁ: àÕçáõÛÝÝ»ñë »Ù ÑÕáõÙ Ý³¨ ËÙµ³·ñ³Ï³Ý ÏáÉ»·Ç³ÛÇÝ` Ç ¹»Ùë êí»ïÉ³Ý³ ì³ñ¹³ÝÛ³ÝÇ, ê³Ùí»É ²µñ³Ñ³ÙÛ³ÝÇ ¨ Î³ñá Î³- ñ³å»ïÛ³ÝÇ: Ò»ñ í³ñÓùÁ Ï³ï³°ñ, ëÇñ»ÉÇ µ³ñ»Ï³ÙÝ»ñ: Ð³ïáõÏ Ó¨áí ßÝáñÑ³íáñáõÙ »Ù ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ÃÇí 1 ³ÙµÇáÝÇ µáÉáñ ³ÛÝ ³ßË³ï³ÏÇóÝ»ñÇÝ, áñáÝó ³ÝÏáïñáõÙ Ï³ÙùÇ ¨ Ù»Í ÝíÇñÙ³Ý ßÝáñ- ÑÇí ÝÛáõÃ³Ï³Ý³ÝáõÙ ¿ å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝÇ Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ Ñ³Ù³ñÁ: ºÏ»°ù ó³ÝÏ³Ýù FLSP-ÇÝ Ýáñ³Ýáñ Ñ³çáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ áõ ³ÝÃÇí ï³ë- Ý³ÙÛ³ÏÝ»ñÇ µ»ÕáõÝ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõÝ: ²Ûë ïáÝÇ ³éÇÃáí áõ½áõÙ »Ù áÕçáõÝ»É Ý³¨ FLSP-Ç µáÉáñ Ñá¹- í³Í³·ÇñÝ»ñÇÝ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ³é³Ýó Ýñ³Ýó Ý»ñ¹ñÙ³Ý Ñáµ»ÉÛ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³Ûë ï³ñ»ÉÇóÁ ã¿ñ Ï³ñáÕ ï»ÕÇ áõÝ»Ý³É: ºí ù³ÝÇ áñ ³Ûë Ñáµ»É- Û³Ý³Ï³Ý å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝÇ Ñá¹í³Í³·ÇñÝ»ñÇ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ Ýñ³ ÁÝ- Ã»ñóáÕÝ»ñÇ Ù»Í Ù³ëÁ ûï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ Ùß³ÏÝ»ñ »Ý, Ýñ³Ýó »Ù Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë áõ½áõÙ áõÕÕ»É ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ Ëáëù. êÇñ»ÉÇ° µ³ñ»Ï³ÙÝ»ñ, ÇÝãåÇëÇÝ ¿É áñ ¿ Ò»ñ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ÏáÕÙÝáñáßáõÙÁ ûï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ áÉáñïáõÙ, íëï³Ñ »Ù, áñ É»½áõÝ»- ñÇ Ò»ñ ïÇñ³å»ïáõÙÁ ÏÛ³ÝùÇ ³Ù»Ý³ï³ñµ»ñ Çñ³íÇ×³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ Ò»½ ÇÝùÝ³µ»ñ³µ³ñ ÙÕ³Í å»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝÇ ¹»åÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ` ÉÇÝÇ ·ñ³íáñ Ã» µ³Ý³íáñ Ó¨áí, ÉÇÝÇ áñå»ë å³ï³Ñ³Ï³Ý Ã» Ï³- ÝáÝ³íáñ ÙÇ Ñ³ÝÓÝ³ñ³ñáõÃÛáõÝ: Ð³ÛïÝÇ ¿, áñ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, áñå»ë Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý ÙÇçáó, ÝáõÛÝù³Ý ÑÇÝ ¿, áñù³Ý É»½áõÝ: ÆëÏ Ñ³Ù³ó³Ýó³ÛÇÝ ³Ûë ¹³ñáõÙ, »ñµ ·Éáµ³É³óÙ³Ý ×³Ý³å³ñÑáí ÁÝÃ³óáÕ Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý Ù»ç Ï³ñÍ»ë Ã» çÝçí»É »Ý

7 »ñÏñÝ»ñÇ ¨ ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ³ßË³ñÑ³Ù³ë»ñÇ ë³ÑÙ³ÝÝ»ñÁ, ¹»é »ñµ»ù ³Ûëù³Ý Ù»Í Ãíáí Ã³ñ·Ù³ ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ã»Ý Ï³ï³ñí»É: ¶Çï»Ýù, áñ 20-ñ¹ ¹³ñÁ Ñéã³Ïí»É ¿ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ¹³ñ ¨ áñ ³Û¹ ÙÇïáõÙÁ ÝáõÛÝ Ã³÷áí ß³ñáõÝ³ÏíáõÙ ¿ Ý³¨ 21-ñ¹ ¹³ñáõÙ: ²Ñ³ ³Ûë Ï³å³Ï- óáõÃÛ³Ùµ ¿, áñ áõ½áõÙ »Ù FLSP-Ç Ñáµ»ÉÛ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³Ûë Ñ³Ù³ñÇ ¿ç»- ñÇó ¹ÇÙ»É ºäÐ-Ç ûï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ ¨, Ù³Ý³í³Ý¹, ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ µá- Éáñ Ù³ëÝ³·»ïÝ»ñÇÝ` ÁÝ¹·ñÏí»Éáõ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ýã³Ï³Ý Ñ³ËáõéÝ ·áñ- ÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç: ÆëÏ ÇÝãá±õ Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ ·Çï³ÏÝ»ñÇÝ: àñáíÑ»ï¨ Áëï íÇ×³Ï³·ñáõÃÛ³Ý ³Ûëûñ Ï³ï³ñí³Í Ã³ñ·Ù³Ýáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ù»Í Ù³ëÁ Ï³Ù ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇó ¿, Ï³Ù ¹»åÇ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÁ` ¹³- ñÇë lingua franca-Ý: ºÏ»°ù Ù»ñ Å³Ù»ñÇ Ã»Ïáõ½ ÷áùñÇÏ ÙÇ Ù³ëÁ Ñ³ïÏ³óÝ»Ýù Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³ÝÁ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ³Û¹ ³ßË³ï³ÝùÁ áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ Ï³ñ¨áñ ¿, ³ÛÉ¨ ÙÝ³ÛáõÝ ¨ ßÝáñÑ³Ï³É: ²ÝÏ³Ë ¹ñ³ÝÇó, Ã» ÇÝã áõÕÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ »Ýù Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÙª Ù³Ûñ»ÝÇÇó ¹»åÇ ûï³ñ É»½áõ- Ý»ñÁ Ã» Ñ³Ï³é³ÏÁ, Ù³ñ¹ÏáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ Ù»ñ ß³Ñ³ÍÁ ß³ï ³í»- ÉÇ ¿ ù³Ý Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ÁÝÃ³óùáõÙ Ù»ñ Ïáñóñ³ÍÁ: ÆÝãåÇëÇ ·áÑáõÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ, »ñµ ûï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇó ¹»åÇ Ù³Ûñ»ÝÇÝ Ã³ñ·Ù³- Ý»Éáí Ù³ñ¹ Ñ³ñëï³óÝáõÙ ¿ Çñ ÅáÕáíñ¹Ç Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÁ ³ÛÉ ÅáÕáíáõñ¹- Ý»ñÇ ³ñÅ»ù³íáñ ·áñÍ»ñáí: àã Ýí³½ Ï³ñ¨áñ »Ý Ù³Ûñ»ÝÇÇó ¹»åÇ ³ÛÉ É»½áõÝ»ñ Ï³ï³ñíáÕ Ù»ñ ·ñ³Ï³Ý ëï»ÕÍ³·áñÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, »ñµ ûï³ñÝ»ñÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏÇó »ë ¹³ñÓÝáõÙ ùá ÅáÕáíñ¹Ç ëï»ÕÍ³Í ³ñ- Å»ùÝ»ñÇÝ: ÆÝãå»ë ³ë»É ¿ Ýáµ»ÉÛ³Ý Ùñó³Ý³Ï³·Çñ ¼á½» ê³ñ³Ù³- ·áÝ, §¶ñáÕÁ ³½·³ÛÇÝ ·ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ ëï»ÕÍáõÙ, ÇëÏ Ã³ñ·Ù³- ÝÇãÝ ³ÛÝ Ñ³Ù³Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ ¿ ¹³ñÓÝáõÙ¦: Ð³Ùá½í³Í »Ù, áñ ¹³ ³ë»- ÉÇë ê³ñ³Ù³·áÝ ÝÏ³ïÇ ¿ áõÝ»ó»É Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ áñ¨¿ É»½íÇó` ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ: Â³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ ÇÝÓ áõÕ»Ïó»É ¿ ·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÏÛ³ÝùÇë µáÉáñ ÷áõÉ»ñáõÙ ¨ ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ³ÛÝ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï, »ñµ ³ÛÝ ½áõ·³Ïóí»É ¿ §³í»- ÉÇ Éáõñç¦ áõ §³í»ÉÇ Ï³ñ¨áñ¦ ³ßË³ï³ÝùÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï, ³ÛÝ ÇÝÓ Ñ³- Ù³ñ »Õ»É ¿ ³ÛÝ ·áÕïñÇÏ áõ Ñ³ñ³½³ï ³ÝÏÛáõÝÁ, áñï»Õ ·ï»É »Ù ³Ý¹áññë, áñï»Õ ÇÝÓ í»ñå³Ñí³Í »Ý »Õ»É Ùï³íáñ í»ñ»ÉùÇ ¨ Ñá- ·»Ï³Ý µ³í³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ïáõÏ å³Ñ»ñ: ÆëÏ í»ñçÇÝ »ñÏáõ ï³ë- Ý³ÙÛ³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý³Íë ÝÛáõÃÇ ÑáõÛÅ Ï³ñ¨áñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ³é³í»É Ù»Í ÇÙ³ëï ¿ ïí»É ³Û¹ ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óÇÝ: ¸³ Ð³Ûáó Ù»Í »Õ»éÝÇ Ñ»ï ³éÝãíáÕ ÝÛáõÃ»ñÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ ¿, áñÇ ÁÝÃ³óùáõÙ Ù³ñ¹ Ï³ñ- Í»ë á·»ÏáãáõÙ ¿ Ù»ñ µÛáõñ³íáñ Ý³Ñ³ï³ÏÝ»ñÇ ÑÇß³ï³ÏÁ: 1992 ÃÇíÝ ¿ñ, »ñµ ÇÙ Ó»éùÝ ³Ýó³í Ù»Í Ñáñë` µÅÇßÏ Î³ñ³å»ï

8 Ê³ã»ñÛ³ÝÇ ûñ³·ÇñÁ 1922-Ç ¼ÙÛáõéÝÇ³ÛÇ ³Õ»ï³ÉÇ ûñ»ñÇó: ²Û¹ ÙÇ Ï³ñ¨áñ ÷³ëï³ÃáõÕÃ ¿ñ, áñ å»ïù ¿ Ññ³ï³ñ³Ïí»ñ áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ Ñ³Û»ñ»Ý Çñ µÝ³·ñáí, ³ÛÉ¨ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ýí»ñ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ, ·»ñÙ³Ý»ñ»- ÝÇ ¨ ³å³ ³ÛÉ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ: ²Û¹ ³Ù»ÝÁ Ñ³çáÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ Çñ³Ï³Ý³ó- Ý»Éáõó Ñ»ïá, ³Ûë ÝáõÛÝ ³Ýó³Í ï³ëÝ³ÙÛ³ÏáõÙ ß³ñáõÝ³Ï»É »Ù ÝÙ³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ½áõ·³Ïó»É ÇÙ ÙÛáõë ·áñÍ»ñÇ Ñ»ï: ²Ûë ³Ý·³Ù Ý³ËÏÇÝ áõë³ÝáÕáõÑÇÝ»ñÇóë` ¾í»ÉÇÝ³ Ø³ Ï³ñ- Û³ÝÇ Ñ»ï ÙÇ³ó³Í, ·»ñÙ³Ý»ñ»ÝÇó Ñ³Û»ñ»ÝÇ »Ýù Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÙ ·»ñ- Ù³Ý³Ëáë »ñÏñÝ»ñÇ ï³ñµ»ñ ·ñ³¹³ñ³ÝÝ»ñáõÙ Ñ³ÛïÝ³µ»ñí³Í Ñ³Ûáó ó»Õ³ëå³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý í»ñ³µ»ñáÕ ÝÛáõÃ»ñ: Ð»ÕÇÝ³ÏÝ»ñÇ Ù»Í Ù³ëÁ Ñ³Û³å³ßïå³Ý »ñ³Ëï³íáñÝ»ñ »Ý, áñáÝù Ù»Ï Ñ³ñÛáõñ³Ù- Û³Ï ³é³ç ³Ï³Ý³ï»ë »Ý »Õ»É áõ ·»ñÙ³Ý»ñ»Ýáí ·ñÇ ³é»É Ñ³Û Åá- Õáíñ¹Ç Ø»Í ³Õ»ïÇ ³ñÑ³íÇñùÝ»ñÁ: ºäÐ-Ç Ññ³ï³ñ³ÏãáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ ïåí³Í Ù»ñ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÃÇíÁ ³ÛÅÙ ³Ýó»É ¿ í»óÁ ¨ ³ÛÝ ß³ñáõÝ³ÏáõÙ ¿ ³×»É: ºí ³Ù»Ý ³Ý·³Ù, »ñµ ßÝáñÑÇí ºäÐ-Ç é»Ïïáñ ². êÇÙáÝÛ³ÝÇ ·áñÍáõÝ ³ç³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý ÉáõÛë ¿ ï»ëÝáõÙ Ñ»ñÃ³Ï³Ý Ù»ñ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, »ë Ñ³ñó »Ù ï³ÉÇë. ÇëÏ áñï»±Õ ¿ Ù»ñ Ñ³Ù³É- ë³ñ³ÝÇ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý ¨ ³ÛÉ ûï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ ¹³ë³ËáëÝ»ñÇ µ³Ý³ÏÇ ÙÇçÇó Ï³½Ùí³Í Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó ·»Ã ÙÇ ËáõÙµ ¨ë, áñÁ ÏÑ»ï¨»ñ Ù»ñ ûñÇÝ³ÏÇÝ ¨ ÝáõÛÝå»ë ³é³ç Ï·³ñ ÝÙ³Ý Ý³Ë³Ó»éÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ: àñ- ï»±Õ »Ý ³ÛÝ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ, áñáÝù åÇïÇ áñáÝ»Ý, ·ïÝ»Ý ¨ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý»Ý 1915-Ç ¨ Ñ»ï³·³ ï³ñÇÝ»ñÇ ³Ý·ÉÇ³Ëáë ÙÇëÇáÝ»ñÝ»ñÇ íÏ³Ûáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ¨ Ï³Ù Ã»Ïáõ½ Ù»ñ ÇëÏ Ñ³Û»ñ»ÝÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý³Í ÝÛáõÃ»ñÁ` ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ áõ ³ÛÉ É»½áõÝ»ñÇ: Ð³Ûáó ó»Õ³ëå³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý 100-³ÙÛ³- ÏÇ Ý³Ëûñ»ÇÝ Ï³Ù ¹ñ³ÝÇó Ñ»ïá Ï³± ³ñ¹Ûáù ³í»ÉÇ å³ïí³µ»ñ ¨ ³ñÅ³Ý³íáñ ·áñÍ: ²Ñ³ ë³ ¿ µ³ñ»Ù³ÕÃáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñë áõÕ»ÏóáÕ ÇÙ ÏáãÁ, áñ Ëáëï³- ó»É ¿Ç ·ñ³íáñ Ó¨áí áõÕ³ñÏ»É FLSP-Ç Ñáµ»ÉÛ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñÇÝ: ÂáÕ áñ ³ÛëáõÑ»ï¨ FLSP-Ç Ñ»ï³·³ Ñ³Ù³ñÝ»ñÇó ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ¿çÁ Ñ³ïÏ³óíÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ, ¨ ÇÝãá±õ áã` Ý³¨ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ï»ë³Ï³Ý Ñ³ñó»ñÇ ÝíÇñí³Í Ñá¹í³ÍÝ»ñÇ: Ð³Ùá½í³Í »Ù, áñ Ù»ñ ·ÉË³íáñ ËÙµ³·ÇñÝ áõ ËÙµ³·ñ³Ï³Ý ÏáÉ»·Ç³Ý ëÇñáí ÏÁÝ¹áõÝ»Ý ³Ûë ³é³ç³ñÏÁ: â¿± áñ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ýã³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõÝÁ ÑÇ³Ý³ÉÇ ï»Õ³íáñíáõÙ ¿ FLSP-Ç` §úï³ñ É»½áõÝ»ñÁ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý Ýå³- ï³ÏÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ¦ í»ñÝ³·ñÇ ï³Ï: êÇñ»ÉÇÝ»ñë, ¨ ³Ûëûñ »ë Ñ»ï¨»Éáí ÇÙ ÇëÏ ÏáãÇÝ` Ý»ñßÝã³Ï³Ý ³Ûë ïáÕ»ñë ³Ù÷á÷áõÙ »Ù Ýñ³Ýó ï³Ï ï»Õ³¹ñ»Éáí ä³ñáõÛñ ê¨³- ÏÇ` ï³ñµ»ñ ßñç³ÝÝ»ñáõÙ ·ñ³Í µ³Ý³ëï»ÕÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÇÙ Ï³ï³- ñ³Í »ñ»ù Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí:

9 Translated by Dora Sakayan

I AM NOT LATE

Am I late? so what, my dear! I couldn’t care less If I have never known your real maiden grace.

If I am unaware how your smile had been When you were young, when you turned sixteen.

So what if I missed your first maiden kiss! Even your peck is for me such bliss.

And if I ignore how you were in tears, When you marked your twenty or twenty-five years.

So what, my dear, if we meet today, When you can no longer simply walk away

From your past, when I was unknown, When you lived with others or you were alone.

Never mind if I am late for your life’s spring, When even your fall no less joy can bring.

How is sunrise more than when nights unfold, How is late jasmine less than spring’s marigold?

Moreover, my darling, just before dusk, Flowers boast a scent sweeter than musk...

10 Translated by Dora Sakayan

THE APATHY’S FOE

Whatever I do, I do it with passion, I do it with vigor and all my ardor: spending it all, my blood and my soul.

I am the enemy of apathy, Its fervent, ferocious, frantic foe. But when of the world’s myriad zones, As world are counted only two poles, But when of the world’s myriad colors, Only the black and the white matters, But when in this world, of all the words Only two hold, the “nay” and “yea”, My temperature — in pent-up rage — Rises up to feverish heights, My pain becomes a festering sore; And I, the enemy of indifference, Apathy’s frantic foe, just imagine, Choose to abstain.

I abstain, however, in such a way, That is more telling than “yea” and “nay.”

11 Translated by Dora Sakayan

I AM GOING CRAZY

When they hear me, Some may think: “Has he gone crazy?” To them I say: “Yes, I’ve gone crazy, And why shouldn’t I?” Don’t they love and hate by going crazy? And the wood, doesn’t it creak from going crazy? Without going crazy, no battles are won, Without going crazy, no infants are born; Water must go crazy before the boiling starts, And the pomegranate kernel before the rind cracks. If the trees bloom, It’s out of craziness for sure. If the earth turns, It’s out of craziness for sure. If seeds don’t really crack up, They never grow to harvest. If paws don’t really go nuts, They never evolve to hands. Words, too, without going crazy Never become a song. Oh, I wish I’d always be crazy...

àõñ³Ë³ÉÇ ¿ Ýß»É, áñ Rattapallax* ÏáãíáÕ Ñ³Ù³ó³Ýó³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Ûï- ÝÇ ·ñ³Ï³Ý ³Ùë³·ÇñÁ 2012 Ã. ³åñÇÉÛ³Ý Çñ Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ ÉáõÛë ¿ñ ÁÝ- Í³Û»É ä³ñáõÛñ ê¨³ÏÇ µ³Ý³ëï»ÕÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇó ãáñëÁª Ñ³Û»ñ»Ý µÝ³·ñ»ñÇÝ Ïó»Éáí ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý ÇÙ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ£ ²Û¹ Ñ³Ù³- ñÁ ÝíÇñí³Í ¿ñ Ð³Ûáó ó»Õ³ëå³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý 97-ñ¹ ï³ñ»ÉÇóÇÝ£

* ²Ñ³ Ã» ÇÝãå»ë ¿ µÝáñáßíáõÙ Rattapallax Ñ³Ù³ó³Ýó³ÛÇÝ å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝÁ Ñ³Ù³ó³ÝóÇ Çñ ³é³çÇÝ ¿çáõÙ. §²Ýó³Í ï³ëÁ ï³ñáõÙ ³Ùë³·ÇñÁ ³é³çÝ³ÛÇÝ ï»Õ ¿ ·ñ³í»É ÁÝÃ»ñ- óáÕÝ»ñÇÝª ³ßË³ñÑÇ ãáñë ÏáÕÙÇó µ»ñí³Í ³ñÓ³Ï ¨ ã³÷³Íá ÃáíÇã ·áñÍ»ñÇ, ÏÇÝáÝÏ³ñ- Ý»ñÇ ¨ ·³Õ³÷³ñÝ»ñÇ Í³ÝáÃ³óÝ»Éáõ ·áñÍáõÙ¦£ (“For the past 10 years, the magazine has been on the forefront of introducing readers with compelling literature, poetry, films and ideas from around the world.”) 12 Svetlana Ter-Minasova Moscow State University, Russia

Dear colleagues,

Congratulations on the 10th anniversary of your FLSP Journal! Happy birthday! There is almost nothing more important in our sphere of knowledge than teaching international languages to huge legions of “non-philologists”. Nowadays, with global processes rapidly growing and developing, the only way to a peaceful life in the global Village can be found through shattering language and cultural barriers. Your 10-year-old FLSP Journal helps us all to do this very important duty. We shall overcome some day!

13 ´ à ì ² Ü ¸ ² Î àô Â Ú àô Ü C O N T E N T S Avetikian M. English Chair N1, Yerevan State University, Armenia NEEDS ANALYSIS IN TEACHING ESP AND ESL...... 17

Grigoryan Sh., Harutyunyan G., Mirimanyan S. Yerevan State University, Armenia GENERAL TIPS ON SOME PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING METHODOLOGY...... 24

Lifang Wei Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages, Shaoxing, China Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HEDGING IN ENGLISH AND CHINESE LEGAL ACADEMIC WRITINGS...... 30

Margarian E. Yerevan State University, Armenia STRENGTHENING VISUAL AND AUDITORY IMAGES IN EFL READING: SOME LISTENING-BASED TECHNIQUES...... 43

Matevosyan A., Alimyan M. Yerevan State University, Armenia THE PRAGMA-RHETORIC ASPECT OF METAPHOR IN BUSINESS DISCOURSE...... 53

Mkrtchyan K., Mnatsakanyan L. Yerevan State University, Armenia THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN LAW, LEGAL REASONING AND LEGAL EDUCATION...... 59

Nazarian M. Yerevan State University, Armenia EMPLOYING THE SOCRATIC METHOD IN TEACHING LEGAL ENGLISH AT LAW SCHOOLS, SHIFTING FROM I-SHAPE TO U-SHAPE AUDITORIUM...... 66

Vardyan A. Yerevan State University, Armenia TEACHING ESL THROUGH ESSAYS...... 72

14 Zakoyan L. Yerevan State University, Armenia BIBLICAL REFERENCES IN SPEECHES OF AMERICAN PRESIDENTS...... 79

Zhang Luping China University of Political Science and Law, China LEGISLATION TRANSLATION IN CHINA: IS HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE UNIVERSALLY APPLICABLE?...... 87

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16 Avetikian M. English Chair N1 Yerevan State University, Armenia

NEEDS ANALYSIS IN TEACHING ESP AND ESL

ABSTRACT The main tool of the ESP methodology is needs analysis. It is an assessment of purposes and needs for which English is required. In ESP it is the needs analysis that determines which language skills are mostly needed by the students and the syllabus of an ESP class is designed accordingly. What distinguishes ESP from General English is not the existence of a need as such but rather an awareness of the need. If learners need English for some purposes, this motivation will have an influence on what will be acceptable as a reasonable content in the language course and what potential can be exploited.

In this article we are interested in a learner – centred approach to ESP and ESL. When we tackle the problems of ESP and ESL we find out that the most important difference lies in learners’ purposes. ESP students are usually adults who have already some knowledge in English. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required. ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. /5/ It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students real world; instead, it is integrated into a subject – matter area important to the learners. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all four language skills – listening, reading, speaking and writing – are stressed equally, in ESP it is analysis that determines which language skills are mostly needed by the students and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An ESP program might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the

17 development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn at their English classes in their main field of study, whether it is accounting, business management and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The students abilities in that field, in turn, improve their ability to master English. The term specific in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in their field enables them to interact with speakers. ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation and content for the teaching of relevant skills. It is now generally assumed that because of increasing political, economic, scientific contacts between different countries, the study of foreign languages acquires special significance. Scientists all over the world find it necessary to be able to use at least one of the world languages (especially English which has now become one of the most important means of international communication) if they want to communicate successfully with their colleagues from other countries. Scholars all over the world agree that foreign language teaching must be learner – oriented, the teacher – oriented one being insufficient and outdated. Special emphasis is now being laid on the professional needs of the learners. It follows then, that foreign language teaching necessarily becomes professionally oriented: the learner cannot possibly endeavour to produce language in general; to be able to use a foreign language as a means of effective internatioanal communication he must begin by getting acquainted with the basic language of his profession, with a variety of language he can use for his specific purposes, i.e. as the tool of his trade (2:10). We have defined ESP as an approach to course design which starts with the question “Why do these learners need to learn English?” But it could be argued that this should be the starting question to any course, General or ESP. All courses are based on a perceived need of some sort. Otherwise, why would English find its way on to a school or University timetable: someone at some time must have decided there was a need for it. What then, in the terms of our definition, is the difference between ESP and General English? The answer to this very reasonable question is “in theory nothing, in practice a great deal. It is often argued that the needs of the General English learner, for example, the schoolchild, are not specifiable” (1:17). This is an assumption that owes more to institutional inertia and the weight of tradition than to any reality, but it is a powerful force nevertheless. In fact, this is the weakest of all arguments, because it is always possible to specify needs, even if it is only the need to pass the exam at the end of a school year. What distinguishes ESP from General English is not the existence of a need as such but rather an awareness of the need. If learners need English, that awareness will have an influence on what will be acceptable as reasonable content in the language course and, on the positive side, what potential can be exploited. Thus, although it might appear on the surface that the ESP course is characterised by its content (Science, Medicine, Commerce, Tourism, etc.), this is, in fact, only a secondary consequence of the primary matter of being able to specify why the learners need English. To put briefly, it is not so much the nature of the need which distinguishes the ESP from the General course but rather the awareness of a need. This being said, we would still maintain that any course should be based on an analysis of learner’s need. This is one way in which ESP procedures can have a useful effect on General English and which indicates once more the need for a common approach to the problem. The answers to the analysis will probably be different, but the questions that need to be asked are the same. Nevertheless, for the time being, the tradition persists in teaching General English that learner’s needs can’t be specified and as a result no attempt is usually made to discover learners’ true needs. Thus, if we had to state in practical terms the irreducible minimum of an ESP approach to course design, it would be needs analysis, i.e. a definable need to communicate in English, that distinguishes the ESP learner from the learner of General English. The first of our questions about needs analysis is: “What do we mean by “needs”?” In the language – centred approach, the answer to this question would be the ability to comprehend and use linguistic features of the target situation, for example, the ability to understand and to use the passive voice. In the first instance, we can make a basic distinction between target needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order to learn). We still consider learning

19 needs later, but even within the category of target needs we can identify further divisions under the general heading of need. Target needs is something which in practice hides a number of important distinctions. It is more useful to look at the target situation in terms of necessities, lacks and wants.

a) Necessities We can call “necessities” the type of need determined by the demands of target situation, that is, what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation. For example, a businessman or woman might need to understand business letters, to communicate effectively at sales conferences, to get the necessary information from sales catalogues and so on. He or she will presumably also need to know the linguistic features – discoursal, functional, structural, lexical – which are commonly used in the situations identified. This information is relatively easy to gather. It is a matter of observing what situations the learner will need to function in and then analysing the constituent parts of them.

b) Lacks To identify necessities alone, however, is not enough, since the concern in ESP is with the needs of particular learners. We also need to know what the learner knows already, so that we can then decide which of the necessities the learner lacks. One target situation necessity might be to read texts in a particular subject area. Whether or not the learners need instruction in doing this will depend on how well they can do it already. The target proficiency, in other words, needs to be matched against the existing proficiency of the learners. The gap between the two can be referred to as the learner’s lacks.

c) Wants So far, we have considered target needs only in an objective sense, with the actual learners playing no active role. But the learners too, have a view as to what their needs are. We have mentioned above that it is an awareness of need that characterises the ESP situation. But awareness is a matter of perception, and perception may vary according to one’s standpoint. Learners may well have a clear idea of the “necessities” of the target situation: they will certainly have a view as to their “lacks”. The analysis of target needs involves far more than simply identifying the linguistic features of the target situation. There are a number of ways in

20 which information can be gathered about needs. The most frequently used are: questionnaires, interviews, observation, data collection. In view of the complexity of needs which we have seen, it is desirable to use more than one of these methods. The choice will obviously depend on the time and resources available. The analysis of target situation needs is in essence a matter of asking questions about the target situation and the attitudes towards that situation of the various participants in the learning process, e.g. - How will the language be used? - medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc; - channel: e.g. telephone, face to face; - types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversations, technical manuals, catalogues. - Now, let’s see, what will the content areas be? - subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, engineering; - level: e.g. student, technician, craftsman, postgraduate. - Who will the learner use the language with? - native speakers or non – native; - level of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student; - relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate. - Where will the language be used? - physical setting: e.g. office, lecture – hall, library, workshop; - human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations; - linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad. In view of what has been said earlier about needs and wants, it is clear that interpretations of needs can vary according to the point of view of the particular respondent. ESP like any educational matter, is concerned with people. For example, in analysing the needs of students, it would be normal practice to ask both the lecturers and the students about their English needs. But there is a tendency on the part of the lecturers to exaggerate the need for English. The lecturer, in other words, has a personal investment in giving the impression that the level of English needed is high. The students, on the other hand, may give a much lower indication of the need for English, because they know (or would prefer to believe) that it is not really necessary. Learning needs. Till now we have considered needs only in terms of target situation needs. We have been considering the question: “What knowledge and abilities will the learners require in order to be able to perform to the required degree of competence in the target situation?”

21 Using our analogy of the ESP course what we have done so far is to consider the starting point (lacks) and the destination (necessities), although we have also seen that there might be some dispute as to what the destination should be (wants). What we have not considered yet is the route. How are we going to get from our starting point to the destination? This indicates another kind of need: learning needs. The whole ESP process is considered not with knowing or doing, but with learning. It is naive to base a course design simply on the target objectives, just as it is naive to think that a journey can be planned solely in terms of the starting point and the destination. Let us say, that we are preparing materials for a group of learners who need to read texts on their specialities. Most of the available texts are long and may be dull. Should these texts be used for ESP? We would say no. It may be more appropriate to look for texts that are more interesting and compact in order to generate the motivation needed to learn English. Students may need, for example, to read long, dull or complex texts only in the target situation as their motivation to do so may be high because: - they like the subject in general; - examinations are looming; - job / promotion prospects may be involved; - they may be going on to do very interesting experiments or practical work based on the texts; - they may like and/or respect the subject teacher or boss; - they may be very good at their subject, but poor at English. For all manner of possible reasons learners may be well motivated in the subject lesson or in their work, but totally turned off by encountering the same material in an ESP classroom. The target situation, in other words, is not a reliable indicator of what is needed or useful in the ESP learning situation. The target situation analysis can determine the destination; it can also act as a compass on the journey to give general direction. And to draw the conclusion, we may say, that all the points discussed above led us to the conclusion that the most characteristic feature of ESP course is – needs analysis. It is a complex process, involving much more than simply looking at what the learners will have to do in the target situation and learning needs must be taken into account. The analysis of target situation needs is considered with language use and it can tell us what people do with language and how language becomes a tool in a concrete situation. We need, in other words, a learner – centred approach to needs analysis.

22 REFERENCES

1. A.Case (2008) Learning Strategies of ESP and ESL – Oxford University Press. 2. M.Caughlin (2006) Basic Divergencies between ESP and ESL – Tokyo, Japan. 3. L.Fiorito (2009) How is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Different from English as a Second Language (ESL), also known as General English – University of Naples. 4. J.Hutchinson, A.Waters (2010) English for Specific Purposes”– Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Sydney. 5. http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/teaching-english-for-specific- purposes-esp.html

23 Grigoryan Sh. Harutyunyan G. Mirimanyan S. Yerevan State University, Armenia

GENERAL TIPS ON SOME PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING METHODOLOGY

ABSTRACT The article draws the attention of the reader to some generally accepted principles and techniques in structuring language classes. Teaching principles comprise learner centeredness, learner driven and productive teaching. Teaching techniques presume the approaches used in the classroom such as elicitation- teacher’s role as a facilitator whose task is to focus on drawing out the knowledge and response from the learner - mistakes correction- when to correct and how to correct depending on the aim of the learner - checking meaning via the concept referring questions, as well as organizing classroom activities such as pair work, group work, whole class.

We do not presume to tell you how to teach but merely to try to help the lessons come alive and provide you with some, hopefully useful, ideas of how to apply them to full effect. We would like to offer and particularly to share some generally accepted principles and techniques in structuring the classes. We would like to mention that you are free in structuring your classes and you are free to use them at will. For the purpose of easiness we will give the principles and techniques under sub-headings.

Teaching Principles The course should be designed with three overarching principles in mind, which are teaching should be learner-centered; teaching should be learner driven and teaching should focus on production.

Teaching should be learner centered Maximizing the role of the learners and placing them at the heart of the process is the key to ensuring high levels of motivation and language

24 production. More traditional teacher-centered methods greatly reduce the amount of time the learners have at their disposal and produce large amounts of ‘dead time’ during the class where the learner does very little.

Teaching should be learner driven Using the learners as a resource can be extremely productive and, by providing learners with the chance to personalize language used, retention rates for new language are significantly increased. This is why many of the activities call for pair or group work.

Teaching should mainly focus on production This last point is somewhat more controversial. Most learners have previously had either formal instruction in English or at least a passive exposure to the language. As such, their receptive ability is often far in advance in relation to their productive capacity. ‘Knowing’ a word requires more than just an awareness of what it means. One also needs to know how it is used: its collocations, its register, its pronunciation etc. This is why the material needs to use pronunciation work and lexical collocation exercises.

Classroom Teaching Techniques

Elicitation ‘The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires.’ (William Arthur Ward, Pertinent Proverb). If we take the origin of the word of ‘education’ we will see that it derives from the Latin root ‘educere’and means ‘to draw out’, which, in its turn, means that it places the learner in the centre of the educational process. The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator, rather than a lecturer, with their task focused on drawing out the knowledge and response from the learner. This is also known as eliciting and has a number of advantages over merely telling learners the answers: • It involves more learners in the classroom • It can help to engage in an in-depth processing of language. If a learner has to think through or supply a definition, they are more likely to retain the definition in their long-term memory. • It allows diagnosing what the learners know. If we simply supply a definition, we may actually be telling the learners something they already know. If we elicit, we can estimate what they know and what they do not know, and hopefully create a need for the language.

25 Error Correction Experience has two things to teach: the first is that we must correct a great deal; the second that we must not correct too much. Perhaps the most sensitive of all areas in the language classroom (and the cause of much debate) is when and how to correct learners’ errors. Too much correction can de-motivate or discourage learners from contributing; too little can lead to reinforcement of errors. We would offer the following points to bear in mind when a student makes an error. 1.Was it an error or a slip of the tongue? Everyone makes mistakes with language, even in their native tongue. As a general rule, if a learner makes a mistake 2-3 times then it can be classed as an error. As teachers we should avoid correcting a learner automatically – prompt the learners to create another sentence to see if they can use the structure correctly. For example: Learner: ‘I speak to Tom yesterday about the party’ (possible avoidance of past tense form) Teacher: ‘What did he say?’ If the learner replies ‘He say…’ then possibly they have problems with using the past tense. If they answer ‘he said…’ then we can assume that the first ‘error’ was, in fact, a slip of the tongue. 2. Do the learners like to be corrected? Some individuals dislike too much correction as it does not allow them to focus on the more serious errors that they make in their own attempts to communicate. As a result, some teachers tend to avoid correction assuming that everyone feels the same way. It is appropriate to mention here that a lot depends on the teaching context in which you find yourself. As a matter of fact some cultures place more emphasis on correction than others, whilst others perceive making mistakes to be shameful. The best rule is simply to explain the learners first to be fluent and then accurate. We should not forget the target of learning either. We mean correction is needed if the learners’ aim is to take an oral examination. Here, of course, you have to make them realize that some correction is vital for their own benefit and higher mark. When should I correct? If we correct as soon as the learner makes an error then it can be very disruptive and frequently throws them out of their stride. If we correct too late, there is a danger that the learner will disregard the error as unimportant. Perhaps the best technique is to plan for an inflatable correction stage in your lessons. This means allowing time after productive activities for correction wherever it is necessary. If this is used regularly, the learners will adjust to it and regard error correction as less threatening. The maximum to bear in mind and reinforce with the learners

26 is ‘If your English was perfect then you wouldn’t be here so don’t be afraid of making mistakes!’ Checking Meaning ‘The more you explain it, the less I understand’ Mark Twain (5) Perhaps the most overused and useless question asked by teachers is ‘Do you understand.’ The most natural response is always ‘Yes’ even if the answer is ‘No’. Hence, it is always preferable to check whether they understood or not. Concept checking questions These type of questions often serve as a good way to check the comprehension and at the same time help to extend learners knowledge. If the learner has just encountered the word ‘heartless’then the teacher could ask the following set of questions: “So does it mean the person literally has no heart?” Answer-‘No’ “Is it a positive thing to say about someone?” Answer-‘No’ “Is it similar to ‘cruel’?” Answer-‘Yes’ “Can you give me an example of being heartless?” The last question is particularly important as it tests the learners’ genuine understanding of the word and can often lead to personalization of the language. Meaning can also be checked by: • Eliciting short definitions – normally the first tool used to check the meaning • Completing a definition – useful with harder words • Eliciting paraphrases – good to extend the learners’ knowledge of the word • Eliciting synonyms & antonyms – similar to paraphrasing but with the additional aspect that it helps the learner realize when the word may be used • Eliciting translations – a fast and efficient way of checking meaning, providing there is a direct equivalent or else as a way of raising learners’ awareness of differences with the structure in their native language. • Timelines – more useful for checking grammar • Personal response – essential for almost every occasion • Eliciting collocations – useful for a deeper understanding of the structure • Mime, picture or realia– an efficient way of checking meaning. As the expression has it, a picture paints a thousand words. It should be remembered that the above techniques should be used in conjunction in order to ensure that learners really do understand and that

27 finishing with a personalization exercise reinforces the meaning most effectively.

Classroom Interactions ‘No man is an island’ (John Donne, Meditation XVII) At the heart of communicative language teaching is placed the idea of working together to produce meaning. Among the great variety of interaction patterns that can be of significant benefit there can be mentioned the following ones:

Pair work • Builds confidence. By giving learners time to check their assumptions with a partner they are more likely to answer direct questions than in open class. • Allows learners to share ideas in a more intimate manner. Group work • Great pool of knowledge from which learners can draw. • A more demanding environment in which learners can have speaking practice without the direct influence of the teacher. Whole class • Activities such as a mill drill, where learners mingle and practice the language are frequently fun and challenging for learners.

Feedback Arguably the most important stage in any lesson is the feedback stage and, as the quotation suggests, vital prior to any discussion task which follows a controlled practice activity. This is where learners obtain or supply the correct answers, have a chance to raise questions about the material and share ideas. It is also the time where the teacher can shape whether the material has been covered sufficiently or whether a recap is needed. Here are some ideas for varying feedback: Open class – effective but easily dominated by the teacher and often time consuming. Nomination – more learner-centered, but relies on effective monitoring on the part of the teacher. After all, you need to know that the student you nominate knows the answer! Partial keys – giving out some of the answers speed up the feedback and allow the teacher to focus on the most interesting aspects. Answers on the back of the handout – quick and easy but allows little scope for discussion. Answers on board– as above but since there is a central focus, more scope for an open class discussion. 28 Tapescript– Useful to highlight phonological aspects that learners may have had difficulties with.

TIP Feedback can often be selective and thus you need only target things which all the learners find interesting or problematic. Praise ‘Kind words can be short and easy to speak, but their echoes are endless’ Mother Teresa (6). This section is somewhat brief, but not to be underestimated. At the heart of every classroom should be a positive working atmosphere – and genuine praise is one way of generating such an atmosphere. TIP Avoid the ‘compliment sandwich’, where the teacher praises the student, then corrects or highlights a mistake and then finishes with another ‘good.’ The key component with praise,or indeed the sandwich, is the filling rather than the bread and the wrong filling can leave a bitter taste in the mouth: make praise explicit and separate from any correction.

REFERENCES

1. Oxford, Rebecca, (1990) Language Learning Strategies. Newbury House 2. Kochkar, S.K., (2000) Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: Sterling 3. Wallace, Michael J., (1991) Training Foreign Language Teachers. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press 4. Bowen, T., Marks, J., (2005) Inside Teaching, The Teacher Development Series. Macmillan, Heinemann 5. http://www.seeph.pro.mcg.pl/pliki/IH_Broszura.pdf 6. http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/1932

29 Lifang Wei Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages, Shaoxing, China Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK E-mail: [email protected]

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HEDGING IN ENGLISH AND CHINESE LEGAL ACADEMIC WRITINGS

ABSTRACT Hedging, being one of the key features of academic writings, ‘express(es) tentativeness and possibility in communication’ (4), and ‘their appropriate use is crucial’. It has been received great attention in the research fields from semantic, pragmatic and cognitive perspectives. However, most of the studies of hedging expressions in academic writings concern English only, and few touches upon Chinese, let alone a comparative study between English and Chinese academic writings. In addition, there have been few studies on legal academic writings to date. This study aims to make a corpus-based comparative study of hedging expressions in English and Chinese legal academic writings by investigating and analyzing heading expressions from a cross-cultural pragmatic view. The corpus is composed of 10 randomly selected English legal academic writings and 10 Chinese ones published in key academic journals of law from 2012-2013. The framework of hedges in academic writings proposed by Hyland (4) is employed in tagging the corpus. By conducting a quantitative analysis of the overall distribution of hedging devices in English and Chinese in the corpora and a qualitative approach to analyze details of hedges in the corpus, the paper compares the similarities and differences of hedging expressions in academic legal writings in these two languages. It is found that the main hedges are similar in the two corpora; however, there are fewer hedges in the Chinese corpus than the English corpus. The paper also explores the reasons behind these differences. Through a comparative pragmatic study of hedging expressions based on the corpus, it is hoped that a cross-cultural awareness of hedging expressions in English and Chinese legal academic writings shall be raised among students and researchers. 30 1. Introduction Recent years have witnessed an increasing popularization in academic writings (4,5). Hyland (3) has pointed out that though it is generally believed that professional academic writings contain impersonal statements which illustrate facts and truth, it is also recognized that the interaction between the reader and writer is involved in academic writings. Just as Stubbs (3:239) points out, “all sentences encode a point of view”, so the academic writings are no exception in encompassing the presence of the author. Moreover, it is of great significance to distinguish propositions of facts, which have already been accepted by the academic community, from propositions of claims, which still have been disputed and evaluated. Hedging, as one of the important means in academic writings, serves as one of the indications of tentative or evaluative propositions of claims from facts and it has been receiving more attention from semantic, pragmatic, discourse and even cognitive perspectives. Lakoff (6:195) gives a definition of hedging as follows: “words whose job is to make things more or less fuzzy”; however, this definition is not clear enough. Hyland (5) defines hedging as the expression of “tentativeness and possibility in communication” and further clarifies it as “any linguistic means used to indicate either a) a lack of complete commitment to the truth value of an accompanying proposition, or b) a desire not to express that commitment categorically”, so hedges can be regarded as “interactive elements in texts which serve as a bridge between the propositional information (also termed as locutionary meaning) in a text and the writer’s factual interpretation (also termed as illocutionary meaning)” (7:9). The definition of Hyland is much more clarified and more suitable for hedging in academic writings, so we will adopt this definition in our study. Relating to the definition of hedging, hedge refers to “the surface phenomenon of text” (5:5), which is used to examine the function of hedging. Simply put, hedges are concrete devices and means used to realize hedging. The study of hedging is “contribute to the understanding of human’s linguistic performance and its corresponding strategic use” (7); moreover, as one of the politeness strategies put forward by Brown & Levinson (1), hedging shows politeness for others as well. Some of the previous studies of hedging in academic writings focus on scientific academic writings (3), some focus on economic reports (2), but there are few studies focusing on hedging in legal academic writings, let alone the comparative studies of hedging in English and Chinese legal academic writings. This neglected area provides a worthwhile topic for the current research.

31 This paper aims to make a comparative study of hedging in English and Chinese academic writings on the basis of Hyland’s (5) taxonomy of hedging, and through this study, we would like to find out the specific similarities and differences of hedging in English and Chinese legal academic writings and work out the underlying reasons and implications for these similarities and differences.

2. Theoretical framework: the taxonomy of hedging By extending the term of “hedge” used by Lakoff, Prince et. al. (8) classify hedging into two categories: approximators and shields: the former includes such expressions as sort of, about, virtually, and more or less; the latter covers such expressions as possibly, probably and modal verbs like may, which indicate the extent of the commitment of the speaker to the proposition. The taxonomy of Prince et. al. is one of the first attempts to divide hedging and distinguishes hedges affecting writer commitment and propositional relationship. However, his classification is not specific and inclusive enough, and does not touch upon different functions of hedges. What is also important is that this taxonomy ignores one significant function of hedging – the interpersonal function, which later is illustrated in Hyland’s taxonomy under the label of “reader-oriented hedges”. Hyland (5) has put forward a taxonomy of hedging on the basis of studying the realization of hedges in English scientific research articles, in which two categories are classified: content-oriented and reader-oriented. According to Hyland (4), content-oriented hedges are associated with the “adequacy conditions” of a statement, showing that claims of the academic writing shall correspond to what is believed to be true in the world; while reader-oriented hedges are to meet the “acceptability conditions” for the consideration of readers. For example: (1) This implies that the extent to which the…. (content-oriented hedges) (2) From our investigations we conclude that… (reader-oriented hedges) Hyland further divides content-oriented hedging into two sub-types, i.e. accuracy-oriented and writer-oriented hedging. These two differ in the reasons of modifying a proposition: the former is due to “an obligation to present claims as accurately as possible”, and the latter concerns “the need to anticipate what may be harmful to the writer”. (3) These…possibly comprised of… (accuracy-oriented hedges) (4) The figures suggest that… (writer-oriented hedges) Accuracy-oriented hedges are further divided into two sub-categories on the criteria of whether they concern “a qualification of predicate intensity (attribute hedges) or writer confidence (reliability hedges)” (4) 32 (5) … was generally confined to… (6) The …involved is somehow related to … In sum, Hyland’s taxonomy of hedging expressions can be illustrated in the following figure: Hedges

Content-oriented reader-oriented

Accuracy-oriented writer-oriented

Attribute Reliability

Figure 1. Hyland’s taxonomy of hedges

3. Research questions Based on the previous study, the paper aims to answer the following two questions by comparing hedges in English and Chinese legal academic writings: 1) To what extent do the linguistic realizations of hedging in English and Chinese legal academic writings differ from each other? 2) What are the reasons and implications behind this difference?

4. Research method The paper adopts both quantitative and qualitative method, with the former approach to identify the frequencies of various linguistic realizations of hedging in the data and compare the result, and the latter approach to probe into the reasons for the similarities and differences between the two set of data and work out implications for the study. 20 legal academic articles are chosen for the study, among which 10 are in English and 10 are in Chinese. In order to make the English and Chinese corpora more comparable, we choose one specific genre in legal writings– legal book reviews. Usually review articles are written by scholars in the similar field and involve the past, present and future of the research. They serve two purposes: reporting and evaluating. The target audience may be the wider academic community or the very author of the book. The study of the genre of review articles can help us better understand the articles, and it also has some implication for reviewers as well. The corpus of English legal reviews are randomly selected from British Journal of Criminology, one of the key journals of law, written in 2012-2013, with a total word amount of 14694, and the word amount for each article

33 ranges from 1036 to 1891, and the average length is 1469 words. On the other hand, the corpus of Chinese legal articles are randomly selected from the CSSCI journals of law in 2012-2013 such as Administrative Law Review and Law Review with a total word amount of 61594, and the word amount for each article ranges from 3343 to 9667, and the average length is 6159 words. The sources of corpora are described in the following table:

Corpus English Chinese Minimum word amount / article 1036 3343 Maximum word amount / article 1891 9667 Total word amount 14694 61594 Average word amount / article 1469 6159 Table 1. Description of the corpora

The corpora were coded according to Hyland’s taxonomy of hedges. After finishing the coding, the author invited another researcher to help check the accuracy of coding.

5. Results and discussion In this part we will first discuss the distribution of hedges both in the English and Chinese legal academic writing corpus, then we will have a detailed look at the specific realizations of each category, and then based on that, we will analyze the similarities and differences between the two corpus and try to illustrate the reasons as well. Let us look at the frequencies of hedges in each corpus first.

5.1 Frequencies of realizations of hedging in English and Chinese legal academic writings For the English corpus of 14694 words of legal reviews, there are 364 hedges altogether, and among them, 217 are accuracy-oriented hedges, 71 are writer-oriented hedges and 76 are reader-oriented hedges. The details are illustrated in the table below. Category Frequency in Frequency in English corpus 1,000 words Accuracy-oriented hedges 217 14.77 Writer-oriented hedges 71 4.83 Reader-oriented hedges 76 5.17 Total 364 24.77 Table 2. Frequencies of hedges in English legal academic writings

34 Among the 364 hedges in the English corpus, the three categories of accuracy-oriented, writer-oriented and reader-oriented hedges occupy 59.61%, 19.51% and 20.9% respectively. This suggests that in our corpus of English legal reviews, accuracy-oriented hedges used far more frequently than writer- and reader-oriented hedges.

250

200

150 accuracy-oriented hedges

100 writer-oriented hedges reader-oriented hedges 50

0 English corpus

Figure 2. Distribution of hedges in the English corpus

On the other hand, for the Chinese corpus of 61594 words of legal reviews, there are 582 hedges altogether, and among them, 377 are accuracy- oriented hedges, 91 are writer-oriented hedges and 114 are reader-oriented hedges. The details are illustrated in the table below.

Category Frequency in Frequency in Chinese corpus 1,000 words Accuracy-oriented hedges 377 6.12 Writer-oriented hedges 91 1.48 Reader-oriented hedges 114 1.85 Total 582 9.45 Table 3. Frequencies of hedges in Chinese legal academic writings

Among the 582 hedges in the English corpus, the three categories of accuracy-oriented, writer-oriented and reader-oriented hedges occupy 64.78%, 15.64% and 19.58% respectively. This suggests that in our corpus of Chinese legal reviews, accuracy-oriented hedges also account for the largest proportion.

35 400

300 accuracy-oriented hedges 200 writer-oriented hedges 100 reader-oriented hedges

0 Chinese corpus

Figure 3. Distribution of hedges in the Chinese corpus

We will compare the similarities and differences between them later after we finish displaying the main linguistic realizations of hedges.

5.2 Realizations of hedges in English and Chinese legal academic writings We will look at the realization of hedges in the three categories based on Hyland’s classifications, together with the illustrations of some typical examples found in the corpus. 5.2.1 Accuracy-oriented hedges Accuracy-oriented hedges are mainly concerned with expressing propositions precisely. It is mainly realized by attribute hedges and reliability hedges, which will be introduced below in detail. 1) Attribute type of accuracy-oriented hedges According to Hyland (5), attribute type of accuracy-oriented hedges help make more precise specification of the attributes of the description by distinguishing the extent to which the results approximate the idealized state. Generally speaking, this type is realized by some precision adjectives, adverbs or nouns. Specifically, it can be realized by content disjuncts, style disjuncts and downtoners. Content disjuncts is a popular way of realization of attributes. In our English corpus, there are adverbs such as apparently, somehow, certainly etc. In the Chinese corpus, there are expressions such as “keneng” (possible), “mingxian / xianran” (apparently; obviously), etc. For example: [1] Yet, these fundamental issues are dealt with in a seemingly parenthetical manner here. [2]

36 Style disjuncts are used to indicate the extent of precision of attributes. In the English corpus they are mainly realized by expressions such as usually, always, generally, etc. In the Chinese corpus the expressions are “tongchang” (usually), “wanquan” (completely; entirely), “queshi” (actually), “zongtieryan” (as a whole), “jinjin” (merely; only), “jibenshang” (basically), “dazhi” (generally), etc. For example, [3] However, Halliday and Schmidt look beyond the methods usually covered in methodological texts (such as surveys, interviews and observation) [4] Downtoners refer to expressions that can weaken the force of the attribute. In English legal articles, downtoners are mainly realized adverbs, adjectives and nouns such as near(ly), rough(ly), approximately, barely, hardly, quite, close to, more than, less than, more or less, etc. We can also find similar expressions in Chinese legal articles as “feichang” (very), “youxie” (some / somewhat), “jihubu” (hardly), “bijiao” (relatively), “dazhi” (about), etc. For instance, [5] These data hardly reflect the growing paramiliterism of police in thought and action that the first chapter suggests. [6] For the English data, there are altogether 98 hedges of attribute type of accuracy-oriented hedges, and the most frequent hedges are “relatively” and “very”. For the Chinese data, there are 199 hedges of attribute type of hedges, and the most frequent hedges are “xiangdui” (relatively) and “yixie” (some). 2) Reliability type of accuracy-oriented hedges Reliability hedges, according to Hyland (5:166), are those expressions that “acknowledge the writer’s uncertain knowledge and indicate the confidence he or she is willing to invest in the validity of a claim”. Therefore, they “express simple subjective uncertainty in a proposition and are motivated by the writers’ desire to explicitly convey the extent to which, and in which, it corresponds to his or her understanding of ‘truth’” (7:34). Usually reliability type of accuracy-oriented content hedges are realized by conventional epistemic expression including epistemic lexical verbs, modal adjectives and modal nouns as well as content disjunct adverbs indicating propositional uncertainty. In the English corpus, reliability hedges are primarily realized by some epistemic lexical verbs such as indicate, suspect, etc., modal verbs, adjectives

37 and adverbs such as might, may, probable, possibly, etc., linking verbs such as appear, seem, etc. For instance, [7] Migration and prostitution may have been forced upon women by poverty, internal trafficking or a combination of both. [8] Many introductory research methods textbooks marginalize or ignore analytical techniques, possibly because they are difficult to discuss in generic terms In the Chinese corpus, reliability hedges are mainly expressed by some conventional epistemic lexical verbs such as “…renwei” (consider), “…zhichu” (point out), “…guji” (estimate), “jushuo” (it is said that), etc. and linking words such as “haoxing / sihu” (seem), etc. which indicate propositional uncertainty. For example, [9] [10] In our English corpus, the most frequent reliability type of hedges are “can” and “would”, while in our Chinese corpus, the most frequent reliability type of hedges are “keyi” (can) and “keneng” (possibly).

5.2.2 Writer-oriented hedges Writer-oriented hedges are used to “diminish the writer’s presence in the text” (5:170), whose main role is not to interfere the proposition of a statement but to imply that the writer is not completely committed to the truth of the statement. The frequent means to realize writer-oriented hedges is impersonal expressions, which include passive voice, abstract rhetors and “empty subjects. For instance, “yanjiu biaoming…” (the research indicate that…) In the English corpus, we have some epistemic lexical verbs such as indicate, suggest, imply and judgmental verbs such as infer, estimate, etc. and some evidential verbs such as expect, report, appear, seem, sound, reflect, assume, tend to, etc. For instance, [11] This questionable proposition implies that any casualty caused must be, by inference, wrong. [12]

Another means of writer-oriented hedges is attribution to literature by referring to the citations of others’ work. This can be found both in the English and Chinese corpus.

38 5.2.3 Reader-oriented hedges The reader-oriented hedges in the English and Chinese corpus are both primarily realized by personal attribution, and typically together with judgemental and deductive lexical verbs. For example, “wo / women renwei (I / We think)”, “women zhichu (we point out)”, “women jinayi” (we suggest), etc. For example: [13] This remarkable, controversial and, ultimately in my view, successful book will no doubt give rise to alternate intellectual judgments about its efficacy. [14] Another reader-oriented hedges are suggestions of alternatives and hypothetical conditions as well. For instance, “ruguo…jianghui…” (if… then…) Through the use of conditionals, the author would suggest that the claim or statement is left open for the judgment of the readers. Occasionally, the author would use direct questions to get the readers involved. We found several cases in the Chinese corpus. [15]

5.3 Comparison of hedges in English and Chinese legal academic writing Based on the above analysis, we can see that there are similarities as well as differences between hedges in English and Chinese. 5.3.1 Similarities and differences There are several obvious similarities between the hedges in the two corpora. First, similar types of hedging expressions can be found in both English and Chinese legal academic writings. Second, as to specific strategies of hedges, accuracy-oriented hedges are preferred in both the English and Chinese corpora. Moreover, as we have indicated in the distribution, hedges in both corpora show similar patter, i.e. accuracy- oriented hedges occupy the biggest proportions, then comes the reader- oriented hedges and then writer-oriented hedges. However, there are also differences between them. The most striking one is that compared with English authors for legal writings, Chinese writers use much fewer hedges in the legal writings. From the frequencies of these three kinds of hedges in 1,000 words, we can see clearly from the following figure.

39 15

10 accuracy-oriented hedges writer-oriented hedges 5 rader-oriented hedges

0 English corpus Chinese corpus

Figure 4. Comparison of hedges in the English and Chinese corpora

Besides, some specific linguistic realizations of hedges also have differences. For instance, there are more varieties of modal verbs in English such as may, might, can, could, would, should, ought to, need , etc. to help realize content-oriented hedges, while in Chinese there are only a few modal verbs counterparts such as “keyi”, “nenggou” (may), etc. without many inflections and varieties of modal verbs. So is the case with impersonal expressions.

5.3.2 Underlying reasons for the similarities and differences We can explain the similarities from two perspectives: the first is the genre of the articles we have chose for the corpus. We choose legal academic writings and especially legal reviews, which have common communicative goal, and hedges play a significant part in this genre to achieve the goal, and this makes the presence of three categories of hedges in both our English and Chinese corpus. Moreover, legal academic writings, in essence, belong to the genre of academic writing, focusing more on the accuracy of the claims or proposals, so it is different from the oral language or face-to-face verbal communication. Therefore, the proportion of content-oriented hedges (including accuracy-oriented and writer-oriented hedges far surpasses that of reader-oriented hedges. The second reason of the similar distribution is for the sake of politeness. Legal reviews, especially book reviews, are face-threatening acts both to the writers as well as the book authors. Hedges, as one of the politeness strategies, are helpful to mitigate the face-threatening act and leave room for the readers as well as the book authors. The conspicuous difference of Chinese legal writings using fewer hedges than English legal writings may also imply the differences of interpersonal

40 relations in academic writings between the UK and China. In the UK, equality in academic field is advocated and challenging authority is encouraged; while in China, where the “Ren” and “Li” of Confucianism is highly influenced the minds of people, authority is usually respected. This results to the differences in the perception of some key elements in the degree of politeness proposed by Brown & Levinson (1): power and distance. Most of the authors (8 out of 10) in the Chinese corpus are professors or experts in this field, while the readers usually include both peers and those who are less famous than them, so to some extent they possess more power in their specific field and the distance between the author and audience is relevantly large. Therefore, they tend to use fewer hedges about their claims, indicating kind of authority and power in this field. However, most of the authors in our English corpus are lecturers (7 out of 10) in that field and the readers include peers and those who are famous than them, so the distance between the author and readers are the other way around. Therefore, more hedges are used to show the tentativeness and possibility of the claims in the relevant equal academic atmosphere.

6. Conclusion In sum, there are some similarities and differences between hedging in English and Chinese legal writings. The three main kinds of hedges, i.e. accuracy-oriented hedges, writer-oriented hedges and reader-oriented hedges, are all found in our English and Chinese corpus, with the first category accounting for the biggest proportion. However, there are fewer hedges in the Chinese corpus than the English corpus. We have investigated detailed realizations as well as comparison between them. This comparative study is of some significance to the Chinese EAP learners. It can help them find out the interior meanings of English articles, and make appropriate use of hedging expressions in writing English legal articles, and being aware of this difference can also help translators in the translation of hedging in legal academic writings between English and Chinese. Moreover, it is of some help to facilitate the intercultural communication in both English and Chinese legal fields. The paper also has some limitations. For instance, the corpus adopted in the research is relatively small. We might need large corpora to prove the findings of this study.

41 REFERENCES

1. Brown, P. & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2. He, B. (2005). A contrastive analysis of hedging in English and Chinese “Economic Analysis” writings. Unpublished MA thesis. Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. 3. Hyland, K. (1994). Hedging in academic writing and EAP textbooks. English for Specific Purposes, 13, 3, 239-256. 4. Hyland, K. (1996). Writing without conviction? Hedging in science research articles. Applied Linguistics, 17 (4): 433-454. 5. Hyland, K. (1998). Hedging in scientific research articles. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 6. Lakoff. G. (1972). hedges: A study in meaning criteria and the logic of fuzzy concepts. Journal of Philosophical Logic:2: 458-508. 7. Li, H. M. (2007). A comparative study of hedging in Chinese and English academic book reviews—an adaptation approach. Unpublished MA thesis. Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. 8. Prince, E. et. al. (1982). On hedging in physician-physician discourse [A]. In R. D. Pietro (ed.), linguistics and Professions [C]. New Jersey: Albex Publishing Corporation. 83-97. 9. Silver, M. (2003). The stance of stance: a critical look at ways stance is expressed and modeled in academic discourse. Journal of English for Specific Purposes, 2 (4): 359-374.

42 Margarian E. Yerevan State University, Armenia

STRENGTHENING VISUAL AND AUDITORY IMAGES IN EFL READING: SOME LISTENING-BASED TECHNIQUES

ABSTRACT An ESP reading program limited in time and in non-native environment will benefit if it is complemented with listening – based techniques related to the reading material. Time limitations in our ESP reading programs and the little exposure students have had to oral language compel us to set our goals carefully and choose appropriate methodology and classroom procedures in order to successfully impart the phonological information the students need to strengthen their visual and auditory images of the language. Since the phonological information necessary to decode visual material does not need to reach the accuracy required for oral production of the language, we can draw forth this phonological awareness by means of listening activities.

A division of language skills in the teaching of English as a foreign language is inevitable in nonnative environments, when the time allotted for foreign-language instruction is limited and the student’s immediate need is for a particular skill. Such is the case in the ESP reading courses at the University, where the student receives only four hours of English a week during his first year of general studies. Although reading is the ultimate objective, teachers find that they need to relate it to other skills in order to reinforce it and help students overcome the characteristic reading problems that result from the grammar-translation methodology used in their study years. In spite of having amassed a sizable vocabulary, the student still approaches reading word by word because of his need to have a word-by- word translated version of the text. The literature on second-language learning does not pay much attention to this decoding problem as such. We only read about the slowing-down effect that translating has on reading comprehension, preventing the student from reading large amounts of text rapidly and effectively. In a study done

43 by Lado (7) with English speakers learning Spanish, it was found that those who translated a text and were later asked to recall its content showed significantly more errors than another group who were asked not to translate but to study the text and then recall its content at a later date. It seems that by reading word by word one cannot maintain the minimum rate of input required for linguistic synthesis. Mattingly I.G. (3) illustrates this by comparing it to speech. When speech is slowed down by inclusion of a pause after each word, it is hard for the listener to put the whole sentence together, even when individual words are completely intelligible. If a reader can maintain the required minimum rate of input, many of his perceptual errors can be smoothed over in synthesis. But if the reader goes too slowly, he may well be unable to keep up with his own processes of linguistic synthesis and therefore will be unable to make any sense at all out of what he reads. If this is so, the process of linguistic synthesis is even less probable in a situation in which the student translates what he reads (which is in itself a very difficult task) and at the same time tries to make sense out of what he has translated. Second-language research tends to deal with the complex information- processing skills in reading, since it is generally assumed that the more mechanical decoding strategies are transferred automatically from the native language and that the problems that may arise will eventually take care of themselves with a better knowledge of the foreign language. However, it is not very encouraging, either for students or teachers in nonnative situations, to be told that when a certain level of proficiency is reached these mechanical problems will be solved. This is as disheartening as being told that a good pronunciation is acquired if you have a good ear or if you live for a couple of years in an English-speaking country. Silberstein (8) has suggested that this decoding problem could be solved by making students conscious of the problem-in other words, “demonstrating to them their success in getting the gist of a written passage without laboriously translating every word.” These demonstrations, however, usually end up by being exercises similar to timed readings; these may serve their purpose, but not before students are really compelled to process information directly in English and in meaningful “chunks”. Otherwise, they will not only resent being forced to read faster, but the timed reading might train them just to translate faster. If our aim in teaching reading comprehension is to enable students to read large amounts of text rapidly and effectively, we have to teach them to

44 process the written message in English. And if this requires control of the phonological system, the Armenian speaker who has been mostly exposed to written English would need to be given the necessary phonological information to strengthen visual and auditory images, since the association between sound patterns and spelling patterns in Armenian and English are significantly different. There is a fairly close fit between the two patterns in Armenia, whereas in English the association is almost totally inadequate. However, conveying this phonological information in an ESP reading program, limited in time, in a nonnative situation, and for students who have learned the language through the medium of the written word, might become an unattainable and frustrating task unless we deal only with those aspects that are most crucial for the learner at this level and present them in the least demanding way. In this article I will first refer to subvocalization while reading, pointing out some differences from the oral production of the language for communicative purposes. I will then suggest some listening- based techniques to introduce the oral code in an ESP reading program with the aforementioned limitations.

Subvocalization while reading The phonological information that the student needs for reading purposes does not necessarily require precise production of the sounds. In the same way that we do not need to be good spellers in order to read fluently, there is no need to vocalize a text adequately or out loud in order to process it phonologically for reading purposes. I agree with the objections that have been raised (2) on the practices of reading aloud, individually or in choral reading, as ways of teaching the reading skill in a foreign language. Reading aloud for its own sake has more to do with the oral production of the language than with reading. In reading aloud, articulation is forced upon the reader. This is not only a difficult task, since every word has to be enunciated, but it has also been suggested that it is possible to develop the so-called “speaking ability” and yet be incompetent in understanding the spoken language (5). By the same token, being able to vocalize aloud what is being read does not imply reading comprehension. Although reading aloud is to be rejected as a practice, this does not imply that” effective reading occurs without reference to the sounds of language“ nor that “a reading program should give attention to the skill of reading alone” (2:127). As was mentioned above, it has not only been demonstrated that written materials are more efficiently processed when converted into

45 their phonological forms, but it is also part of our natural experience with language to subvocalize either covertly or overtly while we read. The difference between good and poor readers seems to lie in the way they subvocalize. In the poor reader, subvocalization is frequently overt – that is, all articulatory processes are involved except those required for making sounds. Lips visibly move to form speech sounds, and movement of the speech organs can easily be felt with the fingers. Subvocalizing while reading is usually taken as an undesirable habit because the term is usually interpreted as referring to this overt subvocalization, and in this case there is obviously a lack of reading fluency; however, overt subvocalization itself does not seem to be the cause of lack of comprehension in reading but rather a result or a symptom of it. It seems that a reader uses a great deal of overt subvocalization when needed for effective contact with semantic levels, but uses little, if any, when it is not needed (1). The more fluent we are as readers, the less we will need to suvocalize overtly. In fact, in the proficient reader there is a complete absence of detectable speech- motor activity. However, this lack of oral articulation does not preclude the occurrence of silent speech in the form of speech imagery (1). This silent speech has been acknowledged as part of the reading process as far back as 1908 in Huey’s statement, cited by Gibson and Levin (1990): Gibson and Levin (9) report on a number of experiments carried out by Huey, in which the subjects, all adults, were instructed to read an interesting novel and to report on their inner process as they read. Most readers said that the pronunciation was “up in the head.” Inner speech was a combination of auditory and motor elements, depending on the subject’s usual mode of imagining. Again, it is emphasized that subvocalization is not reading aloud, which in Huey’s experiments was found to be 66 percent slower than reading silently. In subvocalization there is slurring of words, only beginnings of words are pronounced, and in fastest reading certain words are not pronounced (Gibson and Levin, 1989).

Eliciting the Oral Code through Listening - Based Techniques Time limitations in our ESP reading programs and the little exposure students have had to oral language compel us to set our goals carefully and choose appropriate methodology and classroom procedures in order to successfully impart the phonological information the students need to strengthen their visual and auditory images of the language. Since the phonological information necessary to decode visual material does not need

46 to reach the accuracy required for oral production of the language, we can draw forth this phonological awareness by means of listening activities. Listening seems more convenient than speaking for our ESP reading course not only because the immediate goal is not oral production, but also because the listening activity seems to require from the foreign-language student more of a recognition vocabulary for rapid comprehension than a sophisticated knowledge of syntax; we seem to move directly from apprehension of semantic elements to the comprehension level (6). The other advantage of listening is the commonality of processing that seems to exist between listening and reading. Much of the research in reading comprehension and listening comprehension in first-language acquisition makes the assumption that after a word is identified, the cognitive processes and the mental representations elicited by these two modes of input are the same. This assumption has led to a number of hypotheses. It has been suggested, for example, that information processing in listening influences processing in reading and vice versa (12); gains from instruction in a listening skill (e.g., listening for the main idea) should transfer to performance in the same skill in reading (4). In order to integrate the listening activity with the rest of our ESP reading program we have to choose the material that consists of passages of extended discourse instead of conversations, graded according to the level of the course taught, presented in clearly enunciated, slow-paced English, and related to the technical-scientific content of the program. The stress of the listening activity is lowered by not making demands on speaking or writing. Some of the commercially recorded courses cover part of our requirements, but adaptations always have to be made, since most of the materials available are meant for students who have had more exposure to the spoken language. An example of such a course is Dunkel and Lim’s (10). This material includes recognition of the cue signals of six rhetorical patterns of expository discourse, which our students also encounter in their reading practice. However, although the students are familiar with these patterns, as well as the vocabulary and syntactic structures used in the course, they have difficulty recognizing them aurally; therefore, the program has been adapted in such a way that the input is understood by the students. This has been achieved by means of pre-listening activities that deal with the content of the script, and the immediate needs of vocabulary and pronunciation. Since the immediate objective of this listening activity for our ESP

47 program in its first levels is not so much the comprehension as such but the strengthening of the visual and auditory images, the main focus of the activity can be directed towards the aural recognition of vocabulary that has been learnt mostly in written form. In terms of a skills taxonomy, such as the one offered by Rockey (1997) as a guide for listening comprehension, we would be dealing with the basic skill, that is, the literal recognition of details, sequences, comparisons, character traits, etc. – the response being always overtly stated in the stimulus. The student is not asked to rely on memory for the response of the tasks given after hearing the stimulus – he can return to it (i.e., the recording) for the answers as many times as necessary. These tasks have also been adapted from Dunkel and Lim’s program so that the response depends more on reading than on listening. The students, for example, read rather than listen to a sentence to determine whether it is true or false according to what they have just heard in the stimulus. Besides strengthening the visual and auditory images, the reading tasks also lower the stress of the listening activity, since the student has to concentrate only on the stimulus. Lund (11) goes even further to suggest listening after reading the whole script when the assigned listening function does not match the proficiency level in reading: Listening after reading helps students recognize acoustically what they can already comprehend in print and instills satisfaction and confidence in listening. This procedure is especially useful when the script is long. Besides giving a prelistening activity dealing with immediate vocabulary, the student is asked to read the script before going to the laboratory. This, together with the phonological practice of the immediate vocabulary, makes the listening activity feasible and enjoyable. The pre-listening activity is also directed towards those aspects that cause special aural difficulty for our students. It was found that the word and sentence stress were the most difficult phonetic aspects both to perceive and to pronounce. The fact that the sentence I would have come if I had known takes more or less the same time to pronounce as I’ll bring it back, since only two words are stressed in each of the sentences, shows the student that only the words that convey semantic meaning – come and known in the first sentence and bring and back in the second – are stressed and therefore pronounced more clearly. The other words are pronounced rapidly and indistinctly. Besides word and sentence stress, the other phonological aspect that

48 needs to be included in the pre-listening practice in order to help students recognize aurally vocabulary learnt mostly in written form is the English vowel sounds and their relation to their orthographic representation. Most of the vocabulary used to illustrate the above phonological aspects in the pre-listening activity is taken from the script itself. I first make an inventory of the vocabulary and then choose vowel sounds and stress patterns that are included in it, a passage such as the following from Dunkel and Lim’s program (10): “A microscope is a scientific instrument that is used to help see things that are too small to see with the naked eye. The word microscope is a combination of two Greek words. The words are mikros, or “small,” and skopos, or “watcher.” So a microscope is a “watcher of the small.” A microscope consists of a series of lenses in a hollow tube. A lens is a transparent piece of glass that makes an object look larger or smaller. The lenses in a microscope make things look larger; so they are called magnifying lenses. The lens at the top of the tube is called the eyepiece. The lens at the bottom of the tube is called the objective. To use the microscope, you put the object – or the specimen you want to look at – on a slide. Next you place the slide on the stage of the microscope. A mirror under the stage reflects light up through the specimen and then up through the lens to your eye. Now the specimen appears a lot larger, and you can see many of the tiny details you couldn’t see with the naked eye. Microscopes are used in science, medicine, and industry. The sounds that need to be compared and discriminated are the /i:/ as in piece, /i/ as in things, /e/ as in cell, /x/ as in glass, /A/ as in up, /u:/ as in through, /u/ as in could, /ai/ as in light, /ei/ as in make. The student is first asked to discriminate aurally the vowel sounds in a number of words taken from the script and adding, if necessary, some other words to complete the auditory practice, in an exercise like the following:

49 Listen to the following examples and then to the words below. Place them in the column that corresponds to the same vowel sound:

Examples: /i:/ /i/ /e/ /x/ leave live pet cat

/A/ /u:/ /u/ /ai/ / ei / cut boot put light late

1. glass 11. eye 2. some 12. see 3. Greek 13. help 4. piece 14. too 5. cell 15. look 6. could 16. things 7. through 17. plants 8. up 18. tube 9. slide 19. rub 10. make 20. has

The teacher should first read the examples in minimal pairs whenever possible and ask the students to discriminate them. Then the other 20 words are read and the students place them in the correct column. Another exercise is given with the same vocabulary, but in such a way that the visual and auditory representations of the words are strengthened more effectively. Sentence stress is practiced by asking the students to fill in grammatical or function words left out of an extract taken from the script:

50 Listen to the following text and fill in the blank spaces with the missing function words listed below.

Bacteria ____ tiny organisms ______too small ______seen ______naked eye. ______want ______analyze ____, ____ need ______use _____ microscope. _____ put ______specimen ______slide ______then place ______slide ______stage ______microscope. ______mirror under ______stage ______reflects light through ______specimen ______eyes. ______lens ______top ______tube ______called ______eyepiece.

there, is, are, be, you, them, your, if, with, on, and, of, that, to, the, a

The exercise above shows the students that the words that are clearly heard usually convey the meaning of the sentences and those that are not so clear can usually be worked out in spite of their lack of accuracy when pronounced. I usually ask the students to fill in the blank spaces before hearing the text. Exercises like this one might eventually help students to read in meaningful units and might also discourage them from giving equal importance to all words. The phonological explanations and practice included are easily handled by the students, and therefore the pre-listening pronunciation activity does not take much time from the one hour a week dedicated to listening comprehension. These results seem to suggest that an ESP reading program, limited in time and in a nonnative environment, will benefit if it is complemented with listening-based techniques related to the reading material and to the students’ level in audio-comprehension.

51 REFERENCES

1. Conrad, R. (1996). Speech and Reading. In Language by ear and by eye. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. 2. Dubin, F. (1999). What every EFL teacher should know about reading. “The Modern Language Journal”, 75. 3. Mattingly, I. G. (1997) Reading, the linguistic process and linguistic awareness. Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press. 4. Sticht, T.G. and J.H.James.1984. Listening and Reading 25, 4, pp. 28- 35, ed. P.D.Pearson. New York: Longman. 5. Winits, H. (1991). The comprehension approach to foreign language instruction. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. 6. Rivers, W.M. (1987). Hearing and Comprehending. Washington. USIA. 7. Lado R. (2000). Language and thought. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 4, pp. 35-50. 8. Silberstein. Language and Thought: Effect of Translation. Interpretation TESOL QUARTLY. 9. Levin (1990). The Comprehension Approach to Foreign Language Instruction. New Fury Houlc. 10.Lim’s (1996). USIA Originally published in English Teaching Forum. 11. Lund (1999). A Guide to Listening-Comprehension Exercises. 12. Seidenberg (1982). Some Limitations of Knowledge.

52 Matevosyan A. Alimyan M. Yerevan State University, Armenia

THE PRAGMA-RHETORIC ASPECT OF METAPHOR IN BUSINESS DISCOURSE

ABSTRACT The present article focuses on the use of metaphor in Business Discourse, mainly in business reports, negotiations and discourse. In business discourse metaphor has cognitive peculiarities, i.e it can benefit the communicative competence of specialists and enterpreneurs and contribute to their understanding of the nature of communication efficiency. For outlining more realistic picture we took business discourse instances from BBC Business News site which illustrates the most important business negotiations as well as the “naturalistic” business discourse.

Our everyday speech is the whole spectrum of metaphoric expressions without which our communication will be dull, devoid of any emotional colors. Lakoff and Johnson (2:3) claimed that “our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature”. Metaphor is described as a central tool of our cognitive apparatus. It develops understanding of how language, thought and discourse are structured, that’s why the study of metaphor is pivotal for scholars of different disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, and literature (7). Metaphor appears to be one of the most important aspects of linguistic behavior. It involves a semantic transfer through a similarity in sense perceptions. Expressions already existent in the language are often usurped, giving rise to new meanings for old ones (3). So metaphor is considered as a kind of substitution or transfer. This fits the etymological meaning of the word metaphor itself is the Greek prefix meta- often conveys an idea of change, and –phor is from a Greek verb pherein ‘to carry, bear’. The process of understanding metaphor consists of recognizing that a particular word or expression is polysemous and being used with secondary metaphorical meaning, rather than its literal meaning. Many polysemous words are like 53 branch. They have basic meaning which refers to something concrete or physical, from which have developed further senses which are metaphorical. This basic meaning is sometimes referred to as the core meaning. Consider, for example, the following nouns, where there are fairly clear connections between core and metaphorical senses; like stream:….a country house in woodland with its own trout stream;…. a small but steady stream of visitors, or cream;….porridge was served with cream and brown sugar;……the cream of pop: Robbie Williams, Bono, etc. (9). In this connection, Van Dijk underlines several important aspects of metaphors; first metaphors are “figures of thought” and common for traditional operations of rhetoric, secondly, metaphors cannot be limited to literary texts, as it is a process operating in natural language in general. It is common knowledge that all discourse is persuasive in the sense of aiming for some sort of cognitive, emotional or aesthetic effect in its envisaged audience. According to Charteris-Black metaphors are persuasive and ideologically effective when they are cognitively plausible and evoke an emotional response (8). Metaphor as a common linguistic occurrence is varied in its textual appearance, versatile in the functions it may perform and central to many different types of communication, from informal interaction to political speeches (1). The expressiveness of metaphor is especially underlined in Business Discourse, when we deal with business reports, negotiations and discourse, etc. In business discourse metaphor has cognitive peculiarities , in other words it can benefit the communicative competence of specialists and entrepreneurs and contribute to their understanding of the nature of communication efficiency. Piotrcap argued that business discourse should be taken as a wide and multidimensional phenomenon encompassing some thematic subspecies, thus, for example, “economic discourse”, “discourse of negotiations”, etc. What is essential in business discourse is the pragma- rhetoric approach (10) which means the production of the structure of discourse in a dynamic perspective of speech. The underlying principle is that dynamic order responds to the intention of persuading by the discourse- maker. That is why the speaker or the author first needs to fulfill the communicative intention, in order to make possible then to fulfill the persuasive intention (particularly, the intention to convince in argumentative discourse). And the usage of some rhetoric means, (in our case we investigate the metaphor) aim at fulfilling the persuasive intention in business discourse. For outlining more realistic picture we took business discourse instances from BBC Business News site (11). The site illustrates the most important business negotiations and “naturalistic” business discourse. 54 Thus for example. Eurozone leaders met for the umpteenth time in October in their latest attempt to shore up the faltering economies of Europe and restore confidence in the euro. Since the onset of the financial crisis in 2008, there has been an almost constant string of meetings among top policymakers in a concerted effort to resolve the debt crisis that has decimated the Greek economy and dragged the eurozone to the brink of its second recession in three years. (12) The context outlines the main problem in Europe; the maintenance of Greece in eurozone. The discourse is rather skeptical and bares some negative overtones which can be deduced from the expression “the umpteenth time” thus implying that the leaders of eurozone had met for many times and could not resolve the “Greece economic problem”. The whole meaning of context is rather idiomatic as the usage of the expressions like “to shore up the faltering economics of Europe” and “dragged the eurozone to the brink of its second recession” requires some knowledge of vertical context to understand that the problem in Greece tackles upon European economic crisis. The next example illustrates the persuasive utterance which leads to the assumption that the Greek problem is still actual and eurozone failed to reach agreement. A year later in October 2011 they were again talking about this - displaying how slowly change does come when a number of countries need to agree on giving up part of their sovereignty. By the end of this year - finally - it’s hoped some of those new rules will enter into force. But by no means all. They are still in the pipeline and - again - there are still important differences between (especially) Germany and France. In the context an idiomatic expression in the pipeline is noticeable which means “something is being discussed, planned or prepared and will happen or exist soon” (5:957). By the usage of the idiomatic expression the whole context became metaphorical thus implying that even the rules that have entered into law could not solve the situation. In the next article the author figuratively underlines the possibility of Greek economy crash by using metaphor in title, like:

Greek Meltdown Prime Minister Antonis Samaras has warned that living standards would fall by 80% within a few weeks of exit. Greece’s banks would be facing collapse. People’s savings would be frozen. Many businesses would go bankrupt. The cost of imports - which in Greece includes a lot of its food and medicine - could double, triple or even

55 quadruple as the new non-euro currency plummets in value. With their banks bust, Greek businesses would find it impossible to borrow and to finance the purchase of some imported goods. One of Greece’s biggest industries, tourism, could be disrupted by political and social turmoil. It is common knowledge that the title and the content are the indispensible parts of the text. In the business discourse it is more evident, when on the one hand the author rates the instability of Greek economy and its consequences in the text and on the other hand illustrates the crisis in the title by using the figurative element. The word “meltdown” means “a serious accident in which the central part of a nuclear reaction melts, causing harmful radiation to escape (5:919). Certainly it does not indicate the above mentioned definition, it illustrates figuratively the critical point of Greek economy. Another interesting business report is written by Robert Peston under the title “Can the Bank of England hit any target?” (13) where the author explains the banking situation in UK. For example. This economic failure is not exactly a secret. And perhaps the new government’s most significant financial reform has been an attempt to prevent this particular horse bolting again: it has set up a so-called Financial Policy Committee at the Bank of England, which will soon have formal powers to prevent banks lending too much in the next boom. And that may be where a few of you snort contemptuously. Because right now, the big problem for Britain is not that banks are lending massively too much, or that households and businesses are borrowing too much. It is that all of them are trying to improve their finances. They are all, to use the hideous jargon, attempting to deleverage. Banks are trying to shrink the loans and investments on their balance sheets, relative to the capital they hold as protection against losses. Many households are struggling, even with interest rates at record lows, to repay existing debts. Many consumer-facing businesses or commercial property businesses with big debts are - to use the phrase of the moment - zombies. The context is full of economic terms like “ financial reform, to shrink the loans and investments, balance sheets, capital, interest rates, debts, consumer, etc” which enriches the discourse. The whole banking system is depicted as a complicated network which has its rises and falls and figuratively speaking it is the duty of government to bolt this horse. To put it in the other way it is very difficult to regulate the banking system of UK. As for the word “deleverage” the author did the rhetoric trick by using the prefix de- before the word leverage which means “the ability to influence what people do” (5:849) thus having the opposite meaning. In the context the word “zombies” is noticeable which ironically

56 describes the current situation of both the consumer-facing businesses and commercial property businesses. Fairclough underlines two types of discourse analysis; linguistic and intertextual analysis. It is suggested that textual analysis needs to be based on a multifunctional theory of language such as systematic-functional linguistics. For instance. Industrial production in China recorded a smaller-than-expected rise in April, underlining worries that the economy may be losing steam. Output rose 9.3% from a year ago, which was up from March’s figure of 8.9% but below market forecasts for a 9.5% rise. Fixed-asset investment also weakened in the first four months of 2013. Last week, a separate survey suggested that manufacturing activity, a subset of industrial production, grew at a slower pace in April. “This is not the start of a rally, it is a sputtering whimper as momentum continues to fade,” said economists at IHS Global Insight. IHS also said that slowing fixed-asset investment - a key measure of government spending - suggested weakness in manufacturing and infrastructure construction, and warned that the pace could fall further amid government efforts to curb the housing market. Separately, Bank of America Merrill Lynch analysts also warned that there was an increased “downside risk” to the economy (14) If we tried to map the speech act noted above, we could say that the speech has the following strategies. a. Persuasion that the rise of the economy will not increase the manufacturing and infrastructure construction of the country. b. Information which is noticeable in the whole speech act by adducing the economic changes in China c. Suggestion that “the economy may lose its steam” as the industry of China recorded a rise in April Thus, the pragmo-rhetoric aspect of metaphor is quite evident in business discourse which outlines the informative and cognitive functions.

REFERENCES

1. Semino Elena, (2008) Metaphor on Discourse, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 2. Lacoff G. & Jonson M., (1980) Metaphors We Live By, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. 3. Malmakjxr K., (2004) The Linguistic Encyclopeadia, London & New York, Routledge. 57 4. Teunis Adrianus Van Dijk, (1972) Some Aspects of Text Grammar, Paris, Mouton. 5. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (2006) Oxford, Oxford University Press. 6. Fairclough Norman, (1992) Discourse and Text; Linguistic and Intertextual Analysis within Discourse Analysis, Lancaster, Lancaster University, April, vol. 3 7. Dylan B., (1999) Researching and Applying Metaphor, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 8. Charteris-Black J. (2004) Corpus approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis, London, Palgrave-Machmillan. 9. Knowles M., Moon R., (2006) Introducing Metaphor, London and New York, Routledge. 10. Larrazabal M. J., Korta K., (2011). 11. www. bbc.co.uk/news/business-19959759 12. Richard Anderson. Business Reporter, BBC News, 22 October 2012 13. www. bbc.co.uk/news/business-20772437 14. www. bbc.co.uk/news/business-22508472

58 Mkrtchyan K. Mnatsakanyan L. Yerevan State University, Armenia

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN LAW, LEGAL REASONING AND LEGAL EDUCATION

ABSTRACT The article aims to reveal the role of language in Legal Education. The paper deals with some linguists’ theories and methods of teaching English for legal purposes. English is predominantly the language of international legal practice and its importance to lawyers cannot be over-emphasized. The way in which legal English is used can therefore be decisive for achieving professional success. So, the paper discusses some distinctive features of legal discourse revealing detailed observation of means of effective language teaching.

English is a language for international communication, as a global carrier for news, information, administration, entertainment, etc. It is also the language for any lawyer working with international matters. To plan efficient courses for teaching legal English, there is a need to identify the role of language in Law, in Legal education and the ways in which law students’ English can be improved. Researchers have focused not only on the way language conveys ideas and content (often referred to as “propositional” or “referential” information), but also on how it functions socially and in expressing identity, asking questions such as: “How do patterns of language use affect what counts as ‘knowledge,’ and what occurs as learning? How do these patterns affect the equality, or inequality, of students’ educational opportunities? What forms of communicative competence do these patterns presume and/or foster?” (4:32). Modern legal English is based on standard English, but it contains a number of unusual features. These largely relate to terminology, linguistic structure, linguistic conventions, and punctuation. Many words in common use in modern legal English are derived from French. It also accounts for some of the complex linguistic structures employed in legal writing. Also the influence of Latin can be seen in a number of words and phrases such as ad hoc, de facto, bona fide, inter alia, etc. which remain in current use 59 in legal writing. To avoid ambiguity lawyers often offered pairs of words from different languages, which actually expressed a single legal concept and became a stylistic habit. Examples of mixed language doublets are: “breaking and entering” (English/French), ‘fit and proper” (English/French), “lands and tenements” (English/French), “will and testament” (English/French), “null and void”. Examples of English only doublets are: “let and hindrance” “have and hold.” At times, an unusual word order was used in legal documents. For example, “the provisions for termination hereinafter appearing” or “will at the cost of the borrower forthwith comply with the same”. Here the influence of French grammatical structure is a contributing factor. The use of unfamiliar pronouns (the same, the said, the aforementioned) in legal texts is interesting since very frequently they do not replace the noun, but are used to supplement them. For example, the said John Smith. Words like hereof, thereof and whereof and further derivatives, including -at, -in, -after, before, -with, -by, -above, -on, -upon, etc are not often used in ordinary English. They are used in legal English for avoiding the repetition of names of things in the document, for example, the parties hereto instead of the parties to this contract. (7) Legal theorists have long recognized the centrality of language and language structure to legal reasoning. Legal scholars investigating the structure of legal reasoning from a variety of angles seem inevitably to wind up asking questions about legal language or rhetoric and how it works.(4:26) There are many interesting variations and differences in the legal tradition regarding how to approach particular kinds of legal texts. Legal texts have a peculiar character. In one sense, they report on a decision made by the judge or judges, but at the same time the texts themselves actually are the decisions: the words of the texts constitute or “perform” the decisions. Philosophers and linguists have talked about this kind of language as “performative”: it performs or enacts the action that it names. (The Language of Law school to “Think Like a Lawyer, p.60 ” Elizabeth Mertz 2007, see also J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words). For example, when an official vested with the appropriate authority utters the words “I now pronounce you man and wife,” he not only describes what he is doing (marrying two people) but also actually performs that act. Similarly, the written text that describes a court’s disposition of a legal case also performs the act of deciding that case. Thus, the language in legal texts can be said to carry social power. (4:60) As it is stated above, legal writing is different from other types of writing. It is imperative to be clear, concise and accurate; otherwise, the complexities

60 of the legal thought process can not be conveyed. It makes extensive use of technical terminology. This distinctive vocabulary can be classified in four categories: a) Specialized words and phrases unique or nearly unique to law, such as tort, fee; b) Everyday English words that when used in law have different meanings from the everyday usage, such as action (a lawsuit, not movement), consideration (support for a promise, not kindness), execute (to sign, not to kill), and party (a principal in a lawsuit, not a social gathering); c) Archaic vocabulary, a large number of outdated words and phrases that were formerly part of everyday English are today rare except in law, such as, herein, hereto, wherefore, etc. Loan words and phrases from other languages: French -estoppels, voir dire; Latin – bona fide, habeas corpus, prima facie, etc. (en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/legal English) So, certain areas of grammar are rather more important because they have special applications in writing. They include the articles, relative clauses (subject form and object form), noun compounds, and the passive voice. To learn how to make sentences correctly the students must know the tenses, functions of auxiliaries, modal verbs, idiomatic usage (try to learn, help learn, avoid learning, make a mistake but do a favor, etc.),some phrasal verbs as (parties enter into contracts, put down deposits, serve (documents) upon other parties, write off debts, etc.). In practice, we suggest certain grammar exercises as: 1. Choose the right modal verbs/ or rewrite the sentences choosing the suitable form of ‘may’, might’ ‘can’ could’. 2. Complete the table with the right forms of noun, verb and adjective, 3. Choose the right preposition, 4. Match the adjectives with the nouns they collocate with in the text, use the collocations you formed to complete the sentences, and other grammar exercises. One of the distinctive features of legal language is to use certain logical connectors, textual links and discourse markers. They are used to connect sentences and to indicate additional information. Legal English uses a number of discourse markers in this way with words such as: ‘moreover’; ‘furthermore’; ‘further or alternatively’ etc. Discourse markers can usually be placed in various positions within a sentence and can be used for a variety of specific purposes, including to: focus the reader on a particular issue, contrast issues or ideas, provide emphasis or to structure information. There are a significant number of examples of discourse markers being used in these ways throughout the text. For instance:

61 • Cause and effect: ‘As globalization shrinks the world, lawyers are increasingly shopping around ...’ • Contrast: ‘Although her husband lived all his life in England, she tried to sue in the US ...’ • Addition: ‘In addition, US discovery rules give Claimants wider pretrial disclosure ...’ Further typical discourse markers in legal English include: with reference to; regarding; as regards (for focusing and linking), firstly; to begin with; finally (for structuring) , as a result; therefore; consequently (for sequencing in a logical order) (10:271). Here some exercises might be suggested to law students as: Complete the following sentences by selecting appropriate discourse markers from the panel. In legal writing, as we see, writing is largely descriptive, concerned as it is with conveying what things are for, what they are composed of, what they look like, how they work, etc. So, we have to provide our students, who are non-English speakers, not only with key legal English vocabulary common to all areas of legal practice, but also with general knowledge of English, including grammar, reading, oral and communicative skills. Developing the skill of reading requires attention to four aspects: specific reading skills, vocabulary development, intensive and extensive reading, and class discussion. Being non-legal experts (we-the teachers), it does not mean that it is preferable to use simplified material for law students to read. Sometimes, using an authentic material is of great necessity. Here fiction could be an excellent source of reading material, for example books written by Erie Stanley Gardner, the American classic of detective novels (series of stories about Perry Mason), or another book written by John Galsworthy, “Over the River,” which contains several chapters describing a court’s hearings and cross-examinations. Let’s consider some short extracts from these books: Mason said, “The district attorney has all of those alibis in front of him. They are mathematical clues. No one except the murderer of Tidings knows exactly when he was killed. Each person thought that he was killed shortly before he or she made the discovery of the body...Therefore, the district attorney only has to check back on the alibis to pick the ones that cover the longest periods. Mrs. Tidings started making her alibi date back from Monday afternoon...“ (6:185) “It wasn’t worth while to plead innocence unless you meant to carry it through, however the case goes. If you win, wait till you can divorce Jerry. If you don’t win, wait till you ‘re divorced. “ - “Jerry is quite clever enough to prevent my ever getting evidence against him, if he sets his mind to it. “

62 “Have you been seeing the lawyers much? “ - “Yes our evidence is all taped out. It’s the cross-examination. “ - “I think I might enjoy that, if I were going to tell the truth. “ -”They twist and turn what you say so, and their tones of voice! I went into that court and listened one day. Dornford told Clare he wouldn’t ‘t practice in that court for all the gold in France. “ “The petitioner has said, Mr. Inst one, that he does not know the impression left on his lawyers’ minds. What are you driving at? “ - “My Lord, the essence of my case - and I am glad to have this opportunity of stating it succinctly - is that from the moment the petitioner had acted in such way...as caused his wife to leave him, and ready to snatch at anything that came along to secure that divorce.“ - “Well you can call his solicitor.“ - “My Lord!” (5:166,196) Anthropological linguists and sociolinguists have demonstrated, however, that when written texts are mobilized for human use, they necessarily depend on and create context in order to have meaning. This has drawn increased scholarly attention to the way written texts connect with their contexts of use, as, for example when the written script of a play is performed. In performances, it becomes quite clear that the meaning of written text is conveyed not only through the semantic content of the words, but also through myriad linguistic features connecting the text to contexts (frequently to prior contexts as well as to the current one). These features can be as subtle as a shift in intonation patterns or as an attitude conveyed through facial expressions. (4:46,47) Communication skills in oral and written legal English are developed through some language activities. The exercises that involve legal skills practice and role-play (such as advocacy, interviewing, negotiation and writing/drafting), enable the students to develop their proficiency in legal English. • Try role-playing the negotiation, endeavoring to reach a mutually beneficial settlement agreement. Take written notes of the terms of any agreement you reach with your opponent. Compare these notes with your opponent’s notes when you have completed the negotiation, checking that you have both accurately recorded the same details of what has been agreed. • Work in pairs, discussing your views and opinions on the relative merits and disadvantages of the UK and US court systems. Consider for instance issues such as: Should US courts continue to award very large punitive awards (some of which amount to billions of dollars)? Are these awards in the public interest? Should English courts award punitive damages? • Students should compare themselves with the parties from a trial or a case. The students stage and discuss a case in the class. For example, one

63 of them is assisting a litigation partner at a law firm in an international arbitration involving a breach of contract. The firm’s client is a supplier of electronics equipment, which is now in a dispute with one of its customers, regarding liability for a payment of value added tax under a supply contract. The students have to know: the difference between a limited liability company and a professional limited liability company, advantages and disadvantages of operating under these two corporate forms and have to outline any relevant consideration to the acquisition of these entities. Making comparisons and talking about similarities extends language and improves students’ oral skills. It should be taken into consideration that we teach mixed ability classes. Some are quick, others are slow, some are confident, others are shy, and some like working with groups, and others like working alone. So, role- playing exercises cause both interlocutors some hard work. There should be a sort of encouragement (prompt) by the teacher such as: “Tell me more about ‘that’ case,” or, “What’s the contract in that case, if there is one?”. As the dialogue progresses, we should use positive affirmations, repetition, first-person plural-inclusive, structured questions, and reported speech (“as you said before”) to provide encouragement and also cohesion with the student’s prior responses. Thus, the language is a powerful tool for any lawyer. Effective study skills are essential for law students to acquire good grades at the university, and are useful in general to improve learning throughout their life in support of career and other interests. To plan efficient courses for teaching legal English, there is a need to identify the ways in which law students’ English can be improved.

REFERENCES

1. “How to Teach English” Jeremy Harmer (Longman 1998) 2. “A Plain English Guide to Legal Terms”, National Adult literacy Agency 2003 3. Professional English in Use Law”, Cambridge Professional English in Use. Law.pdf www.google.am 4. “The Language of Law School Learning to “Think Like a Lawyer” Elizabeth Mertz, Oxford 2007 5. “Over the River” John Glasworthy, Book III of “End of The Chapter” The University of Adellaide,ebooks.adelaide.edu.au, 2012 6. “The Case of the Baited Hook” Erle Stanley Gardner, Published January 12th 1986 by Ballantine Books (first published 1940) 64 7. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/legal English 8. “Classroom Discourse”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cazden, C., John, V. & Hymes. D.: 1972 9. “Language in the Legal Process”, Edited by Janet Cotterill, Cardiff University, Macmillan 2002 10. ”Àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê äëÿ þðèñòîâ”, Þ.À.Èëèàäè, Ìîñêâà 2006

65 Nazarian M. English Chair N1, Instructor, Yerevan State University, Armenia

EMPLOYING THE SOCRATIC METHOD IN TEACHING LEGAL ENGLISH AT LAW SCHOOLS, SHIFTING FROM I-SHAPE TO U-SHAPE AUDITORIUM

ABSTRACT The article focuses on the implementation of one of the sound and trendy teaching strategies common at the US Law School settings, namely the Socratic method, which fosters the modeling of open- mindedness, teamwork, analytical and critical thinking thus making the students read, write, speak and think like lawyers.

Tell me and I will forget. Show me and I will remember. Involve me and I will understand. Donald G. Marshall The article aims at tackling the implementation of one of the sound and trendy teaching strategies common at the US Law Schools and outside the Law school settings, namely the Socratic Method, labeled as the legal education signature pedagogy by many scholars. As a result of a long research performed in the field I have tried to outline the pros and cons of the method, efficiency vs. inefficiency and the productivity of its use inside the Armenian Law School culture setting. And probably most of the teachers use the lecture discussion method, the so called soft method of the Socratic teaching, known as “Soft Socratic”. As Hooker noted Socrates himself left no written account of his teaching or description of his methods, he felt that knowledge was a living, interactive thing, impossible to record. And as Socrates himself noted he could not teach anything to anybody, he could only make them think, so he made people think through conversations. Concerning the basic historical facts, the Socratic method, named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates is a form of questioning and debate between the parties with opposing viewpoints (teacher & student, student 66 & student), based on posing and answering questions, which fosters the modeling of open-mindedness, teamwork, analytical and critical thinking thus making them think, read, write, speak and listen like lawyers and become problem solvers. It helps them to overcome the complexity and challenge related to the comprehension of ambiguous legal texts and cases, perform pre-reading activities to better understand the context, teaches Legal English vocabulary, which, according to Melinkoff is characterized by “wordiness, pompousness, dullness and lack of clarity”. Inter alia it shapes competitive and warm atmosphere, that produces better results. Through the dialogic, hyper interactive approach of the method, students start thinking and asking questions which lead to comprehending the information of the text and coming up with the correct answers to different questions. It looks like a circle of questions: opening questions, guiding or leading questions and closing questions. As Pintrich, McKeachile and Lin stated, the cultivation of inquisitive mentality is more important than the specific information that students learn in the classroom. Regarding the proliferation of the method, it should be noted that in the second half of the 5th century BC, sophists were teachers who specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric to entertain or impress or persuade an audience to accept the speaker’s point of view. Socrates promoted an alternative method of teaching which came to be called the Socratic method.1 The first modern-day proponent was Christopher Columbus Langdell, who developed and exercised the pedagogy in the 19th century which came to replace the traditional legal case teaching methodology, shifting from reading the cases from textbooks to questioning and enrolling the students in active participation. And it is generally agreed, that the case reading process for non-native speakers is a challenging task that requires much energy and patience (even in native language). Thus the skimming process is not enough to understand the legal documents, the understanding is better achieved through questioning, dissecting the case into different parts, briefing, discussing and drawing conclusions, e.g. • Parties (the plaintiff vs. defendant) • Facts (claim, grounds, period, location) • Reasons and steps (filing a suit) • Actions (the actions the parties undertake) • Holding (the laws that must be exercised, the decision of the court) It is undisputable that Socratic method requires much energy from the teachers, (because it’s a non-stop questioning process until the teacher

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method

67 exposes contradiction and gets the correct answer), and meticulous attention and concentration from the students, because they never know who will be next to be called on. But the ethical norms should be preserved by the teacher in the classroom setting, since the instructor cannot push or force his ideas, just vice-versa, should try to lead the student to come up with the right answer. In terms of cultural setting, though the students are diverse in their learning experience, the teacher doesn’t have to worry about some peculiarities that need to be observed during the Socratic method exercise, such as race and culture, since Armenian classrooms are not heterogeneous. The teacher should just be aware of the gradual questioning strategy in order to avoid the over-questioning process escalation to emotional stress that can be caused to the freshmen. My experience as a teacher has convinced me that the teamwork among freshmen can only take place in 2 months upon the start of the academic year, because it takes some time for students to get adjusted to the University environment and panel discussion setting, since not all of them have undergone specific trainings on leading discussions at schools, where the classes are teacher oriented and the participation of students is passive. Consequently the questions “What do you think?” seems somewhat baffling and shocking to them, and they need some time to get used to that question. What I usually get in the first phase of the method is “yes & no” feedback, which is normal, it later facilitates the move on of the conversation. The freshmen do not have appropriate knowledge of the subject matter to be able to understand difficult legal documents, cases, analysis and judgments. Thus the selection of the Legal English content should be carefully selected and be compatible with the course syllabus. For example I have considered the following “Bluebird Bar” case both with freshmen and LLM students through Socratic method utalization. “Around 5 p.m. one evening, a man and his wife entered the Bluebird Bar. The man, Jack, ordered a whiskey for himself and a cola for his wife, Gail. Jack continued to order the same drinks about every half hour. At 11 pm., the bar owner refused to serve Jack any more drinks because Jack was extremely intoxicated and bothersome to other customers. Gail was used to Jack’s behavior and didn’t ask her husband to stop drinking. “Are you driving home or should I call a taxi?” the bar owner asked Gail. Jack shouted, “Get out of my face!” I’m driving home and neither of you can stop me!” Jack then shoved the owner aside and walked out the door. The owner just shrugged his shoulders and walked off. Gail went to the pay phone in the corner to call her sister for a ride. As Jack left the bar, a man walking by the bar shouted to him, “Hey buddy, call a taxi!” When Jack drove off, the man simply shook his head and walked down the street.

68 Meanwhile, Jane and Carl were having a lover’s quarrel in the next corner of the bar. The quarrel soon escalated into a major fight and Carl struck Jane saying, “Don’t ever tell me not to touch you again. I’ll show you who’s boss here!” At the point, Jane, crying hysterically and paying no attention at all to the traffic, ran into the street directly in front of Jack’s car. Jack was not able to stop in time, and Jane was killed instantly”2 . Firstly we read the text, discuss the vocabulary and essential terms, then students paraphrase or comment on the passage and the teacher starts posing questions to find out who should be held liable for Jean’s death. This is usually considered as an opening question (freshmen discuss the moral liability, since they do not have sufficient knowledge in the field to discuss the criminal liability. With LLM students, we discuss the criminal liability). 1. Students read the text out loud 2. Students read for details 3. Students briefly outline the facts and order of events of the case 4. Students form groups (the teamwork and debate ethics should be explained to the students prior to the discussion) 5. Students rank characters according to their moral liability 6. Students start expressing their ideas and then each team reads out the list of ranked characters 7. Students of the adverse teams start debating and asking questions, “yes & no” feedback is strictly prohibited 8. The teacher starts posing them leading questions, helps them learn through self-discovery and criticism, complements them on every idea they express to motivate a student 9. Teaches criticism techniques, eliminates the eye role-on made by some students towards the statements made by others, who do not welcome and embrace the idea of diversity. The method is widely used in American Law Schools, and some Law School web sites have special profiles of introducing the method stating that they are proud of their excellent teachers and their use of this time-tested method. As is mentioned in the Chicago Law School web site: “The Socratic Method is one of many tools we use to help our students become lawyers. It is not the only method of teaching we use at the University of Chicago Law School; instead we calibrate our teaching techniques to fit our abilities, the nature of the material, time constraints, and other factors. But the Socratic Method is an important part of modern law teaching. Many lawyers will never enter a courtroom as advocates, but

2 Debra S.Lee, Charles Hall, Marsha Hurley, American Legal English, 1999

69 they will counsel clients, devise strategies for legal challenges to social institutions like schools or prisons, draft legislation and advise state and federal lawmakers, or run businesses. The Socratic Method provides all students with greater confidence about talking to large groups, allows them to develop the ability to argue forcefully and persuasively, and teaches them to think critically.”3 Despite the wide application of the method and a huge army of proponents, there are also strong critics and attackers. The proponents think that “educating lawyers acknowledges, albeit only once and then with telling lack of emphasis, the skills development resulting from dialogue pedagogy: “on the surface question and answer – has a deeper structure, the teaching of legal reasoning. Gradually, case-by-case students discover that reading with understanding means being able to talk about human conflicts in a distinctively legal voice”.4 Whereas professors Areeda and Garrett think that “the modern Socratic method differs dramatically from the stereotype and that the relentless questioner who never utters a declarative sentence is extinct.5 Dunn and Dunn, for example, do not agree that all students benefit from cooperative learning, because according to the elements in the sociological category, some students will want to work with another student as a pair, or on a team, but some students will also prefer to work alone.6 Garlikov also claims that the method can be used to teach any subject provided it has a logical nature. According to him, the method doesn’t work when explaining, for example, some of the conventions and norms regarding pronunciation and sounds of letters or capitals of states because some of these are more the result of historical accident than logical selection. However he also states that the Socratic method is not suitable for every learner. Some people feel threatened by too many questions, or perhaps they are not used to assessing other people’s thoughts critically, which is typical for some cultures. There are also learners who require straightforward answers to their questions without having to search or think about the matter too much7 . Some professors do not favor interactive teaching considering it as a

3 Elizabeth Garrett, The Green Bag, http://www.law.uchicago.edu/socrates/ soc_article.html 4 Carnegie, supra note 1, at 53 5 Garrett, supra note 18, at 201 6 Dunn and Dunn, Inservice, supra note 17, at 14-15 7 Teaching by asking instead of by telling, Rick Garliko, http://www.garlikov.com/ Soc_Meth.html

70 waste of time, or probably they are afraid of being attacked with a lot of questions posed by students. To sum it up, despite the strong criticism of Socratic method attackers, I find it the most appropriate and the best method of legal pedagogy that is used in many distinguished Law Schools helping the students read, think, listen, speak and write like lawyers thus preparing them to excel and move on in their careers.

REFERENCES 1. Areeda, P.E. (1996). The Socratic method (SM) (Lecture at Puget Sound, 1/31/90). Harvard Law Review, 109, 911-922. 2. Garner, D.D. (2000).The continuing vitality of the case method in the twenty-first century. Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal, 2000, 307-345. 3. Garrett, E (1998). The role of the Socratic method in modern law schools. Green Bag, 1, 199-208. 4. Goldberg, S.B. (2007). Beyond the Socratic. (Electronic version). Student Lawyer, 36 (2), 18-23. 5. Kronman, A. T. (2000). The Socratic method and the development of the moral imagination. 6. Marshall, D.G. (2005). Socratic Method and the irreducible core of legal education. Minnesota Law Review, 90, 1-17. 7. Howard, G. (2006) “Socrates and Technology a New Millennium Conversation.” International Journal of Instructional Media, Vol 33. 8. Overholster, J. (1992) “Socrates in the Classroom”. College Teaching 40, 1, 14-20. 9. Vitiello, M. (2005) “Professor Kingsfield: The Most Misunderstood Character in Literature.” 33 Hofstra Law Review 955, 967. 10. Charrow, V., (1982) “Language in Bureaucracy”.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES 1. Garlikov, Rick. (2006) “The Socratic Method: Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling.” Socratic Method. 2 Nov 2008, www.garlikov.com/ Soc_Meth.html 2. Maxwell, Max. (2007) “The Socratic Method and its effect on Critical Thinking.” www.socraticmethod.net 3. www.britannica.com 4. www.law.uchicago.edu/socrates/method.html 5. www.wikipedia.org

71 Vardyan A. Yerevan State University, Armenia TEACHING ESL THROUGH ESSAYS

ABSTRACT The main goal of the present article is to teach university students how to write essays gaining special skills for writing. To get those skills the student should follow the steps in writing discussed in the article and mind the importance of critical thinking while writing. Learning ESL and teaching through essay writing is a very effective means of learning a foreign language. It involves reading, writing, searching, editing with its all aspects, understanding and thinking critically.

Teaching any foreign language is not an easy task. This problem was thought over beginning from time immemorial. There were many different methods of teaching a foreign language. We don’t need to analyze all the old methods that are known to us, but we can say that they have prompted modern method innovations and they have always been at the centre of discussions on how to teach foreign languages. Changes in language teaching methods throughout history showed changes in the kind of proficiency learners need, such as a move towards oral experience rather than reading comprehension as the goal of language study. Five hundred years ago most widely studied foreign language was Latin as it was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion and government in the Western World. In the 16th century, however, French, Italian and English gained an importance as a result of political changes in Europe. Other languages began to enter the curriculum of the European school in the 18th century, but they were taught using the same basic methods that were used for teaching Latin. By the 19th century this approach became the standard way of studying foreign languages in schools. But during the World War II when US entered the war a significant effect on language teaching took place in America. The US government needed a personnel who were fluent in German, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese and other languages who could work as interpreters, code room assistants and translators. As a result, it was necessary to set up a special language training program. Fifty five American universities were involved in the program by 72 the beginning of 1943. The program was for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. As it was not the goal of conventional foreign language courses, new approaches were necessary for teaching foreign languages. The army training method lasted only about two years, but after the war it attracted considerable attention in the popular press and in the academic community. For the next ten years the “army method” and its suitability of use in regular language programs was discussed. But later there was a growing demand for foreign knowledge in teaching English as a foreign language. Thousands of foreign students came to the USA to study in universities. But many of them required training in English before they could begin their studies. This led to the emergence of the American approach to ESL, which by the midfifties had become Audiolingualism. Later other methods were introduced for language teaching. One of them was Situational Language Teaching which was a British approach to language teaching. But from the late 1960s the British approach changed to Communicative Language Teaching. Later there came many other methods of teaching languages as a second language, for example, Total Physical Response – which is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. The Silent Way was another method devised by Caleb Gattegno who used coloured wooden sticks for different words. The Natural Approach method was based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native language and without reference to grammar. All these methods and later created ones were thought to make learning a foreign language easy for great masses. Especially as English is an international language now, many of the latest methods are useful for students who learn it as a second or a foreign language. One of the latest methods is critical thinking. It isn’t something extraordinary but a term which we will hear quite a lot in schools, colleges and universities, because it is a kind of thinking we shall be asked to do in our courses and later during our carrer and even life. Critical thinking in society and education is not a new concept. The evaluation of someone’s own thinking process has been around since human history began. The Armenian proverb wisely says: “Every new thing is a well forgotten old one”. Critical thinking was an essential part of ancient cultures, including the Egyptian, Sumerian and Babelonian cultures. Later it was an inseparable skill and focus for the ancient Greek philosophers. For instance, Socrates is known for teaching his students how to analyze their critical thinking processes. The word critical comes from the Greek word ‘kriticos’ which means to question and to analyze. We engage our critical thinking skills

73 every day. Whenever we make a decision, solve a problem or prioritize tasks we use critical thinking. We do it not only in choosing our classes each term, finding out how many classes we can take in one term, which classes are most important for us to take first, but also - in every day life. For instance, when we shop for groceries, when we decide which bill we should pay first on a limited budget, when we work out problems and arguments between us and our friends or co-workers, we are being critical thinkers. One of the aspects of modern language teaching methods now is to do it through writing essays. For doing this, students in development and entry level composition courses need detailed instruction on how to write essays, how to spot and correct their spelling, usage, sentence level errors, and how correctly to include quotes from other writers. They also need instruction on how to interpret what they have read, how to go deeper into the topic they have chosen to write about, how to choose the best approach for communicating their ideas to their audience, and how to put all of these aspects together into a meaningful purpose for writing. The teacher encourages students to engage in an active critical thinking process during all stayges of reading and writing and helps them to understand others’ ideas as well as their own. To start writing an essay needs a proper preparation for it. The preparation is the hardest step when the student begins to read and write a lot of material from different sources and chooses the important material thinking critically. The student may ask other students or tutors about the material he needs, but he shouldn’t share homework or writing assignments with others, because essay assignment is an individual homework which must be done on his own. After all, students have shown that when they collaborate with other students, it increases their chance of being successful. We shall try to define critical thinking in the context of using critical thinking skills and fulfilment of the tasks. It will provide them with tools designed to help the students read and write analytically. It means to read – looking for answers to questions, and to draw some conclusions about the topic and to evaluate their own reading and writing processes. Good reading and writing go hand in hand. As the student learns those skills his own thinking and writing skills will improve. They will develop the habit of a step by step process of thinking about each part of on argument or idea. Once a student gets hooked on the power that comes from using his critical thinking skills, he may not be able to stop, - he will find himself using those skills everywhere – while reading a newspaper, listening to the radio, reading a novel, even watching a film. In his book “Thinking Through Essays” (7:23) Dr. Teri Maddox gives the critical thinking tools that will be used in the essay writing: 74 1. Purpose 2. Ideas 3. Support 4. Assumptions and Biases 5. Conclusions 6. Points of View 7. Analysis The author defines each of these terms, describes how they are used in the reading and writing processes. The author explains all the points as follows: The Purpose is the plan or blueprint of what the student wants to say in his essay. Ideas develop the student’s purpose and form the structure of his sentences and develop the thesis. Supports are the examples given in details that illustrate the ideas they use to support the purpose. Assumptions – information the student takes and biases – personal beliefs the student has about particular topics. Conclusions – the results of the student’s argument or purpose. Point of View – how the student sees the subject he is discussing. Analysis – breaking down an idea and working out the meaning of the individual parts and connections between the parts. All these points or, as the author says, tools, are very important in writing an essay, as the students do in my different courses. When we finish one unit of our textbook (“Success at First Certificate” Robert O’Neill, Michael Duckworth, Kathy Gute, Oxford University Press) i.e. reading, analysing, telling, discussing, expressing ideas about the text and answering all the problematic questions, the students have an interesting task – to write an essay on a particular subject. But very often students write their essays by only making a plan, giving details, telling their points of view and giving their conclusion. I mean, they do not like going deeper into the subject and purpose of the topic, or analysing the facts and taking many other ideas of different authors into consideration. This is a problem that we must show them the ways how to work, read and write thinking critically and other important aspects while writing an essay. In my opinion, for writing an essay the student must be taught to think over and analyse each paragraph that is included in the essay. As usual, any kind of essay (Professional Definition Essay, Description Essay, Comparison and Contrast Essays, Process Essays etc.) consists of introductory paragraph, a body paragraph and a concluding paragraph. It is easy to tell the student about these paragraphs, but the main point is to teach him/her how to form each of them, how to work out any idea or biase, how to construct a sentence to make it grammatically or syntaxically correct, how to express his or others

75 ideas and thoughts and how to prove the righteousness of his ideas and conclusions. The technics of essay writing is more or less not very complicated but the process of writing needs hard work. In my opinion, the first step of essay writing is to read critically. What does it mean? – It means that while reading the necessary material the student should read actively, i.e. he/she should understand the material which needs concentration. We can compare active reading with listening, because when you listen you concentrate and understand the meaning of the words. Passive reading can be compared with ‘hearing’ because you can hear something without actively engaging in understanding what they mean. Developing active reading habits help the student read critically and engage in thoughtful analysis as he/she reads. Active reading gives the student a habit of using specific reading systems, i.e. he/she uses highlighting or underlining, codes and other annotating methods. Highlighting and underlining are ways to separate the main ideas from the rest. Highlighting is also used to mark words the student does not know and then fill in their definitions in the margin. The margin can be used to write different ideas, a number of examples given in support of the main idea of the paragraph, to write questions as he reads, to make comments, to make comments when he notices author’s biases. To annotate texts as he reads, the student can use his own list of symbols and codes while reading. Having gathered (annotated) a lot of material, the student should begin writing a paragraph which involves putting the parts in order so that he can effectively communicate his point to his intended audience. In this case the student will use critical thinking to determine his purpose, for writing a paragraph, the argument he wants to make, the support he will provide, and the conclusion he will read. It is important for the student to show his/her point of view about the topic, if his/her point of view is based on correct information, and what is his analysis of the topic. He/she should give proper examples and details to affirm his support to the topic. He needs to provide evidence and support for his arguments in order to develop his paragraphs. The evidence he uses can come in the form of personal experience, the experience of others, research, facts, statistics from assigned readings. It is compulsory to engage his critical thinking skills to evaluate the strength of his arguments and ideas. Eventually the student comes to a point where he makes his summary to show his conclusion on the topic, to prove his thoughts and ideas. Conclusion is the final point in the student’s argument, the place he reaches after discussing the ideas that support his purposes and arguments. The concluding paragraph sums up the purposes and main ideas of the body

76 paragraph. It pulls all the ideas and purposes together in a finished product, providing an overall sense of conclusion. The concluding paragraph sums up and re-emphasizes the thesis statement and the conclusions the student has reached. It is the result of a long and hard work the student has done during essay writing. In the process of essay writing very often the student should use reworking style, i.e. going back and checking what he has written. During revision he must check the order of paragraphs and the details within them: move things that need to be moved and delete things that do not belong. He must ensure his essay flows smoothly by adding, connecting words or phrases where needed. He must be sure whether his paragraphs have enough support from examples and details to develop his topic. After revising the style and content the student needs to read his essay for grammar and spelling errors. He should turn on his inner editor at this stage of writing. He should check the word usage, the word choice, the spelling of the chosen words and the style he had been using while writing. He should even check the use of different punctuation marks, pronoun agreement, subject verb agreement, pronoun reference fault errors, colon uses, apostrophe use, unnecessary passive voice constructions, i.e. correction of any error he finds. It is important to have another eye, I mean another student to go through his essay and revise it. It is very helpful if the student can put his final essay draft aside for a day before he completes it. In that way he can spot simple errors and misprints that are invisible to his brain for the first few days after he finishes his paper. In the article the students are introduced to the essay writing process, are shown how to organize and provide details and support for their essay’s purpose, and learn about the importance of order, unity and coherence. Teaching and learning ESL through essay writing is a very effective means of learning a foreign language. It involves reading, writing, searching, editing with its all aspects, understanding and critical thinking. During all the process of writing an essay, the student works hard to gather materials for it reading all necessary books, magazines, articles, other essays, etc. All this process is very useful for the student to gain more ideas, learn many new words and expressions, which later he/she incorporates in his essay. Lastly he uses critical thinking while reading different sources and gathering the material he needs, analysing it, asking questions, summing up, checking and at last thinking critically.

77 REFERENCES

1. Susan Fawcett (2007) “A Guide to Writing with Readings”. Eight Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York. 2. Susan Fawcett “A Guide to Writing with Readings”. Instructor’s Annotated Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, New York. 3. Jack C.Richards and Teodore S.Rodgers (1989) “Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching”. A Description and Analysis (Cambridge University Press). 4. Dr. Teri Maddox (2009) “The Write Stuff Thinking Through Essays”. New Jersey. 5. KEITH S. FOLSE, APRIL MUCHMORE – VOKOUN, ELENA VESTRI SOLOMON (2009) “Great Sentences Paragraphs and Essays”. Boston, New York. 6. Dr. Teri Maddox (2009) “Instructor’s Resource Manual”. New Jersey, Pearson Education, INC. 7. Jackson State Community College, New Jersey 2009.

78 Zakoyan L. Yerevan State University, Armenia

BIBLICAL REFERENCES IN SPEECHES OF AMERICAN PRESIDENTS

ABSTRACT The present article analyses some aspects of American political discourse mainly focusing on religious discourse. Sharing the viewpoint of many prominent researchers of the chosen field we assume that religious discourse undoubtedly has always played an important role in the political history of the United States of America. Biblical references in political discourse can be viewed as special indicators of Christian faith and existence of one God although the USA is known as a multireligious country.

It is customary in American political discourse to make use of biblical language, which is an integral part of American public address system. When speaking of American political discourse one can easily associate it with religious belief and bible references. Christianity has always played an important role in the speeches of American politicians in spite of the fact that nearly all the politicians tend to mention that the United States of America is a country of many diverse religions. Nearly all the speeches of American presidents show that one of their main peculiarities is that they can be easily connected with Christian faith. The references to God, to the Holy Bible, to God’s will, God’s promises, Bible quotations are exclusively tied to Christianity, but these references are also applicable to various faiths that recognize the existence of only one God. We do not retreat. We are not content to stand still. As Americans, we go forward, in the service of our country, by the will of God (Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Third Inaugural Address Given on Monday, January 20, 1941). Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God’s work must truly be our own (4). 79 One of the examples of fortified positions of Christianity in political speeches is the direct reference to the Holy Bible: Michelle and I we are both practicing Christians and obviously this position may be considered to put us at odds with the views of others. But, you know, when we think about our faith, the thing at root that we think about is, not only Christ sacrificing himself on our behalf, but it’s also the Golden Rule, you know, treat others the way you would want to be treated (3). However, specified the non-traditional and liberal position of Barack Obama, it is important to investigate Obama’s biblical references and try to give possible explanations of the particular choices made by him. “We remain a young nation,” Barack Obama said, “but, in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things.” In the given example Barack Obama was quoting the New Testament, Corinthians 13:11 which deals with St. Paul’s letter to the church in Corinth. B. Obama’s application of this scrupulous choice of Scripture, particularly in a speech which was also aimed at the Muslim, Jewish, Hindu and atheist Americans is colossal. This love chapter is usually read at weddings which speaks about true love in the following way: “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.” (1 Corinthians, 13:4). “When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known. And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.” (1 Corinthians, 13:11). St. Paul’s letter to the church in Corinth goes back to the times when the church was undergoing the phase of internal struggles and divisions, and the church was also exposed to wicked influences neighboring the community. Corinth was a young town, the church was filled by young people. St. Paul delivered a letter of criticism and implored the Corinthians to stop the conflict and accept the most essential virtue: love. Barack Obama’s choice of this special biblical reference can be perceived as an effort to try to broaden the concept and principles of love, and thus “loving thy neighbour” the American people can become devoted to the concept of racial inclusiveness and ideological variety, essential during the periods of economic, global and domestic crises.

80 It must be also mentioned that nearly all American presidents tend to finish their speeches with the following words “God bless America” or “May God’s grace be with you.” This tradition is considered to be established after Richard Nixon’s Resignation Speech given on August 8, 1974: This, more than anything, is what I hoped to achieve when I sought the Presidency. This, more than anything, is what I hope will be my legacy to you, to our country, as I leave the Presidency. To have served in this office is to have felt a very personal sense of kinship with each and every American. In leaving it, I do so with this prayer: May God’s grace be with you in all the days ahead. In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children’s children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter; and with eyes fixed on the horizon and God’s grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift of freedom and delivered it safely to future generations. Thank you. God bless you and God bless the United States of America (13). “We cannot walk alone,” the preacher cried. “And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. We cannot turn back.” America, we cannot turn back. Not with so much work to be done. Not with so many children to educate, and so many veterans to care for. Not with an economy to fix and cities to rebuild and farms to save. Not with so many families to protect and so many lives to mend. America, we cannot turn back. We cannot walk alone. At this moment, in this election, we must pledge once more to march into the future. Let us keep that promise - that American promise - and in the words of Scripture hold firmly, without wavering, to the hope that we confess. Thank you, and God Bless the United States of America (9). Opposing to the widely-known statement, we must mention that United States is not one of the most religious countries in the world, although religion plays a certain role in the political life of the USA. Several researchers such as R. Bellah. (1), Ch. Conrad (2), S. Anthony (3) have highlighted that the United States possesses its own particular type of “civil religion”, that is, a religion of the state, separate and distinct from traditional religions such as Judaism and Christianity, but nonetheless relying heavily on these for images, narratives, rituals and rhetoric. As part of this civil religion, the US President assumes the role of both prophet and priest (and,

81 occasionally, martyr) of the nation. Their research shows that the US civil religion contains the following elements: - “Religious” rituals and memorials, such as national days of remembrance, prayer services, presidential inaugurations and, State of the Union addresses. - A body of “sacred” national documents, such as the US Constitution, the Declaration of Independence and the Pledge of Allegiance (1). - The casting of significant figures in US history (particularly, but not solely, presidents) as prophets and martyrs for the nation. Abraham Lincoln, for example, has been portrayed as paying the ultimate price for the unity of the American nation, similar to Christ paying the ultimate price for unity between God and humanity. Other martyrs for the nation have included John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. (2:6,7), (4). So the research shows that the importance of religion in the USA political affairs is connected to the broader body that is American Civil Religion, with the American president considered as prophet, priest, pastor, minister and occasionally as martyr of the country. This typology has strong responses in both Judaic and Christian traditions. R. Bellah considers that As the High Priest of the American Civil Religion, the President is held to a higher standard. Just like the High Priests of ancient Israel, who were held to a higher standard than the rest of the population, the US president is also upheld as moral and spiritual guide of the nation, as well as its military and political leader. Jesus is described throughout the New Testament as Prophet, Priest, King and Martyr for the cause of reconciling humanity to God, strengthening the correlations between Judeo-Christian religious rituals and narratives and that of US civil religion. These similarities give us some insight as to why it is so important for presidential candidates to provide evidence of robust faith, or, at the very least, a strong moral and ethical code (1). American political rhetoric shows a great number of examples of the American president symbolizing ‘capacity’ and ‘unifying force’, especially at times of crisis. For example, Abraham Lincoln’s speech delivered at the dedication of the National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on November 19, 1863. Though the speech was short, yet it is considered as one of the most powerful and memorable speeches of all times: Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war.

82 We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us – that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion – that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom – and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth (6). Or president Lyndon B. Johnson’s speech given on March 15, 1965, when America was shaken by race discrimination, revolts and fights for freedom. Lindon Johnson’s call was an attempt to try to unite all the Americans to fight for equal rights for every American. He demonstratively points out the phrase “We shall overcome” widely used by fighters for civil rights. In his request the president wanted to stress the importance of equality for black, white, north and south. I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of Democracy. I urge every member of both parties, Americans of all religions and of all colors, from every section of this country, to join me in that cause. At times, history and fate meet at a single time in a single place to shape a turning point in man’s unending search for freedom. So it was last week in Selma, Alabama. There, long suffering men and women peacefully protested the denial of their rights as Americans. Many of them were brutally assaulted. One good man – a man of God – was killed. There is no cause for pride in what has happened in Selma. Our mission is at once the oldest and the most basic of this country – to right wrong, to do justice, to serve man. In our time, we have come to live with the moments of great crises. Our lives have been marked with debate about great issues, issues of war and peace, issues of prosperity and depression. There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem. The great phrases of that purpose still sound in every American heart, North and South: “All men are created equal.” “Government by consent of the governed.” “Give me liberty or give me death. It is the effort of American Negroes to secure for themselves the full blessings of American life. Their cause must be our cause, too. Because it’s not just Negroes, but really it’s all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome (12).

83 As the examples show both statements are rich with religious imagery and use of rhetoric devices. Especially the idea of being tested and being called to serve to the highest purpose of unification and overcoming the crisis is mentioned notably. Probably it is in the concluding remarks of the State of the Union messages that the likeness of the US president to a priest becomes most evident: Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman’s 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said “the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether.” With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations (8). This speech was delivered after the Union’s victory when Abraham Lincoln began his second term presidency of the resentfully divided USA. In his speech Lincoln expresses his wish to put an end to hostilities and try to make attempts to reunify all the Americans. These are the boys of Pointe du Hoc. These are the men who took the cliffs. These are the champions who helped free a continent. These are the heroes who helped end a war. Gentlemen, I look at you and I think of the words of Stephen Spender’s poem. You are men who in your ‘lives fought for life…and left the vivid air signed with your honor’… The men of Normandy had faith that what they were doing was right, faith that they fought for all humanity, faith that a just God would grant them mercy on this beachhead or on the next. It was the deep knowledge — and pray God we have not lost it — that there is a profound moral difference between the use of force for liberation and the use of force for conquest. You were here to liberate, not to conquer, and so you and those others did not doubt your cause. And you were right not to doubt (14). Ronald Reagan is considered to be one of the most influential orators. On June 6, 1984 in his speech he tried to give an impressive acknowledgement to a group of American Army Rangers who had attacked an impossible Nazi stronghold – Pointe du Hoc. The church service in USA closes with the priest’s call of each member of the church to go out into the world and get ready to serve God. The priest

84 also explains the great importance and meaning of the faith. The priest prays and ask God to bless the congregation’s activities. The above mentioned concluding sentences from various States of the Union presidential messages include different similarities with this type of religious ritual. When we think of religious commitments as an important aspect of individual American citizen’s life we also remember how extensively religion influences the politics of the USA. United States is an example of a country where religion can be viewed as one of the most inseparable constituents of American political discourse in spite of the fact that the USA is a multireligious country.

REFERENCES

1. R. Bellah N. (2005) Civil Relidion in America. Daedalus. 2. Conrad Ch. (1971) Introduction. Religious Interpetations of American Destiny. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 3. Anthony S. (2000) The Sacred Dimension of Nationalis. Millenium Journal of International Studies 29 (3). 4. http://religionfactor.net/2012/10/15/god-bless-america-us-civil- religion-and-the-president-as-prophet-priest-and-martyr-of-the-nation/ 5. http://www.beliefnet.com/News/ElectionCenter/Gallery/The-10- Greatest-US-Presidential-Speeches-of-All-Time.aspx?p=2

SPEECHES

6. Abraham Lincoln’s speech at the Dedication of the National Cemetery in Gettysburg, November 19, 1863. 7. Abraham Lincoln’s 2nd Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865. 8. Barack Obama’s final campaign speech in Iowa 05.11.2012. 9. Barack Obama’s The American Promise Acceptance Speech at the Democratic Convention Mile High Stadium, Denver Colorado August 28, 2008. 10. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Third Inaugural Address Given on Monday, January 20, 1941. 11. John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address Given on Friday, January 20, 1961. 12. Lyndon Johnson “We shall overcome”, March 15, 1965. 13. Richard Nixon’s Resignation Speech given on August 8, 1974. 14. Ronald Reagan’s 40th Anniversary of D-Day Speech, June 6, 1984.

85 Transcripts of all speeches are available at 1. www.presidency.ucsb,edu/sou.php#axzz29LtXhC7S 2. http://www.beliefnet.com/News/ElectionCenter/Gallery/The-10- Greatest-US-Presidential-Speeches-of-All-Time.aspx?p=2 3.http://www.emersonkent.com/famous_speeches_in_history_ presidents.htm 4. http://www.emersonkent.com/speeches/

86 Zhang Luping China University of Political Science and Law, China

LEGISLATION TRANSLATION IN CHINA: IS HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE UNIVERSALLY APPLICABLE?

ABSTRACT Legislation translation in China has for a long time been suffering from the failure of not being able to effectively represent legislative meanings of source texts. Horizontal equivalence requirement to legislation translation, adopted as a major guiding rule by most law translators, is blamed to have caused the problem of linguistic ambiguity in law translation. In attempting to dig into the causes for the linguistic ambiguity resulting from wide application of horizontal equivalence principle, analogous approach is employed in this paper to compare legislative environments in some bilingual jurisdictions. Literal copy of syntactic structures from source language, ineffective reproduction of technical terminology, and lack of adequate quality control mechanism in China are among the causes that attribute to the linguistic ambiguity in legislation translation. A combination of horizontal equivalence principle with vertical equivalence principle is proved to be effective in compensating the deficiencies in legislation translation in China.

1. Introduction Law translation studies in China began at a fairly late stage. The earliest identifiable article in the academia about law translation in China appeared around the mid-1980s. The study conducted by Li and Hu (2006) showed that, up until 2004, academic articles focusing on lexical aspects and general linguistic features of legal language to be dealt with in law translation alone took up over 50 percent of the covered articles written during the period. Majority articles of this phase are repetitive and overlapping in nature, dealing primarily with the lexical features (as in Song, 2004; Chen, 2004; Zhu, 2004) or broad linguistic features (as in Wang, 2003; Jin & Hu, 2000) of legal language in a very broad sense (2006), and very often jumping to too broad conclusions or only remotely connected conclusions. They held 87 little or no particular regard to the factors that are substantive to pin down the problems frequently encountered in legislation translation in China, i.e., diversity of legal texts deserving special attention, responses from target readers, the particular legal system that sets China apart from the rest of the world, translators’ creativities limited by institutional power, and analogies to legal translation studies in other monolingual or bilingual jurisdictions. While it aroused people’s concern that these over-generalized studies had barely touched upon the concrete problems in legislation translation practice in China, the situation from 2005 and onward did not seem to have marked much actual advancement. Statistically speaking, the number of articles concerning law translation since 2005 has been remarkably accelerated, with the size of which being almost five times1 as big as those published during the preceding period. However, the overall rise in the number of law translation-related articles alone contributed not much to the settlement of the problems in the field of study. The later study found that there were proportional changes in the subject matters of the study, though, i.e., the rise in the percentage of the articles handling lexical aspects (as in Jiang, 2007; Zhang & Gao, 2005) or broad linguistic features (as in Xiao, 2007) in contrast to the decrease in the number of articles dealing with other subject matters in law translation2 . Nevertheless, the change did not reverse the situation that the study as a whole still has to face the perennial issue of not being able to effectively communicate linguistically unambiguous legislative meanings in English. However, articles of this period did have dealt with a relatively wider area though. A few examples showing the extended areas of study include syntactical features of law language (Guo, 2007), intrinsic linguistic differences between English and Chinese language patterns, punctuation issues deserving attention in the target text (as inWang, 2005), and even the application of corps to the study (as in Jiang, 2005), etc. Nevertheless, these studies are still blamed for their shallowness and repetitive natures (Li & Hu, 2006).

1 The statistics quoted in this paragraph relies on a study made by me as a con- tinuation of study conducted by Li and Hu (2006). Limiting my research to the period from January, 2005 to May, 2012, 705 qualified law translation-related article entries were pulled out from the Wangfang Database, one of the biggest academic databases in China. The result clearly shows the recent trend in the study of law translation in China. 2 As a result of close analysis on the subject matters of the covered articles, articles focusing on broad linguistic features of law language took up a total of 19.7% of all covered articles entries, while articles on lexical features occupied almost half in size (a total percentage of 41.1%).

88 For a long time in history, Chinese linguists have been devoting themselves to the attesting of the validity of the thought prevalent during the day that general translation theories most popular in time are universally applicable to approach problems particular to China’s law translation. Some major translation theories for this purpose include Nida’s theory of functional equivalence (as in Qian, 2006), domestication or foreignization theory (as in Wang, 2005; Liu, 2004), and a relatively recent one, Skopos theory by German scholar Vermeer (Zhang & Shen, 2005). While Chinese scholars seem to be content with their present undertaking, linguists and law practitioners in other countries have already raised doubts about the efficiency of applying a single generalized theory to approach concrete problems where a lot more particulars need to be taken care of (Weston, 1991). In order to avoid the consequences resultant from alienating theoretical principles from real life needs in law translation, these linguists proposed that a more practical approach should be explored to meet the ultimate goal of facilitating legal communications among different language communities (Sarcevic, 2000). This paper sets out a broad scenario of legislation translation practice in China, analyzes its current problems, and at last offers a proposal that might contribute to the solution of the problems. A close examination to horizontal equivalence principle (HEP) and vertical equivalence principle (VEP), coupled with analyses on the bilingual legislation in Hong Kong and law translation practices in Japan, is intended to unfold the possibility that China’s legislation translation practice may actually benefit from a switch of translational approach from HEP to a more liberal one, i.e., VEP.

2. Law translation or legislation translation? Most law translation studies in China do not distinguish among legislative language, judicial language, and law enforcement language (Du, 2004). According to Du, legislative language is represented by languages used in statutory documents, such as acts and ordinances, administrative rules and regulations, business contracts, and other legislative texts. Language of this kind requires highest linguistic precision possible. It is featured by generality of expressions, formality of styles, great significance of social impact, and strong denotative nature. Judicial languages and law enforcement languages represent law language with lower requirements on linguistic precision and formality. For example, some colloquial expressions, as usually are considered as taboo in legislative texts, are from time to time seen as being employed in court trials and at some law enforcement occasions. It is therefore erroneous to use law translation where the expression legislation

89 translation should have been the most accurate choice. Such misapplication is so prevalent that people are often led to believe that law translation is synonymous to legislation translation. Deborah Cao, an Australian scholar specialized in legal translation studies, also made similar distinctions (2008, pp. 8-12). Among all other aspects, Cao distinguished translating domestic statutes and international treaties from translating private legal documents, scholarly works, and case laws. She further suggested that translators should learn to adapt translation approaches to different linguistic situations with full regards to distinctive textual types and intended functions of each source text. Though Cao made further distinctions between domestic statutes and international treaties, I do not intend to discuss this aspect of legislation translation in this paper, as my focus is on a broader scenario of legislation translation in China as a whole.

3. Legislation translation practice in China Legislation translation in China emerged in response to the growing needs for international communications among law elicits at an earlier stage and later on lay people when globalization enabled people to move more freely among different cultures. Functionally speaking, legislation translation distinguishes authenticated legislation from translated legislative texts for information purposes (Cao, 2007; Sarcevic, 2000). Switzerland, Canada, the EU, and Hong Kong operate at the forefront of bilingual legislation system, whereas Japan, Russia Confederation, and China have their legislation translated solely for informative purposes. Despite the fact that the translated version of legislation was never conferred same equal status as the Chinese version, the call for bilingual legislation in China is growing ever higher each day3 . In many economically as well as demographically better prepared regions, such as Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Beijing, people have even started to try to reach out for the possibility of converting these cities into bilingual jurisdictions (Xie, 2008). Legislation translation in China is relatively a recent and inexperienced undertaking. Not until the early 1990s, the National People’s Congress of China has begun to assign a small group of law translators onto the job, which marked the beginning of governmental efforts in legislation translation (Yim, 1996). Since then, the progress has accelerated, with the joint participation of

3 See popular blog discussion about the feasibility of bilingual legislation in Shenzhen and a few other mainland cities available at http://forum.book.sina.com. cn/thread-1899352-1-1.html and http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_55414a260100 edo6.html. 90 the National People’s Congress, the State Council, and a few private groups and individual expertise4 . Endeavors beyond governmental efforts include a few law schools, academic institutions, publishing houses, and some individual efforts. However, the almost spontaneous involvements in legislation translation by various parties did not generate the equally satisfactory results as the initiators once hoped. The translated texts were often being criticized as being overtly source text-oriented. Credibility of the translation was questioned, because readers found themselves reluctant to rely on the translation for their own particular needs, especially when a cross-country litigation where China held the jurisdiction was involved. In particular, readers complained about ambiguities of the translated legal terminologies, unequivocal meanings of a language pair, deviance from English legal language features, and too many informal or colloquial expressions contained in the target language. All of these, according to Professor Song, have seriously affected readers’ fair comprehensibility (2006). In addition, other than a few identifiable legislation translation databases5 with limited translation collections, the sources for most legislation translation in circulation were hard to trace, and this was even true with some publication institutions which have, from time to time, issued translation copies (either in the form of an isolated piece of law translation or categorized law translation collections) without inserting any translator or copyright information. Leaving copyright issues alone, the chaos is further messed up by the truth that poor quality control mechanism, obscurity of language, and incongruity of legal terms too often found in these translations easily left people with a false impression that legislation translation itself was intrinsically incomprehensible. The Laws and Regulations Database of the People’s Republic of China, a law translation project managed by Beijing University Center for Legal

4 Central governmental efforts further distinguish between the National People’s Congress and the State Council, with the former being responsible for translations of judicial acts and laws enacted by the People’s Congress and the latter administrative laws. Local law translation falls within the domain of local government. For more information, please refer to: http://www.chinalaw.gov.cn/article/ english/, and http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Speeches/node_2866.htm. 5 Two biggest law translation databases in China are maintained by Beijing Uni- versity and the National People’s Congress respectively, with The Laws and Regu- lations Database managed by Beijing University being the single most comprehensive legislation translation database in China. Yet its paid-service nature re- stricts its service availability to a limited group of readers. The database is available at http://en.pkulaw.cn/. 91 Information on a website called Beida Fabao (The Magic Tool for Law Practitioners), available to the public through paid service, is to date the most comprehensive, if not the most credible legislation translation database in current China. Yet its translation sustains deficiencies in many ways. It does no better, compared with those vast randomly available online translations whose sources are hard to define, in bringing English translations in line with commonly accepted English legal language structure. Most translations, as being commented by critics, still largely followed a source text-oriented translation mode, made few bold challenges to the existing terminology apparatus, and exercised little caution in eliminating grammatical fractions. I do not intend to criticize the existing translation mechanism in China, but only aim at analyzing and generalizing the current tendencies in the field so as to offer a comprehensive scenario of current situations to law practitioners as well as other interested parties.

4. Horizontal equivalence or vertical equivalence? HEP is defined as a principle of aligning the source and target text in such a way that two linguistic referents, inserted at parallel locations in source and target texts, denote the same linguistic meanings (Revell, 1998). Linguistic units of source and target texts aligned in accordance to HEP, are said to bear equivalent denotative meanings if compared at a clausal level (or even at a lexical level in a stricter sense). Most source text-oriented translation approaches, like literal equivalence principle and transcription (Harvey, 2003), are believed most likely to produce translations of horizontal equivalence. HEP is widely applied in legislation translation because it minimizes the likelihood of producing a text easily opening up to false interpretation by readers merely based on different locations of correspondent materials in parallel texts. This approach is particularly desirable among bilingual drafters (Lai & Li, 2012), since the texts produced in such a manner are widely welcomed by judges, lawyers, linguists, and lay people for the ready comprehensibility that the almost symmetrical syntactic structure offers. However, complex linguistic situations between two languages often render HEP impossible. Where situations like this happen, vertical equivalence approach may serve to compensate the deficiency resultant from applying HEP alone. Contrary to HEP, VEP allows necessary structural variances between source and target texts so long as the sacrifice on horizontal equivalence of parallel texts enables translators to produce translations with equivalent meanings. Revell voiced his opinion on the relations between VEP and the object of co-drafting policy, which says, the

92 object of co-drafting policy should be such that when read as a whole, the parallel texts should express the same thing (Revell, 1998). His understanding on VEP means the admissibility of a wide range of linguistic variances in the target text as long as such variances contribute to the elimination of linguistic pairs with unequivocal meanings. Syntactic and grammatical variances, lexical expansions and/or deletions (Cao, 2008, pp. 30-44), footnotes and/or glosses, and (rarely) textual changes are common tools to help to achieve the effect of vertical equivalence. As a solid theoretical back-up for VEP, the receiver-oriented theory proposed by Sarcevic offers a thorough explanation on the rationale for the validity of this approach. In one of her books, Sarcevic delineated the receiver-oriented translation theory, in which, for the first time, she offered a bold proposal that translators may sacrifice syntactic and stylistic unity of source texts and target texts in exchange for more effective communications in target readers (1997). In addition, this target text-oriented theory has gradually direct translators away from the stereotype that literal translation, i.e., word-for-word translation, is the only legitimate method of produce legal translations, and that any syntactic and stylistic deviance from source texts should be held as inadmissible. A case to show how HEP sometimes has to yield to VEP could be seen from the following example. Take the word unit in the translated Article 30 of the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China6 for example. The Chinese expression danwei, which on the one hand broadly refers to any institution, organization or companies where a person is affiliated to and regularly goes to work to in China, could be also used to refer to a unit of measurement 7. In Article 30, the phrase danwei, which intends to mean “any institution, organization, etc, where people regularly go to work to”, was literally reproduced as unit, bearing none of the connotations with a workplace. Without further regard to the distinction to danwei’s two important meanings and simply by choosing a word that is only equivalent to the Chinese word in form (horizontally), the translation is ineffective by nature. The validity of this combined approach, i.e., the combination of HEP

6 The translation used as analysis sample is taken from the work done by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of P. R. China. The En- glish translation is available at http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/ content_1384075. htm. The corresponding Chinese legislation is available at http:/ /www.law-lib.com/law/law_view.asp?id=327. 7 For the detailed definition of danwei in Chinese, please see http://dict.baidu.com/ s?wd=%B5%A5%CE%BB#en.

93 and VEP, could be seen from what Hong Kong and Japan have done to bring to light their legislations to people from different language backgrounds. Hong Kong, as a bilingual jurisdiction, had once experienced similar failures when trying to convert common law terms into Chinese counterparts simply based on a word-for-word approach at an earlier stage8 . Lai and Li, Senior Governmental Counsels of the Law Drafting Division in Hong Kong who have been working directing with the bilingual drafting staff, once stated that “the traditional word-for-word translation approach is not the best way to communicate the effects of legislation in Chinese” (2012: 28). Since the early 1990s, bilingual drafters began to realize that for the sake of textual comprehensibility and grammatical correctness, they might occasionally have to present Chinese provisions slightly differently from its counterpart English texts, provided there was no substantial change to the original meanings. They thus advocate a more liberal approach, i.e., “to adapt Chinese legislative texts in accordance with the grammatical and stylistic considerations of the Chinese language” (2012: 29). The move signifies a ‘switch of mind’ in the drafters from strict adherence to HEP to an integrated approach of combing the two principles together. While achieving same legal effects are held sacred in bilingual legislation (Zhao, 2000), it is not expressly described by monolingual jurisdiction where legislation translation, rather than bilingual drafting, prevails the entire time. Nevertheless, translators in these jurisdictions still hold the same one goal, i.e., faithfully transmitting the truthful legislative intentions to target readers and avoiding as much false or incomplete information transmission as possible. This idea was reinforced by the statement made by Carol Lawson, who in his article declares that, among all other goals, the possibility of opening up a channel for global users to supply comments and suggestions on matters such as possible amendments and new legislation the same way as English law is also held as a dream to come true along with the advancement of Japan’s law translation (2007) Japan goes at the forefront of legislation translation in Asia, and its efforts are being marked as illuminative to law translation practices in monolingual jurisdictions in several ways. What had been presented to legislation translators in Japan is quite typical in that not only had it to face vast linguistic differences between Japanese and English languages, but also the

8 See Allen K.P. Lai and Angie S.L. Li (2012) where it says that the Chinese texts of legislation published at the early years of the bilingual legislation were basically translated texts and that bilingual drafters were required to adhere to the style and format of the English texts in a “word-for-word” manner in order to produce a “mirror-image” of the English texts in Chinese. 94 ways to tackle intrinsic linguistic differences arising from substantially different legal systems and languages. Japan responded to the economic drives9 for a more transparent legal communications in the late 1990s with parallel efforts from governmental and local levels to bring ‘law transparency’ to the public. While the Standard Bilingual Dictionary completed by bilingual law experts in 200510 , a product of governmental efforts, had greatly added to the comprehensibility of legislation translations produced by following HEP (Lawson, 2007), the alternative approach was not being precluded as well, i.e., the VEP, whenever by adopting the translation of terminologies collected in the Dictionary alone could not serve for the due clarification purpose. This may be further explained in one of the articles by Valderrama López, where the author asserts that particular attentions should be paid to cultural factors, and that “words and its meanings can mutate, or will be adapted through the translation”, admitting the unavoidability of making proper adjustments to linguistic structures of source texts where situation necessitates (2006: 130). However, it is worth noting that the advocacy on VEP does not mean to suppress the adherence of HEP (Revell, 1998). Vertical equivalence functions whenever the employment of HEP runs the risk of endangering faithful reproduction of original meanings. But one has to be aware that excessive use of VEP not only reduces the readability of target texts (Lai & Li, 2012), but also opens up to the possibility of misinterpretations (2012). Similarly, whether parallel texts of a single instrument should be aligned on the textual appearance of Chinese texts closely to that of the English versions has undergone heated discussions among bilingual drafters in Hong Kong. At last, experts have broadly agreed upon a general adoption of HEP, leaving little room for the adoption of vertical equivalence approach unless the situation compels so. According to the statements from one of the LC papers submitted by the Department of Justice to the Legislation Commission of Hong Kong, statistically speaking, stylistic and syntactic differences can

9 See V.TaylerBritt, …John (Jody), Chaffee (2008). The economic drive back in the late twentieth century was witnessed by the increase of foreign investment in Japan in 1997, an integration of Chinese and Japanese economies, and an increasingly prominent role Japan has been playing in Asia-Pacific Regions as a technical assistance provider. 10 Another contribution made through governmental efforts is the completion of Japanese Law Translation Database System (available at http:// www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/?re=02) under the “Transparency of Japanese Law Project” initiated in 2004, which marks the highlight of Japan’s law translation. See C. Lawson and S. Thornley (2002) for details. 95 only be found in 1 to 2 percent of law provisions (Department of Justice of Hong Kong, 2001).

5. Types of misrepresentations in China’s legislation translation As above discussed, a legislation translator has to, in addition to trying to preserve original structures of source texts, make sure that the translation produces faithful and complete information to readers, and thus, reconciliations between the HEP and the VEP is required whenever necessary. Such reconciliation, taken into account of complex situations in China, means that in order to be able to efficiently produce linguistically unambiguous texts to readers, translators have to take necessary steps to adjust stylistic and syntactic structures of Chinese legislative language, and to rearrange English language units in such way that the restructured English sentences conform to grammatical and syntactic features of English legal language so long as the truthful reproduction of legislative intentions of Chinese legislative texts is retained11 . The fact is, as a result of wide adoption of HEP, misrepresentations in China’s legislation translation are prevalent. This is partly resulting from the fear among legislation translators that the change in the sentence structure would lead to comprehension difficulties, and the fact that some under- qualified translators are simply incapable of securing denotatively equivalent English expressions to replace the Chinese counterparts. Typical misrepresentations break down to the following four types. I am going to illustrate each type with illustrations on some translation examples taken from the translated Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China, completed by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress.

5.1 Misrepresentation of legal terminology Unequivocal representation in legal terminology takes up the single largest portion of all types of misrepresentations identified in China’s legislative translation. Such misrepresentation is primarily caused by terminological ambiguities arising from gaps between two legal systems. According to Šarcevic (New Approach to Legal Translation, 1997), each national law represents an independent legal system with its own set of terminological apparatus, underlying conceptual structures, rules of

11 See Y. Zhao (2000), where the author emphasizes the importance of English translation conforming to English legal language and Chinese translations to Chinese legal language. 96 terminology classification, sources of law, and socio-economic customs. China has a long legislative history that dates back to late feudal times when Qing Dynasty compiled its first statutory code, Ta Tsing Leu Lee12 (Staunton, 1810). It has since then gone through a series of evolutionary stages, during which it took in elements of civil law systems from Japan and Germany, and later on socialist legal system from the former Soviet Union (Li G., 1994). Together with the long-rooted custom laws, it presents the world with a unique legal system that distinguishes itself from the rest of the world. The uniqueness of China’s legal system, reflected upon its terminological apparatus, is featured by the diversity of legal terms and the unavailability of some counterparts in other languages, such as the Chinese term laodong gaizao (a criminal law term which means to compel imprisoned criminals to do labor work with an intention of cultivating their guilty minds) and xingzheng juliu (meaning administrative imprisonment for the purpose of punishing those who have violated administrative law orders). As a result, the situation posed serious problems to legislation translators. Furthermore, the seriousness of the problem is further burdened with the fact that English language and Chinese language fall in two separate language families, and therefore they differ substantially in syntactical, lexical, and phonetic features. And because of this, the Chinese-English legal translation is described by de Groot as the most difficult pair of legal translation among the four types of legal translations identified in accordance with the varied degrees of translational difficulties, i.e., translating from a language with both substantially different language families and legal systems (1992). Examples of terminological misrepresentations may be seen from the translation of intentional homicide and trial in Article 17 and Article 49 of the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China. Intentional homicide, translated from the Chinese legal term Guyi Sharen in Article 17 (meaning killing people out of one’s own will), confuses readers in common law jurisdictions where intentional homicide falls within the sub-categories of term homicide. The translation of trial in Article 49 was a literal reproduction from the Chinese expression shenpan (which in a strict sense refers to the trying process, but is also broadly used to refer to an entire prosecution process in China, integrating a few other related processes, say investigation, arraignment, and pretrial, etc). Intending the latter definition, the translator’s choice of the word trial to represent the Chinese expression shenpan limits the connotation of shenpan solely to the ‘trying process’, excluding the other

12 The online Chinese version is available at http://www.guoxue 123.com/shibu/ 0401/01dqll/index.htm.

97 equally important phases intended to be incorporated into the meaning. The misinterpretation easily led readers to believe that only when a female defendant is found guilty during the trial stage (not the other stages) she may be exempted from death sentence. And this, obviously, was not the original intention of the legislator13 . Unlike common law jurisdictions where definitions to legal terms are readily available through a separate section listed at the initial section of a legislation or regulation, legislation in China does not contain such separate sections. Even though it does occasional contain definitions to certain key terms in the statute, the majority legal terminology still does not bear sufficient textual clarifications. Textually speaking, most legislative translations in China are products made by adhering to the HEP, but if examining deep inside, one is easy to draw the conclusion that, without thorough understanding of the terms contained in clauses, such strict textual alignment style destroys linguistic unity of both source and target texts, alienating the translated text from its original meaning.

5.2 Basic language mistakes in (legal) English expressions Miscommunications of this kind occur when translators fail to generate a text lexically or grammatically correct in the sense of target readers. These mistakes do not necessarily have to be law knowledge-related, since they may also be some fundamental language mistakes resulting from translators’ poor knowledge of the target language rules. Such mistakes are quite occasionally found in the Laws and Regulations Database and other translation efforts undertaken by some private groups. The causes to the problem, I assume, must, to a large extent, have to do with the unavailability of qualified bilingual law experts as are critical to ensure sound legislation translations (Goddard, 2009) and the absence of quality management mechanism at governmental level. An example to show basic language mistakes in these translations could be seen in the translation of Article 59 in the Criminal Law of China. The translation at issue is about the Chinese phrase baoliu bixude shenghuo feiyong, which means to preserve necessary life expenses from being taken away from the total assets the convicted owns (to leave those who were

13 According to my telephone communication with Professor Li Changlin, a law professor from Southwest University of Political Science and Law in China, he confirms that in China, even if an accused female is found pregnant during the investigating stage, no matter the accused woman’s pregnancy lasts till the official trial stage or not, she is entitled to an exempt from death penalty. 98 under the convicted’s regular financial support fair living expenses). In this sentence, the translator may have tried to break horizontal equivalence stigma by converting the active voice structure of the Chinese sentence into the passive voice in English, a gesture to show due consideration to common English sentence structure (Guo, 2007; Law Drafting Division, 1998), but the expression “the amount necessary…shall be taken out” is confusing as it leads people to wonder where the money actually goes once being taken out from the total property. This is because the English phrase to be taken out merely denotes an action of pulling something out of a bigger portion of something else, and thus without any connotation to further actions. Since being taken out is substantially differently from (the property) to be subject to deduction (for some fixed purposes), the said translation constitutes a basic language mistake and is therefore meaningless, though linguistic structures of both texts may seem textually (horizontally) parallel to each other. Another case illustrates incorrect employment of legal terminologies: the translation of circumstances of the crime from the Chinese expression fanzui qingjie in Article 52, which means the gravity of crimes (to be adjudged from the seriousness of offensive actions). The word circumstance, defined as “conditions or fact connected with an event or action” in Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Hornby & Li, 1997: 628), entails a set of inter-connected elements constituting basic conditions of an event. Though the definition to the word circumstance partly explains the Chinese phrase qingjie (literally meaning detailed facts or plots of a crime), the substitution of the Chinese expression qingjie with the English word circumstance misses the important implications intended by the legislator: the emphasis on varied degrees of the gravity of crimes, critical to make fair assessment on monetary penalty to be imposed on the convicted14. The literal translation circumstances of the crime, therefore, cannot fairly represent the Chinese expression of fanzui qingjie. I thus recommend gravity of the crime instead.

5.3 Employment of colloquial expressions Legal language has historically been held as elite language, remaining exclusively to selected groups of people, like law professionals and law study researchers in the academia (Song, 2006). The worldwide plain language

14 For reference, Article 52 in Chinese in reads:

Its English translation reads: “Article 52 The amount of any fine imposed shall be determined according to the circumstances of the crime.” 99 movements15 contributed to the production of legislative texts readily accessible to the general public. While the movement has made substantial progresses in transforming technical and windy legal texts into simpler and easily accessible ones, some of the most fundamental features of legal language are nevertheless retained, among which is the formality of linguistic style. Correspondingly, there are multiple techniques a translator may resort to in order to retain formality in target texts, for example, the tendency to use nominalization, technical terms, and inadmissibility of informal and colloquial expressions. While colloquial expressions serve usefully in reducing technicality of legal language, it is nevertheless agreed that too frequent employment of such expressions risk the loss of solemnity and precision of legal texts and cause credibility crisis among target readers. Being identified as one of the major problems in legislation translation in China, the overflowing with colloquial expressions affects the quality of translations in more than one way. The employment of mental patient (in Article 18), woman (in Articles 236, 237, 240, and 241 and several other places of the Law), and girl (in Article 236) are a few examples to illustrate how colloquial expressions were employed inappropriately in legislation translation when formal and technical expressions may have served a better purpose. The phrase mental patient is translated from the Chinese expression jingshen bingren (people with mental problems), woman from funv (adult females), and girl from younv (minor females). Even though such translations are able to explain the fundamental meanings of their Chinese counterpart in a technical sense, they are colloquial and inappropriate in a formal setting like this. A better option in substitution for these colloquial expressions might be psychotic, adult female16 and female minor respectively. One of the clear risks of too many colloquial expressions in legal texts is that the intrinsic feature of lexical vagueness of colloquial expressions often adds to the

15 See M. Liao (2006). Plain Language Movement is a worldwide movement oc- curred in the late twentieth century. The purpose was to sweep off unnecessarily complex language expression from the academia, government, juridicature, and business areas for the benefit of the common public. The law academia worldwide responded to this movement by promoting plain legal language in replace- ment for complex, obscure legal expressions with shorter sentences, simple logic structures, and avoidance of jargons and unfamiliar words, etc. 16 For the differences between the use of “woman” and female, please see definition to “woman” at dictionary.com, available at http://dictionary.reference.com/ browse/woman and the explanations made by Mignon Fogarty, available at http:/ /grammar. quickanddirtytips.com/woman-versus-female.aspx. Basically, according to Fogarty, the word “female” is prone to be used under scientific (technical) contexts. The rationale works the same with the words “girl” and “mental patient”.

100 possibility of endangering faithful representations of source texts. Take the word girl in this case for example. In addition to its ordinary meaning as an underage female which is the intention of the translator in this case, the word has over the years extended far beyond it, like the meaning an adult female (married or unmarried), just for courtesy purpose. Therefore, obviously, the extended meaning of the word girl run clear contrary to what the translator intended it to be.

5.4 Chinese language-oriented English language structure Another important misrepresentation of source texts is caused by ‘bad English’: English sentences produced by rigidly adhering to the sentence structures of source texts, and by literally translating each single word in the source text into corresponding English phrases. While this problem plagued the earlier stage of Hong Kong’s bilingual drafting process, it also caused headache to China’s legislation translation (Zhao, 2000). According to Zhao, one important premise that guarantees fair legislation translation is the prerequisite that “Chinese texts conform to the grammatical rules of the Chinese language, and English texts conform to the grammatical rules of the English language” (2000: 3). And this, put under China’s concrete situation, means that translation process should be rendered in such a way that English sentences translated from Chinese texts should follow the linguistic rules of English legal language (not the Chinese legal language). To this end, translators sometimes have to sacrifice the unity of textual appearance of both languages, a break to the HEP. Chinese legal language, largely following a civil law tradition, has acquired some civil law features, such as terse wording style and, shorter sentences (Yen, 2010; Cao, 2008), while English legal language, loaded with dense common law culture, is featured by lengthy sentences, impersonal structure, and frequent use of word strings (Kocbek, 2008; 2010). In addition, the two languages also differ in, among all other things, grammatical rules, nominalization, orders of conditional clauses, and frequency of employing active/passive voice in the sentence. Because of the contrasted syntactic differences (Hu & Wang, 2002) between Chinese and English legal languages, the retaining of strict horizontal equivalence structure unavoidably impairs the integrity of English legal language, making English sentences unfairly affected by source texts. Take Article 238 of the Criminal Law for example. Structurally speaking, the English translation is exactly the kind of ‘mirror image’ of the Chinese text. The English structure in the translation “… shall be sentenced to fixed-

101 term imprisonment of not more than three years, criminal detention, public surveillance or deprivation of political rights” led by the verb sentence is typical a ‘mirror image’ of its Chinese counterpart, and it is linguistically defective in that the way the translator aligns the text, i.e., the literal reproduction of Chinese sentence structure, render the English text simply incomprehensible to native English readers. This is because the English verb sentence, when used to refer to a penalty imposed on the convicted, refers to mostly commonly as an order issued by a court to the convicted for a period of jail or prison time17 (not criminal detention, public surveillance or deprivation of political rights).

6. Conclusion It is highly unlikely that problems identified in legislation translation in China could be resolved overnight, considering the complexity of the problems and the relevant cultural, economical and institutional factors. Seen from Hong Kong experience, which benefits not only from its long history of being a common law jurisdiction, but also from its bilingual legislation system backed up by strong policy support in finance, human resources, quality control and the establishment of developed interpretation rules, there are ample experience that China may draw from, among which is the adoption of the integrated translation approach, i.e., instead of doggedly adhering to HEP alone, allows the employment of VEP wherever the situation compels so. The country that may shed some illuminations on China’s legislation translation practice is Japan. It was successful in bringing its laws transparent to global viewers because it has realized the importance of identifying clear objects of law translation in the first place, i.e., to let people from other world know about Japan’s law system, and to encourage people from the globe to contribute to its legislation. Despite the fact that legislation translation in China occupies a status lower than Chinese legislation, but unless we treat it on equal terms with Chinese legislation during the production of English texts, it will never be granted or treated as if it has sufficient credibility that readers may rely on.

17 See further explanations at the Free Dictionary by Farlex, available at http:// legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sentence. Though technically speaking, the word “sentence” also applies to penalties other than jailing or imprisonment, such usage nevertheless remains unpopular. People in common law jurisdiction today tend to apply it only when the order issued to the convicted is about jailing or imprisonment. 102 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The reviewers and the editors’ valuable comments and insightful suggestions are greatly appreciated. This research project is funded by Southwest University of Political Science and Law, China, under the two projects: 2011-XZQN28 and XZQNCXTD2013-11.

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106 Àáðàìÿí Ñ. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ

ÊÓËÜÒÓÐÀ È ÑÒÈËÜ ÊÎÌÌÓÍÈÊÀÖÈÈ

ABSTRACT The strategy and tactics of communication may be different in different cultures and they are largely influenced by the type of culture and cultural values of the given sociolinguistic entity. That’s why not only linguistic, but also extralinguistic and sociocultural competence is needed to avoid communicative failures and ensure the effectiveness of intercultural communication.

Ñëîæíîñòè íà ïóòè îáåñïå÷åíèÿ ýôôåêòèâíîñòè ìåæêóëü- òóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè îáóñëîâëåíû öåëûì ðÿäîì ôàêòîðîâ è, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, òåì, ÷òî êóëüòóðà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé êðàéíå ñëîæíîå è ìíîãîãðàííîå ÿâëåíèå, îõâàòûâàþùåå âñå ñòîðîíû ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî áûòèÿ. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Ñ.Ã.Òåð-Ìèíàñîâà, êóëü- òóðà – ýòî î÷åíü øèðîêîå ïîíÿòèå, ïðåäñòàâëÿþùåå ñîáîé ñî- âîêóïíîñòü ðåçóëüòàòîâ ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé æèçíè è äåÿòåëüíîñòè âî âñåõ ñôåðàõ: ïðîèçâîäñòâåííîé, òâîð÷åñêîé, äóõîâíîé, ëè÷íîé, ñåìåéíîé, ýòî îáû÷àè, òðàäèöèè, îáðàç æèçíè, âçãëÿä íà ìèð (ìèðîâîççðåíèå) – íà ìèð áëèçêèé, «ñâîé», è äàëüíèé, «÷ó- æîé», – íåêîåé ãðóïïû ëþäåé (îò ñåìüè äî íàöèè) â îïðåäå- ëåííîì ìåñòå è â îïðåäåëåííîå âðåìÿ. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, êóëü- òóðà â òîé èëè èíîé ñòåïåíè ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðåäìåòîì èçó÷åíèÿ âñåõ ãóìàíèòàðíûõ íàóê, îäíàêî ñîâåðøåííî îñîáîå ìåñòî îíà çà- íèìàåò â êóëüòóðíîé àíòðîïîëîãèè. Óäåëÿÿ îñîáîå âíèìàíèå âçàèìîäåéñòâèþ ÿçûêà è êóëüòóðû, êóëüòóðíàÿ àíòðîïîëîãèÿ, ïîìèìî ïðî÷åãî, «èçó÷àåò óíèêàëüíóþ ÷åëîâå÷åñêóþ ñïîñîá- íîñòü ðàçâèâàòü êóëüòóðó ÷åðåç îáùåíèå, ÷åðåç êîììóíèêàöèþ, â òîì ÷èñëå è ðå÷åâóþ, ðàññìàòðèâàåò îãðîìíîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå ÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ êóëüòóð, èõ âçàèìîäåéñòâèå è êîíôëèêòû» (7:13- 15). Êîììóíèêàöèÿ è ÿçûê êàê îñíîâíîå ñðåäñòâî îáùåíèÿ ëþ- äåé ÿâëÿþòñÿ âàæíåéøåé ÷àñòüþ ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé æèçíè, à çíà- ÷èò, è ÷àñòüþ êóëüòóðû. Ïîâûøåííûé èíòåðåñ ê ïðîáëåìå ÿçûêà è êóëüòóðû îáóñëîâëèâàåòñÿ òåì, ÷òî íàóêà î ÿçûêå âñå 107 áîëüøå ñòàíîâèòñÿ íàóêîé î ÷åëîâåêå, ïîçâîëÿþùåé ðàñêðûòü îñîáåííîñòè åãî ìåíòàëüíîñòè, íàöèîíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà, ñïî- ñîáîâ åãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ñ îêðóæàþùèì ìèðîì è ñ äðóãèìè ëþäüìè. Íà ýòó îñîáåííîñòü ÿçûêà â ñâîå âðåìÿ óêàçûâàë Â. ôîí Ãóìáîëüäò, îòìå÷àâøèé, ÷òî «èçó÷åíèå ÿçûêà îòêðûâàåò äëÿ íàñ, ïîìèìî ñîáñòâåííîãî åãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ, åùå è àíà- ëîãèþ ìåæäó ÷åëîâåêîì è ìèðîì âîîáùå è êàæäîé íàöèåé, ñàìîâûðàæàþùåéñÿ â ÿçûêå, â ÷àñòíîñòè». Ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ, ÷òî ÿçûê «ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé èíñòðóìåíò íå òîëüêî äëÿ ñðàâíå- íèÿ ìíîãèõ íàöèé, íî è äëÿ îáíàðóæåíèÿ èõ âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ», Â. ôîí Ãóìáîëüäò ïèñàë: «Âñÿêîå èçó÷åíèå íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñâîåîáðàçèÿ, íå èñïîëüçóþùåå ÿçûê êàê âñïîìîãàòåëüíîå ñðåäñòâî, áûëî áû íàïðàñíûì, ïîñêîëüêó òîëüêî â ÿçûêå çà- ïå÷àòëåí âåñü íàöèîíàëüíûé õàðàêòåð, à òàêæå â íåì êàê â ñðåäñòâå îáùåíèÿ äàííîãî íàðîäà èñ÷åçàþò èíäèâèäóàëüíîñòè, ñ òåì ÷òîáû ïðîÿâèëîñü âñåîáùåå» (4:303-306). Ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ îñîáóþ âàæíîñòü êîììóíèêàöèè, ñîöèàëüíî- ãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ëþäåé â äåëå ïðåîáðàçîâàíèÿ îêðóæàþùå- ãî ìèðà, ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ íîðì, öåííîñòåé è èíñòèòóòîâ òîé èëè èíîé êóëüòóðû, ìíîãèå èññëåäîâàòåëè ïðèðàâíèâàþò êóëüòó- ðó ê îáùåíèþ (êîììóíèêàöèè). Îñíîâîïîëîæíèê òåîðèè ìåæ- êóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè, àìåðèêàíñêèé àíòðîïîëîã Ý. Õîëë, ðàññìàòðèâàÿ êóëüòóðó â êà÷åñòâå êîììóíèêàöèè, âûñêàçàë èäåþ îá îäíîðîäíîñòè è âçàèìîäåòåðìèíèðîâàííîñòè êîììó- íèêàöèè è êóëüòóðû. Ïî åãî ìíåíèþ, «êóëüòóðà – ýòî êîì- ìóíèêàöèÿ, à êîììóíèêàöèÿ åñòü êóëüòóðà» (13:186). Ïðîñëåæèâàÿ âçàèìîñâÿçü è âçàèìîâëèÿíèå êóëüòóðû è êîì- ìóíèêàöèè, èññëåäîâàòåëè âûÿâèëè, ÷òî êóëüòóðíûå ôàêòîðû îêàçûâàþò íåïîñðåäñòâåííîå âîçäåéñòâèå íà ïîâåäåíèå ëþäåé, èõ âåðáàëüíûå è íåâåðáàëüíûå äåéñòâèÿ, à òàêæå òî, ÷òî ñïî- ñîáû è ìåòîäû êîììóíèêàöèè â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü âëèÿþò íà êóëü- òóðó. Èññëåäîâàòåëè âûÿñíèëè, ÷òî òàêèå êóëüòóðíûå ôàêòî- ðû, êàê èíäèâèäóàëèçì / êîëëåêòèâèçì, äèñòàíöèÿ âëàñòè, ìàñêóëèííîñòü / ôåìèííîñòü, îïðåäåëåííîñòü / íåîïðåäåëåí- íîñòü âëèÿþò íà ñïîñîá è ìåòîäû êîììóíèêàöèè. Â òî æå âðå- ìÿ, îïðåäåëåííûå ñïîñîáû è ìåòîäû êîììóíèêàöèè ìîãóò õà- ðàêòåðèçîâàòü îïðåäåëåííûé òèï êóëüòóðû. Íàïðèìåð, èññëå- äîâàòåëè ïðîñëåäèëè ñâÿçü ìåæäó òàêèìè ïàðàìåòðàìè, êàê êîëëåêòèâèçì / èíäèâèäóàëèçì, øèðîêèé / óçêèé êîíòåêñò è ïðèøëè ê âûâîäó, ÷òî êîëëåêòèâèñòñêèå êóëüòóðû ÿâëÿþòñÿ

108 «øèðîêîêîíòåêñòíûìè», èíäèâèäóàëèñòè÷åñêèå – «óçêîêîí- òåêñòíûìè» (9:100). Äåëåíèå êóëüòóð â çàâèñèìîñòè îò êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîí- òåêñòà áûëî ïðåäëîæåíî Ý.Õîëëîì. Êóëüòóðû, â êîòîðûõ êîì- ìóíèêàöèÿ âî ìíîãîì îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êîíòåêñòîì, îí íàçâàë high-context cultures (âûñîêîêîíòåêñòíûå êóëüòóðû èëè øèðî- êîêîíòåêñòíûå êóëüòóðû). Êóëüòóðû, â êîòîðûõ êîììóíèêà- öèÿ íåçíà÷èòåëüíî çàâèñèò îò êîíòåêñòà – low-context cultures (íèçêîêîíòåêñòíûå èëè óçêîêîíòåêñòíûå êóëüòóðû). Íåêîòîðûå èññëåäîâàòåëè îòìå÷àþò çàêîíîìåðíîñòü òîãî, ÷òî «òîò èëè èíîé âèä êóëüòóðû ïîðîæäàåò ñâîé òèï îáùå- íèÿ». Íàïðèìåð, íèçêîêîíòåêñòíûé (ïðÿìîé, ïî ñóùåñòâó, âåðáàëüíûé) òèï êîììóíèêàöèè õàðàêòåðåí äëÿ èíäèâèäóà- ëèñòè÷åñêèõ êóëüòóð, à âûñîêîêîíòåêñòíûé (êîñâåííûé, âè- òèåâàòûé, íåâåðáàëüíûé) – äëÿ êîëëåêòèâèñòñêèõ (3:103). Êàæäûé êîíêðåòíûé àêò êîììóíèêàöèè îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êóëü- òóðíûìè ðàçëè÷èÿìè ñîáåñåäíèêîâ. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Â.Þ.Õîòè- íåö, êðîññêóëüòóðíàÿ èçìåí÷èâîñòü â íàâûêàõ ñîöèàëèçàöèè äåòåðìèíèðîâàíà ïåðåìåííûìè îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäû è æèçíå- äåÿòåëüíîñòè, ò.å. êóëüòóðíîé âàðèàòèâíîñòüþ, ïðåäñòàâëÿþ- ùåé íàáîð öåííîñòåé, óñòàíîâîê, âåðîâàíèé, íîðì, ìîäåëåé ïîâåäåíèÿ, îòëè÷àþùèé îäíó ãðóïïó êóëüòóð îò äðóãîé (8:39). Ñîãëàñíî Ã.Õîôñòåäå, êóëüòóðà è ñîöèàëüíîå îêðóæåíèå ÿâ- ëÿþòñÿ èñòî÷íèêàìè ìåíòàëüíûõ ïðîãðàìì (software of the mind), ò.å. ìåõàíèçìîâ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ îùóùåíèé, ìûñëåé è ïîâåäåíèÿ èíäèâèäà â õîäå åãî ñîöèàëèçàöèè è èíêóëüòóðà- öèè. Ìåíòàëüíûå ïðîãðàììû îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ òàê íàçûâàåìûìè «èçìåðåíèÿìè êóëüòóðû» (dimensions of culture) - «èíäèâèäóà- ëèçìîì – êîëëåêòèâèçìîì», «äèñòàíöèåé âëàñòè», «èçáåãàíèåì íåîïðåäåëåííîñòè», «ìàñêóëèííîñòüþ – ôåìèííîñòüþ», êîòî- ðûå, âëèÿþò íà ïîâåäåíèå ÷åëîâåêà. Íàïðèìåð, â çàâèñèìîñòè îò áîëüøåé èëè ìåíüøåé «äèñ- òàíöèè âëàñòè», òàê æå êàê è îò «äèôôåðåíöèàöèè ñòàòóñà», ñòèëü îáùåíèÿ ìîæåò áûòü ëè÷íîñòíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûì è ñòà- òóñíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûì (9:100). Òàê, ëè÷íîñòíî-îðèåíòèðî- âàííûé ïîäõîä õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ íåôîðìàëüíûì òèïîì îáùå- íèÿ è îòñóòñòâèåì ðîëåâîé äèôôåðåíöèàöèè. Çäåñü ïðåâàëè- ðóåò êîãíèòèâíûé ïîäõîä, êîòîðûé âêëþ÷àåò ðåôëåêñèþ èëè ðåôëåêñèâíîå ñðàâíåíèå. Ñòàòóñíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííîå âûñêàçû- âàíèå, íàîáîðîò, ïðåäëàãàåò ðÿä êîììàíä è ïðàâèë ïîâåäåíèÿ,

109 îñíîâàííûõ íà ïðîèçâîëüíûõ ðåøåíèÿõ, à íå êàê ëîãè÷åñêîå ñëåäñòâèå âûáîðà èç èìåþùèõñÿ îäíîé èëè íåñêîëüêèõ àëü- òåðíàòèâ. Òàê, âåðáàëüíàÿ êàòåãîðè÷íàÿ êîìàíäà «Be quiet» íå îñòàâëÿåò ìåñòà äëÿ ìûñëèòåëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè è ïðàêòè÷åñêè íå äàåò âîçìîæíîñòè, ÷òîáû ñâÿçàòü ïåðåäàííóþ â äàííîì âûñ- êàçûâàíèè èíôîðìàöèþ ñ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèì êîíòåêñòîì. Ìåæ- äó òåì, áîëåå ðàçâåðíóòîå âûñêàçûâàíèå, êàê, íàïðèìåð, “Would you be quiåt a minute? I want to talk on the phone” ñî- äåðæèò îáúÿñíåíèå íà âîçìîæíûé âîïðîñ “Why?”. Êàê îòìå- ÷àþò Ð.Ãåññ è Â.Øèïìàí, ïîäîáíûé òèï îáùåíèÿ, íàïðèìåð, ðîäèòåëÿ ñ ðåáåíêîì äåëàåò áîëåå âåðîÿòíûì òî, ÷òî ðåáåíîê, îêàçàâøèñü â ñõîæåé ñèòóàöèè, çàäàñò âîïðîñ «ïî÷åìó?». Ëè÷- íîñòíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûé ïîäõîä íå òîëüêî ó÷èò ðåáåíêà ðàññ- ìàòðèâàòü ñâîè è ÷óæèå äåéñòâèÿ â èõ ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòè, íî è ãîòîâèò åãî ê ïîíèìàíèþ òîãî, ÷òî ó íåãî âñåãäà åñòü âîç- ìîæíîñòü ëè÷íîãî âûáîðà (11:169-177). Áðèòàíñêèé ñîöèîëèíãâèñò Á.Áåðíñòåéí âûäåëÿë äâà òèïà ðå÷åâûõ êîäîâ: îãðàíè÷åííûé (restricted) è ðàñøèðåííûé (elaborated). Êàæäîìó èç íèõ ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ñâîé òèï ñîöèàëü- íîãî óñòðîéñòâà. Ïðè îãðàíè÷åííîì ðå÷åâîì êîäå âûáîð âåð- áàëüíûõ äåéñòâèé ãîâîðÿùåãî îãðàíè÷èâàåòñÿ êóëüòóðíûì êîí- òåêñòîì. Îãðàíè÷åííûé ðå÷åâîé êîä ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñòàòóñíî-îðèåí- òèðîâàííûì ñòèëåì îáùåíèÿ è õàðàêòåðåí äëÿ çàêðûòûõ îá- ùåñòâ è çàìêíóòûõ ñîîáùåñòâ ñî ñòðîãî îïðåäåëåííîé, ïîçè- öèîíàëüíîé ñòðóêòóðîé ñîöèàëüíûõ ðîëåé. Îí íàèáîëåå ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â âûñîêîêîíòåêñòíûõ êóëüòóðàõ, â êîòîðûõ ñòà- òóñ êîììóíèêàíòîâ äèêòóåò ñîäåðæàíèå è ôîðìó âûñêàçûâà- íèÿ: êòî, ÷òî, êîìó è êàê äîëæåí ñêàçàòü. Ñîãëàñíî Á.Áåðíñòåéíó ðàñøèðåííûé ðå÷åâîé êîä, â ïðî- òèâîïîëîæíîñòü îãðàíè÷åííîìó ðå÷åâîìó êîäó, ïðåäëàãàåò øè- ðîêèé âûáîð àëüòåðíàòèâíûõ ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ôîðì äëÿ èñ- ïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïðè ðå÷åâîé êîììóíèêàöèè â ñèòóàöèÿõ, êîãäà íàìåðåíèÿ ãîâîðÿùèõ íåèçâåñòíû èëè çíà÷èòåëüíî îòëè÷àþòñÿ äðóã îò äðóãà, êàê ýòî îáû÷íî áûâàåò â èíäèâèäóàëèñòñêèõ êóëüòóðàõ. Ðàñøèðåííûé ðå÷åâîé êîä ìîæåò áûòü èñïîëüçî- âàí â ëþáîì ÿçûêå, íî â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè èñïîëüçîâàíèå òî- ãî èëè èíîãî ðå÷åâîãî êîäà ðåãóëèðóåòñÿ ñîöèàëüíîé ñèñòå- ìîé, ïîýòîìó ðàñøèðåííûé ðå÷åâîé êîä è ñîîòâåòñòâóþùàÿ åìó èíäèâèäóàëèñòñêàÿ ñèìâîëèêà èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â ñîîáùåñò- âàõ ñ îòêðûòûìè ñèñòåìàìè ñîöèàëüíûõ ðîëåé (12:145-148).

110 Èçâåñòíûå àâòîðû ïî ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè Ó. Ãó- äèêóíñò è Ñ. Òèíã-Òóìåé âûäåëÿþò ÷åòûðå ñòèëÿ ðå÷åâîé êîì- ìóíèêàöèè, õàðàêòåðíûõ äëÿ òîé èëè èíîé êóëüòóðû: ïðÿìîé – íåïðÿìîé (direct – indirect), ðàñøèðåííûé – ñæàòûé (elaborate – succinct), ëè÷íîñòíûé – êîíòåêñòóàëüíûé (personal – contextual), èíñòðóìåíòàëüíûé – àôôåêòèâíûé (instrumental – affective). Òåîðåòè÷åñêè ðàçíûå âàðèàöèè óêàçàííûõ ñòèëåé ìîãóò ïðèñóòñòâîâàòü â ëþáîé êóëüòóðå, íî, êàê ïðàâèëî, â îòäåëüíî âçÿòîé êóëüòóðå èìååòñÿ ñâîé äîìèíèðóþùèé ñòèëü. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Ò.Â.Ëàðèíà, ñòèëü êîììóíèêàöèè ôîðìèðóåò- ñÿ ïîä âëèÿíèåì ýêñòðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ôàêòîðîâ – òåõ ÿâ- ëåíèé âíåÿçûêîâîé äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè, â êîòîðûõ ïðîòåêàåò îá- ùåíèå. Âàæíåéøèì ýêñòðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèì ôàêòîðîì, îïðå- äåëÿþùèì ñòèëü êîììóíèêàöèè, ÿâëÿåòñÿ òèï êóëüòóðû. Îñî- áåííîñòè êóëüòóðû ïîáóæäàþò åå íîñèòåëåé èçëàãàòü ñâîè ìûñ- ëè ÷åòêî ëèáî äîïóñêàòü äâóñìûñëåííîñòü, áûòü ïðåäåëüíî ëà- êîíè÷íûìè ëèáî ìíîãîñëîâíûìè, ñâîáîäíî ïðîÿâëÿòü ýìîöèè ëèáî ñäåðæèâàòü èõ, ñòðîãî ñîáëþäàòü äèñòàíöèþ â îáùåíèè èëè ïðåíåáðåãàòü åþ è ò. ä. Íàöèîíàëüíûé ñòèëü êîììóíè- êàöèè ôîðìèðóåòñÿ ïîä âëèÿíèåì ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíûõ îò- íîøåíèé, êóëüòóðíûõ öåííîñòåé, íîðì è òðàäèöèé, õàðàêòåð- íûõ äëÿ îïðåäåëåííîé êóëüòóðû, îñîáåííîñòåé ñèñòåìû âåæ- ëèâîñòè, êîòîðàÿ â êàæäîé êóëüòóðå èìååò ñâîþ ñïåöèôèêó. Òî, ÷òî õàðàêòåðíî äëÿ îäíîé êóëüòóðû, ÷àñòî íåïðèåìëåìî äëÿ äðóãîé. Ïîýòîìó ìíîãèå ïîñòóëàòû êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ (èçâåñòíûå ìàêñèìû Ï. Ãðàéñà, ïðàâèëà âåæ- ëèâîñòè Äæ. Ëè÷à), ñôîðìóëèðîâàííûå äëÿ èíäèâèäóàëèñòè- ÷åñêèõ, óçêîêîíòåêñòíûõ êóëüòóð (low context cultures), íå ìîãóò áûòü â òîé æå ñòåïåíè ïðèìåíèìû ê êîëëåêòèâèñòñêèì, øè- ðîêîêîíòåêñòíûì êóëüòóðàì (high context cultures), ïîñêîëüêó òàêîé òèï êóëüòóðû ïðåäîïðåäåëÿåò äðóãèå êîììóíèêàòèâíûå îñîáåííîñòè, ôîðìèðóåò èíîé ñòèëü êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâå- äåíèÿ (5). Ðå÷ü ÿâëÿåòñÿ òîé ñôåðîé ïðèìåíåíèÿ ÿçûêà, êîòîðàÿ îñî- áåííî ÷óâñòâèòåëüíà ê ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíûì õàðàêòåðèñòè- êàì. Êîãäà ëþäè ãîâîðÿò, âàæíî íå òîëüêî òî, ÷òî îíè ãîâî- ðÿò, íî è êàê îíè ýòî äåëàþò. Ñòðàòåãèÿ è òàêòèêà îáùåíèÿ ìîæåò áûòü ðàçëè÷íîé â ðàçíûõ êóëüòóðàõ, ïîýòîìó äëÿ ýô- ôåêòèâíîé êîììóíèêàöèè íåîáõîäèìî îáëàäàòü íå òîëüêî ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè, íî è ýêñòðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè è ñîöèîêóëü-

111 òóðíûìè çíàíèÿìè, ðåãóëèðóþùèìè ðå÷åâîå è íåðå÷åâîå ïîâåäåíèå. Ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ îçíà÷àåò îñîçíàíèå îáóñëîâëåííîñòè ðå÷åâîãî è íåðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ êîììóíèêàíòîâ ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíûìè è ñîöèàëü- íî-ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèìè ôàêòîðàìè. Ðå÷åâûå àêòû ðåàëèçóþòñÿ â ðàçíûõ êóëúòóðàõ ïo-ðàçíîìó, è ýòî ðàçëè÷èå ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê òðóäíîñòÿì â ìåæêóëúòóð- íîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Êóëüòóðíûå îñîáåííîñòè ïðèâîäÿò ê ðàç- ëè÷èÿì â îäíèõ è òåõ æå ðå÷åâûõ àêòàõ, âûðàæàþùèõ òàêèå óíèâåðñàëüíûå ðå÷åâûå ñèòóàöèè, êàê ïðèâëå÷åíèå âíèìàíèÿ, îáðàùåíèå, çíàêîìñòâî, ïðèâåòñòâèå, ïðîùàíèå, èçâèíåíèå, ïðîñüáà, îòêàç, æàëîáà, êîìïëèìåíò, ïîçäðàâëåíèå, áëàãîäàð- íîñòü, ïîæåëàíèå, ðàçãîâîð ïî òåëåôîíó, ïèñüìåííîå ñîîáùå- íèå è ò.ï. Òðóäíîñòè âîçíèêàþùèå â ìåæêóëüòóðíîì îáùåíèè çà- ÷àñòóþ ñâÿçàíû ñ òåì, ÷òî ðàçíûå êóëüòóðû áûâàþò îðèåí- òèðîâàíû íà ðàçíûå öåííîñòè. Íàïðèìåð, òîò ôàêò, ÷òî â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå äîâîëüíî îãðàíè÷åíî óïîòðåáëåíèå ïðÿìîãî èìïåðàòèâà, à äèðåêòèâû èëè ïðîñüáû èìåþò òåíäåíöèþ âû- ðàæàòüñÿ íå â ïðÿìîì, à â êîñâåííîì âèäå, â ôîðìàõ âîïðî- ñèòåëüíûõ èëè ïîëóâîïðîñèòåëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèé, âî ìíîãîì îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ èìåííî öåííîñòíîé îðèåíòàöèåé àíãëî-àìåðè- êàíñêîé êóëüòóðû, íàïðàâëåííîé íà ñîáëþäåíèå ïðàâ ëè÷íîñòè è îáåñïå÷åíèå ëè÷íîé íåçàâèñèìîñòè (2:67). Â òî æå âðåìÿ, åñëè èñïîëüçîâàíèå â êà÷åñòâå ïðîñüáû èëè ïîæåëàíèÿ íåîï- ðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûõ è áåçëè÷íûõ êîíñòðóêöèé, â êîòîðûõ äåéñò- âèå âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ â îòðûâå, èëè äàæå â îòñóòñòâèè ñóáúåê- òà äåéñòâèÿ, â àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðå íå ìîæåò ñ÷èòàòü- ñÿ ïðèåìëåìûì ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ âåæëèâoñòè, òî â íåêîòîðûõ äðóãèõ êóëüòóðàõ èìåííî îòñóòñòâèå ñóáúåêòà äåéñòâèÿ â ïî- äîáíûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ äåëàþò èõ âåæëèâûìè (15:158). Ðàçðàáàòûâàÿ òåîðèþ ðå÷åâûõ æàíðîâ Ì.Ì.Áàõòèí îòìå÷àë, ÷òî «ãîâîðÿùåìó äàíû íå òîëüêî îáÿçàòåëüíûå äëÿ íåãî ôîð- ìû îáùåíàðîäíîãî ÿçûêà (ñëîâàðíûé ñîñòàâ è ãðàììàòè÷åñ- êèé ñòðîé), íî è îáÿçàòåëüíûå äëÿ íåãî ôîðìû âûñêàçûâà- íèÿ, òî åñòü ðå÷åâûå æàíðû; ýòè ïîñëåäíèå òàê æå íåîáõîäè- ìû äëÿ âçàèìíîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ, êàê è ôîðìû ÿçûêà. Ðå÷åâûå æàíðû, ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ôîðìàìè ÿçûêà, ãîðàçäî áîëåå èçìåí- ÷èâû, ãèáêè, ïëàñòè÷íû, íî äëÿ ãîâîðÿùåãî èíäèâèäóóìà îíè èìåþò íîðìàòèâíîå çíà÷åíèå, íå ñîçäàþòñÿ èì, à äàíû åìó.

112 Ïîýòîìó åäèíè÷íîå âûñêàçûâàíèå ïðè âñåé åãî èíäèâèäóàëü- íîñòè è òâîð÷åñêîì õàðàêòåðå íèêàê íåëüçÿ ñ÷èòàòü ñîâåðøåí- íî ñâîáîäíîé êîìáèíàöèåé ôîðì ÿçûêà» (1:256-257, 260). Õîòÿ äîëãîå âðåìÿ èäåè Ì.Ì.Áàõòèíà îñòàâàëèñü íåâîñò- ðåáîâàííûìè, ìíîãèå èç íèõ ëåãëè â îñíîâó ñîâðåìåííûõ òåî- ðèé äèñêóðñà è ìîäåëåé ðå÷åâîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Òàê, Â.Å.×åð- íÿâñêàÿ, îáðàùàÿ âíèìàíèå íà êîãíèòèâíûé è íîðìàòèâíûé õàðàêòåð äèñêóðñà è ðàññìàòðèâàÿ åãî â êà÷åñòâå òèïîëîãî÷åñêè ïðåäçàäàííîãî ñïîñîáà ìûøëåíèÿ è êîììóíèêàòèâíî-ðå÷åâîé ïðàêòèêè, ïèøåò: «Äèñêóðñ – ýòî ñèñòåìà îãðàíè÷åíèé, íàê- ëàäûâàåìûõ íà âîçìîæíûå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ â ñèëó îïðåäåëåí- íîé ñîöèàëüíîé, èäåîëîãè÷åñêîé, â òîì ÷èñëå íàó÷íîé ïîçè- öèè. Ìû óòâåðæäàåì, ÷òî äèñêóðñ âûðàæàåò íàäûíäèâèäóàëü- íîå, êîëëåêòèâíîå ðå÷åâîå äåéñòâèå, êîòîðîå èíñòèòóöèîíà- ëèçèðîâàíî, ò.å. ñâÿçàíî ñ îòíîñèòåëüíî óñòîé÷èâûìè òèïà- ìè è ôîðìàìè ñîöèàëüíîé ïðàêòèêè... Ýòî çíà÷èò äàëåå, ÷òî äèñêóðñ ïðåäëàãàåò îïðåäåëåííûå, òàêèå è íå èíûå, ñòàíäàð- òû êîììóíèêàòèâíî-ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ îòäåëüíûõ ëèö â òèïè÷íûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ» (8:133). Êàê îòìå÷àåò Â.Å.×åðíÿâñêàÿ, ÿçûêîâàÿ ñïåöèôèêà òåêñòîâ (ò.å. îïðåäåëåííûõ ðàçíîâèäíîñòåé - òèïîâ, æàíðîâ òåêñòà) åñòü îäíîâðåìåííî êóëüòóðíî çíà÷èìàÿ ñïåöèôèêà. Ó÷àñòíèêè êîì- ìóíèêàöèè íàðÿäó ñ ôîíîâûì ýíöèêëîïåäè÷åñêèì, ÿçûêîâûì, íîðìàòèâíûì (òåêñòî-òèïîëîãè÷åñêèì) çíàíèåì îáëàäàþò è êóëüòóðîëîãè÷åñêèì çíàíèåì: êîíâåíöèîíàëüíûå ñîöèîêóëü- òóðíûå çíà÷åíèÿ îòðàæàþòñÿ â ìåíòàëûþñòè ñóáúåêòîâ ðå÷è è ïðîÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðè ôîðìóëèðîâàíèè òåêñòà â âûáîðå (ïðåä- ïî÷òåíèè) òåõ, à íå èíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ åäèíèö (8:35). Ïðè ýòîì, êóëüòóðíàÿ ìàðêèðîâàííîñòü òåêñòà ìîæåò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ êàê ïðîòîòèïè÷åñêèé ïðèçíàê òåêñòóàëüíîñòè, èìåþùèé âûñîêóþ èëè íèçêóþ âàëèäíîñòü. Òàê, òåêñòû, îòðàæàþùèå èíòåëëåê- òóàëüíûå (äóõîâíûå) ñôåðû îáùåñòâåííîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, èìåþò ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî êóëüòóðíî-óíèâåðñàëüíûé õàðàêòåð è ñîäåð- æàò ìèíèìàëüíîå êîëè÷åñòâî íàöèîíàëüíî-ñïåöèôè÷åñêèõ ÷åðò, âòîðãàþùèõñÿ â ñàìó ìîäåëü òåêñòîîáðàçîâàíèÿ. Ê ÷èñ- ëó ïîäîáíûõ òåêñòîâ îòíîñÿòñÿ íàó÷íûé òåêñò, ìîíîãðàôèÿ, ñòàòüÿ. Íàïðèìåð, íàó÷íûé òåêñò áåçîòíîñèòåëüíî ê åãî ÿçû- êîâîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè îòðàæàåò óíèâåðñàëüíûå ÷åðòû â ìî- äåëè òåêñòîïîñòðîåíèÿ, ÷òî äåëàåò åãî íîñèòåëåì íàó÷íîãî çíà- íèÿ â îíòîëîãè÷åñêîì, ãíîñåîëîãè÷åñêîì, ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîì

113 ñìûñëå è îáåñïå÷èâàåò íàó÷íóþ ïðååìñòâåííîñòü è ïîñòóïà- òåëüíîñòü â îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêîé êîììóíèêàöèè (8:38). Ñðåäè ôàêòîðîâ, îïðåäåëÿþùèõ ðå÷åâóþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü êîì- ìóíèêàíòîâ èññëåäîâàòåëè óêàçûâàþò íà ñèñòåìó ÿçûêà, çíà- íèÿ (êîãíèòèâíóþ áàçó), æèçíåííûé è êîììóíèêàòèâíûé îïûò, ñîöèàëüíûå è ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå îñîáåííîñòè ãîâîðÿùå- ãî è åãî ïàðòíåðà-àäðåñàòà (íàïðèìåð, ñîöèàëüíûé ñòàòóñ, öåí- íîñòè, èäåàëû, ïðåäðàññóäêè, ñòåðåîòèïû, îáðàçöû äåéñòâèé è ò.ï.), ïðåñëåäóåìûå â îáùåíèè öåëè, îáñòàíîâêó è óñëîâèÿ îáùåíèÿ, íîðìû (à òàêæå ðèòóàëû, ïðàâèëà, ñõåìû, ôðåéìû è ñöåíàðèè) ïîâåäåíèÿ âîîáùå è êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäå- íèÿ â ÷àñòíîñòè, ñâîéñòâåííûå äàííîé êóëüòóðå, à òàêæå ðÿä äðóãèõ ôàêòîðîâ. Èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî îøèáêè èç- çà èíòåðôåðåíöèè ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà è ðîäíîé êóëüòóðû òåì ìåíüøå, ÷åì áîëüøå îñîçíàåòñÿ ðàçíèöà ìåæäó ïðèíÿòûìè íîðìàìè îáùåíèÿ â ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ êóëüòóðàõ ó÷àñòíèêàìè êîììóíèêàöèè. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Å.Â.Ñèäîðîâ, â ðå÷åâîé êîììó- íèêàöèè ãîâîðÿùèé ðåàëèçóåò ñâîéñòâà è ðåñóðñû ñâîåé êóëü- òóðû – öåííîñòè è èäåàëû, îöåíêè, öåëè, ñòåðåîòèïû, îáðàç- öû äåéñòâèé, â ñâÿçè ñ ÷åì ïîñòðîåíèå òåêñòà åñòü ïðîåêöèÿ ñâîéñòâ è ðåñóðñîâ åãî êóëüòóðû íà çíàêîâûé ìàòåðèàë òåêñòà. Íî â ñèëó íåîáõîäèìîé îáÿçàòåëüíîñòè ñîîòíåñåíèÿ êîììó- íèêàòèâíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ãîâîðÿùåãî ñ ôàêòîðîì àäðåñàòà, ïðîåêöèÿ ñâîéñòâ è ðåñóðñîâ êóëüòóðû ãîâîðÿùåãî â çíàêî- âîì ìàòåðèàëå òåêñòà ðåãóëèðóåòñÿ ñî ñòîðîíû îáðàçà ñâîéñòâ è ðåñóðñîâ êóëüòóðû àäðåñàòà êàê ïîòåíöèàëüíîãî ðåöèïèåí- òà (6:144). Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ïðåäñòàâëåííîñòè â íåé êóëüòóðû, ðå÷åâàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ íå åñòü òîëüêî îáëàñòü çíàêîâîãî ïðåäñòàâëå- íèÿ êóëüòóðû ãîâîðÿùåãî; îíà òàêæå íå åñòü òîëüêî îáëàñòü ðåàëèçàöèè êóëüòóðíîãî ïîòåíöèàëà ðåöèïèåíòà, íî îíà åñòü çíàêîâàÿ êîîðäèíàöèÿ êóëüòóðû ãîâîðÿùåãî è êóëüòóðû ðåöèïèåíòà íàñòîëüêî, íàñêîëüêî ïîñëåäíÿÿ ïðåäñòàâëåíà â îáðàçå êóëüòóðû àäðåñàòà, ôîðìèðóåìîì ãîâîðÿùèì â ïðîñò- ðàíñòâå äåéñòâèÿ áàçîâîãî ìåõàíèçìà ðå÷åâîé êîììóíèêàöèè, ñîñòîÿùåãî â çíàêîâîé êîîðäèíàöèè äåÿòåëüíîñòåé êîììóíè- êàíòîâ (6:145). Îáðàç êóëüòóðû àäðåñàòà ìîæåò õàðàêòåðèçî- âàòüñÿ ðàçëè÷íîé ñòåïåíüþ èíäèâèäóàëüíîñòè â çàâèñèìîñòè îò äîñòóïíîñòè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî çíàíèÿ î êóëüòóðå àäðåñàòà

114 è ÷åì àäåêâàòíåå ýòîò îáðàç, òåì ýôôåêòèâíåå ìåæêóëüòóð- íàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ. Èçâåñòíî, ÷òî êóëüòóðíàÿ, êîãíèòèâíàÿ êàðòèíà ìèðà âñåãäà áîãà÷å, ÷åì ÿçûêîâàÿ. Íî èìåííî â ÿçûêå ðåàëèçóåòñÿ, âåðáà- ëèçóåòñÿ êóëüòóðíàÿ êàðòèíà ìèðà, õðàíèòñÿ è ïåðåäàåòñÿ èç ïîêîëåíèÿ â ïîêîëåíèå. Â îñíîâíîì èìåííî ÷åðåç ÿçûê ÷å- ëîâåê ïðîÿâëÿåò ñâîþ ýòíè÷åñêóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü è èìåííî ÿçûê ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç òåõ íåìíîãèõ ñðåäñòâ, ñ ïîìîùüþ êîòîðûõ ìîæíî ðàñêðûòü ÷óæóþ êàðòèíó ìèðà, ïîíÿòü ìèðî- âîñïðèÿòèå ðàçíûõ íàðîäîâ. Î ñâîåîáðàçèè âîñïðèÿòèÿ ìèðà ðàçíûìè íàðîäàìè ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò òî, ÷òî îäèí è òîò æå êó- ñî÷åê ðåàëüíîñòè, îäíî è òî æå ïîíÿòèå èìååò ðàçíûå ôîðìû ÿçûêîâîãî âûðàæåíèÿ â ðàçíûõ ÿçûêàõ – áîëåå ïîëíûå èëè ìåíåå ïîëíûå (3:158-161). Ý. Õîëë, íå îòðèöàÿ òîãî ôàêòà, ÷òî ÿçûê ôîðìèðóåò ìûø- ëåíèå, âëèÿåò íà íàøó êàðòèíó ìèðà, îòìå÷àåò, ÷òî ñóùåñò- âóþò òàêæå è äðóãèå êóëüòóðíûå ñèñòåìû, ïîçâîëÿþùèå ïðåî- äîëåâàòü ÿçûêîâûå áàðüåðû è îêàçûâàþùèå âëèÿíèå, â òîì ÷èñëå íà ïîäñîçíàòåëüíîì óðîâíå, íà íàøå âîñïðèÿòèå ìèðà, íà âûðàæåíèå ÷åëîâåêîì ñîáñòâåííîãî ÿ, íà îðãàíèçàöèþ æèç- íè â öåëîì. Mû äîëæíû ïðèâûêíóòü ê òîìó, – ïèøåò Ý.Õîëë, – ÷òî ñîîáùåíèå íà óðîâíå ñëîâà ìîæåò ïîëíîñòüþ îòëè÷àòüñÿ îò òîãî, ÷òî ïåðåäàåòñÿ íà íåâåðáàëüíûõ óðîâíÿõ (13:7). Íàïðèìåð, íåâåðáàëüíàÿ èíòîíàöèÿ, òåëîäâèæåíèÿ, ìèìèêà è ò. ä. ìîãóò ïðèäàâàòü îäíîìó è òîìó æå âåðáàëüíîìó âûñêà- çûâàíèþ ñîâåøåííî ðàçíûå ñìûñëû, à òàêæå âûðàæàòü âëàñò- íûå îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó ãîâîðÿùèìè (äèñòàíöèþ âëàñòè, ðàâ- íûé – íåðàâíûé) (14:3, 9-24). Ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó êóëüòóðàìè ïðèâîäÿò ê îãðîìíûì òðóä- íîñòÿì â îáùåíèè. Ýòè òðóäíîñòè ñâÿçàíû ñ ðàçíèöåé â îæè- äàíèÿõ è ïðåäóáåæäåíèÿõ, ñâîéñòâåííûõ êàæäîìó ÷åëîâåêó, è, åñòåñòâåííî, îòëè÷àþùèõñÿ â ðàçíûõ êóëüòóðàõ. Íàïðèìåð, ïðÿìîé âèçóàëüíûé êîíòàêò ñ÷èòàåòñÿ â êóëüòóðå ÑØÀ çíà- êîì óâàæåíèÿ, à â òàéñêîé êóëüòóðå – íåóâàæåíèÿ. Ïîýòîìó, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî ñ÷èòàåò Ñ. Òèíã-Òóìåé, äëÿ ýôôåêòèâíîé ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöè íåîáõîäèìî, ÷òîáû êîììóíèêàí- òû ïðîÿâëÿëè ÷óâñòâî ýìïàòèè äðóã ê äðóãó, ðàññìàòðèâàëè âîïðîñû íå òîëüêî ñî ñâîåé, íî è ñ ÷óæîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ, âå- ëè äèàëîã íå òîëüêî ñ ñîáåñåäíèêîì, íî è ñ ñàìèì ñîáîé ñ öåëüþ âûÿâëåíèÿ è ïðåîäîëåíèÿ êóëüòóðíûõ ïðîòèâîðå÷èé.

115 «Ýôôåêòèâíàÿ ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ íà÷èíàåòñÿ òîãäà, – ïèøåò Ñ.Òèíã-Òóìåé, – êîãäà íà÷èíàåòñÿ âíèìàòåëüíàÿ âíóòðèëè÷íîñòíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ (mindful intrapersonal communication). Âíèìàòåëüíàÿ âíóòðèëè÷íîñòíàÿ êîììóíèêà- öèÿ íà÷èíàåòñÿ ñ ñîçíàòåëüíîãî êîíòðîëèðîâàíèÿ íàøèõ ðåàê- òèâíûõ ýìîöèé, ïðîÿâëÿþøèõñÿ â îòðèöàòåëüíûõ ñóæäåíèÿõ èëè îöåíêàõ êîììóíèêàöèîííûõ ðàçëè÷èé, ïðîèñõîäÿøèõ èç- çà ðàçëè÷èé êóëüòóðíûõ» (9:23). Äëÿ óñïåøíîé êîììóíèêàöèè íåîáõîäèìî, ÷òîáû êîììó- íèêàíòû íå òîëüêî âëàäåëè íîðìàìè ðå÷åâîãî îáùåíèÿ, ñâîéñòâåííûìè äëÿ ñâîåé ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîé ñðåäû, íî è îáëàäàëè çíàíèÿìè î ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûõ îæèäàíèÿõ íîðì êî- ìóíèêàöèè, õàðàêòåðíûõ äëÿ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé èíîé ñîöèî-êóëü- òóðíîé îáùíîñòè. Â ïðîòèâíîì ñëó÷àå áóäóò çàäåéñòâîâàíû ïðàâèëà è íîðìû ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà, ÷òî ïîâûñèò âåðîÿòíîñòü êîì- ìóíèêàòèâíîé íåóäà÷è. Íàðóøåíèå èëè íåäîïîíèìàíèå êóëü- òóðíûõ íîðì è ïðàâèë èíîé êóëüòóðíî-ÿçûêîâîé îáùíîñòè ìîãóò ïðèâåñòè ê èñïîëüçîâàíèþ íåàäåêâàòíûõ ôîðì è âûðà- æåíèé è, êàê ñëåäñòâèå, ñîçäàíèþ îòðèöàòåëüíîãî êîììóíè- êàòèâíîãî ýôôåêòà. Ýôôåêòèâíîñòü ìåæêóëüòóðíîãî îáùåíèÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè çàâèñèò îò êóëüòóðíîé ãðàìîòíîñòè îòíîñèòåëüíî òåõ áàçîâûõ êóëüòóðíûõ öåííîñòåé, êîòîðûå õàðàêòåðíû ðàçíûì êóëüòóðàì è êîòîðûå íàõîäÿò îòðàæåíèå êàê íåïîñðåäñòâåí- íî â ÿçûêå, òàê è â íîðìàòèâàõ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ. Ïðèîáùåíèå ê èíîé êóëüòóðå òðåáóåò ñîçíàòåëüíûõ óñèëèé â ýòîì íàïðàâëåíèè, ñïîñîáíîñòè îáúåêòèâíîãî àíàëèçà ñâîåãî ïîâåäåíèÿ è îáúÿñíåíèÿ ïðàâèë èíîé ëèíãâîêóëüòóðíîé îáù- íîñòè. Âû÷ëåíåíèå ïóòåì ìåæêóëüòóðíûõ ñîïîñòàâëåíèé è ñðàâíåíèé íåñâîéñòâåííûõ ðîäíîìó ÿçûêó è ðîäíîé êóëüòóðå åäèíèö, ïîíÿòèé, ðåàêöèé, íîðì è ïðàâèë ïîâåäåíèÿ, óìåíèå ïîíÿòü ïðè÷èíû è îáúÿñíèòü òî èëè èíîå ÿâëåíèå ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ äðóãîé êóëüòóðû ÿâëÿþòñÿ íåîáõîäèìûì óñëîâèåì óñïåøíîé ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè.

116 ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. Áàõòèí Ì.Ì. (1979). Ýñòåòèêà ñëîâåñòíîãî òâîð÷åñòâà. Ì. 2. Âåæáèöêà À. (1990). Êóëüòóðíî-îáóñëîâëåííûå ñöåíàðèè è èõ êîãíèòèâíûé ñòàòóñ // ßçûê è ñòðóêòóðà çíàíèÿ. Ì. 3. Ãðóøåâèöêàÿ Ò.Ã., Ïîïêîâ Â.Ä., Ñàäîõèí À.Ï. (2003). Îñ- íîâû ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè: Ó÷åáíèê äëÿ âóçîâ. Ì. 4. Ãóìáîëüäò, Âèëüãåëüì ôîí. (1984). Èçáðàííûå òðóäû ïî ÿçûêîçíàíèþ / îáù. ðåä. Ã.Â. Ðàìèøâèëè. Ì. 5. Ëàðèíà Ò.Â. (2009). Êàòåãîðèÿ âåæëèâîñòè è ñòèëü êîì- ìóíèêàöèè: Ñîïîñòàâëåíèå àíãëèéñêèõ è ðóññêèõ ëèíãâîêóëü- òóðíûõ òðàäèöèé. Ì. 6. Ñèäîðîâ Å.Â. (2010). Ðå÷åâàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ: ôóíäàìåí- òàëüíûå íåîáõîäèìîñòè. Ì. 7. Òåð-Ìèíàñîâà Ñ.Ã. (2008). Âîéíà è ìèð ÿçûêîâ è êóëü- òóð. Ì. 8. Õîòèíåö Â.Þ. (2012). Ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèå îñíîâû ýòíè- ÷åñêîé è êðîññêóëüòóðíîé ïñèõîëîãèè. Ì. 8. ×åðíÿâñêàÿ Â.Å. (2013). Ëèíãâèñòèêà òåêñòà. Ëèíãâèñòèêà äèñêóðñà: ó÷åá. ïîñîáèå. Ì. 9. Ting-Toomey S. (1999). Communicating Across Cultures. New York, London: The Guilford Press. 10. Hofstede G., Hofstede G.J., Minkov M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind: Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill. 11. Hess R.D., Shipman V.C. (1972). Early Experience and Socialization of Cognitive Mode in Children // Language in Education: A source Book. Open University. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p.169-177. 12. Bernstein B. (2007). Class, codes and control. Vol.1. Theoretical studies towards a sociology of language. New York: Routledge. 13. Hall, Edward T. (1990). The Silent Language. New York: Anchor Books. 14. Hall, Edward T. (1989). Beyond Culture. New York.: Anchor Books. 15. Bowe H. and Martin K. (2009). Communication Across Cultures: Mutual Understanding in a Global World. Cambridge UP.

117 Àíãóðÿí Ñ. Ñîèñêàòåëü êàôåäðû àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà Àðìÿíñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà èì. Õ. Àáîâÿíà, Àðìåíèÿ

ÒÅËÅÊÎÌÌÓÍÈÊÀÖÈÎÍÍÛÅ ÑÐÅÄÑÒÂÀ Â ÏÐÎÖÅÑÑÅ ÏÎÄÃÎÒÎÂÊÈ ÁÓÄÓÙÈÕ ÏÐÅÏÎÄÀÂÀÒÅËÅÉ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀ

PROSPECTIVE ENGLISH TEACHERS TRAINING VIA MEANS OF TELECOMMUNICATION

ABSTRACT The article focuses on the recent changes in teaching methods through telecommunication networks. It suggests a project-based method of integrating means of telecommunication in an English classroom. The model of education that prevails today in most classrooms has been designed for the industrial age, i.e. for people who cross and communicate across national borders. So, nowadays, a versed teacher should use innovative technology as a part of educational process which will help him/her encourage his/her students to cope with common situations in an English-speaking environment. The author of the article claims that educators should not only devote themselves to advancement of twenty-first century skills, such as skilful operation of modern technology but also prepare their students to face the challenges of the twenty-first century job market and share their knowledge of Information technology (IT) application in an English classroom.

Èçâåñòíî, ÷òî ðåçóëüòàòèâíîñòü ïðîöåññà îáó÷åíèÿ âî ìíî- ãîì çàâèñèò îò ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, öåëè êîòîðîé â ðàçíûå âðåìåíà îïðåäåëÿëèñü ïî-ðàçíîìó. Â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ, êîòîðîå õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ âíåäðåíèåì âî âñå îáëàñòè æèçíè ÷åëîâåêà îïðåäåëåííûõ òåõíè÷åñêèõ è òåõ- íîëîãè÷åñêèõ èííîâàöèé, ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ

118 ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî òðóäà, î öåëÿõ è ìåòîäàõ åãî äåÿòåëüíîñòè, î ïðîôåññèîíàëèçìå ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè èçìåíèëèñü. Â òðàäèöèîííîé ñèñòåìå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ ëó÷øèå ïðåïî- äàâàòåëè, êîíå÷íî, îáëàäàëè âûñîêèì óðîâíåì ïðîôåññèî- íàëüíûõ çíàíèé ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè, à ïðè îðãàíèçàöèè ó÷åá- íîãî ïðîöåññà ñòðåìèëèñü ìàêñèìàëüíî ðàçíîîáðàçèòü ôîðìû è âèäû ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ çàíÿòèé, ïîäáèðàòü ê êàæäîé èçó÷àåìîé òåìå èëè îïðåäåëåííîìó ðàçäåëó ðàçíîîáðàçíûå ïî òèïó óïðàæíåíèÿ, ïîçâîëÿþùèå â ñîâîêóïíîñòè âûïîëíèòü êîíêðåòíóþ çàäà÷ó ïî óñâîåíèþ ïðåäñòàâëåííîãî ÿçûêîâîãî ìàòåðèàëà. Â íàøå âðåìÿ òàê æå, êàê è ðàíüøå, íàèáîëåå îïûòíûå ïðåïîäàâàòåëè èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà äîñòèãàþò õîðîøèõ ðåçóëüòàòîâ çà ñ÷åò ñîáñòâåííîãî «ìåòîäè÷åñêîãî ýíòóçèàçìà», êîòîðûé ïîçâîëÿåò èì ïðè ñîçäàíèè è/èëè òâîð÷åñêîì ïðè- ìåíåíèè ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ ôîðì îáó÷åíèÿ (áåç ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîì- ìóíèêàöèè) ìàêñèìàëüíî ðàñêðûòü ñèëüíûå ñòîðîíû ñâîåãî ìàñòåðñòâà. Íî â íîâûõ óñëîâèÿõ ïîñòîÿííîãî ðàçâèòèÿ èíôîð- ìàöèîííî-êîììóíèêàöèîííûõ ñèñòåì, èçìåíåíèÿ ñîöèàëüíî- ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ïîòðåáíîñòåé ÷ëåíîâ îáùåñòâà è òåîðåòè÷åñêè, è ïðàêòè÷åñêè âûÿâèëàñü òåíäåíöèÿ, ñóòü êîòîðîé çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òîáû óòâåðäèòü ïðàêòè÷åñêóþ íàïðàâëåííîñòü îáðà- çîâàíèÿ. Òðàäèöèîííoé ìîäåëè îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó ñòàëè «ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëÿòü êîììóíèêàòèâíûå è èíòåíñèâíûå ìåòîäû» (1:12). Ïðè ýòîì, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìå÷àåò ß.Ì.Êîëêåð, îáû÷- íî ðàçðàáîò÷èêè òåîðåòè÷åñêèõ îñíîâ íîâûõ ìåòîäîâ íå îáúÿñíÿëè, ÷òî, ñîáñòâåííî, èìååòñÿ â âèäó ïîä òðàäèöèîí- íûìè ìåòîäàìè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ, îäíàêî «ïåðâûé ÷ëåí â îïïîçè- öèÿõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûé – òðàäèöèîííûé è èíòåíñèâíûé – òðàäèöèîííûé óñïåë ïðèîáðåñòè óñòîé÷èâóþ íåãàòèâíóþ îêðàñêó. Âåðîÿòíî, ïðè÷èíà â òîì, ÷òî ïîíÿòèå òðàäèöèîííûé àññîöèèðóåòñÿ â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ñ çàó÷èâàíèåì ïðàâèë è âûïîëíåíèåì ÿçûêîâûõ óïðàæíåíèé, òî åñòü ñ ðàçãîâîðàìè î ÿçûêå âìåñòî îáùåíèÿ íà ÿçûêå» (1:13). Ïî ìíåíèþ Å.È. Ïàññîâà, àêòèâíî çàíèìàâøåãîñÿ ðàçðàáîòêîé êîììóíèêà- òèâíîãî ìåòîäà îáó÷åíèÿ, «îáùåíèå îõâàòûâàåò âñå àñïåêòû îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî ïðîöåññà (ñîäåðæàòåëüíûé, ôóíêöèîíàëüíûé, îðãàíèçàöèîííûé), ïðîíèçûâàåò âñþ òêàíü ýòîãî ïðîöåññà. È

119 ñàìîå ãëàâíîå – òîëüêî îáùåíèå ÿâëÿåòñÿ êàíàëîì ïîçíàíèÿ, èíñòðóìåíòîì ðàçâèòèÿ, ñïîñîáîì âîñïèòàíèÿ, ñðåäîé ó÷åíèÿ. Ýòî îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî îâëàäåòü èíîÿçû÷íîé êóëüòóðîé ìîæíî òîëüêî ÷åðåç îáùåíèå êàê îñíîâó è ìåõàíèçì îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî ïðîöåññà» (2:32]. Èññëåäîâàòåëè óêàçûâàëè íà ðàçíûå ïðè÷èíû êðèçèñà òðàäèöèîííîé ìîäåëè îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ñðåäè êîòîðûõ áûëè è ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèå, è ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå, è ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå è ìíîãèå äðóãèå, íî íà ïåðâûé ïëàí âûäâèãàëñÿ àðãóìåíò, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðîìó â ñîâðåìåííûõ óñëîâèÿõ óñòàðåâàíèå èíôîðìàöèè ïðîèñõîäèò òàê áûñòðî, ÷òî íå óñïåâàåò çàâåð- øèòüñÿ åñòåñòâåííûé ïåðèîä ïîëó÷åíèÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ â ñðåäíåé èëè âûñøåé øêîëå, à ïîòîìó íå ñðàáàòûâàåò è òðàäèöèîííàÿ óñòàíîâêà íà ôîðìèðîâàíèå â ïðîöåññå îáó÷åíèÿ íåîáõîäèìîãî äëÿ òðóäîâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè çàïàñà çíàíèé. Â ñôåðå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ ÿçûêîâ âñå ñîâðåìåííûå ìåòîäû â òðèåäèíñòâå îçíàêîìëåíèå — òðåíèðîâêà — ðå÷åâàÿ ïðàêòèêà ïðèäàþò îñîáîå çíà÷åíèå òðåòüåé ñîñòàâëÿþùåé, òî åñòü íàöåëåíû íà îâëàäåíèå ÿçûêîì êàê ñðåäñòâîì âûÿâëåíèÿ îïðåäåëåííûõ ôóíêöèé (îáùåíèå, ïðåïîäàâàíèå, ïåðåâîä è ò.ä.). Ïðè ýòîì âî âñåõ ñîâðåìåííûõ ìåòîäàõ (ïðè íàëè÷èè îïðåäåëåííûõ ðàçëè÷èé), â òîì ÷èñëå è â êîììóíèêàòèâíîì, ïîä÷åðêèâàåòñÿ ðîëü ìîäåëèðîâàíèÿ ñòàíäàðòíûõ è ïðîáëåì- íûõ ñèòóàöèé, àêòèâèçàöèè ìûñëèòåëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, ðîñòà òâîð÷åñêîé ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòè, ðàçíîòèïíîé àïðîáàöèè ñôîð- ìèðîâàííûõ ðå÷åâûõ íàâûêîâ è óìåíèé è ò.ä. Îáùååâðîïåéñêèìè îáðàçîâàòåëüíûìè ïðîãðàììàìè â ýòîé ñâÿçè îôèöèàëüíî ïðîâîçãëàøåíà èäåÿ ñìåùåíèÿ «êîíå÷íîé öåëè îáðàçîâàíèÿ ñî çíàíèé íà êîìïåòåíòíîñòè» (3:20). Êîì- ïåòåíòíîñòíûé ïîäõîä, êîíå÷íî æå, îïèðàåòñÿ íà çíàíèÿ, îäíàêî, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìå÷àþò ðàçðàáîò÷èêè òåîðåòè÷åñêèõ îñíîâ ýòîãî ïîäõîäà (ñì, íàïðèìåð, Îáùååâðîïåéñêèå êîìïå- òåíöèè 2001), íàëè÷èÿ òîëüêî ïðåäìåòíûõ çíàíèé íè äëÿ óäîâ- ëåòâîðåíèÿ ïîòðåáíîñòåé îáó÷àåìîãî, íè äëÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêè óðîâíÿ ïðîôåññèîíàëèçìà ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ óæå íåäîñòàòî÷íî. Â ñîâðåìåííûõ óñëîâèÿõ, õàðàêòåðèçóåìûõ íàëè÷èåì ãëî- áàëüíûõ ñåòåé, ðàñòóùèì îáúåìîì èíôîðìàöèè, áûñòðûì ðàçâèòèåì òåõíè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ, íóæíî íå òîëüêî ðàñïîëàãàòü çíàíèÿìè â äàííîé ïðåäìåòíîé îáëàñòè, íî è îáëàäàòü îïðåäå- ëåííûìè ëè÷íîñòíûìè õàðàêòåðèñòèêàìè, óìåòü â ëþáîé

120 ìîìåíò íàéòè, îòîáðàòü è èñïîëüçîâàòü ïî íàçíà÷åíèþ íóæ- íóþ èíôîðìàöèþ (â òîì ÷èñëå è íîâóþ), ñîçäàííóþ óìîì è ñòàðàíèÿìè äðóãèõ ëþäåé è ñîõðàíåííóþ ñ ïîìîùüþ ðàçíûõ íîñèòåëåé äëÿ ïîëüçîâàòåëåé, òî åñòü äëÿ òåõ, êîìó îíà íóæíà â äàííûé ìîìåíò, â äàííîé ñèòóàöèè (5). Ïðè ïîäãîòîâêå ó÷èòåëåé, òî åñòü òåõ ñïåöèàëèñòîâ, êîòîðûå äîëæíû îáåñïå÷èâàòü ýôôåêòèâíîñòü ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà çàâòðà, ôîðìèðîâàíèå íàâûêîâ è óìåíèé íå òîëüêî îðèåíòè- ðîâàòüñÿ â ñîâðåìåííûõ òåõíè÷åñêèõ âîçìîæíîñòÿõ, íî è ìåòîäè÷åñêè ïðàâèëüíî ïåðåäàâàòü ñâîè çíàíèÿ â ýòîé îáëàñòè äðóãèì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðîñòî íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ. Èñïîëüçîâàíèå òà- êîãî ïîäõîäà â ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ âóçàõ è âêëþ÷åíèå ñîîòâåòñòâó- þùèõ ïàðàìåòðîâ â îöåíêó ïðîôåññèîíàëèçìà ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ èìååò î÷åâèäíûå ïðåèìóùåñòâà, ïîñêîëüêó ïîçâîëÿåò ýêñïëè- öèðîâàòü ðÿä âàæíûõ ñîâðåìåííûõ ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ ïðîôåññèî- íàëüíîé êâàëèôèêàöèè, êîòîðûå íå íóæíî áûëî ôèêñèðîâàòü ïðè ñòàðîé îðèåíòàöèè. Ïðîôåññèîíàëèçì ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ óæå ñåé÷àñ (ïóñòü ïîêà íå âñåãäà è íå âåçäå) ñòàë îöåíèâàòüñÿ íå òîëüêî ïî óðîâíþ åãî çíàíèé â êîíêðåòíîé ïðåäìåòíîé îáëàñòè, íî è ïî óìåíèþ ïðàâèëüíî îðèåíòèðîâàòüñÿ â ñîâðåìåííîì îáðàçîâàòåëüíîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå, â íîâûõ òåõíîëîãèÿõ è òåõíè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâàõ, ïî ñòåïåíè àêòèâíîñòè èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ èìåþùèåñÿ â åãî àðñåíàëå êîìïüþòåðíûõ çíàíèé â ïðàêòèêå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ, ïî óìåíèþ ýôôåêòèâíî è óìåëî ñî÷åòàòü âñå (â òîì ÷èñëå è òåëåêîììóíèêàöèîííûå) ñðåäñòâà ïðè îðãàíèçàöèè ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà (6). Ñîâðåìåííûå ñðåäñòâà òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè ìîãóò èñïîëü- çîâàòüñÿ â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå â äâóõ ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ àñïåêòàõ: • êàê èíñòðóìåíò èíôîðìàöèîííîé ïîääåðæêè ïåäàãîãè- ÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè; • êàê èíñòðóìåíò òåõíè÷åñêîé ïîääåðæêè ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè. Â êà÷åñòâå èíôîðìàöèîííîé ïîääåðæêè ñðåäñòâà òåëå- êîììóíèêàöèè ÿâëÿþòñÿ íåèñ÷åðïàåìûì èñòî÷íèêîì ðàç- ëè÷íûõ ñâåäåíèé ìåòîäè÷åñêîãî, óçêî ïðåäìåòíîãî, îáùå- èíôîðìàöèîííîãî õàðàêòåðà. Îíè ñîçäàþò ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î çíàíèÿõ, îïûòå è òâîð÷åñòâå ëþäåé ðàçíîãî òèïà è ðàçíûõ ïðîôåññèé, îá èõ íàáëþäåíèÿõ, ïðåäïîëîæåíèÿõ è àíàëèòèêî- ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèõ îáîáùåíèÿõ â êîíêðåòíûõ îáëàñòÿõ çíàíèé.

121 Òåõíè÷åñêàÿ ïîääåðæêà îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ çàìåíîé êðîïîòëèâîãî òðóäà ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ ïî ñáîðó, ñèñòåìàòèçàöèè, õðàíåíèþ è ïåðåäà÷å èíôîðìàöèè íà àíàëîãè÷íûå äàííûå, ñîäåðæàùèåñÿ â ðàçëè÷íûõ òåõíè÷åñêèõ èñòî÷íèêàõ, â òîì ÷èñëå òàêèå, êàê äàííûå êîðïóñà èçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà (Corpus Linguistics), òðåíèðîâî÷íûå è ñïðàâî÷íûå ìàòåðèàëû (oäíîÿçû÷íûå è ìíîãîÿçû÷íûå ñëîâàðè, ýíöèêëîïåäèè), òåêñòîâûå ðåäàêòîðû, ïðîãðàììû-ïåðåâîä÷èêè è ò.ä. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, êîðïóñ ÿçûêà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ñîñòîÿùèé èç íåáîëüøèõ òåêñòîâ áàíê äàííûõ, êîòîðûé îáíîâëÿåòñÿ, êîððåêòèðóåòñÿ, ñèñòåìàòèçè- ðóåòñÿ è õðàíèòñÿ â ïàìÿòè êîìïüþòåðà. Äîñòóï ê Corpus Linguistics îñóùåñòâëÿåòñÿ ÷åðåç concordancer (óêàçàòåëü), òî åñòü ïðîãðàììíîå îáåñïå÷åíèå, êîòîðîå àíàëèçèðóåò ÿçûêîâîé êîðïóñ. Â ðåçóëüòàòå òàêîãî àíàëèçà îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ: èçìåíåíèå ÿçûêà â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ñòèëÿ ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è, ðàçëè÷èÿ êîíòåêñòóàëüíûõ çíà÷åíèé ñëîâ è óñòîé÷èâûõ âûðàæåíèé, ÷àñòîòíîñòü ïîâòîðåíèÿ ñëîâà èëè óñòîé÷èâîé ôðàçû, ñïåöè- ôè÷åñêèå îñîáåííîñòè ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ óñòíîé, ñëîâà è âûðàæåíèÿ õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ îïðåäåëåííîãî òèïà òåêñòà èëè ñòèëÿ ðå÷è, ñëîâà è âûðàæåíèÿ õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ îïðåäåëåííîé ñïåöèàëüíîñòè, îñîáåííîñòè ïîðÿäêà ñëîâ â íåêîòîðûõ ñòèëÿõ ðå÷è, ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèå äàííûå ïî ëåêñèêå è ãðàììàòèêå, îñîáåííîñòè ñî÷åòàåìîñòè ñëîâ, ëåêñèêî- ãðàììàòè÷åñêèå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè òåêñòîâ è ò.ä. Ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîå è ïîñòîÿííîå ïðèìåíåíèå íîâûõ èíôîð- ìàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé îêàçûâàåò çíà÷èòåëüíîå âëèÿíèå íà âñå êîìïîíåíòû ïðîöåññà îáó÷åíèÿ (èçìåíåíèå âíåøíåãî âèäà àóäèòîðèé, óñëîæíåíèå ïðîãðàìì, âèäîèçìåíåíèå ìåòîäîâ è ôîðì ïðîâåäåíèÿ çàíÿòèé è ò.ä.), â òîì ÷èñëå îíî ìåíÿåò õàðàêòåð, ìåñòî è ðîëü â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå è ïåäàãîãà, è îáó÷àåìîãî. Ñòðóêòóðà îáó÷åíèÿ â óñëîâèÿõ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè â êîðíå ìåíÿåòñÿ, ïîñêîëüêó ïîÿâëÿåòñÿ íîâûé ïàðòíåð íå òîëüêî äëÿ ñòóäåíòà, íî è äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, ïîÿâëÿåòñÿ íîâûé èñòî÷íèê ó÷åáíîé èíôîð- ìàöèè, òî åñòü â íåêîòîðûõ ñëó÷àÿõ íåïðåðåêàåìûå ôóíêöèè ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ íà÷èíàþò âûïîëíÿòü ñïåöèàëüíî îòîáðàííûå äëÿ ýòîãî òåõíè÷åñêèå ñðåäñòâà. Â ðåçóëüòàòå îáðàçóåòñÿ è íà÷èíàåò ïîñòîÿííî äåéñòâîâàòü öåïî÷êà ïåäàãîã – ñðåäñòâà òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè – îáó÷àåìûé, êàæäûé èç êîìïîíåíòîâ êîòî- ðîé – ýòî ó÷àñòíèê ñèñòåìàòèçèðîâàííîé è ñòðóêòóðèðîâàííîé

122 ñîâìåñòíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, ðåçóëüòàòîì êîòîðîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ äîñòèæåíèå ïîñòàâëåííîé öåëè. Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, â íaøå âðåìÿ âàæíåéøèì óñëîâèåì ýôôåêòèâíîñòè ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïåäàãîãà ñòàëà êîìïüþòåðíàÿ êóëüòóðà. Ýòî çíà÷èò, ÷òî ïðåïîäàâàòåëü, èñïîëüçóþùèé â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå ñîâðåìåííûå òåõíè÷åñêèå ñðåäñòâà, äîëæåí è çíàòü âîçìîæíîñòè êîìïüþòåðà â ñâîåé ïðåäìåòíîé îáëàñòè, è óìåòü ïåðåäàâàòü ñóòü èìåþùèõñÿ â åãî ðàñïîðÿæåíèè ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ çíàíèé ñâîèì ó÷åíèêàì. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âíåäðåíèå â ó÷åáíûé ïðîöåññ ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîììó- íèêàöèè ïîâëåêëî çà ñîáîé ñóùåñòâåííûå èçìåíåíèÿ è â õàðàêòåðèñòèêå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ êà÷åñòâ ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, è â ñòðóêòóðå âñåé ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû âóçà, ïîñêîëüêó â óñëîâèÿõ êîìïüþòåðèçàöèè ó ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ ïîÿâèëèñü íîâûå âîçìîæíîñòè ðåøåíèÿ çàäà÷ ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà, îòëè÷íûå îò òðàäèöèîííûõ. Ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûå çíàíèÿ ñîâðåìåííîãî ïåäàãîãà òåïåðü âêëþ÷àþò ÷åòûðå ñîñòàâëÿþùèå: • ïðàêòè÷åñêèå è òåîðåòè÷åñêèå çíàíèÿ ïî ñïåöèàëü- íîñòè; • òðàäèöèîííûå (îáùèå) ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå è äèäàêòè÷åñêèå íàâûêè è óìåíèÿ; • çíàíèå è èñïîëüçîâàíèå ñîâðåìåííûõ ñðåäñòâ èíôîð- ìàöèîííûõ è òåëåêîììóíèêàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé â îáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ öåëÿõ; • ïðàêòè÷åñêèå íàâûêè ïðèìåíåíèÿ èíôîðìàöèîííûõ è òåëåêîììóíèêàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé â ïðîöåññå îáó÷åíèÿ è âîñïèòàíèÿ. Çàìåòèì, ÷òî ïîñëåäíèå äâå ñîñòàâëÿþùèå ïðåäïîëàãàþò íàëè÷èå ó ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, òåì áîëåå, ÷òî â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ðå÷ü èäåò î ïåäàãîãå-ãóìàíèòàðèè, òîëüêî ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ íàâûêîâ è óìåíèé, òî åñòü îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ ñïîñîáíîñòüþ è ãîòîâíîñòüþ ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ ñîâåðøàòü êîíêðåòíûå äåéñòâèÿ è ïîñòóïêè, ñâÿçàííûå ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè. Íà íàø âçãëÿä, ïðè àêòèâíîì èñïîëüçîâàíèè ñðåäñòâ òåëå- êîììóíèêàöèè â ïðîöåññå ïîäãîòîâêè ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé ÿçûêîâ (â ÷àñòíîñòè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà) íîâîãî ïîêîëåíèÿ ìîæåò áûòü ïîñòàâëåíà åùå îäíà öåëü: îáó÷åíèå íå âëàäåþùèõ ñðåäñòâàìè òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè ó÷èòåëåé ñòàðøåãî ïîêîëåíèÿ òîãî æå

123 ó÷åáíîãî çàâåäåíèÿ, ãäå ðàáîòàåò (èëè áóäåò ðàáîòàòü) âûïóñê- íèê ñîâðåìåííîãî ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî âóçà. Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, ðåøàåòñÿ åùå îäíà çàäà÷à: ýòî çàäà÷à îðãà- íèçàöèè ïåðåïîäãîòîâêè ó÷èòåëåé ðàçíûõ ïðîôèëåé áîëåå ñòàðøåãî ïîêîëåíèÿ áåç îòðûâà îò ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà, òî åñòü îðãàíèçàöèÿ ñïåöèàëüíûõ êóðñîâ ïî âûðàáîòêå ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ íàâûêîâ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå. Ïîäîáíûå êóðñû, íà íàø âçãëÿä, ìîãóò ïðîâîäèòü èìåííî ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèì îáðàçîì ïîäãîòîâëåííûå ïðåïîäàâàòåëè ÿçûêîâ, â ÷àñòíîñòè ïðåïîäàâàòåëè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, ïîñêîëüêó â óñëîâèÿõ êîìïüþòåðèçàöèè è íåîáõîäèìîñòè âëàäåíèÿ èíîñòðàííûìè ÿçûêàìè èõ ïðåäìåòíûå (ñïåöèàëü- íûå) çíàíèÿ íå çàìûêàþòñÿ íà îäíîé óçêîé ñïåöèàëüíîñòè, êàê ôèçèêà, õèìèÿ, áèîëîãèÿ è äð. Â äàííîì ñëó÷àå âàæíû ìåòîäè÷åñêèå è êîìïüþòåðíûå çíàíèÿ è óìåíèÿ, à çíàíèÿ â îáëàñòè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ìîãóò íîñèòü ïðèêëàäíîé õàðàê- òåð, ïîñêîëüêó îíè èíâàðèàíòíû îòíîñèòåëüíî êîíêðåòíîé ïðåäìåòíîé îáëàñòè è òîëüêî íåïîñðåäñòâåííî ìîãóò áûòü çàäåéñòâîâàíû ïðè ïîäãîòîâêå îáó÷àåìûõ ê ïðàêòè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îñîáåííî âàæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå ðàññìàòðèâàåìîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ ñðåäñòâà òåëåêîì- ìóíèêàöèè íå òîëüêî â öåëÿõ ìîäåðíèçàöèè ó÷åáíîãî ïðî- öåññà, íî è äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû âûïóñêíèêè óìåëè è áûëè ãîòîâû: à) ïðèìåíÿòü ïîëó÷åííûå çíàíèÿ â ñâîåé ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè; á) ïåðåäàâàòü ïîëó÷åííûå â äàííîé îáëàñòè çíàíèÿ äðóãèì. Âîâëå÷åíèå ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà â ñèñòåìó êîìïüþòåðíîé ïåðåïîäãîòîâêè ó÷èòåëåé ðàçíûõ ïðîôèëåé òîãî æå ñàìîãî ó÷åáíîãî çàâåäåíèÿ ïîçâîëèò ðåøèòü ñðàçó íåñêîëüêî ïðîáëåì: • çàìåíû ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé, âûåçæàþùèõ äëÿ ïðîõîæäåíèÿ êóðñîâ ïîâûøåíèÿ êâàëèôèêàöèè; • âðåìåííîãî îáåñïå÷åíèÿ äàííîãî ÷åëîâåêà íà íîâîì ìåñòå; • êîíòðîëÿ çà äàëüíåéøåé ïðàêòè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòüþ òîãî, êòî óæå ïðîøåë êóðñ îáó÷åíèÿ; • âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ â ïðîöåññå îáó÷åíèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ âîïðî- ñîâ, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ òåðìèíîëîãèåé;

124 • íàèëó÷øåãî ïðåîäîëåíèÿ ìíîãèõ òðóäíîñòåé, âîçíè- êàþùèõ ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè îáó÷åíèÿ âçðîñëûõ ëþäåé íåçíàêîìûìè ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿìè; • ìèíèìèçàöèè ñëîæíîñòåé, âîçíèêàþùèå ïðè îáó- ÷åíèè ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé, òî åñòü ñïåöèàëèñòîâ, êîðîòûå â ñèëó ñâîåé ìåòîäè÷åñêîé ïîäãîòîâêè ÷àñòî îáðàùàþò âíèìàíèå íå íà ñóòü ïðåäìåòà, à íà ôîðìó åãî ïîäà÷è. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñ âíåäðåíèåì â ïðîöåññ ïîäãîòîâêè áóäóùèõ ó÷èòåëåé àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà åùå îäíîé çàäà÷è, à èìåííî: îðãàíèçàöèè ïåðåïîäãîòîâêè ó÷èòåëåé áîëåå ñòàðøåãî ïîêîëåíèÿ, ñàìà ñîáîé îòïàäàåò íåîáõîäèìîñòü â ïðîõîæäåíèè ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿìè áîëåå ñòàðøåãî ïîêîëåíèÿ ñïåöèàëüíûõ êóðñîâ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ, ïîñêîëüêó èõ ìîæíî áóäåò îðãà- íèçîâàòü íà ìåñòå, â êàæäîì ñåëüñêîì ó÷åáíîì çàâåäåíèè îòäåëüíî. Íå ñåêðåò, ÷òî áîëüøèíñòâî ðàáîòàþùèõ ñåé÷àñ â øêîëàõ è âóçàõ Àðìåíèè ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé íå èìååò äîñòàòî÷íî òåîðå- òè÷åñêèõ è ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ êîìïüþòåðíûõ çíàíèé è óìåíèé. Â ëó÷øåì ñëó÷àå íåêîòîðûå ïåäàãîãè ÷èñòî ìåõàíè÷åñêè (ïî òðåáîâàíèþ àäìèíèñòðàöèè, ïî çàäàííîé êåì-òî ïðîãðàììå è ò.ä.) ýïèçîäè÷åñêè èñïîëüçóþò â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå ñðåäñòâà òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè. Îäíàêî ýòî ïðîèñõîäèò òîëüêî ïðè óñëî- âèè íàëîæåíèÿ îïðåäåëåííûõ îáÿçàòåëüñòâ (ïðîâåäåíèå çàíÿ- òèé â êîìïüþòåðíîì êëàññå ïî ðàñïèñàíèþ, çàïëàíèðîâàííàÿ äåìîíñòðàöèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî ïðîãðàììå ôèëüìà è ò.ä.). Ñàìè ïî ñåáå îíè, êàê ïðàâèëî, èñïûòûâàþò ñóùåñòâåííûé ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèé áàðüåð ïåðåä îñâîåíèåì êîìïüþòåðíîé òåõíèêè è èñïîëüçîâàíèåì èíôîðìàöèîííûõ ðåñóðñîâ â îáó÷åíèè. Îáû÷íî ñóòü ýòîãî áàðüåðà îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ ñîìíåíèÿìè îòíîñèòåëüíî ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ âîçìîæíîñòåé íîâûõ ñðåäñòâ è òåõíîëîãèé. Èñïîëüçîâàíèå èíôîðìàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé áóäåò îïðàâ- äàííûì è ïðèâåäåò ê ïîâûøåíèþ ýôôåêòèâíîñòè îáó÷åíèÿ â òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè òàêîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå áóäåò îòâå÷àòü êîíêðåò- íûì ïîòðåáíîñòÿì, åñëè è ó ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé, è ó îáó÷àåìûõ ñôîðìèðóåòñÿ óáåæäåííîñòü â òîì, ÷òî îáó÷åíèå â ïîëíîì îáúåìå áåç èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ ñðåäñòâ èíôîðìà- òèçàöèè íåâîçìîæíî èëè çàòðóäíèòåëüíî. Ïðèâåäåííûå ôàêòîðû ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïîäãîòîâêè è ïåðåïîäãîòîâêè ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ

125 êàäðîâ â îáëàñòè èíôîðìàòèçàöèè îáðàçîâàíèÿ. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, óïîìÿíóòûå ïðîáëåìû ãîâîðÿò î òîì, ÷òî ïðèìåíåíèå ñðåäñòâ òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè â îáó÷åíèè øêîëüíèêîâ è ñòó- äåíòîâ ïî ïðèíöèïó “÷åì áîëüøå, òåì ëó÷øå” íå ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê ðåàëüíîìó ïîâûøåíèþ ýôôåêòèâíîñòè ñèñòåìû îáðàçîâàíèÿ. Â èñïîëüçîâàíèè íîâûõ ñðåäñòâ íåîáõîäèì âçâåøåííûé è ÷åòêî àðãóìåíòèðîâàííûé ïîäõîä. Äëÿ ïîëó÷åíèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ çíàíèé ñðåäñòâàìè òåëåêîì- ìóíèêàöèè ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü ðàçëè÷íûå ýëåêòðîííûå íîñè- òåëè, êîòîðûå â ïðèíöèïå ìîæíî ðàçäåëèòü íà òðè òèïà: • íåïîñðåäñòâåííîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå Èíòåðíåò-êîììó- íèêàöèé; • îïîñðåäîâàííîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå Èíòåðíåò-èíôîðìàöèè ÷åðåç äðóãèå ñðåäñòâà; • ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîå ñîçäàíèå ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì îáó÷àþùèé ñðåäñòâ ôîðìàòà CD ïî ìåðå âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ ó ó÷àùèõñÿ èíäèâèäóàëüíûõ ïîòðåáíîñòåé. Ê ïåðâîìó òèïó ìîæíî îòíåñòè on-line ñïðàâî÷íî-èíôîð- ìàöèîííûå îáðàçîâàòåëüíûå ñàéòû, êóðñû äèñòàíöèîííîãî îáó÷åíèÿ, ñàéòû êîíêðåòíûõ óíèâåðñèòåòîâ, ñîäåðæàùèåñÿ â ñåòè îáó÷àþùèå è ñïðàâî÷íûå êîìïëåêñû è ò.ä. Êî âòîðîìó òèïó ìîæíî îòíåñòè íå ëþáóþ, à ñïåöèàëüíî îòîáðàííóþ ñòàöèîíàðíóþ èíôîðìàöèþ ïåðâîãî òèïà, ïðåäñòàâëåííóþ îïðåäåëåííûì (îáû÷íî àâòîðèòåòíûì) èñ- òî÷íèêîì, ôðàãìåíòû êîòîðîé â ó÷åáíûõ öåëÿõ ìîãóò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíû è â êà÷åñòâå èíòåðíåò-ðåñóðñà, à ìîãóò áûòü ïåðåíåñåíû ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì íà floppy è/èëè ÑD-ROM. Ê òðåòüåìó òèïó èíôîðìàöèîííûõ ó÷åáíûõ ðåñóðñîâ îòíîñÿòñÿ ðàçðàáîòàííûå ñàìèì ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì ó÷åáíûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ. Îíè ìîãóò áûòü îñíîâàíû íà èìåþùèõñÿ ïîä ðóêîé èñòî÷íèêàõ (è òåëåêîììóíèêàöèîííûõ, è ïå÷àòíûõ) ó÷åáíûõ ìàòåðèàëàõ ðàçíîãî òèïà, ñïîñîáíûõ âûïîëíèòü çàäà÷ó âîñïîëíåíèÿ è êîððåêòèðîâêè çíàíèé è óìåíèé êîíêðåòíîãî ó÷àùåãîñÿ êîíêðåòíîãî âóçà è êîíêðåòíîãî ôàêóëüòåòà. Ïîñêîëüêó ó÷åáíàÿ èíôîðìàöèÿ âòîðîãî òèïà ìîæåò áûòü ïðåäñòàâëåíà íå on-linå, a íà ëîêàëèçîâàííûõ, íå çàâèñÿùèõ îò Èíòåðíåòà è ñîñòàâëåííûõ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì íîñèòåëÿõ ÑD- ROM, òî ïðè åå èñïîëüçîâàíèè âàæíî ïîä÷åðêíóòü, ÷òî îíà (â óñëîâèÿõ îòñóòñòâèÿ Èíòåðíåò-êîììóíèêàöèè) â ó÷åáíûõ öåëÿõ â êàêîé-òî ñòåïåíè çàìåíÿåò ãëîáàëüíûå ñåòè, ñëóæèò

126 äîñòóïíîé â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ìîäèôèêàöèåé ãëîáàëüíîãî îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, íåïîñðåäñòâåííûé äîñòóï ê êîòîðîìó ìîæåò áûòü îáåñïå÷åí çàâòðà, íî äîëæåí ïðîãíî- çèðîâàòüñÿ è ïî âîçìîæíîñòè îáåñïå÷èâàòüñÿ òåõíè÷åñêèìè íàâûêàìè óæå ñåãîäíÿ. Ýòî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, íà íàø âçãëÿä, èìååò îñîáîå çíà÷åíèå, åùå è âîò ïî÷åìó. Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ Èíòåðíåòîì (è â Åðåâàíå, è îñîáåííî â ñåëüñêîé ìåñòíîñòè) ìîãóò äàëåêî íå âñå æèòåëè Àðìåíèè, îäíàêî íàø àíàëèç ïîêàçàë, ÷òî òàêîå ïîëîæåíèå îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ íå òîëüêî õàðàêòåðèñòèêàìè ñîöèàëü- íî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ñèòóàöèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå, íî è äðóãèìè ïðè÷èíàìè. Âñå ïðè÷èíû ýòîãî ÿâëåíèÿ ìîæíî ðàçäåëèòü íà äâà òèïà: • ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå ïðè÷èíû, â îñíîâå êîòîðûõ ëåæèò îòñóòñòâèå âîçìîæíîñòè ïîòðàòèòü äåíåæíûå ñðåäñòâà íà ïðèîáðåòåíèå ñðåäñòâ îñóùåñòâëåíèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî ñåðâèñà; • ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå ïðè÷èíû, â îñíîâå êîòîðûõ ëåæèò íåïîíèìàíèå çíà÷åíèÿ è ïîëåçíûõ ôóíêöèé Èíòåðíåò- ñðåäñòâ êîììóíèêàöèè. Ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå ïðîáëåìû, ïðåïÿòñòâóþùèå îñâîåíèþ ãëî- áàëüíîãî èíôîðìàöèîííî-îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ óïèðàþòñÿ â ñòðàõ ïåðåä íèì è íåçíàíèå âîçìîæíîñòåé åãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ. Îäíàêî, ñïðàâåäëèâîñòè ðàäè, ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ýòè æå ïðîáëåìû ëåæàò â îñíîâå íå òîëüêî ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ îñîáåííîñòåé îáó÷àåìûõ, íî è ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ âîñïðèÿòèé ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, êîòîðûé íå ìîæåò ïî ñâîèì çíàíèÿì è íå ãîòîâ ïî ñâîåìó ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîìó íàñòðîþ èñïîëüçîâàòü ñðåäñòâà òåëåêîììóíèêàöèè â ó÷åáíîì ïðîöåññå. Àíàëèç îñîáåííîñòåé èññëåäóåìîãî íàìè ó÷åáíîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ è îñîáåííîñòåé ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî êîíòèíãåíòà ó÷àùèõñÿ ïîêàçàë, ÷òî îïðåäåëåííûå ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå ïðîá- ëåìû äîëæíû è ìîãóò ðåøàòüñÿ ïîñòåïåííî, â õîäå íàðàùè- âàíèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ ïàðàìåòðîâ ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà, ïðèîá- ðåòåíèÿ íåêîòîðûõ ïðàêòè÷åñêèõ íàâûêîâ ïî èñïîëüçîâàíèþ ñåòåâûõ êîììóíèêàöèé. È, â çàêëþ÷åíèå, íàäî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ïðàêòè÷åñêîå èñïîëü- çîâàíèå èìåþùèõñÿ â àðñåíàëå ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà çíàíèé, óìåíèé è íàâûêîâ â îáëàñòè ñðåäñòâ òåëå-

127 êîììóíèêàöèè çàâèñèò îò êîíêðåòíûõ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ ïîòðåáíîñòåé ïåäàãîãà è íàëè÷èÿ íå òîëüêî ó íåãî ñàìîãî, íî è ó êàæäîãî îáó÷àåìîãî â îòäåëüíîñòè îïðåäåëåííûõ òåõíè- ÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ è âîçìîæíîñòåé èõ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ. ×òî êàñàåòñÿ òåîðåòè÷åñêèõ çíàíèé, òî ñôîðìèðîâàííûå çà âðåìÿ ó÷åáû ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïðèìåíåíèÿ ñðåäñòâ êîììó- íèêàöèè íå òîëüêî äëÿ ïðàâèëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè ïðîôåññèî- íàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, íî è äëÿ ïîâûøåíèÿ ñîáñòâåííîãî îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî óðîâíÿ, íåèçáåæíî ïðèâåäóò ê âûâîäó, ÷òî â ñèëó ñòðåìèòåëüíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ òåõíèêè è òåõíîëîãèé, èíôîðìàòèçàöèÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ïðîöåññ èõ îñâîåíèÿ è óñâîåíèÿ – ýòî ïåðìàíåíòíûé ïðîöåññ, âîçìîæíîñòè êîòîðîãî ïîñòî- ÿííîãî îáíîâëÿþòñÿ è ðàñøèðÿþòñÿ.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. Êîëêåð ß.Ì. (2004) Ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ ìåòîäèêà îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó Ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóä.ôèëîë. ôàê. âûñø. ó÷åá. çàâåäåíèé. Ì., Àêàäåìèÿ. – 264 ñ. 2. Ïàññîâ Å.È., Êèáåðåâà Ë.Â., Êîëëàðîâà Ý. (2007) Êîí- öåïöèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî èíîÿçû÷íîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ. – Ñàíêò- Ïåòåðáóðã: Çëàòîóñò,– 199 ñ. 3. Àíäðååâ À.Ë. (2005) Êîìïåòåíòíîñòíàÿ ïàðàäèãìà â îáðàçîâàíèè: îïûò ôèëîñîôñêî-ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîãî àíàëèçà / / «Ïåäàãîãèêà», N 4.- Ñ. 19-27. 4. Îáùååâðîïåéñêèå êîìïåòåíöèè âëàäåíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêîì: Èçó÷åíèå, îáó÷åíèå, îöåíêà. Ñîâåò Åâðîïû, Äåïàð- òàìåíò ïî ÿçûêîâîé ïîëèòèêå. Ñòðàñáóðã. Ì., 2001-247 ñ. 5. Âîðîíèíà Ò.Ï., Êàøèöèí Â.Ï., Ìîë÷àíîâà Î.Ï. (1995) Îáðàçîâàíèå â ýïîõó íîâûõ èíôîðìàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé. Ì., Èíôîðìàòèêà,- 220 ñ. 6. Ãóëèäîâà È.Â. (2000) Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå îñíîâû àäàïòàöèè áóäóùèõ ó÷èòåëåé ê èíôîðìàöèîííûì òåõíîëîãèÿì â îáðàçî- âàíèè. Àâòîðåô.äèñ. ... êàíä.ïåä.íàóê. Íîâîêóçíåöê, – 24 ñ. 7. Ìàëûõ Þ.Ñ. (2004) «Call: Èíòåðíåò â îáó÷åíèè àíãëèéñêîìó ÿçûêó/Ñîâðåìåííûå òåîðèè è ìåòîäèêè îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì. Ïîä îáùåé ðåä. Ë.Ì.Ôåäîðîâîé, Ò.È.Ðÿçàíöåâîé. Ì., Ýêçàìåí,– Ñ. 291-293.

128 Àñèêÿí Ñ. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ

ËÈÍÃÂÎÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÛÉ ÊÓËÜÒÓÐÍÛÉ ÌÅÒÎÄ ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈß ÈÍÎÑÒÐÀÍÍÛÌ ßÇÛÊÀÌ ON LINGUO-SOCIO-CULTURAL METHOD OF TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

ABSTRACT The purpose of the paper is to discuss the linguo-socio-cultural method of teaching foreign languages. Applying linguo-socio-cultural method it is easier to improve the language education process. However, the success of this method’s implementation depends on several factors which are discussed in the paper. Linguo-socio-cultural is a method of integration of two languages and cultures – native and foreign.

Ïðîöåññû èíòåãðàöèè, ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ è ñîöèàëüíî-ýêî- íîìè÷åñêàÿ ðåàëüíîñòè îáóñëîâèëè ïîÿâëåíèå íîâûõ êîíöåï- öèé â ìåòîäèêå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì, a èìåííî ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíîìó ìåòîäó îáó÷åíèÿ. Ýòîò ìåòîä âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáå íå òîëüêî îáó÷åíèå èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó êàê ñðåäñòâó îáùåíèÿ, íî è ôîðìèðîâàíèå ìíîãîÿçû÷íîé ëè÷íîñòè, âîáðàâøóþ â ñåáÿ öåííîñòè ðîäíîé è èíîÿçû÷íîé êóëüòóð. Êîíå÷íî, ìåæêóëüòóðíîå îáó÷åíèå íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðåðîãàòèâîé ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ ëèøü èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ, íî, î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü óñâîåíèå èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà ñïîñîáñòâóåò ïðîíèêíîâåíèþ â ìåíòàëèòåò, æèçíü è äóõ äðóãîãî íàðîäà, ïðåäïîëàãàåò çíàêîìñòâî ñ âçãëÿäàìè, îöåíêàìè è îïûòîì äðóãîé êóëüòóðíîé îáùíîñòè, òàê êàê çà êàæäûì íàöèî- íàëüíûì ÿçûêîì ñòîèò íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíàÿ ñïåöèôèêà îáðàçà ìèðà, ñîñòîÿùàÿ èç ýëåìåíòîâ, íåîòüåìëåìûõ äëÿ äàííîãî íàðîäà. Ïîýòîìó èìåííî óðîê èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà äîëæåí ïðåäñòàâëÿòü ñîáîé ïðîöåññ, êîòîðûé îáåñïå÷èò âîç- ìîæíîñòü äëÿ îáó÷àåìûõ ðàñøèðèòü èõ îáðàç ìèðà, íîñÿùèé 129 îòïå÷àòîê ñîáñòâåííîé êóëüòóðû äî ìóëüòèêóëüòóðíîé êàðòèíû ìèðà. Èìåííî íà óðîêàõ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà îáó÷àþùèåñÿ ìîãóò îñîçíàòü, ÷òî èõ ñîáñòâåííîå âîñïðèÿòèå íå îãðàíè÷åíî, òàê êàê îáóñëîâëåíî ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûìè ôàêòîðàìè. Îïòè- ìàëüíî îðãàíèçîâàííûé ïðîöåññ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà ìîæåò ïîäãîòîâèòü ëè÷íîñòü îáó÷àþùåãî ê òîëåðàíòíîìó âîñïðèÿòèþ ÷óæîé êóëüòóðû, ê ñèìïàòèè, ê ïðèçíàíèþ ðàâíîïðàâèÿ è ðàâíîöåííîñòè êóëüòóð, ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ îáùå- ÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ öåííîñòåé. Îáó÷åíèå ìåæêóëüòóðíîìó îáùåíèþ íà óðîêàõ èíîñòðàí- íîãî ÿçûêà ÿâëÿåòñÿ íà ñåãîäíÿøíèé äåíü î÷åíü àêòóàëüíûì è òðåáóþùèì íîâûõ ïîäõîäîâ, ìåòîäîâ, âûáîð êîòîðûõ çàâèñèò, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, îò ïðåäìåòà è öåëåé îáó÷åíèÿ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, òåðìèí “ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ” – ýòî âçàèìîäåéñòâèå êóëüòóð, ãäå ïðèñóòñòâóþò êóëüòóðíûé, ëèíã- âèñòè÷åñêèé è ñîöèàëüíûå ýëåìåíòû. Ïîýòîìó, åñòåñòâåííî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî ëèíãâîñîöèî- êóëüòóðíàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ îáó÷àåìîãî äîëæíà ÿâëÿòüñÿ îäíîé èç öåëåé â îáó÷åíèè èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì, îðèåíòèðîâàííûì íà çàäà÷ó ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ îñíîâ ìåæêóëüòóðíîãî îáùåíèÿ. Ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëüòóðíûé ìåòîä ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïîíÿòèÿ ÿçûê è êóëüòóðà. ßçûê ñòàíîâèòñÿ áåçæèçíåííûì, êîãäà ïðåïîäàâàòåëü ñòàâèò öåëüþ äàâàòü ëèøü ëåêñèêî- ãðàììàòè÷åñêèå ôîðìû. Ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëüòóðíûé ìåòîä èçó÷åíèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå ñåðüåçíûõ è âñåñòîðîííèõ ìåòîäîâ. Ýòî îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ òåì, ÷òî ïðè äàííîé ìåòîäèêå ñòóäåíòû ðàññìàòðèâàþò íå òîëüêî ÿçûêîâûå ôîðìû, íî è ñîöèàëüíîå îêðóæåíèå è êóëüòóðó íîñèòåëåé ÿçûêà. ßçûê, îòîðâàííûé îò ñâîåé êóëüòóðû ñòà- íîâèòñÿ áåñïîëåçíûì. Ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëüòóðíûé ìåòîä âêëþ÷àåò äâà àñïåêòà îáùåíèÿ – ÿçûêîâîå è ìåæêóëüòóðíîå. Äëÿ ñòóäåíòà âàæåí íå òîëüêî âûñîêèé óðîâåíü ÷òåíèÿ, ïèñüìà, ïåðåâîäà (îäíàêî ýòî íå èñêëþ÷àåòñÿ), à òàêæå «ëèíãâîñîöèîêóëüòóðíàÿ êîìïå- òåíöèÿ». Ñåãîäíÿ ÿçûê – ýòî ñîâîêóïíîñòü çíàíèé è ïðåäñòàâ- ëåíèé ÷åëîâåêà î ìèðå. Íåêîòîðûå çàïàäíûå ñïåöèàëèñòû ñ÷èòàþò, ÷òî ÿçûê – ýòî «ñèñòåìà îáùåíèÿ», êîòîðàÿ ñîñòîèò èç îïðåäåëåííûõ ôðàãìåíòîâ è íàáîðà ïðàâèë, èñïîëüçó- þùèõñÿ ñ öåëüþ êîììóíèêàöèè. Âàæíî îòìåòèòü òàêæå, ÷òî ÿçûê – ýòî «ìîùíîå îðóæèå», ñ ïîìîùüþ êîòîðîãî ïîïàäàåøü

130 â ýòíîñ, êîòîðàÿ ïåðåäàåò êóëüòóðó, òðàäèöèè äàííîãî íàðîäà. Òîëüêî ïðè òàêîì ïîäõîäå ìîæíî äîñòè÷ü âçàèìîïîíèìàíèÿ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ, îáìåíèâàþùèõñÿ èíôîðìàöèåé, ïðèíàäëåæàùèõ ðàçíûì íàöèîíàëüíûì êóëüòóðàì. Òàêèì îáðàçîì ìîæíî ïðèéòè ê âûâîäó, ÷òî ÿçûê íå ìîæåò ñóùåñòâîâàòü âíå ñîöèóìà è âíå êóëüòóðû. ßçûê – ýòî ïðåæäå âñåãî âîçìîæíîñòü ñàìîâûðàæàòüñÿ, îòðàæàòü ñâîè ìûñëè, ñâîè èäåè. Ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëü- òóðíûé ìåòîä îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà óòâåðæäåíèè î òîì, ÷òî îñíîâîé ÿçûêîâûõ ñòðóêòóð ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñòðóêòóðû ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûå. Ãëàâíîé çàäà÷åé àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà íà íåÿçûêîâûõ ôàêóëü- òåòàõ, ïðè ïîìîùè äàííîãî ìåòîäà, îáëåã÷åíèå ïîíèìàíèÿ ñîáåñåäíèêà, âîñïðèÿòèå íà èíòóèòèâíîì óðîâíå. Ýòîò ìåòîä âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ ãðàììàòèêó, ëåêñèêó, ôîíåòèêó ñ êóëüòóðíûìè ôàêòîðàìè, ò.å. îñíîâîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñîöèîêóëüòóðà. Ñ ïîìîùüþ ýòîãî ìåòîäà ìû ïîíèìàåì, ÷òî ÿçûê – ýòî îòðàæåíèå êóëüòóðû, îáùåñòâà, èñòîðèè òîãî èëè èíîãî íàðîäà, óñëîâèé æèçíè, òðàäèöèé è îáû÷èé. Ýòà ìåòîäèêà ñîâìåùàåò â ñåáå äâà íàïðàâëåíèÿ: èçó÷åíèå ÿçûêà ñòðàíû è êóëüòóðû åå íàñåëåíèÿ. Ïî ìíåíèþ ñïåöèàëèñòîâ ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîãî ìåòîäà èçó÷åíèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà áîëüøå ïÿòèäåñÿòè ïðîöåíòîâ âñåõ ðå÷åâûõ îøèáîê ñîâåðøàþòñÿ ïîä âëèÿíèåì ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà, à îñòàëüíûå îñíîâûâàþòñÿ íà íåïîíèìàíèè ñóòè ñîöèàëüíîé æèçíè è êóëüòóðû íîñèòåëåé èçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà. Ïðè èçó÷åíèè èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà íå òàê âàæíî, ÷òî âû ãîâîðèòå, à êàê âàñ ïîéìóò. Êëàññè÷åñêèé ïîäõîä ê èçó÷åíèþ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà âêëþ÷àåò îäíîâðåìåííîå îñâîåíèå ãðàì- ìàòèêè, ëåêñèêè, ðå÷åâûõ íàâûêîâ, àóäèî, âèäåî è êîìïüþòåð- íûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ. Îäíàêî, äàæå ïðîäâèíóòîãî ñòóäåíòà ìîãóò íå ïîíÿòü íîñèòåëè ÿçûêà, åñëè â ñòðóêòóðå îäíîé ôðàçû ïðèíÿòî èñïîëüçîâàíèå êîíêðåòíîãî ñëîâà, à óïîòðåáëåíèå ñèíîíèìà áóäåò ñ÷èòàòüñÿ íåïðèåìëèìûì. Âîò òàêèõ íþàíñîâ ÷àñòî íå çíàåò ñòóäåíò, êîòîðûé îáó÷àëñÿ ïî êëàññè÷åñêîé ìåòîäèêå. È çäåñü íóæíî îòìåòèòü ïðåèìóùåñòâà ñîöèî- êóëüòóðíîãî ìåòîäà, êîòîðûé ïîäðàçóìåâàåò èçó÷åíèå ðå÷åâûõ îáîðîòîâ, ñëîâ, èäèîì è ôðàçåîëîãèçìîâ ñ ó÷åòîì êóëüòóðíûõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ îñîáåííîñòåé ÿçûêà. Êëþ÷åâîé ìîìåíò èçó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà – ýòî ñòàäèÿ, êîãäà íåîáõîäèìî íàó÷èòüñÿ äóìàòü íà äàííîì ÿçûêå. Äëÿ ýòîãî íàäî ÷àùå ãîâîðèòü ñïîíòàííî, ïðåïîäàâàòåëü äîëæåí äàâàòü âîçìîæíîñòü ãîâîðèòü

131 íà ñâîáîäíûå òåìû – ò.å., êîòîðûå èíòåðåñíû èì. Îáû÷íî, â ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è ñòóäåíò ñòðîèò ïðåäëîæåíèå íà îäíîì ÿçûêå, à çàòåì èç èìåþùåãîñÿ ñëîâàðíîãî çàïàñà. Íî ýòî çàíèìàåò âäâîå áîëüøå âðåìåíè è, ê òîìó æå, “òîðìîçèò” ïðîöåññ ðå÷åâîãî ðàçâèòèÿ. Â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ î÷åíü ïîëåçíî, âûó÷èâàÿ íîâûå ñëîâà, çàïîìèíàòü öåëûå ôðàçû è íîâûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ãäå âñòðå÷àåòñÿ òî èëè èíîå íîâîå ñëîâî. Êàæäûé óðîê äîëæåí ñîñòîÿòü èç íåñêîëüêèõ ðàçäåëîâ. Ïåðâûé îáû÷íî ïîñâÿùåí ðàçâèòèþ íàâûêîâ óñòíîé ðå÷è (íàïðèìåð, îáñóæäàåòñÿ áèîãðàôèÿ êàêîãî-ëèáî çíàìåíèòîãî ÷åëîâåêà) è àíàëèçó íåêîòîðûõ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ êîíñòðóêöèé, âûïîëíåíèþ ïèñüìåííîãî çàäàíèÿ ïî ïðàêòèêå îáùåíèÿ, îáñóæäåíèþ â ïàðàõ îïðåäåëåííûõ òåì, ïðàêòèêå ñîñòàâëåíèÿ äèàëîãîâ íà îñíîâå ïðåäëîæåííûõ ïîäñêàçîê, ïðîñëóøèâàíèþ, à òàêæå çàêðåïëåíèþ è ïîâòîðåíèþ ìàòåðèàëà, ïðîéäåííîãî íà ïðåäûäóùèõ çàíÿòèÿõ. Âòîðîé – íàïðàâëåí íà ðàçâèòèå ÿçûêîâûõ íàâûêîâ, îñíîâàííîå íà óñòíûõ è ïèñüìåííûõ óïðàæíåíèÿõ. Äàëåå ñëåäóåò ðàáîòà ñ òåêñòîì, ïðè÷åì ÷òåíèå òàêæå ðàçíîîáðàçíîå. Ðàáîòà íàä òåêñòîì, êàê ïðàâèëî, ýòî çàíÿòèÿ â ïàðàõ, îòâåòû íà âîïðîñû. Âñå ýòî õîðîøî îðèåí- òèðóåò ñòóäåíòà íà âîñïðèÿòèå ïîñëåäóþùåé èíôîðìàöèè, ñòèìóëèðóåò èíòåðåñ ê ÷òåíèþ. Óðîê îáû÷íî çàâåðøàåòñÿ “ñëóøàíèåì”, êîòîðîå âêëþ÷àåò ðàçëè÷íûå óïðàæíåíèÿ, ïîçâîëÿþùèå ëåã÷å âîñïðèíèìàòü íîâûé ìàòåðèàë Ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëüòóðíûé ìåòîä – ýòî íîâûé ñîâðå- ìåííûé ìåòîä – îáó÷àòü èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó íå òîëüêî êàê ñðåäñòâó îáùåíèÿ, íî è ôîðìèðîâàòü ìíîãîÿçû÷íóþ ëè÷íîñòü, êîòîðàÿ âîïëîùàåò â ñåáå ðîäíóþ è èíîÿçû÷íóþ êóëüòóðó. Íåêîòîðûå çàïàäíûå ñïåöèàëèñòû ðàññìàòðèâàþò ìåæêóëü- òóðíîå îáó÷åíèå â êà÷åñòâå îñíîâíîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ óðîêîâ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà. Ñóùåñòâóåò òàêîé òåðìèí «ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ äåäàêòèêà», êîòîðàÿ îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò òðàäèöèîííîé íîâûìè öåëÿìè, ñîäåðæàíèåì îáó÷åíèÿ, ïðèåìàìè è ìåòîäàìè è íîâûìè âèäàìè êîíòðîëÿ. Èìåííî ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíûé êóëü- òóðíûé ìåòîä ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïðîöåññ, êîòîðûé äàåò âîç- ìîæíîñòü äëÿ îáó÷àåìûõ ðàñøèðèòü îáðàç ìèðà. Ëèíãâî- ñîöèàëüíûé êóëüòóðíûé ìåòîä ìîæíî îïðåäåëèòü êàê ãîòîâ- íîñòü èíäèâèäà îñóùåñòâëÿòü àäåêâàòíóþ ìåæêóëüòóðíóþ êîì- ïåòåíöèþ, â ýòîì ñëó÷àå îíà ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ êàê ñàìîñòîÿ- òåëüíàÿ öåëü îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó.

132 Äëÿ äîñòèæåíèÿ ýòèõ öåëåé íåîáõîäèìî: • ïðîèçâåñòè îòáîð ëèíãâîñîöèîêóëüòóðíîãî ó÷åáíîãî ìàòåðèàëà • ðàçðàáîòàòü ñïåöèàëüíûé êîìïëåêñ óïðàæíåíèé • ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàòü ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå îñíîâû è îïðå- äåëèòü õàðàêòåð ëåêñè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà, íåîáõîäèìîãî äëÿ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ëèíãâîñîöèàëüíîé êóëüòóðíîé êîìïå- òåíöèè Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìåæêóëüòóðíîå îáó÷åíèå íà ñåãîäíÿùèé äåíü ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç îñíîâíûõ ôàêòîðîâ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà íà íåÿçûêîâûõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ, äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ êîòîðîãî òðåáóþòñÿ íîâûå ïóòè, ñðåäñòâà è ìåòîäû, âûáîð êîòîðîãî çàâèñèò â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü îò ïðåäìåòà è öåëåé îáó÷åíèÿ. Åñëè ñ÷èòàòü öåëüþ îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó ôîðìèðîâàíèå îïðåäåëåííûõ êîìïåòåíöèé (êîììóíèêàòèâíîé, ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé, ñîöèàëüíî-ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîé, ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé è ò.ä.), íåîáõîäèìî äîïîëíèòü òàêæå ëèíãâîñîöàëüíîé êîìïå- òåíöèåé.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. Áàðûøíèêîâà Í.Ã. (1992) Ïñèõîëîãî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå àñïåêòû ðåàëèçàöèè êîììóíèêàòèâíî-äåÿòåëüíîñòíîãî ïîäõîäà â èíòåíñèâíîì îáó÷åíèè âçðîñëûõ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó , Ñá. íàó÷íûõ òðóäîâ, ÌÃËÓ. 2. Ïàññîâ Å.È. (1989) Îñíîâû êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ìåòîäèêè îáó÷åíèÿ èíîÿçû÷íîìó îáùåíèþ, Ì. – Ðóñ. ßç. 3. Àëôåðîâ À. Ä. (1988) Îïûò è ïðîáëåìû ïîâûøåíèÿ ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîé êîìïåòåíòíîñòè ó÷èòåëÿ, “Âîïðîñû ïñèõî- ëîãèè”. 4. Ïàññîâ Å.È. (1977) Îñíîâû ìåòîäèêèîáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàí- íûì ÿçûêàì, Ì. Ïðîñâåùåíèå. 5. French Y.R.P. Raven B. (1959) The Basis of social power, “Studies in social power” Ed. Cartwright D. Michigan. 6. Janree T. Libson, (1976) Psychology for the classroom, prentice-hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

133 Áàãèðÿí Ä. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ

ÂÎÇÍÈÊÍÎÂÅÍÈÅ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÉ ÌÅÒÀÔÎÐÛ ÄÍÊ, ÅÅ ÏÎÏÓËßÐÈÇÀÖÈß È ÄÀËÜÍÅÉØÅÅ ÏÐÎÍÈÊÍÎÂÅÍÈÅ Â ÎÁÙÅÏÎÏÓËßÐÍÛÉ ÄÈÑÊÓÐÑ

THE ORIGINATION AND POPULATION OF THE DNA METAPHOR

ABSTRACT Despite the fact that the use of metaphors in scientific discourse has always been viewed with skepticism, metaphors abound in scientific literature particularly in informal and educational settings. The aim of the article is to analyze the origination and popularization of the metaphors connected with DNA, follow their function in scientific discourse, as well as illustrate the path some of these metaphors passed penetrating into general context creating new metaphors used today in newspaper articles and everyday speech.

Íåêîòîðûå ó÷åíûå ñ÷èòàëè è ñ÷èòàþò ïî ñåé äåíü, ÷òî ìåòàôîðû ïðèâîäÿò ê íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòè â íàó÷íîì äèñêóðñå ÷òî íåäîïóñòèìî îñîáåííî â òî÷íûõ íàóêàõ. Ðàçëè÷èå ìåæäó ïðÿìûì è ïåðåíîñíûì çíà÷åíèÿìè âïåðâûå áûëî ïðåäëîæåíî Àðèñòîòåëåì, êîòîðûé ïðèçíàâàë ïîëåçíîñòü ìåòàôîðû â ïîýçèè, íî òðåáîâàë åå èñêëþ÷åíèÿ èç äèñêóðñà åñòåñòâî- çíàíèÿ. Â ðåçóëüòàòå, ìåòàôîðû è äðóãèå ïîýòè÷åñêèå ôîðìû ÿçûêà áûëè èçãíàíû èç îáëàñòè íàóêè. Îäíàêî, íåñìîòðÿ íà ìíåíèå Àðèñòîòåëÿ, ìåòàôîðû èçîáèëóþò â íàó÷íîé ëèòåðàòóðå îñîáåííî â íåôîðìàëüíûõ è îáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèÿõ. Â òî âðåìÿ êàê íàó÷íàÿ ðèòîðèêà ìîæåò ñòðåìèòüñÿ ê áóêâàëü- íîìó, ïðÿìîìó çíà÷åíèþ, îíà íå ìîæåò èçáåæàòü íåîáõîäè- ìîñòè ðàçðàáîòêè íîâûõ òåîðèé èç ñòàðûõ ïîíÿòèé ñ ïðèìå- íåíèåì ìåòàôîð.

134 Èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìåòàôîðû â ôîðìèðîâàíèè òåîðèè íåîá- õîäèìî, îñîáåííî â ìîëîäûõ îáëàñòÿõ. Òåì íå ìåíåå, ìåòàôîðà ñîõðàíÿåòñÿ äàæå òîãäà êîãäà íàó÷íàÿ òåîðèÿ ñîçðåâàåò è êîíêðåòíûå òî÷êè àíàëîãèè ñòàíîâÿòñÿ ÿâíûìè. Ýòî îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî ìåòàôîðû ÿâëÿþòñÿ èíñòðóìåíòîì ñðåäè äðóãèõ èíñòðó- ìåíòîâ, êîòîðûå ó÷åíûå èñïîëüçóþò äëÿ äîñòèæåíèÿ ñâîèõ öåëåé. Â äàííîé ñòàòüå ìû ïîïûòàåìñÿ ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàòü âîçíèêíîâåíèå è ïîïóëÿðèçàöèþ ìåòàôîð ñâÿçàíûõ ñ ÄÍÊ, ðàññìîòðèì èõ ôóíêöèþ â íàó÷íîì äèñêóðñå, à òàêæå ïðîèëëþñòðèðóåì ïóòü íåêîòîðûõ èç ýòèõ ìåòàôîð êîòîðûé îíè ïðîøëè ïðîíèêàÿ â îáùèé êîíòåêñò è ñîçäàâàÿ íîâûå ìåòàôîðû, èñïîëüçóþùèåñÿ ñåãîäíÿ â ãàçåòíûõ ñòàòüÿõ è ïîâñåäíåâíîé ðå÷è. Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñóùåñòâóåò íåñêîëüêî ôàêòîðîâ, êîòîðûå âíåñëè ñâîé âêëàä â ïðîöåññû âíåäðåíèÿ ìîëåêóëû ÄÍÊ â ñîáèðàòåëüíóþ îáðàçíîñòü. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ïåðâîíà÷àëüíàÿ ïîïóëÿðèçàöèÿ (ñòàòüè ïðåäøåâñòâóþùèå 1953) óæå ÿâèëàñü î÷åíü õîðîøèì ñòàðòîì, âî-âòîðûõ, äâîéíàÿ ñïèðàëü ÄÍÊ áûëà ïðèíÿòà â êà÷åñòâå òåìû â ðàáîòàõ íåêîòîðûõ õóäîæ- íèêîâ, êîòîðûå êîñâåííî ñîäåéñòâîâàëè åå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèþ, à òàêæå, ãåíåòè÷åñêàÿ èíôîðìàöèÿ, ñîäåðæàùàÿñÿ â íåé, ïðèäàëà ìîëåêóëå ñòàòóñ ìîëåêóëû æèçíè, è, íàêîíåö, ïðåæäå âñåãî, øèðîêèé ñïåêòð ñîïóòñòâóþùèõ ìåòàôîð ñïîñîáñò- âîâàëè åå ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè åùå áîëåå ýôôåêòèâíåé. Ïðîöåññ ïîïóëÿðèçàöèÿ ìîëåêóëû ÄÍÊ èìåë îòëè÷íóþ îòïðàâíóþ òî÷êó ñî ñòàòüåé Óîòñîíà è Êðèêa (1), îïóáëè- êîâàííîé â íàó÷íîì æóðíàëå Nature. Ñòàòüÿ, êîòîðàÿ áûëà ÷ðåçâû÷àéíî êðàòêîé è ÿñíîé, íî â òî æå âðåìÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿëà èñòîðè÷åñêèé ïðîðûâ íà÷èíàëàñü ñ äâóõ íåçàáûâàåìûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé: “.Ìû õîòèì ïðåäñòàâèòü ñòðóêòóðó äåçîêñè- ðèáîçà íóêëåèíîâîé êèñëîòû (ÄÍÊ). Ýòà ñòðóêòóðà èìååò íîâûå ÷åðòû êîòîðûå ïðåäñòàâëÿþò çíà÷èòåëüíûé áèîëî- ãè÷åñêèé èíòåðåñ (We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest).“ (1). Â îòëè÷èå îò íåÿñíîé ðèòîðèêè ìíîãèõ ó÷åíûõ â òåêñòå ïðèâîäÿòñÿ äâà ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, êîòîðûå ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ñåíñà- öèîçíîñòü îòêðûòèÿ. Â ïåðâîé ÷àñòè ñòàòüè, Óîòñîí è Êðèê ÿñíî, ïîä÷åðêèâàþò íîâèçíó ñòðóêòóðû: ”We wish to put forward a radically different structure” that “has two helical chains each

135 coiled round the same axis. (Ìû õîòèì âûäâèíóòü ïðèíöè- ïèàëüíî èíóþ ñòðóêòóðó”, êîòîðàÿ “èìååò äâå ñïèðàëåâèäíûõ öåïè îáìîòàííûõ âîêðóã îäíîé îñè)“. Áëèæå ê êîíöó, âòîðàÿ “ñåíñàöèÿ”: “ It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material (Ýòî íå óñêîëüçíóëî îò íàøåãî âíèìàíèÿ, ÷òî êîíêðåòíûå ïàðû ýëåìåíòîâ äàííîè ìîëåêóëû ïðåäïîëàãàåò êîïèðîâàíèå ãåíåòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà“. (1). Ýòî áûë òåêñò, êîòîðûé ìîæåò áûòü ïðî÷èòàí äîâîëüíî ëåãêî äàæå íåñïåöèàëèñòàìè - ÷òî ÿâëÿëîñü èñêëþ÷åíèåì èç êîìïëåêñíîãî ìåòîäà èñïîëüçóåìîãî ìíîãèìè ó÷åíûìè 20-îãî âåêà. Òåêñò ñëåäîâàë îäíîìó èç ïðèíöèïîâ, óñòàíîâëåííûõ ñîàâòîðîì ñòàòüè Ôðýíñèñîì Êðèêîì â îòíîøåíèè íàó÷íîé ðå÷è: “Ïèøèòå ñâîþ ñòàòüþ â ÿñíîé è ïðîñòîé ôîðìå ïîíÿò- íîé êàæäîìó”. Ýòî áûëî ïåðâîå óïîòðåáëåíèå àíãëèéñêîé àááðåâèàòóðû ÄÍÊ (Äåçîêñèðèáîçà íóêëåèíîâûõ êèñëîò), õîòÿ Óîòñîí è Êðèê ïèñàëè åå ñ òî÷êàìè (D.N.A). Èç íàó÷íîãî æóðíàëà àêðîíèì áûñòðî ðàñïðîñòðàíèëñÿ â íàó÷íûõ è íåíàó÷íûõ êðóãàõ. Âòîðûì èç âûøåóêàçàííûõ ôàêòîðîâ ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè ÄÍÊ ÿâèëîñü èññêóñòâî. Ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè ÄÍÊ ñîïóòñòâîâàë ýñòåòè- ÷åñêèé ïîòåíöèàë åå ñòðóêòóðû. Òîíêîå ñî÷åòàíèå îêðóãëîé ôîðìû äâîéíîé ñïèðàëè è îùóùåíèå áåñêîíå÷íîñòè äâóõ äëèííûõ öåïåé äåçîêñèðèáîçû è ôîñôîðíîé êèñëîòû ïðèâëåê- ëè âíèìàíèå ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ìèðà èññêóñòâà. Íåñïåöèàëèñòîâ áèîõèìèè âåðîÿòíî çàèíòåðåñîâàëà âèçóàëüíî ïðèÿòíàÿ è ëåãêî çàïîìèíàþùàÿñÿ ñòðóêòóðà ñëîæíîé ìîëåêóëû. Â ðåçóëüòàòå, áîëüøèíñòâî õóäîæíèêîâ-àâàíãàðäèñòîâ 20-ãî âåêà ñ ýíòó- çèàçìîì ïðèâåòñòâîâàëè ñòðóêòóðó, îïèñàííóþ Óîòñîíîì è Êðèêîì. Êñòàòè, îäíèì èç ñàìûõ áîëüøèõ ïîêëîííèêîâ ìîëå- êóëû áûë õóäîæíèê Ñàëüâàäîð Äàëè êîòîðûé èñïîëüçîâàë ñòðóêòóðó ÄÍÊ âî ìíîãèõ ñâîèõ êàðòèíàõ, òàêèõ êàê Galacidalacidesoxyribonucleicacid, La escalera de Jacob (Ëåñòíèöà Èàêîâà), La estructura del ADN, (ñòðóêòóðû ÄÍÊ), Arabes aciddesoxiribonucleics, Paisajede Mariposa, El Gran masturbador EN Paisaje surrealista (Áàáî÷êà ëàíäøàôòà è Âåëèêèé ìàñòóð- áàòîð â ñþððåàëèñòè÷åñêîì ïåéçàæå ñ ÄÍÊ). Êðîìå òîãî, ìíîãèå äðóãèå õóäîæíèêè, ñêóëüïòîðû, àðõè-

136 òåêòîðû èñïîëüçîâàëè ýëåãàíòíîñòü ôîðìû è ïðîïîðöèè ìîëå- êóëû, êàê òåìó äëÿ ñàìîâûðàæåíèÿ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, èñêóññòâî ñòàëî ñðåäñòâîì ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè ìîëåêóëû ÄÍÊ â ýìîöèîíàëüíîì ñëèÿíèè íàóêè è èñêóññòâà, äâóõ îòäåëüíûõ è ïðåäåëüíî îòëè÷àþùèõñÿ äðóã îò äðóãà ìèðîâ. Áóäó÷è ñâÿçàííîé ñ ïîíÿòèåì æèçíè, áîëåå òîãî, áóäó÷è îòîæäåñòâëåííîé ñ ñàìèì ñóùåñòâîâàíèåì, ýòî îðãàíè÷åñêàÿ öåïü ñòàëà “ñâÿùåííîé ìîëåêóëîé”, “Ôèëîñîôñêèì êàìíåì”, ñâîåãî ðîäà íà÷àëîì âñåãî, ïðèîáðåòàÿ “ìèôè÷åñêîå” çíà÷åíèå â ïîïóëÿðíîé êóëüòóðå. Ìîëåêóëà ïðèîáðåëà «Áîæåñòâåííûé» õàðàêòåð íà ìîìåíò ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ïðîåêòà “Ãåíîì ÷åëîâåêà“ (Human Genome Project (HGP)) â 2000 ãîäó. Áûâøèé ïðåçèäåíò ÑØÀ Áèëë Êëèíòîí ñâÿçàë ýòó èäåþ ñ ïîïóëÿðíîé ÿçûêîâîé ìåòàôîðîé (ÄÍÊ = ÿçûê): «Ñåãîäíÿ ìû èçó÷àåì ÿçûê, íà êîòîðîì Áîã ñîçäàë æèçíü». (“Today, we are learning the language in which God created life”). (2). Êîíöåïöèÿ æèçíè ìîëåêóëû ÷àñòî ïîäêðåïëÿåòñÿ ïîíÿòèåì áåññìåðòèÿ. ÄÍÊ “áåññìåðòíàÿ ñïèðàëü” (immortal spiral), ñêàçàë Ðè÷àðä Äîêèíç. (The selfish gene, Chapter 3, DNA, immortal coil) Ýòà ìåòàôîðà äîñòèãàåò äâóõ ðåçóëüòàòîâ: ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå «Ñïèðàëü» íàïîìèíàåò 3-õ ìåðíóþ ôîðìó ñïèðàëè öåïåé ÄÍÊ, è, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ïðèëà- ãàòåëüíîå “áåññìåðòíàÿ” îáîçíà÷àåò íåèçìåííîñòü ìîëåêóëû ïåðåäàþùååñÿ ïîêîëåíèÿìè ëþäåé. Â äðóãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ, ÄÍÊ ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ êàê “âûñøàÿ” (supreme) ìîëåêóëà, «âå÷íàÿ» (eternal) ìîëåêóëà, ÷òî ïðèäàåò åé îíòîëîãè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå, êîòîðîå ñîâåðøåííî íåîáû÷íî äëÿ õèìè÷åñêîãî âåùåñòâà. Ýòà õàðàêòåðèñòèêà “ìîëåêóëû æèçíè” âíîâü âíåñëà åùå áîëüøóþ çàèíòåðåñîâàííîñòü â åå ïîíèìàíèè, êîòîðîå, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, äàëî èìïóëüñ äëÿ åå ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè. ×åòâåðòûé ôàêòîð ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè êàñàåòñÿ íàáîðà ìåòàôîð, êîòîðûå óêðåïèëè ñòàòóñ ÄÍÊ êàê ïîïóëÿðíîãî îáúåêòà. Íàèáîëåå ïîïóëÿðíîé ìåòàôîðîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ ìåòàôîðà èíôîð- ìàöèè (ÄÍÊ = èíôîðìàöèè). Ýòî ñòàðàÿ àññîöèàöèè èäåé, êîòîðàÿ âîñõîäèò ê èñòîêàì ãåíåòèêè, êîãäà áûëè òîëüêî èññëåäîâàíû ìîëåêóëû (ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî ñ÷èòàþùèåñÿ áåëêàìè), êîòîðûå äîëæíû áûëè ñîäåðæàòü èíôîðìàöèþ êîòîðàÿ äàâàëà

137 áû âîçìîæíîñòü äóáëèêàöèè êëåòîê è îðãàíèçìîâ. Â ýòîì òèïå ìîäåëè ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè, ÄÍÊ áûëà èäåíòèôèöèðîâàíà ñî ìíîãèìè îáúåêòàìè ïîâñåäíåâíîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñïîñîáíûìè õðàíèòü èíôîðìàöèþ: êîìïüþòåðíûé ôàéë æèâûõ ñóùåñòâ, áàçû äàííûõ äëÿ êàæäîãî âèäà èëè áèáëèîòåêó õðàíÿùóþ âñþ èíôîðìàöèþ î ëè÷íîñòè (a computer file of living beings, a database for each species or a library with all the information about an individual). Äëÿ Äîêèíçà, ÄÍÊ ÷åëîâåêà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé «èíñòðóêöèþ äëÿ ñòðîåíèÿ æèâîãî ñóùåñòâà “èëè” äèçàéí àðõèòåêòîðà äëÿ ñòðîèòåëüñòâà çäàíèÿ (“user guide to build a living being” or “the architect’s designs to build a building”). ÄÍÊ ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé îñîáóþ ìîëåêóëó: îíà ñîäåðæèò âàæíóþ èíôîðìàöèþ, (îíà ïîçâîëÿåò âîñïðîèçâîäñòâî) îíà çàêîäèðîâàííà(àçîòèñòûå îñíîâàíèÿ ñîñòàâëÿþò êîä äëÿ äåêî- äèðîâàíèÿ). ÄÍÊ ñêðûâàåò ”Òàéíó æèçíè» (secret of life), êàê Êðèê è Óîòñîí îáúÿâèëè 28 ôåâðàëÿ 1953 ãîäà êëèåíòàì ïàáà “Îðåë“, â Êåìáðèäæå, ïðè ïðàçäíîâàíèè îòêðûòèÿ ñòðóêòóðû. Ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå òàéíà, êîä è ãëàãîëû, äåêîäèðîâàòü, ðàñøèô- ðîâàòü, âñåãäà áûëè ñâÿçàíû ñ ìîëåêóëîé, òàêèì îáðàçîì îêðó- æèâ åå îðåîëîì íåÿñíîãî, òàèíñòâåííîãî, íåïîíÿòíîãî è ñêðû- òîãî. Â ñàìîì äåëå, òàéíà, îêðóæàþùàÿ ÄÍÊ òàêæå áûëà âèäè- ìîé äâèæóùåé ñèëîé äëÿ åå ïîïóëÿðíîãî ñòàòóñà â îáùåñòâå. Ñâÿçü ìåòàôîðû ñ èíôîðìàöèåé ïðèâåëà ê ðÿäó áåññïîðíî ýôôåêòèâíûõ îáðàçîâ, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ òåêñòàìè è áóêâàìè. Ýòà ìîäåëü (ÄÍÊ = ÿçûê èëè òåêñò( DNA = language or text) ) íà îñíîâå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòè àçîòèñòûõ îñíîâàíèé â öåïè ìîëå- êóëû, íàñòîÿùèé ñåêðåò æèçíè, ïðåäñòàâëåíûé âñåãî ÷åòûðüìÿ áóêâàìè: À (àäåíèí), Ñ (öèòîçèí), G (ãóàíèí) è Ò (òèìèí). Ýòîò íîâûé àëôàâèò ïðèâåë ê íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîé ìåòàôîðå, ýòî ÷åòûðå áóêâû àëôàâèòà (àçîòèñòûå îñíîâàíèÿ) ñîñòàâëÿåò òåêñò (ÄÍÊ), êîòîðûé îòëè÷àåòñÿ äëÿ êàæäîãî æèâîãî ñóùåñòâà. Ýòî ïîäðàçóìåâàþò äàëüíåéøèå ìåòàôîðû: ÄÍÊ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñâîåãî ðîäà “Îòïå÷àòêàìè ïàëüöåâ” èëè “ID” (“fingerprints” “ID”), óíèêàëüíîé äëÿ êàæäîãî ÷åëîâåêà. Îáû÷íî ìåòàôîðà òåêñòà ïðèâîäèò ê âûâîäó, ÷òî òåêñò ìîæåò áûòü «ñêîïèðîâàí» òàê, êàê ïîðÿäîê áóêâ ïîçâîëÿåò îáåñïå÷èòü ðàçëè÷íûå ðåïðîäóêöèè. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìîæíî îáúÿñíèòü òàéíó æèçíè, ò.å. êëåòêè ìîãóò áûòü âîñïðîèçâåäåíû è ÷åëîâå÷åñêèå ñóùåñòâà ìîãóò ïîýòîìó ðàçìíîæàòüñÿ. Ìîäåëü ÄÍÊ – òåêñò ñ îïðåäåëåííûìè áóêâàìè øèðîêî

138 èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ó÷èòåëÿìè, æóðíàëèñòàìè è íàó÷íûìè ïîïóëÿ- ðèçàòîðàìè. Äðóãîé ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîé ñòðàòåãèåé ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè ÿâëÿåòñÿ ìåòàôîðà (ÄÍÊ = øàáëîí). Ýòà ìîäåëü ïîäõîäèò äëÿ îáúÿñíåíèÿ ïðîöåññà ðåïëèêàöèè ÄÍÊ è óæå áûëà ââåäåíà Óîòñîíîì è Êðèêîì â íàó÷íîé ñòàòüå, îïóáëèêîâàííîé â êîíöå àïðåëÿ 1953 ãîäà. Ìåòàôîðà ñâÿçûâàåò îáúåêò ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè,øàáëîíà, ñ êàæäîé èç ñïèðàëåé îðãàíè÷åñêîé ìîëåêóëû. Óîòñîí è Êðèê (1) îïèñàëè åå, ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: “Òåïåðü íàøà ìîäåëü äåçîêñèðèáîíóêëåèíîâîé êèñëîòû, ïî ñóòè, ïàðà øàáëîíîâ, êàæäûé èç êîòîðûõ ÿâëÿåòñÿ äîïîëíåíèåì ê äðóãó. Êàæäàÿ öåïü äåéñòâóåò êàê øàáëîí äëÿ ôîðìèðîâàíèå íîâîé ñîïóòñòâóþùåé öåïè, òàê ÷òî â êîíöå êîíöîâ ìû áóäåì èìåòü äâå ïàðû öåïåé òàì ãäå ó íàñ áûëà ðàíåå òîëüêî îäíà “Now our model for deoxyribonucleic acid is, in effect, a pair of templates, each of which is complementary to the other. [...] Each chain then acts as a template for the formation on to itself of a new companion chain, so that eventually we shall have two pairs of chains, where we only had one before.” (J.D. Watson, F. H. C. Crick, “Genetical implications of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid”, (4). Ñòàíîâÿñü âñå áîëåå è áîëåå ïîïóëÿðíîé, ÄÍÊ ïîñòåïåííî ñòàëà îòïðàâíîé òî÷êîé äëÿ íîâûõ îáðàçîâ, ñðàâíåíèé è ìåòàôîð, è ýòî îòëè÷íûé ïðèìåð òîãî, ÷òî î÷åíü ñïåöèàëè- çèðîâàííûå ñëîâà ìîãóò áûòü ñóáñòðàòîì äëÿ ôèãóðû ðå÷è äëÿ îáúÿñíåíèÿ äðóãèõ êîíöåïöèé, íàó÷íûõ è îáùåñòâåííî íàó÷íûõ. Â ýòèõ íîâûõ ìåòàôîðàõ, ÄÍÊ èñïîëüçîâàëè, ÷òîáû ñâÿçàòü åå ñ òàêèìè ïîíÿòèÿìè, êàê: ïåðåïëåòåíèå, îáüÿòèÿ, îáúåäè- íåíèå, ñîçäàíèå, âîññîçäàíèå, îêðóæåíèå, òåñòèðîâàíèå. Âîò íåñêîëüêî ïðèìåðîâ: Â îäíîé ñòàòüå áûëî ñêàçàíî, ÷òî äèíàìèêà îðãàíèçàöèè òðåáóþò “ÄÍÊ”, òî åñòü “äâå öåïè äîëæíû áûòü ñîåäèíåíû ÷òî áû ñîçäàòü ÷òî-òî íîâîå è óíè- êàëüíîå “. Â ïåðâîì ñëó÷àå ÄÍÊ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ, ÷òîáû ïðîäå- ìîíñòðèðîâàòü, ÷òî äëÿ íàäëåæàùåãî ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ îðãà- íèçàöèè, íåîáõîäèìî ñîåäèíåíèå äâóõ âåòâåé îðãàíîãðàììà ñ öåëüþ ñîçäàíèÿ ëó÷øåé ðàáî÷åé ãðóïïû. Âòîðîé ïðèìåð àíàëîãè÷åí ïåðâîìó. Êîãäà Êðèê óøåë èç æèçíè, êòî-òî ñêàçàë, ÷òî “ñòðóêòóðà ÄÍÊ áîëüøå íå ïàðíà”. Â ýòîì ñëó÷àå âèòàÿ ñòðóêòóðà ìîëåêóëû îòðàæàëà ñâÿçü ìåæäó äâóìÿ ó÷åíûìè, êîòîðûå îáíàðóæèëè åå.

139 Êðîìå òîãî, êîíöåïöèÿ ÄÍÊ áûëà íåîäíîêðàòíî ïðèìå- íåíà â þðèäè÷åñêîì êîíòåêñòå, ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ íåïîãðåøèìîñòü ìîëåêóëû â ðåøåíèè íåêîòîðûõ äåë. Ðàññìîòðèì ýòî íà îðèãèíàëüíîì ïðèìåðå: “The backpack found unexploded on the 11th March in Madrid was the DNA to the attack”. (ïðåäëîæåíèå èç èíòåðâüþ ñ Õóàíîì Ïåäðî Âàëåíòèíîì, äèðåêòîðîì èíôîðìàöèîííûõ óñëóã Òåëå 5 â Èñïàíèè âî âðåìÿ îáçîðà íîâîñòåé “72 horas, del 11-M al 14-M”, òðàíñëèðóåìîãî Òåëå 5 7-ãî ìàðòà 2005 ãîäà. Çäåñü, DNA ïðèîáðåëî çíà÷åíèå Ãîðäèåâà óçëà (a Gordian knot) â ðàññëåäîâàíèè äåëà, ãäå íàéäåííûé îáüåêò ÿâèëñÿ êàðòîé âåäóùåé ê ïðåñòóïíèêàì. Êðîìå òîãî, ìåòàôîðû ìîãóò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíû äëÿ óñèëåíèÿ çíà÷åíèÿ. Îá îäíîì Áðèòàíñêîì êîíñåðâàòèâíîì ïîëèòèêå áûëî çàÿâëåííî, ÷òî “åâðîñêåïòèöèçì ñèäèò â åãî ÄÍÊ”, èëè, ÷òî Áîñòîí Ðåä Ñîêñ “(áåéñáîëüíàÿ êîìàíäà), ÿâëÿåòñÿ ÷àñòüþ ÄÍÊ ãîðîäà”. ÄÍÊ ìåòàôîðà îñîáåííî ëþáèìà îðãàíèçàöèÿìè, ñòðåìÿùèìèñÿ ïîâûñèòü ïîëîæè- òåëüíûé êîðïîðàòèâíûé èìèäæ. Åñëè âàøà êîìïàíèÿ óòâåðæ- äàåò, ÷òî íåêîòîðûå æåëàòåëüíûå êà÷åñòâà “ÿâëÿåòñÿ ÷àñòüþ âàøåé ÄÍÊ”, ýòî áîëåå âïå÷àòëÿþùå, ÷åì ïðîñòî óòâåðæäåíèå, ÷òî âû ïîëíû ðåøèìîñòè. Âîò íåñêîëüêî ïðèìåðîâ: Cafedirect is about ethics and value – these are part of our DNA. (5) He highlighted the importance of university research in helping Shell improve. “Technology is in our DNA,” he said. (Ph. Watts, The reporter) Innovation is imbued in Suntech’s DNA, and … our R and D professionals are committed to continually improve how we harness solar energy. (8) Innovation is part of the Asian DNA and as an Asian bank, all of us in DBS embody the same entrepreneurial spirit. (7) Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îïèñàíèå ýòîé ñòðóêòóðû ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî ÄÍÊ ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ìîëåêóëó, áîãàòóþ íàó÷íûìè è ñîöèàëüíûìè çíà÷åíèÿìè. Îíà îáëàäàåò óíèêàëüíîñòüþ, ñïî- ñîáíîñòüþ êîïèðîâàòü, êîïèðîâàòü ñåáÿ, âîñïðîèçâîäèòü. Áîëåå òîãî îíà èìïîíèðóåò õóäîæíèêàì, ñêóëüïòîðàì è ëþäÿì íå èìåþùèì îòíåøåíèå ê íàóêå. Îíà ÿâëÿåòñÿ æèçíüþ, áåññìåð- òèåì, îíà äåëàåò âñå æèâûå ñóùåñòâà ðàâíûìè è, â òî æå âðåìÿ, îíà äèôôåðåíöèðóåò èõ. Ýòè îñîáåííîñòè ÄÍÊ îáúÿñ- íÿþò åå ãëóáîêîå ïðîíèêíîâåíèå â êîëëåêòèâûå îáðàçû è íåêîòîðûå çíàêîâûå è ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ êîííîòàöèè.

140 Â âåê êîììóíèêàöèé è îáùåñòâà çíàíèé, ÄÍÊ ñòàëà ñèì- âîëîì âðåìåíè, âåêà, áóäó÷è ìîëåêóëîé, ñïîñîáíîé ïðåäñòà- âèòü âåñü îáðàç æèçíè è ìûøëåíèÿ.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. J. D. Watson; F. H. C. Crick, (1953) “The molecular structure of nucleic acids. A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid” Nature 171, 737-738 2. The New York Times on the web/ Reading the book of life http://partners.nytimes.com/library/national/science/062700sci- genome-text.html 3. Richard Dawkins The selfish gene, Chapter 3, DNA, immortal coil http://pratclif.com/biologie-moleculaire/dawkins. htm 4. J.D. Watson, F. H. C. Crick, (1953) “Genetical implications of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid”, Nature, 171, b, p. 964- 967 5. Sentence taken from an interview with Juan Pedron Valentín, director of the news services of Tele 5, in Spain, in the news report “72 horas, del 11-M al 14-M”, broadcast by Tele 5 on 7-3-2005. The other examples are taken respectively from the following Neil Croft “Authentic”, 2003, p 120 6. Sentence taken from the interview with Philip Watts by The reporter, “Shell leader returns to Leeds”, no 486, Nov.25, 2002 http://reporter.leeds.ac.uk/486/s8.htm 7. DBC annual report, http://www.dbs.com/annualreports/2010/ celebrating_new_asia.pdf 8. Photovoltaic Production, March 2012, http://www.photo voltaic-production.com/3192/suntech-sets-new-record/

141 Êàðàïåòÿí È. Êàðàïåòÿí Ý. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ

ÎÏÒÈÌÀËÜÍÀß ÌÎÄÅËÜ ÒÅÑÒÎÂÎÃÎ ÊÎÍÒÐÎËß ÑÔÎÐÌÈÐÎÂÀÍÍÎÑÒÈ ÊÎÌÌÓÍÈÊÀÒÈÂÍÎÉ ÊÎÌÏÅÒÅÍÖÈÈ

THE OPTIMAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE TESTING

ABSTRACT The article deals with the problem of testing communicative competence taking into account its different models and approaches. It touches upon the problem of overcoming pre-scientific stage of testing through creating testing centers and chairs, organizing special courses on testing, working out and applying communicative tests for oral and written proficiency assessment.

Â ïðîöåññå îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì â ÍÊÐ è ÐÀ, ïðè ñîñòàâëåíèè òåñòîâ äëÿ âñòóïèòåëüíûõ ýêçàìåíîâ, è ïðè ñîçäàíèè ó÷åáíèêîâ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ äëÿ îáùåîáðàçîâà- òåëüíîé øêîëû âîîáùå, è äëÿ ñòàðøåé øêîëû â ÷àñòíîñòè, ñîâðåìåííûå ìîäåëè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè íå ó÷òå- íû â äîëæíîé ìåðå. Àðìÿíñêîå ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîå ñîîáùåñòâî îñîçíàåò, ÷òî áûñò- ðûìè òåìïàìè èçìåíÿþòñÿ öåëè îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçû- êàì. Àêöåíò ñìåùàåòñÿ íà ïðàêòè÷åñêóþ íàïðàâëåííîñòü îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì. Îáó÷åíèå èíîñòðàííûì ÿçû- êàì ïðåäïîëàãàåò, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ïðèîáðåòåíèå êîììóíèêà- òèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Èñõîäÿ èç ýòîãî, ó÷åíûå ðàçðàáàòûâàþò ðàçëè÷íûå çàäàíèÿ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ óðîâíÿ ñôîðìèðîâàííîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Àíàëèç ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåé ìåòîäè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû ïîêà- çûâàåò, ÷òî ïðè òåñòèðîâàíèè íàâûêîâ è óìåíèé óñòíîé è ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è ó÷åíûå èñõîäÿò èç ðàçëè÷íûõ ìîäåëåé 142 êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ìîäåëè êîììó- íèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè è ìîäåëè òåñòèðîâàíèÿ ñôîðìèðî- âàííîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè ñîäåðæàòåëüíî è ôóíêöèîíàëüíî âçàèìîñâÿçàíû. Á. Ñïîëñêè åùå ê êîíöó 20-ãî âåêà âûäåëÿåò òðè ýòàïà ðàçâèòèÿ òåñòèðîâàíèÿ: 1. äîíàó÷íûé, èëè òðàäèöèîííûé ýòàï, íà êîòîðîì èçìåðåíèå ïðè êîíòðîëå îñíîâûâàåòñÿ ëèøü íà îáùåì âïå÷àòëåíèè ýêçàìåíàòî-ðà(îâ); 2. ïñèõîìåòðè÷åñêè-ñòðóêòóðàëèñòñêèé, èëè ñîâðå- ìåííûé, ýòàï, íà êîòîðîì èçìåðÿåòñÿ óðîâåíü âëàäåíèÿ îòäåëüíûìè âèäàìè ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, â îñíîâíîì, ñ ïîìîùüþ òåñòîâ ôîðìàòà «ìíîæåñòâåííûé âûáîð». Â ñòðåìëåíèè ñîçäàòü îáúåêòèâíûå è íàäåæíûå òåñòû òåñòîëîãè íåäîñòàòî÷íî âíèìàíèÿ óäåëÿþò èõ âàëèäíîñòè è àóòåíòè÷íîñòè. 3. ïñèõî-ñîöèîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé, èëè ïîñò-ñîâðåìåííûé, ýòàï, ïà êîòîðîì ðåøàþòñÿ ïðîáëåìû ñîîòâåòñòâèÿ òåñòîâ ðåàëüíûì æèçíåííûì ñèòóàöèÿì è îáåñïå÷åíèÿ èõ âûñîêîé âàëèäíîñòè è àóòåíòè÷íîñòè (20: 10-11). Ñ ó÷åòîì ïîäõîäà Ñïîëñêîãî, ìîæíî â îáùèõ ÷åðòàõ îïðå- äåëèòü íà êàêîì ýòàïå ðàçâèòèÿ íàõîäÿòñÿ àðìÿíñêîå ìåòî- äè÷åñêîå ñîîáùåñòâî íà íûíåøíåì ýòàïå. Ïî ñóòè, òîëüêî 2004 ãîäó â ÐÀ ñîçäàí Öåíòð îöåíêè è òåñòèðîâàíèÿ çíàíèé Àðìåíèè (24). Â ÐÀ è ÍÊÐ íå ñîçäàíû äî ñèõ ïîð êàôåäðû òåñòîëîãèè. Òåñòû ñîñòàâëÿþò îïûòíûå ïðåïîäàâàòåëè è ó÷èòåëÿ. Òîëüêî íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ ïðîøëè ñòàæèðîâêó â çàïàäíûõ ïåðåäîâûõ óíèâåðñèòåòàõ. Â îñíîâíîì íàøè òåñòîëîãè, ïåðåä òåì, êàê ðàçðàáîòàòü òåñòû, íå îïðåäåëÿþò ïðèíöèïû è ìåòîäû ñîñòàâ- ëåíèÿ òåñòîâ. Îíè ÷åòêî íå ðàçëè÷àþò ïðåïîäàâàòåëüñêèå/ íåñòàíäàðòèçèðîâàííûå è ñòàíäàðòèçèðîâàííûå òåñòû. Âïåðâûå Õîìñêèé â ñâîåé ôóíäàìåíòàëüíîé êíèãå “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” ÷åòêî ðàçëè÷èë ïîíÿòèÿ «competence (çíàíèÿ î ÿçûêå ìîíîëèíãâàëüíîãî ãîâîðÿùåãî/ñëóøàòåëÿ) è «performance» (äåéñòâèòåëüíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêà â ðåàëüíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ) (14). Â îòëè÷èå îò Õîìñêîãî, Âèäîóñîí äèôôåðåíöèðîâàë ïîíÿ- òèÿ «êîìïåòåíöèÿ» (competence) è «ñïîñîáíîñòü» (capacity) (23). Îí îïðåäåëèë äàííûå ïîíÿòèÿ â ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîì è

143 äèñêóðñèâíîì àñïåêòàõ. Ñîãëàñíî Âèäîóñîí: «óìåíèå íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ êîìïîíåíòîì êîìïåòåíöèè, à îñòàåòñÿ äâèæóùåé ñèëîé ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîé êðåàòèâíîñòè, íàïðèìåð: Õîëèäåé îïðåäåëèë ðåàëèçàöèþ ýòîé ñèëû ïîíÿòèåì «ïîòåíöèàëüíîå çíà÷åíèå» “meaning potential” (23:27). Áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ìåòîäèêè ïðåïî- äàâàíèÿ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ ðàçëè÷åíèå Ñàâèíãòîíîì ïîíÿ- òèé «communicative competence» è «linguistic competence» (19). Â åãî êîíöåïöèè íà ïåðâûé ïëàí èññëåäîâàíèÿ âûñòóïàþò ïàðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå ôàêòîðû, ò.å. íå òîëüêî âåðáàüëíûå è íå âåðáàëüíûå ñðåäñòâà êîììóíèêàöèè. Çíà÷åíèå äàííîãî ïîäõîäà òðóäíî íåäîîöåíèòü, òàê êàê áûëà ïîñòàâëåíà äîñòàòî÷íî òðóäíî ðàçðåøèìàÿ ïðîáëåìà. Ó÷åíûå: ìåòîäèñòû, ëèíãâèñòû è íåïîñðåäñòâåííî òåñòîëîãè îñîçíàëè íåîáõîäèìîñòü îñóùåñò- âëåíèÿ òåñòîâîãî êîíòðîëÿ çíàíèé, óìåíèé è íàâûêîâ ó÷àùèõ- ñÿ, ñ ó÷åòîì íå òîëüêî âåðáàëüíûõ, íî è íå âåðáàëüíûõ ñðåäñòâ êîììóíèêàöèè. Ïàëòðèäæ ñôîðìóëèðîâàë èäåþ î òîì, ÷òî êîììóíèêà- òèâíîå ÿçûêîâîå òåñòèðîâàíèå íàöåëåíî íà èçìåðåíèå óìåíèé ó÷àùèõñÿ âûïîëíÿòü «ðåàëüíûå æèçíåííûå» çàäàíèÿ (18). Â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ åãî êîíöåïöèè, òåñòû äîëæíû áûòü êðèòåðèàëü- íî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûìè1 è èìåòü âûñîêèé óðîâåíü 1) âàëèä- íîñòè â ïëàíå ñîäåðæàíèÿ, 2) âàëèäíîñòè â ïëàí êîíñòðóêòà, è 3) ïðîãíîñòè÷åñêîé âàëèäíîñòè ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ýòèõ êðè- òåðèåâ. Â öåëîì, Ïàëòðèäæ (18) ïðîöåññóàëüíî ïîêàçûâàåò, êàê ïðîâåðÿåòñÿ äîñòîâåðíîñòü êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî òåñòèðîâàíèÿ. Êîììóíèêàòèâíîå òåñòèðîâàíèå äîëæíî, ñîãëàñíî ýòîé òåîðèè, ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ íà òðåõ óðîâíÿõ: íà óðîâíå âàëèäíîñòè ñîäåðæàíèÿ, íà óðîâíå âàëèäíîñòè êîíñòðóêòà, è íà óðîâíå âàëèäíîñòè ïðîãíîçà. Ïî ðåçóëüòàòàì ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ èññëå- äîâàíèé, Âåðõîâåí è Âåðìååð (21) ñäåëàëè âûâîä î òîì, ÷òî âîçìîæíî îñóùåñòâëÿòü êîíòðîëü êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïå- òåíöèè. Ñ òå÷åíèåì âðåìåíè âñå áîëüøåå âëèÿíèå íà ëèíãâîäè-

1 (criterion-referenced test). Òåðìèí ïðåäëîæåí Ð. Ãëàñåðîì (1963 ã.). Ê.-î. ò. âûÿâëÿåò òî, ÷òî èíäèâèä çíàåò è ìîæåò äåëàòü, à íå òî, êàê åãî ðåçóëüòàòû ñîîòíîñÿòñÿ ñ ðåçóëüòàòàìè äðóãèõ òåñòèðóåìûõ, ò. å. òèï òåñòîâ, ïðåäíàç- íà÷åííûõ äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ óðîâíÿ îáó÷åííîñòè èñïûòóåìûõ îòíîñèòåëüíî íåêîòîðîãî êðèòåðèÿ, à íå îòíîñèòåëüíî ãðóïïîâûõ íîðì. 144 äàêòè÷åñêîå òåñòèðîâàíèå ñòàëà îêàçûâàòü òåîðèÿ êîììóíè- êàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè Õàéìçà (D. Hymes), êîòîðàÿ çíà÷è- òåëüíî ðàñøèðèëà êðóã àñïåêòîâ, âîâëåêàåìûõ â ïîíèìàíèå ïðèðîäû ÿçûêà è åãî ïðèìåíåíèÿ â ñîöèàëüíî-äåòåðìè- íèðîâàííûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ (16:15-19). Îí âûäâèíóë èäåþ î òîì, ÷òî «âëàäåíèå ÿçûêîì ïðåäïî- ëàãàåò çíàíèå íå òîëüêî ãðàììàòèêè è ëåêñèêè, íî è ñîöèàëü- íûõ óñëîâèé èõ óïîòðåáëåíèÿ» (16:269-293). Â èíîÿçû÷íóþ êîììóíèêàòèâíóþ êîìïåòåíöèþ îí âêëþ÷àåò ñëåäóþùèå êîìïåòåíöèè: ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêóþ (ïðàâèëà ÿçûêà); ñîöèàëüíî- ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêóþ (ïðàâèëà äèàëåêòíîé ðå÷è); äèñêóðñèâíóþ (ïðàâèëà ïîñòðîåíèÿ ñìûñëîâîãî âûñêàçûâàíèÿ); ñòðàòåãè- ÷åñêóþ (ïðàâèëà ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà ñ ñîáåñåäíèêîì) (4:12). Ïðè ðàçðàáîòêå ðàçëè÷íûõ òåñòîâûõ çàäàíèé òåñòîëîãè ó÷èòûâàþò ðàçëè÷íûå ìîäåëè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, à òàêæå ó÷èòûâàþò òå ôàêòîðû, êîòîðûå âëèÿþò íà âàëèäíîñòü, òî÷íîñòü, íàäåæíîñòü, îáúåêòèâíîñòü è äîñòîâåðíîñòü òåñòè- ðîâàíèÿ. Â ðàìêàõ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ, ïðåäñòàâ- ëåííîãî ìîäåëÿìè Ì.Êàíàëÿ è Ì.Ñâåéíà, à òàêæå Ë.Áàõìàíà, êîòîðîå îñíîâûâàåò îöåíêó êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè íà îïðåäåëåíèè ñòåïåíè ðàçâèòîñòè êîìïîíåíòîâ êîììóíèêà- òèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, âîçíèê ïîäõîä íà îáó÷åíèå è òåñòèðîâà- íèå, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà îáùåå âëàäåíèå ÿçûêîì (proficiency- oriented), êîòîðûé áûë ïðèíÿò ACTFL â 1982 ã. (5:54). Â ìîäåëè Êàíàëÿ è Ñóýéíà, áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò ñòðàòåãè÷åñêàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ ñîñòîèò èç çíàíèÿ î âåðáàëüíûõ è íåâåðáàëüíûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñòðàòåãèé. Äàííûå ñòðàòåãèè íàïðàâëåíû íà êîìïåíñàöèþ íåóäà÷ èëè ïðîâàëîâ ïðîöåññà êîììóíèêàöèè. Ýòè ñòðàòåãèè âêëþ÷àþò ïåðåôðàçèðîâàíèå, èíîñêàçàíèå, ïàðàôðàç(à), ïîâòîðåíèå, íåæåëàíèå, èçáåãàíèå ñëîâ, ñòðóêòóðû èëè òåìû, äîãàäêó, èçìåíåíèÿ ðåãèñòðà è ñòèëÿ, ìîäèôèêàöèþ ñîîáùåíèé è ò.ä. Íåñìîòðÿ íà ïðîñòîòó ìîäåëè Êàíàëÿ è Ñóýéíà, ýòà ìîäåëü äîìèíèðîâàëà â òåîðèè óñâîåíèÿ è òåñòèðîâàíèÿ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ áîëåå ÷åì äåñÿòè ëåò. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî òî, ÷òî òåíäåíöèÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ èëè îáðàùåíèÿ ê ýòîé ìîäåëè ñîõðàíÿåòñÿ äàæå ïîñëå ïîÿâëåíèÿ â ñâåò ôóíäàìåíòàëüíûõ ðàáîò ïî òåñòèðîâàíèþ Áàõìàíà è Ïàëüìåðà (12). Èìåííî îíè ðàçðàáîòàëè áîëåå âñåîáúåìëþùóþ ìîäåëü êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè.

145 Â 1983 Êàíàëü îáíîâèë ýòó ìîäåëü, îïðåäåëÿÿ îñíîâíûå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè ñîöèîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Â ðåçóëü- òàòå îí îáîñíîâàë öåëåñîîáðàçíîñòü ðàññìîòðåíèÿ åùå îäíîãî êîìïîíåíòà êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè – äèñêóðñèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Îñíîâíîå äîñòîèíñòâî äàííîé ìîäåëè ÿâëÿåòñÿ òî, ÷òî ÷åòêî ðàçãðàíè÷åíû êîìïåòåíöèÿ è ñïîñîáíîñòè, â òîì ïëàíå, ÷òî äîëæíû áûòü òåñòèðîâàíû íå òîëüêî ÿçûêîâûå çíàíèÿ ó÷àùèõñÿ, íî è èõ óìåíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàòü ýòè çíàíèÿ â ðàçíûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ (13). Ìîäåëè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, ðàçðàáîòàííûå Êàíàëåì, Ñóýéíîì è Áàõìàíîì ÿâëÿþòñÿ öåííûìè è çíà÷è- òåëüíûìè â èñòîðèè òåñòîëîãèè, òàê êàê ñïîñîáñòâîâàëè ðàçðàáîòêå íîâûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ òåñòîâ (22). Ïî ñóòè, êîììóíèêàòèâíûå ÿçûêîâûå òåñòû ÿâëÿþòñÿ âàëèäíûìè â ïëàíå ñîäåðæàíèÿ. Çäåñü ðå÷ü èäåò î ïðàâèëüíîì êîììóíèêàòèâíîì ïîâåäåíèè íå íîñèòåëÿ ÿçûêà â ðàçíûõ ðåàëüíûõ æèçíåííûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ. Ïî ìíåíèþ Âåéðà: “Òåñòû êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñïîñîáíîñòåé äîëæíû èìåòü êîíêðåòíûé àäðåñàò, ìîäåëèðîâàòü ñèòóàöèè “ðåàëüíîé æèçíè”, è òåñòèðóåìûå äîëæíû âûïîëíÿòü çàäàíèÿ, êîòîðûå ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ðåàëüíûå îòðûâêè äèñêóðñà» (22:12). Îí âûñòóïàåò çà èñïîëüçîâàíèå àóòåíòè÷íûõ òåêñòîâ, ñ ó÷¸òîì äëèíû çàäàíèÿ è âðåìåíè åãî âûïîëíåíèÿ. Âàæíûì àñïåêòîì ñîñòàâëåíèÿ è ïðèìåíåíèÿ êîììóíè- êàòèâíûõ òåñòîâ ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáúåêòèâíàÿ îöåíêà. Ñîãëàñíî Ìî- ðîó: «òåñòû äîëæíû áûòü îöåíåíû êà÷åñòâåííî, à íå êîëè÷åñò- âåííî» (17). Òàêîé ïîäõîä ôîðìèðîâàëñÿ ñ áèõåâèîðèñòñêèõ ïîçèöèé, â òîì ïëàíå, ÷òî àêöåíò äåëàåòñÿ íå íà ïðîâåðêó çíàíèé, à óìåíèé è íàâûêîâ. Ýòî îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî äëÿ ïðîõîæ- äåíèÿ òåñòà, òåñòèðóåìûé äîëæåí âëàäåòü íàáîðîì ïðàâèëüíûõ îòâåòîâ. Êàê îòìå÷àþò èññëåäîâàòåëè: òåñòû, íàïðàâëåííûå íà ïðîâåðêó ñôîðìèðîâàííîñòè ðå÷åâûõ íàâûêîâ, ÿâëÿþòñÿ êðè- òåðèàëüíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûìè. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Âåéð, “Íà ïåðâûé ïëàí âûñòóïàåò ãëîáàëüíàÿ è êà÷åñòâåííàÿ îöåíêà ïðîäóê- òèâíûõ íàâûêîâ, à òàêæå íàäåæíîñòü òåñòà» (22:13). Äàëüíåéøåå ðàçâèòèå ýòîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ â òåñòèðîâàíèè ñâÿçàíî ñ èìåíåì âèäíîãî àìåðèêàíñêîãî òåñòîëîãà Ë.Ô.Áàõ- ìàíà. Åãî ðàáîòà “Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing” â 1990 ãîäó ñòàëà ïðåäìåòîì áóðíûõ äèñêóññèé ñðåäè èçâåñòíûõ òåñòîëîãîâ ñîâðåìåííîñòè. Ïðåäëîæåííàÿ èì ìîäåëü 146 êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ìíîãèìè èçâåñò- íûìè òåñòîëîãàìè â êà÷åñòâå îñíîâû äëÿ ðàçðàáîòêè êîììóíè- êàòèâíûõ òåñòîâ, â òîì ÷èñëå è òåñòîâ óñòíîé ðå÷è. Ïðè ïðåäñòàâëåíèè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, Ë. Áàõ- ìàí èñïîëüçóåò òåðìèí «êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ÿçûêîâîå óìåíèå» (communicative language activity), êîòîðîå îáðàçóþò ñëåäóþùèå êëþ÷åâûå êîìïåòåíöèè: • ÿçûêîâàÿ/ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêàÿ (âîçìîæíîñòü îñóùåñòâëå- íèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèé íà èíîñòðàííîì ÿçûêå òîëüêî íà îñíîâå óñâîåííûõ çíàíèé, ïîíèìàíèÿ ÿçûêà êàê ñèñ- òåìû); • äèñêóðñíàÿ (ñâÿçàííîñòü/cohesion, ëîãè÷íîñòü/ coherence, îðãàíèçàöèÿ/pattern ðå÷è); • ïðàãìàòè÷åñêàÿ (óìåíèå ïåðåäàòü êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ñîäåðæàíèå/message â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ñîöèàëüíûì êîí- òåêñòîì); • ðàçãîâîðíàÿ/fluency (óìåíèå ãîâîðèòü ñâÿçíî, áåç íàïðÿæåíèÿ, â åñòåñòâåííîì òåìïå, áåç çàòÿæíûõ ïàóç äëÿ ïîèñêà ÿçûêîâûõ ôîðì); • ñîöèàëüíî-ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêàÿ (óìåíèå âûáèðàòü ÿçû- êîâûå ôîðìû); • ñòðàòåãè÷åñêàÿ (óìåíèå èñïîëüçîâàòü êîììóíèêàòèâíûå ñòðàòåãèè äëÿ êîìïåíñàöèè íåäîñòàþùèõ çíàíèé â óñëîâèÿõ ðåàëüíîãî ÿçûêîâîãî îáùåíèÿ); • ðå÷åìûñëèòåëüíàÿ/cognitive (ãîòîâíîñòü ê ñîçäàíèþ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ â ðåçóëüòàòå ðå÷åìûñ- ëèòåëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè: âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ïðîáëåìû, çíàíèÿ è èññëåäîâàíèÿ) (10). Ïðè ðàçðàáîòêå òåñòîâûõ çàäàíèé ïî êîíòðîëþ ñôîðìè- ðîâàííîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, äàííàÿ ìîäåëü ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ äîñòàòî÷íî óäà÷íîé, òàê êàê â íåé áîëåå îñíî- âàòåëüíî ïðåäñòàâëåíû íå òîëüêî ÿçûêîâûå, íè î ðå÷åâûå óìå- íèÿ. Â ýòîì ïëàíå âûäåëÿþòñÿ ðå÷åìûñëèòåëüíàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ. Ìîäåëü, ïðåäëîæåííàÿ Ð. Ï. Ìèëüðóäîì, ïðåäñòàâëÿåò êâèíòýññåíöèþ òðàäèöèîííûõ è ñîâðåìåííûõ ïîäõîäîâ, òàê êàê îíà âêëþ÷àåò â ñîñòàâ êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè ÷åòûðå îñíîâíûõ êîìïîíåíòà: ãðàììàòè÷åñêèé (çíàíèå ãðàì- ìàòèêè, ëåêñèêè è ôîíåòèêè); ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèé (çíàíèå òîãî, ÷òî ñêàçàòü â îïðåäåëåííîé ñèòóàöèè îïðåäåëåííûì ëþäÿì);

147 ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèé (çíàíèå, êàê ãîâîðèòü â ðàçëè÷íûõ îáñòîÿ- òåëüñòâàõ); ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûé (çíàíèå îáùåñòâåííîãî ýòèêåòà, íàöèîíàëüíîãî ìåíòàëèòåòà, öåííîñòåé è ò. ä.) (7:13). Äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ òåîðèè òåñòèðîâàíèÿ áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò ìîäåëü êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè, ïðåäëîæåííàÿ ëèíã- âîäèäàêòîì Ï. Äóàéå. Ñîãëàñíî ýòîé ìîäåëè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè âêëþ÷àåò ñëåäóþùèå êîìïîíåíòû: • êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ãîâîðåíèè (ëåêñè÷åñêàÿ, ãðàììàòè- ÷åñêàÿ, ïðîèçíîñèòåëüíàÿ); • êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ïèñüìå (ëåêñè÷åñêàÿ, ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ, îðôîãðàôè÷åñêàÿ); • êîìïåòåíöèÿ â àóäèðîâàíèè (ðàçëè÷åíèå çâó÷àùèõ çíàêîâ, ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ è ëåêñè÷åñêàÿ); • êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ÷òåíèè (ðàçëè÷åíèå ãðàôè÷åñêèõ çíàêîâ, ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ è ëåêñè÷åñêàÿ) (9:133-152). Ïðè òåñòèðîâàíèè óðîâíÿ ñôîðìèðîâàííîñòè êîììóíè- êàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè âàæíî ó÷åñòü òî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, ÷òî â ðàìêàõ Ñîâåòû Åâðîïû áûë ïðèíÿò òàê íàçûâàåìûé «Ïîðî- ãîâûé óðîâåíü» (Threshold level). Ó÷èòåëÿ è òåñòîëîãè äîëæíû çíàòü, ÷òî ýòî êîììóíèêàòèâíî-äîñòàòî÷íûé óðîâåíü âëàäåíèå ÿçûêîì, êîòîðûé íåîáõîäèì äëÿ îáùåíèÿ íà èíîñòðàííîì ÿçûêå. Ýòîò òåðìèí áûë ââåäåí Ñîâåòîì Åâðîïû â íà÷àëå 90- õ, à â 1998 ãîäó ïîÿâèëàñü ïðîãðàììà «Ïîðîãîâûé óðîâåíü». Ïðè ñîñòàâëåíèè êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ òåñòîâ, íåîáõîäèìî ó÷åñòü ïÿòü óðîâíåé âëàäåíèÿ àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì: • beginner’s – íà÷èíàþùèõ • pre – intermediate – äî ñðåäíèé • intermediate – ñðåäíèé • upper intermediate – âûøå ñðåäíåãî • advanced – ïðîäâèíóòûé (15). Êàæäîìó èç ýòèõ óðîâíåé ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ñâîé óðîâåíü êîì- ìóíèêàöèîííîé êîìïåòåíöèè. Çàêëþ÷åíèå. Êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ÿçûêîâîå òåñòèðîâàíèå îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà ðàçëè÷íûå ìîäåëè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïå- òåíöèè. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî òî, ÷òî ìîäåëè òåñòèðîâàíèÿ ñôîðìè- ðîâàííîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè è ìîäåëè êîììó- íèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè è ïðîöåññóàëüíî, è ïðîöåäóðíî, è ïî ýòàïàì ðàçâèòèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþò. Àðìÿíñêîå ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ñîîáùåñòâî ïîñòåïåííî èíòåãðè-

148 ðóåòñÿ â ñîâðåìåííûå îáðàçîâàòåëüíûå ïðîöåññû, è â ÐÀ, ÍÊÐ åñòü âñå ïðåäïîñûëêè ïðåîäîëåíèÿ äîíàó÷íîãî ýòàïà òåñòè- ðîâàíèÿ. Äëÿ ýòîãî íåîáõîäèìî, ïðåæäå âñåãî, îáðàòèòüñÿ ê ïîìîùè ïåðåäîâûõ öåíòðîâ òåñòèðîâàíèÿ, ñîçäàòü öåíòðû è êàôåäðû òåñòîëîãèè, â ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ è äðóãèõ ñîïðåäåëüíûõ âóçàõ ââåñòè ñïåöêóðñû ïî îáó÷åíèþ òåñòîëîãèè, îòïðàâèòü íàøèõ êàäðîâ ïðîéòè ñòàæèðîâêó â ïåðåäîâûõ öåíòðàõ òåñòî- ëîãèè çà ðóáåæîì. Â ïðîöåññóàëüíîì ïëàíå, íåîáõîäèìî ïðè ñîñòàâëåíèè òåñòîâ è ïðîâåäåíèè òåñòèðîâàíèÿ ó÷åñòü òàêèå ôàêòîðû êàê âðåìÿ, ìåñòî, êîíòèíãåíò, ñïåöèôèêà êóðñà, ýêçàìåíà è ò.ä. Ïðèíöèïèàëüíî âàæíî ó÷åñòü âñå êîìïîíåíòû êîììóíè- êàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè: êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ãîâîðåíèè, êîìïå- òåíöèÿ â ïèñüìå, êîìïåòåíöèÿ â àóäèðîâàíèè, êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ÷òåíèè. Êàê èçâåñòíî, â ïîñëåäíèå ãîäû êîìïåòåíöèÿ â ãîâîðåíèè è àóäèðîâàíèè â èìåþùèõñÿ òåñòîâûõ ñáîðíèêàõ íå ïðîâåðÿþòñÿ, êîìïåíñèðóÿ â êàêîé-òî ìåðå ýòî óñòíûì ýêçàìåíîì ïî èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì (²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ 2013Ã-Ç å»ï³- Ï³Ý ³í³ñï³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³ëÝ³Ï³Ý ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ßï»Ù³ñ³Ý (1,2,3)). Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî óñòíûé ýêçàìåí ïðîâîäèòñÿ, èñïîëüçóÿ òåðìèí Ñïîñëêîãî, äî-íàó÷íûìè ìåòîäàìè, êîãäà îáùåå âïå÷àòëåíèå ýêçàìåíàòîðà èìååò ïðèíöèïèàëüíîå çíà÷åíèå. Äàâíî óæå ïîðà ðàçðàáîòàòü è ïðèìåíÿòü êîììóíèêàòèâíûå òåñòû, äëÿ îöåíêè íàâûêîâ è óìåíèé èíîÿçû÷íîé óñòíîé è ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. ²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ 2013Ã-Ç å»ï³Ï³Ý ³í³ñï³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³ëÝ³Ï³Ý ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ßï»Ù³ñ³Ý Ð»Õ. ÊáõÙµª ÈáõëÇÝ» ²ÃáÛ³Ý, Ø³ñ·³ñÇï³ ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý, èáõµÇÝ³ ¶³ëå³ñÛ³Ý, Ç·áñ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²Ýáõß Ê³ãÇÏÛ³Ý, Ø»ñÇ Ü³½³ñÛ³Ý, ²Ý³ÑÇï àëÏ³ÝÛ³Ý, Ü³Çñ³ ²í³·Û³Ý, ÈÇÉÇ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²ñáõë Ø³ñ·³ñÛ³Ý. – ºñ.: Ð³ß ÀÝ¹ Ð³ß öñÇÝÃ, 2012. ². 1. – 282 ¿ç: 2. ²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ 2013Ã-Ç å»ï³Ï³Ý ³í³ñï³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³ëÝ³Ï³Ý ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ßï»Ù³ñ³Ý Ð»Õ. ÊáõÙµª ÈáõëÇÝ» ²ÃáÛ³Ý, Ø³ñ·³ñÇï³ ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý, èáõµÇÝ³ ¶³ëå³ñÛ³Ý, Ç·áñ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²Ýáõß Ê³ãÇÏÛ³Ý, Ø»ñÇ Ü³½³ñÛ³Ý, ²Ý³ÑÇï àëÏ³ÝÛ³Ý, Ü³Çñ³ ²í³·Û³Ý, ÈÇÉÇ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²ñáõë Ø³ñ·³ñÛ³Ý. Ø³ë 2. - ºñ.: ¼³Ý·³Ï, 2013. ². 1. – 256 ¿ç: 149 3. ²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ 2013Ã-Ç å»ï³Ï³Ý ³í³ñï³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³ëÝ³Ï³Ý ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ßï»Ù³ñ³Ý Ð»Õ. ÊáõÙµª ÈáõëÇÝ» ²ÃáÛ³Ý, Ø³ñ·³ñÇï³ ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý, èáõµÇÝ³ ¶³ëå³ñÛ³Ý, Ç·áñ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²Ýáõß Ê³ãÇÏÛ³Ý, Ø»ñÇ Ü³½³ñÛ³Ý, ²Ý³ÑÇï àëÏ³ÝÛ³Ý, Ü³Çñ³ ²í³·Û³Ý, ÈÇÉÇ Î³ñ³å»ïÛ³Ý, ²ñáõë Ø³ñ·³ñÛ³Ý. – ºñ.: Ð³ß ÀÝ¹ Ð³ß öñÇÝÃ, 2012. ². 3. – 334 ¿ç: 4. Áàëóÿí, Ñ. Ð. (1999) Òåñòèðîâàíèå êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîì- ïåòåíöèè â óñòíîé ðå÷è àáèòóðèåíòîâ ñïåöèàëüíîñòè ëèíã- âèñòèêà è ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ (íà ìàòåðèàëå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà) [Òåêñò]: àâòîðåô. äèñ.… êàíä. ïåä. íàóê: 13.00.02/Áàëóÿí Ñâåòëàíà Ðàçìèêîâíà.–Òàãàíðîã.– 22ñ. 5. Êîêêîòà Â.À. (1989) Ëèíãâîäèäàêòè÷åñêîå òåñòèðîâàíèå. – Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà. – Ñ. 54- 64. 6. Êîìïåòåíòíîñòíûé ïîäõîä â îáó÷åíèè èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó: http://savushkina-englessons.blogspot.com/2011/11/blog- post.html. 7. Ìèëüðóä, Ð.Ï. (2006) ßçûêîâîé òåñò: ïðîáëåìû ïåäàãî- ãè÷åñêèõ èçìåðåíèé / Ð.Ï.Ìèëüðóä, À.Â.Ìàòâèåíêî // Èíîñòð. ÿç. â øê. - ¹ 5. - Ñ. 7 -13. 8. Hymes D. (1972) On Communicative Competence // Sociolinguistics / J.B. Pride, J.Holmes (eds.). Harmondsworth, Pp. 15-19. 9. Doyé, P. (1995). Teacher Education. In Report on Workshop 8B, 133-152. 10. Bachman, L. F. (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11. Bachman, L. (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing / Lyle Bachman. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, – 408 p. 12. Bachman, L.F. & Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language testing in practice: designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford. Oxford University Press 13. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980) “Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing.” Applied Languistics, 1(1), 1-47. 14. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press. 15. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

150 16. Hymes, D. H. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In Pride, J. B., & Holmes, J. (Eds.), Sociolinguistics, 269-293. Baltimore, USA: Penguin Education, Penguin Books Ltd. 17. Morrow, K. (1981) Communicative language testing: evolution or revolution? In J. C. Alderson and 18. Paltridge, B. “EAP placement testing: An integral approach.” English for Specific Purposes, 11(3), 1992:243-268. 19. Savignon, S. J. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice /Sandra J. Savignon. – 2nd ed. –New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. – 272 ð. 20. Spolsky B. What Does It Mean to Know How to Use a Language? An Essay on the theoretical Basis of Language Testing // Language Testing. 1985. Vol.2. No. 2., ñ.10-11: www.studsell. com/view/59430/80000/ 21. Verhoeven, L. “Assessment of bilingual proficiency.” In L. Verhoeven & J. H. A. L. de Jong (Eds.), The Construct of Language Proficiency: Applications of Psychological Models of Language Assessment (pp. 124-136). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 1992. 22. Weir, C.J. (1990). Communicative Language Testing. (2nd edition) New York: Prentice Hall. 23. Widdowson, H. G. (1983). Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 24. http://armenpress.am/arm/news/403364/kstextsvi-giteliq neri-gnahatman-ev-testavorman-kentron.html

151 Íèêîãîñÿí Í. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ

Î ÍÅÊÎÒÎÐÛÕ ÏÐÎÁËÅÌÀÕ ÏÅÐÅÂÎÄÀ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÒÅÊÑÒÀ

ON SOME PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATING SCIENTIFIC TEXTS

ABSTRACT The present article discusses some important issues in translating scientific literature. It particularly highlights a number of problems and peculiarities which arise while translating scientific articles on Mathematics from Armenian, Russian into English. The article helps technical students to develop both written and oral communication skills and certain abilities. They learn to write effectively on some common patterns of technical writing at the composition stage.

Ãðå÷åñêèé ìóäðåö Ïëàòîí ñ÷èòàë, ÷òî ðå÷ü ìîæåò áûòü ïÿòè ðîäîâ: ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ, êîãäà âåäóò äåëà â íàðîäíîì ñîáðàíèè; ðèòîðè÷åñêàÿ, êîãäà ãîâîðÿò îðàòîðû; ïðîñòîðå÷íàÿ, êîãäà ãîâîðÿò ìåæäó ñîáîé â áûòó ïðîñòûå ëþäè, äèàëåêòè÷åñêàÿ, êîãäà âåäóò áåñåäó â ôîðìå âîïðîñîâ è îòâåòîâ. Ê ïÿòîìó æå ðîäó ðå÷è – äåëîâîé - îí îòíîñèë ÿçûê, íà êîòîðîì ðåìåñëåí- íèêè ãîâîðÿò ìåæäó ñîáîé î ñâîåì ðåìåñëå. Òî åñòü ïî- ñîâðåìåííîìó, ïÿòûé ïëàòîíîâñêèé ðîä ðå÷è åñòü íå ÷òî èíîå, êàê òåõíè÷åñêàÿ òåðìèíîëîãèÿ. Â íàóêå áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò ýòàëîí. Ëþáîå èçìåðåíèå, ëþáîå èññëåäîâàíèå òðåáóåò òî÷íî âûâåðåííîãî ýòàëîíà. Åñòåñòâåííî, íàóêå ïîíàäîáèëèñü è ñëîâà – ýòàëîíû. Íå òå áûòîâûå, îáûêíîâåííûå ñëîâà, ñ êîëåáëþùèìñÿ, íåîïðåäåëåí- íûì, ãèáêîèçìåí÷èâûì çíà÷åíèåì (â áûòîâîé ðå÷è èìåííî òàêîå çíà÷åíèå íóæíî è õîðîøî), à ñî çíà÷åíèåì ñòðîãî óñòàíîâëåííûì, íåèçìåííûì, ïðèçíàííûì â êà÷åñòâå ýòàëîíà. Òåðìèí ïåðåäàåò òî÷íî îïðåäåëåííîå íàó÷íîå ïîíÿòèå. Íåäà- ðîì ñëîâî òåðìèí ïðîèñõîäèò îò ëàòèíñêîãî terminus – «ïîãðà- íè÷íûé çíàê», «ãðàíèöà». Â ãåîìåòðèè ãðàäóñ – 1/360 îêðóæ- 152 íîñòè. Çíà÷åíèå ýòî ýòàëîííî: îíî ñîõðàíÿåòñÿ íåèçìåííûì â ëþáûõ íàó÷íûõ êîíòåêñòàõ. Â ýòàëîíå åñòü òàêèå äîñòîèíñòâà: îí íåèçìåíåí, åãî ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü â ïðàêòèêå, ñîïîñòàâëÿÿ ñ íèì ðåàëüíûå îáúåêòû. Òåðìèí îáëàäàåò ýòèìè äîñòîèíñòâàìè. Åãî çíà÷åíèå ñòàí- äàðòíî – íåèçìåííî. Çà òåì, ÷òîáû îíî íå âçäóìàëî ìåíÿòüñÿ, ñëåäÿò àêàäåìèè, íàó÷íûå ñúåçäû, àâòîðèòåòíûå ó÷åíûå. Êàæ- äûé òåðìèí âõîäèò â òåðìèíîëîãè÷åñêóþ ñèñòåìó. Õîðîøàÿ òåðìèíîëîãè÷åñêàÿ ñèñòåìà ñòðîèòñÿ ó÷åíûìè ñîçíàòåëüíî, ñ ÷óâñòâîì îòâåòñòâåííîñòè ïåðåä íàóêîé. Ïÿòûé ðîä ðå÷è îäíà èç íàèáîëåå ïîäâèæíûõ, äèíàìè÷íûõ ÷àñòåé ÿçûêà, êîòîðàÿ ïîñòîÿííî èçìåíÿåòñÿ è îáîãàùàåòñÿ â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ðàçâèòèåì íàóê, òåõíîëîãèé è ðåìåñåë. Íî â ïåðèîäû ñòðåìèòåëüíîãî ïðîìûøëåííîãî ðîñòà, êîãäà ãîñó- äàðñòâî çà êîðîòêîå âðåìÿ îñâàèâàåò íîâûå äëÿ ñåáÿ ïðîèç- âîäñòâà, òåõíè÷åñêàÿ òåðìèíîëîãèÿ ïîäâåðãàåòñÿ íàñòîÿùåìó íàøåñòâèþ èíîñòðàííûõ ñëîâ. Ïîíÿòíî, ÷òî íå óïîòðåáëÿòü èíîñòðàííûå ñëîâà è òåðìèíû íåâîçìîæíî, îäíàêî íàäî ïðàâèëüíî ñî÷åòàòü çàèìñòâîâàííûå ñëîâà ñ ðîäíûìè. Ýòè òðàäèöèè áûëè óñâîåíû ôèëîëîãàìè ïîñëåäóþùèõ ïîêîëåíèé. Ñîñòàâèòåëü “Íîâîãî ñòîëêîâàòåëÿ” Í. ßíîâñêèé â 1803 ãîäó ïèñàë: “Åñëè ìîæíî âûðàçèòü èíîñòðàííûå òåõíè÷åñêèå ñëîâà êðàòêî è ÿñíî ñîáñòâåííûìè ñëîâàìè, òî ïåðåâîä çàñëóæèâàåò îäîáðåíèå; â ïðîòèâíîì æå ñëó÷àå ëó÷øå óïîòðåáëÿòü èíîñòðàííûå òåõíè÷åñêèå òåðìèíû”. Ñóäüáà ïðèõëûíóâøèõ â ðóññêèé è àðìÿíñêèé ÿçûêè èíîñòðàííûõ òåðìèíîâ ïîäòâåðæ- äàåò ïðàâîòó ýòîãî ìíåíèÿ. Æèâàÿ ïðîèçâîäñòâåííàÿ ïðàêòèêà ïðèíèìàåò èíîñòðàííûå òåðìèíû òîëüêî òîãäà, êîãäà â òåõíè÷åñêîì îáèõîäå ñòðàíû íå áûëî óñòðîéñòâ è ïîíÿòèé, êîòîðûå ýòèìè òåðìèíàìè îáîçíà÷àþòñÿ è îòâåðãàåò âñå ãðî- ìîçäêèå äîñëîâíûå ïåðåâîäû èõ íà ðîäíîé ÿçûê. Êîãäà æå â îáèõîäå óæå îáðåòàëèñü ïîíÿòèÿ, ÿâëÿâøèåñÿ ñíîâà â çàãðà- íè÷íîì îáëè÷üå, íàðîäíàÿ ðå÷ü ëèáî îòäàâàëà ïðåäïî÷òåíèå ðîäíîìó ñëîâó, ëèáî äîïóñêàëà èõ ðàâíîïðàâíîå îáðàùåíèå. Íî ïðè ðàáîòå ñ èíîñòðàííûìè òåêñòàìè íå ñëåäóåò îñîáåííî óïîâàòü íà ñàìîî÷èñòèòåëüíûå ñïîñîáíîñòè ÿçûêà â íàäåæäå, ÷òî æèâàÿ ðå÷ü ñàìà ïðîèçâåäåò íåîáõîäóìóþ îòáðàêîâêó. Âñå âûäàþùèåñÿ çíàòîêè ÿçûêà ïðèäåðæèâàëèñü ìíåíèÿ, ÷òî íåëüçÿ ãîâîðèòü è ïèñàòü òàê, ÷òîáû òåáÿ íå ïîíèìàëè. Îíè íå òîëüêî ñ îñòîðîæíîñòüþ ââîäèëè â ïÿòûé ðîä (äåëîâîé)

153 ðå÷è íîâûå òåðìèíû, íî íå æàëåëè âðåìåíè íà ïîèñê íîâûõ, òî÷íûõ è êðàòêèõ ñëîâ äëÿ çàìåíû íåóäà÷íûõ çàèìñòâîâàíèé. È íàäî ïîìíèòü, ÷òî åñòü “òðóäíûå” ñëîâà, êîòîðûå îçíà÷àþò òî æå ñàìîå, ÷òî è ïðîñòûå. Òåìà ïåðåâîäà ìíîãîãðàííà. Ñåãîäíÿ î÷åíü àêòóàëåí ïåðå- âîä ñ ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà íà èíîñòðàííûé âî âñåõ ñôåðàõ äåÿòåëü- íîñòè ÷åëîâåêà. Ïî ýòîé ïðè÷èíå ó÷åíûå óæå äàâíî èíòåðå- ñóþòñÿ òåìîé ìàøèííîãî ïåðåâîäà. Ýòà èäåÿ áûëà âûñêàçàíà åùå â 1933 ãîäó ñîâåòñêèì èíæåíåðîì Ï. Ï. Òðîÿíñêèì. Îäíàêî ïðîøëî áîëåå 20 ëåò, ïðåæäå ÷åì áûë îñóùåñòâëåí ýêñïåðèìåíò ïî ïåðåâîäó ñ ïîìîùþ ÝÂÌ: ýòî ïðîèçîøëî â 1954 ãîäó â Äæîðäæòàóíñêîì óíèâåðñèòåòå (ÑØÀ), ãäå ìàøèíà ïåðåâåëà íåñêîëüêî ôðàç ñ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà íà àíãëèéñêèé. Ëèíãâèñòû è ìàòåìàòèêè âçÿâøèåñÿ çà ýòó ðàáîòó, ïðåæäå âñåãî çàäàëèñü âîïðîñîì: ÷òî çíà÷èò íàó÷èòü ìàøèíó ïåðåâî- äèòü ñ îäíîãî ÿçûêà íà äðóãîé? Âåäü ìàøèíà íå óìååò âûáè- ðàòü ñëîâà ñ íóæíûìè çíà÷åíèÿìè ñòðîèòü èç íèõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è íå ìîæåò îòëè÷èòü òî÷íûé ïåðåâîä îò íåòî÷íîãî èëè íåïðàâèëüíîãî. Ïîñëå äîëãèõ äåñÿòèëåòèé ïîèñêîâ ó÷åíûå ïðèøëè ê âûâîäó, ÷òî íóæíà ôîðìàëüíàÿ ãðàììàòèêà ÿçûêà ò.å. ëîãè- ÷åñêè íåïðîòèâîðå÷èâàÿ è ÿâíî âûðàæåííàÿ. Êðîìå ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ïðàâèë â ÝÂÌ «âêëàäûâàþòñÿ» è ñëîâàðè, êîòîðûå ñîäåðæàò ðàçíîîáðàçíûå ñâåäåíèÿ – î çíà- ÷åíèè ñëîâà, åãî ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ õàðàêòåðèñòèêàõ, î ñî÷å- òàåìîñòè ñ äðóãèìè ñëîâàìè è ò.ä. Ñ èõ ïîÿâëåíèåì íàìåòèëñÿ ïðîãðåññ â ðàçðàáîòêå ñèñòåì àâòîìàòè÷åñêîãî ïåðåâîäà. Ñèñòåìû àâòîìàòè÷åñêîãî ïåðåâîäà, ñîäåðæàùèå ïåðå÷èñëåííûå êîìïîíåíòû, ëèáî óæå ñóùåñòâóþò è äåéñòâóþò, ëèáî íàõîäÿòñÿ â ñòàäèè ðàçðàáîòêè. Èññëåäî- âàíèÿ â îáëàñòè àâòîìàòè÷åñêîãî ïåðåâîäà è ðàáîòà ïî ñîçäà- íèþ äåéñòâóþùèõ ñèñòåì ïðîäîëæàþòñÿ: ñîâåðøåíñòâóþòñÿ ñòàðûå ñèñòåìû, ðàçðàáàòûâàþòñÿ íîâûå, â êîòîðûõ èñïîëü- çóåòñÿ áîëåå áîãàòàÿ èíôîðìàöèÿ î ÿçûêå. Âñå ýòè ñèñòåìû îðèåíòèðîâàíû íà ïåðåâîä íàó÷íî-òåõíè÷åñêèõ òåêñòîâ. Ïðàâäà ýòè ïåðåâîäû è ñåãîäíÿ íå ñîâåðøåííû, îäíàêî ÿâëÿþòñÿ áîëüøèì ïîäñïîðüåì äëÿ ÷åëîâåêà íå çíàêîìîãî ñ èíîñòðàííûìè ÿçûêàìè. Âîçìîæíî, ÷òî â áóäóùåì àâòîìà- òè÷åñêèé ïåðåâîä áóäåò èìåòü ãðàììàòè÷åñêè ïðàâèëüíóþ ôðàçó, â êîòîðîé ñëîâà ñâÿçàíû äðóã ñ äðóãîì ñèíòàêñè÷åñêè

154 (êàê â îáû÷íîé ðå÷è). Ñåãîäíÿ àâòîìàòè÷åñêèé ïåðåâîä õóäîæåñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðû àáñîëþòíî íåâîçìîæåí ò.ê. ýòî âî- ïåðâûõ òâîð÷åñêèé ïðîöåññ, â õîäå êîòîðîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ ñóùåñòâóþùèå íà îäíîì ÿçûêå, âîññîçäàþòñÿ íà äðóãîì, è âî- âòîðûõ – ðåçóëüòàò ýòîãî ïðîöåññà – ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåå ëèòå- ðàòóðíîå ïðîèçâåäåíèå íà äðóãîì ÿçûêå. Îòñþäà è ïîÿâèâ- øàÿñÿ â XX âåêå è èíòåíñèâíî ðàçâèâàþùàÿñÿ îñîáàÿ ôèëî- ëîãè÷åñêàÿ äèñöèïëèíà, èçó÷àþùàÿ îñîáåííîñòè è çàêîíî- ìåðíîñòè ïåðåâîäà êàê ÿâëåíèÿ ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû – òåîðèÿ è èñòîðèÿ ïåðåâîäà (èíà÷å – ïåðåâîäîâåäåíèå). Íåñêîëüêî ñëîâ î ïåðåâîäå ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèõ òåêñòîâ íà àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê Ïåðåâîä ñ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà íà ðîäíîé, èìåÿ ñâîè òðóäíîñòè, òåì íå ìåíåå íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ äëÿ ñïåöèàëèñòà íåðàç- ðåøèìîé çàäà÷åé. ×òî íåëüçÿ ñêàçàòü î ïåðåâîäå ñïåöèàëüíûõ òåêñòîâ. Èíîãäà èõ ïåðåâîä àáñîëþòíî íå ïîíÿòåí íîñèòåëþ ÿçûêà, ñïåöèàëèñòó-ìàòåìàòèêó. Ïåðåâîä ñ îäíîãî ÿçûêà íà äðóãîé íåâîçìîæåí áåç ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ òðàíñôîðìàöèé, ê êîòîðûì â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ñëåäóåò îòíåñòè ïåðåñòðîéêó ïðåäëîæåíèÿ. Áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå èìåþò òàêæå äîáàâëåíèå è îïóùåíèå îäíîãî èëè íåñêîëüêèõ ñëîâ. Òàêîå îïóùåíèå ÷àùå âñåãî äèêòóåòñÿ ñòðåìëåíèåì èçáåæàòü ïîâòîðåíèÿ îäíîãî è òîãî æå ñëîâà, æåëàíèåì ñäåëàòü âûñêàçûâàíèå áîëåå ýìôàòè÷íûì. Ïîâòîð äîëæåí áûòü ëîãè÷åñêè è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêè îïðàâäàí. Ñòðóêòóðíûå îñîáåííîñòè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà òðåáóþò ñòðóêòóðíîé çàâåðøåííîñòè ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è ñòðîãîãî ïîðÿäêà ñëîâ. Ïåðåâîä ñâîèõ ñòàòåé íà àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê ìàòåìàòèê ÷àñòî äåëàåò íå âëàäåÿ â äîñòàòî÷íîé ñòåïåíè ÿçûêîì, îäíàêî çíàÿ òåðìèíîëîãèþ è ÷òî î÷åíü âàæíî, çíà- êîìÿñü ñ ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèìè ñòàòüÿìè íîñèòåëÿ ÿçûêà. Îäíà èç îñíîâíûõ àêñèîì ïåðåâîäà - ïåðåâîä÷èê äîëæåí ïîíèìàòü ñìûñë ïåðåâîäèìîãî òåêñòà. Áîëüøîå çíà÷åíèå ïðèîáðåòàåò îïûò äàííîãî ñïåöèàëèñòà. ×åì áîëüøå îí ÷èòàåò ñòàòüè ïî ìàòåìàòèêå íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, òåì ëåã÷å åìó ïèñàòü èõ ñàìîìó. Îäíàêî òåì íå ìåíåå, ÷àñòî ó íåãî ïîëó÷àþòñÿ íåóê- ëþæèå êîíñòðóêöèè è óñêîëüçàåò ñìûñë, à ÷àñòî ïîëó÷àåòñÿ îòêðîâåííàÿ ÷óøü. Ó ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ ïåðåâîä÷èêîâ äåëà îáñòîÿò íå ëó÷øå. Ãóìàíèòàðíûé ÷åëîâåê íå óëàâëèâàÿ ñåìàíòèêó èñõîäíîé

155 ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîé ôðàçû âûïîëíÿåò ïåðåâîä “ïîñëîâíî“ ïåðå- ìåæèâàÿ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèìè îáîðîòàìè íåóìåñòíûìè â ìàòå- ìàòè÷åñêèõ òåêñòàõ. Êîíå÷íî èäåàëüíî áûëî áû ñàìîìó ïåðåâåñòè ñâîþ ñòàòüþ è äàòü íà ðåäàêòèðîâàíèå àíãëîÿçû÷íîìó êîëëåãå. Ïðèâåäåì ïðèìåðû íåêîòîðûõ ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àþùèõñÿ îøèáîê ïðè ïåðåâîäå ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèõ òåêñòîâ. 1. Let G is an Abelian group. çäåñü íå is, à be 2. Let B has the singularity in the point ν ∈ v. He has, a have; íå the, à a; íå in, à at. 3. We now prove the Lagrangde’s theorem A íóæíî ëèáî the Lagrange theorem ëèáî Lagrange’s theorem (áåç àðòèêëÿ) 4. Therefore we must suppose that there is the necessity of generalization of the method of bifurcation diagrams of V.I. Arnold. Íåëüçÿ òàê ìíîãî of-îâ. Íóæíî ïðîùå, íàïðèìåð: Hence V.I. Arnold’s bifurcation diagram method must be generalized. Äàííûé ïåðåâîä ñîîòâåòñâóåò ñëåäóþùåìó ðóññêîìó ïðåä- ëîæåíèþ: Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìû ïðèõîäèì ê âûâîäó î íåîáõî- äèìîñòè îáîáùåíèÿ ìåòîäà áèôóðêàöèîííûõ äèàãðàìì Â.È. Àðíîëüäà. 5.W1 is the space of generalized functions. Àíãëîÿçû÷íûå ìàòåìàòèêè êàê ïðàâèëî, íå ïðèçíàþò âûðàæåíèå generalized functions., êîòîðîå âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â îñíîâ- íîì â ñòàòüÿõ, ïåðåâåäåííûõ ñ ðóññêîãî. Íóæíî distributions. 6. In this paragraph we prove some auxiliary lemmas. Paragraph – ýòî âîâñå íå ïàðàãðàô, à àáçàö. Çäåñü íóæíî section èëè subsection. 7. The definition of multiplication is correct. Ñëîâî correct îçíà÷àåò ïðàâèëüíî à íå êîððåêòíî. Íóæíî well defined. Ñóùåñòâóåò îïðåäåëåííàÿ ìåòîäèêà ïåðåâîäîâ ìàòåìà- òè÷åñêèõ òåêñòîâ íà àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê. Îñíîâíàÿ èäåÿ ìåòî- äèêè – íå ïåðåâîäèòü äàííûé òåêñò, à èçëàãàòü ñâîþ ðàáîòó íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, ïîëüçóÿñü îïðåäåëåííûìè îáîðîòàìè è êîíñòðóêöèÿìè. Ëþáàÿ ìàòåìàòè÷åñêàÿ òåîðèÿ ñåãîäíÿ èçëà- ãàåòñÿ ñ ïîìîùüþ îãðàíè÷åííîãî íàáîðà ñòàíäàðòíûõ îáîðîòîâ ÷òîáû íàïèñàòü òåêñò ñòàòüè, îáû÷íî ìîæíî îáîéòèñü 20-50 ïîâòîðÿþùèìèñÿ êîíñòðóêöèÿìè. Òåêñò ìîæåò ïîëó÷èòüñÿ íåñêîëüêî îäíîîáðàçíûì, íî çàòî ïîíÿòíûì.

156 ×èñëî íåîáõîäèìûõ è äîñòàòî÷íûõ îáîðîòîâ çàâèñèò òàêæå îò õàðàêòåðà èçëàãàåìîãî ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà; åñëè â îñíîâíîì ïðîâîäÿòñÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ è ïðåîáðàçîâàíèÿ ôîðìóë, òî êîíñòðóêöèé íóæíî ñîâñåì íåìíîãî, â àëãåáåðå èõ íóæíî ïîáîëüøå, ñëîæíåå ïðèõîäèòñÿ â ãåîìåòðèè, ãåîìåòðè÷åñêîé òîïîëîãèè. Ñóùåñòâóåò îïðåäåëåííîå êîëè÷åñòâî ñòàíäàðòíûõ îáîðîòîâ. Íåò íåîáõîäèìîñòè èõ âñå çàïîìíèòü, äîñòàòî÷íî îñâîèòü 20- 30 îñíîâíûõ è ê íèì äîáàâëÿòü åùå ñòîëüêî æå, âûáèðàÿ èõ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò òåìàòèêè ðàáîòû. Ãëàâíîå ðàçëè÷èå ìåæäó àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì è ðóññêèì è àðìÿíñêèì, ýòî íàëè÷èå ïàäåæåé â ðóññêîì è àðìÿíñêîì, à çíà÷èò è èõ áîëüøàÿ èçìåíÿåìîñòü. Â àíãëèéñêîì, â îòëè÷èå îò ðóññêîãî è àðìÿíñêîãî ïîðÿäîê ñëîâ çíà÷èòåëüíî áîëåå æåñòêèé. ×àùå âñåãî àíãëèéñêîå ïðåäëîæåíèå â íàó÷íîì òåêñòå ñòðîèòñÿ ïî ñõåìå: ââîäíîå ñëîâî ïîäëåæàùåå → ñêàçóåìîå ïðÿìîå äîïîëíåíèå äðóãèå äîïîëíåíèÿ. Ýòè ÿçûêîâûå îñîáåííîñòè ïðèâîäÿò ê òîìó, ÷òî ïðè ïîñëîâíîì ïåðåâîäå ðóññêîãî èëè àðìÿíñêîãî ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîãî òåêñòà íà àíãëèéñêèé ïîëó÷àåòñÿ òÿæåëîâåñíûé, íå àíãëèéñêèé òåêñò è êàê ñëåäñòâèå âèçíèêàþò ñåðüåçíûå→ ñìûñëîâûå îøèáêè. Â àíãëèéñêîì, ê ïðèìåðó ãðóïïà ïðåîáðàçîâàíèé ïåðåâîäèòñÿ êàê transformation group, à âîò ñèñòåìà óðàâíåíèé – êàê system of equations. Èòàê, ïåðåñêàç, îñíîâàííûé íà ñòàíäàðòíûõ îáîðîòàõ – øòàìïàõ. Ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèé øòàìï - ýòî çàãîòîâêà äëÿ ñîçäàíèÿ îäíîòèïíûõ ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèõ âûñêàçûâàíèé. Íàïðèìåð: «For any ... there exist a ...». Â øòàìïû âñòàâëÿþòñÿ ïåðåìåííûå ñëîâà – òåðìèíû, õàðàêòåðèñòèêè, ññûëêè. Õàðàêòåðèñòèêè-ýòî ñëîâà èëè ñëî- âîñî÷åòàíèÿ, èñïîëíÿþùèå ðîëü ïðèëàãàòåëüíîãî, óòî÷íÿþùèå ñìûñë ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîãî ïîíÿòèÿ. Íàïðèìåð; continuous, abelian, decreasing, Banach, hyperbolic. Òåðìèíû – ýòî ãëàâíûå äåéñòâóþùèå ëèöà ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîé òåîðèè, âûðàæåííûå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûìè. Íàïðèìåð: set, function, linear differential equation, point, x-axis. Ññûëêè ïîÿâëÿþòñÿ êîãäà ìû êîììåíòèðóåì ìàòåìàòè- ÷åñêèé òåêñò. Íåîáõîäèìî ñêàçàòü íåñêîëêî ñëîâ îá óïîòðåáëåíèè which è that, êîòîðûå î÷åíü ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àþòñÿ â àíãëèéñêèõ ìàòå-

157 ìàòè÷åñêèõ ñòàòüÿõ. Î÷åíü ÷àñòî èõ óïîòðåáëåíèå ïóòàåòñÿ è äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî ÷èòàòåëÿ ïðåäëîæåíèå ñòàíîâèòñÿ íåêîð- ðåêòíûì. Åñëè êîðîòêî ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü òî: that introduces a restrictive clause, which introduces a nonrestrictive clause. Ìîæíî ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü äàííîå îïðåäåëåíèå â ñëåäó- þùèõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ: Decimal fractions that are periodic correspond to rational numbers. Decimal fractions, which will be discussed in more detail in § 5 correspond to rational and irrational numbers. Îòäåëüíîå âíèìàíèå íåîáõîäèìî óäåëèòü ñîþçó of. Îòñóñò- âèå ïàäåæåé ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê èõ áîëüøîìó êîëè÷åñòâó â îäíîì ïðåäëîæåíèè. Âî èçáåæàíèå ýòîãî, ìîæíî ê ïðèìåðó ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå ñäåëàòü ïðèëàãàòåëüíûì ïîñòàâèâ åãî ïåðåä äðóãèì ñóùåñò- âèòåëüíûì. Íàïðèìåð, âìåñòî group of transformation ìîæíî íàïèñàòü transformation group. Èíîãäà of ìîæíî çàìåíèòü íà for. Åñëè æå ñîþç of îçíà- ÷àåò ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü, òî åãî ìîæíî óñòðàíèòü èñïîëüçóÿ ‘s‘. Íàïðèìåð, âìåñòî the theorem of Cauchy íàïèñàòü Cauchy’s theorem. Èçáåæàòü íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïîâòîðåíèÿ of ìîæíî è ïåðåñòðà- èâàÿ ôðàçó. Â ìàòåìàòè÷åñêèõ ñòàòüÿõ â îñíîâíîì èñïîëüçóåòñÿ íàñ- òîÿùåå âðåìÿ. Õîòÿ, èíîãäà, èñïîëüçóåòñÿ è ïðîøåäøåå. Â ìíîãîâåêîâîé èñòîðèè ïåðåâîäà íå áûëî íåäîñòàòêà â ïîïûòêàõ êàê-òî îñìûñëèòü ýòîò ïðîöåññ, âûÿâèòü îñíîâíûå òðóäíîñòè åãî îñóùåñòâëåíèÿ, âûðàáîòàòü êàêèå-òî ïðèíöèïû è óñòàíîâêè, êîòîðûìè ïåðåâîä÷èêè ìîãëè áû ðóêîâîäñòâî- âàòüñÿ â ñâîåé ðàáîòå. Ïåðåâîä äîëæåí îáåñïå÷èòü òî÷íóþ ïåðåäà÷ó èíôîðìàöèè âî âñåõ äåòàëÿõ, íå äîïóñêàÿ â òî æå âðåìÿ íàðóøåíèÿ íîðì ÿçûêà ïåðåâîäà. Ôàêòîðû óêàçàííûå â ôîðìóëå «äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû ïåðåâîäèòü íåîáõîäèìî çíàíèå äâóõ ÿçûêîâ è ïðåäìåòà ðå÷è» ñàìè ïî ñåáå íå îáåñïå÷èâàþò óìåíèÿ êâàëèôèöèðîâàííî ïåðåâîäèòü. Íàäî íå ïðîñòî çíàòü äâà ÿçûêà, íî çíàòü èõ â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ ïðàâèëàìè è óñëîâèÿìè ïåðåõîäà îò åäèíèö îäíîãî ÿçûêà ê åäèíèöàì äðóãîãî.

158 ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. Ýíöèêëîïåäè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü þíîãî ôèëîëîãà (1984) Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ïåäàãîãèêà:. Ìîñêâà 2. Êîìèññàðîâ, Â.Í. (1973) Ñëîâî î ïåðåâîäå. Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ìåæäóíàðîäíûå îòíîøåíèÿ», Ìîñêâà 3. Ñîñèíñêèé À.Á. (1998) Êàê íàïèñàòü ìàòåìàòè÷åñêóþ ñòàòüþ ïî-àíãëèéñêè. Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ôàêòîðèàë» Ìîñêâà. 4. Ëåâèöêàÿ Ò.Ô., Ôèòåðìàí À.Ì. (1976) Ïðîáëåìû ïåðå- âîäà. Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ìåæäóíàðîäíûå îòíîøåíèÿ», Ìîñêâà

159 Âàðäàíÿí Ñ. Åðåâàíñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé óíèâåðñèòåò, Àðìåíèÿ ÂÛÐÀÇÈÒÅËÜÍÎÅ ×ÒÅÍÈÅ ÊÀÊ ÍÅÎÒÚÅÌËÅÌÀß ×ÀÑÒÜ ÔÈËÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÎÃÎ ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈß EXPRESSIVE READING AS PART AND PARCEL OF PHILOLOGICAL TRAINING

ABSTRACT The art of expressive reading or declamation has a long tradition and should be part and parcel of philological training. Expressiveness of speech influences the process of teaching; it holds the attention and interest of the students. The art of expressive reading first and foremost assumes the technique of the vocal activity, breathing and diction. It also assumes logical and emotional-figurative expressiveness which will enable the philologist to improve the culture of speech and make an aesthetic impact on the listeners.

Äëÿ ôèëîëîãà, äëÿ îðàòîðà, äëÿ ëåêòîðà íåáåçðàçëè÷íî â êàêîé ñòåïåíè îí «âëàäååò ñëîâîì». Ïîä óñòîé÷èâûì òåðìè- íîì «âëàäåòü ñëîâîì» èìååòñÿ â âèäó íå ñëîâî êàê ìîíîëåê- ñåìíàÿ åäèíèöà, à âñÿ ìóçûêà ðå÷è, ïðîñîäè÷åñêèå ñâîéñòâà ðå÷è, îñíîâàííûå íà ñîáëþäåíèè âñåõ ïðàâèë è çàêîíîìåð- íîñòåé, êàñàþùèõñÿ ðå÷åïðîèçâîäñòâà â øèðîêîì ñìûñëå. Ïðèâû÷êà îáðàùàòüñÿ ê àóäèòîðèè îòðàáîòàííîé ïîñëåäî- âàòåëüíîñòüþ ñëîâ, ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé è âûñêàçûâàíèé â «îïòè- ìàëüíîì çâó÷àíèè» ÷ðåçâû÷àéíî ñòèìóëèðóåòñÿ îâëàäåíèåì ñâîèì ãîëîñîì. Öåëåñîîáðàçíî â ýòîé ñâÿçè îáðàòèòü âíèìà- íèå íà íîâèçíó òàêîé ìåòîäèêè è, ÷òî ñàìîå ãëàâíîå, âíîâü è âíîâü óæå â íîâîì ðàêóðñå ïîä÷åðêíóòü íåîáõîäèìîñòü ðè- òîðè÷åñêîãî ïîäõîäà ê òîìó ñîäåðæàíèþ, êîòîðîå æåëàòåëüíî âûðàçèòü òåì èëè èíûì ñïîñîáîì. Õîðîøàÿ ðèòìè÷åñêàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ, óìåñòíûå ëîãè÷åñêèå óäàðåíèÿ, ïàóçû, ìîäóëÿöèè ãîëîñà, èíòîíàöèÿ, ìèìèêà è æåñ- 160 òû äåëàþò ðå÷ü áîëåå âûðàçèòåëüíîé, ñïîñîáñòâóþò ëó÷øåìó óñâîåíèþ ïðåïîäíîñèìîãî ìàòåðèàëà. Òåì æå öåëÿì ñëóæàò è èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïðîñîäè÷åñêèõ è ïàðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ, êîíòðàñòû ãðîìêîñòè, òåìïà, äèàïàçîíà è òåìáðà. Ñëåäîâàòåëü- íî, ëåêòîð äîëæåí ñòðåìèòüñÿ ê ñëîâåñíîé âèðòóîçíîñòè, òùà- òåëüíî øëèôóÿ òó ôîðìó, â êîòîðîé ïåðåäàåòñÿ äàííîå ñîäåð- æàíèå. Ýòîìó è ñëóæèò èñêóññòâî âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ, êîòîðîå âñå åùå îñòàåòñÿ çà ïðåäåëàìè íåïîñðåäñòâåííîé ïå- äàãîãè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè â îáëàñòè ïîäãîòîâêè ôèëîëîãîâ- àíãëèñòîâ «âûñøåé êâàëèôèêàöèè». Ïðåæäå ÷åì ïåðåéòè ê îáñóæäåíèþ ýòîé ïðîáëåìû, íåîá- õîäèìî âûÿñíèòü, ÷òî ìû ïîíèìàåì ïîä âûðàçèòåëüíîñòüþ ðå- ÷è. «Âûðàçèòåëüíîñòüþ ðå÷è íàçûâàþòñÿ òàêèå îñîáåííîñòè åå ñòðóêòóðû, êîòîðûå ïîääåðæèâàþò âíèìàíèå è èíòåðåñ ó ñëóøàòåëÿ èëè ÷èòàòåëÿ: ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ðå÷ü, îáëàäàþùàÿ ýòè- ìè îñîáåííîñòÿìè, è áóäåò íàçûâàòüñÿ âûðàçèòåëüíîé»1 . Âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü òåñíî ñâÿçàíî ñ êóëüòóðîé ðå÷è. Îäíàêî ïîíÿòèå «êóëüòóðà ðå÷è» íå ñâîäèòñÿ òîëüêî ê åå èíòîíàöè- îííîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòè, â íåãî âêëþ÷àåòñÿ è ñîäåðæàíèå, è ëåêñèêà (ïîäáîð ñëîâ), è ïîñòðîåíèå, è îáùàÿ êóëüòóðà ÷åëî- âåêà. Ïðåäìåòîì «êóëüòóðû ðå÷è» êàê ó÷åíèÿ, ìû ñìîæåì ïðè- çíàòü ÿçûêîâóþ ñòðóêòóðó ðå÷è â åå êîììóíèêàòèâíîì âîçäåé- ñòâèè2 . Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü âî ìíîãîì ñïîñîá- ñòâóåò êóëüòóðå ðå÷è, ò. ê. ÿâëÿåòñÿ åå ñîñòàâíîé ÷àñòüþ. Âûðàçèòåëüíîå ÷òåíèå èëè äåêëàìàöèÿ – ýòî óñòíîå, ïðà- âèëüíîå è ïðèÿòíîå äëÿ ñëóõà âîñïðîèçâåäåíèå ÷èòàåìîãî, â ïîëíîì îáúåìå åãî ëîãè÷åñêîãî è õóäîæåñòâåííîãî ñîäåðæà- íèÿ, ñîãëàñíî íàìåðåíèÿì àâòîðà3 . Èñêóññòâî âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ ïðåäïîëàãàåò ïðåæäå âñåãî òåõíèêó ðå÷è, êîòîðàÿ âêëþ÷àåò: ãîëîñ, äûõàíèå è äèê- öèþ. Â ýòîì îòíîøåíèè âûðàçèòåëüíîå ÷òåíèå èìååò îáùóþ îñíîâó ñî ñöåíè÷åñêîé ðå÷üþ, êîòîðàÿ ñòàâèò ïåðåä ñîáîé òå æå ñàìûå çàäà÷è. Îáðàáîòàííûé äëÿ õóäîæåñòâåííîé ðå÷è ãîëîñ, êîòîðûé ÿâëÿåòñÿ ãëàâíûì îðóäèåì àêòåðà, ÷òåöà, äåêëàìàòîðà, ëåêòî- ðà, äîëæåí óäîâëåòâîðÿòü òðåáîâàíèÿì: òåìáðà, ñèëû, ãèáêî-

1 Ñì.: Á.Í. Ãîëîâèí. Îñíîâû êóëüòóðû ðå÷è, Ì., 1980, ñ. 186. 2 Òàì æå, ñ. 7. 3 Ñì.: Ä. Êîðîâÿêîâ, Èñêóññòâî è ýòþäû âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ, Ñ. Ïåòåðáóðã, 1914, ñ. 9. 161 ñòè (ïîäâèæíîñòè), äèàïàçîíà (îáúåìà), âûíîñëèâîñòè è ïî- ëåòíîñòè. Òåìáð – ýòî êà÷åñòâî, îêðàñêà ãîëîñà, êîòîðîå çàâèñèò îò äëèíû, òîëùèíû, âëàæíîñòè ãîëîñîâûõ ñâÿçîê, à òàêæå îò îáúåìà è ôîðì ðåçîíàòîðîâ. Òåìáð ìîæíî óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàòü ïðè ïîìîùè ïîñòàíîâêè ãîëîñà, ñëàãàþùåéñÿ èç ïîñòàíîâîê äûõàíèÿ, ãîðòàíè è ðåçîíàòîðîâ. Ñèëà ãîëîñà îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ òåì ïðîñòðàíñòâîì, êîòîðîå çâóê äîëæåí íàïîëíèòü. Ñèëó ãîëîñà ìîæíî ðàçâèòü óïðàæíåíèÿ- ìè, ÷èòàÿ ïîñòåïåííî âñå ãðîì÷å è ãðîì÷å. Ýòè óïðàæíåíèÿ ïîëåçíî ïðîâîäèòü â áîëüøèõ ïîìåùåíèÿõ, íà îòêðûòîì âîç- äóõå èëè ïîä êàêîé-ëèáî ïîñòîðîííèé øóì, ñòàðàÿñü ïåðå- ñèëèòü åãî4 . Ñèëà ãîëîñà íå ðàâíîçíà÷íà åãî ãðîìêîñòè. Åñëè ñèëó ãîëîñó ïðèäàåò àêòèâèçàöèÿ ðàáîòû ðå÷åâîãî àïïàðàòà, òî ãðîìêîñòü äîñòèãàåòñÿ àêòèâèçàöèåé âûäîõà – óñèëåíèåì ðàáîòû äûõàòåëüíîãî àïïàðàòà5 . Âàæíûì êà÷åñòâîì ãîëîñà ÿâëÿåòñÿ åãî ãèáêîñòü, ò. å ñïî- ñîáíîñòü ñâîáîäíî èçìåíÿòü ñèëó è âûñîòó â ðàçëè÷íîì òåì- ïå ðå÷è. Ãèáêîñòü ìîæíî ðàçâèâàòü ïðè ïîìîùè äèêöèîííûõ è äûõàòåëüíûõ óïðàæíåíèé, àêòèâíî ïðîèçíîñÿ ñêîðîãîâîð- êè è äðóãèå òåêñòû6 . Ãèáêîñòü ãîëîñà òåñíî ñâÿçàíà ñ åãî äèàïàçîíîì (îáúåìîì). Îáúåì ãîëîñà îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êîëè÷åñòâîì íîò, êîòîðûå ãîâîðÿ- ùèé ìîæåò âîñïðîèçâåñòè. Îáû÷íî äèàïàçîí ðå÷åâîãî ãîëîñà âêëþ÷àåò îò îäíîé äî ïîëóòîðà îêòàâ. Ïîñòàíîâêà ãîëîñà è èìååò öåëüþ îïðåäåëèòü, ñêîëüêî íîò â ïðèÿòíîì è äîñòàòî÷íî ñèëüíîì ìåäèóìå ãîëîñà íàõîäÿòñÿ â ñâîáîäíîì ðàñïîðÿæå- íèè àêòåðà, äåêëàìàòîðà7 . Äèàïàçîí ãîëîñà óñëîâíî äåëÿò íà íèæíèé, ñðåäíèé è âåðõ- íèé ðåãèñòðû. Ïåðåõîä îò îäíîãî ðåãèñòðà ê äðóãîìó íå äîë- æåí áûòü ðåçêèì. Ó õîðîøî ïîñòàâëåííûõ ãîëîñîâ ðåãèñòðû ñãëàæåíû. Äëÿ äåêëàìàòîðà, äëÿ àêòåðà íàèáîëåå óäîáíûì ðåãèñòðîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñðåäíèé. Èìåííî â ñðåäíåì ðåãèñòðå ïî- ëó÷àþòñÿ òàê íàçûâàåìûå ãðóäíûå çâóêè, êîòîðûå ÿâëÿþòñÿ îñíîâíûì ìàòåðèàëîì èñêóññòâà äåêëàìàöèè8 .

4 Òàì æå, ñ. 43. 5 Ñì.: Á.Ñ. Íàéäåíîâ, Ï.Ô. Çàâàäñêàÿ, Âûðàçèòåëüíîå ÷òåíèå, Ì., 1964, ñ. 29. 6 Òàì æå. 7 Ñì.: Ä. Êîðîâÿêîâ, óêàç. ñî÷., ñ. 42. 8 Ñì.: Á.Ñ. Íàéäåíîâ, óêàç. ñî÷, ñ. 29.

162 Óìåíèå ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ ðåçîíàòîðàìè ïðèäàåò ãîëîñó çâîí- êîñòü è äåëàåò åãî âûíîñëèâûì, ñïîñîáíûì âûäåðæèâàòü áîëü- øèå íàãðóçêè. Ïîñòîÿííûå çàíÿòèÿ ïî äèêöèè è äûõàíèþ ñïî- ñîáñòâóþò âîñïèòàíèþ âûíîñëèâîñòè ãîëîñà9 . Íåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòûâàòü è åùå îäíî êà÷åñòâî çâóêà – åãî ïî- ëåòíîñòü. Ïîëåòíîñòü ãîëîñà – åãî ñïîñîáíîñòü ïðåîäîëåâàòü ïðîñòðàíñòâî – îáåñïå÷èâàåò õîðîøóþ ñëûøèìîñòü äàæå ïðè íåáîëüøîé ñèëå ãîëîñà, íà òèõîì çâóêå. Òðåíèðóÿ ïîëåòíîñòü ãîëîñà, íàäî ïðåæäå âñåãî èñêàòü âåðíîå íàïðàâëåíèå çâóêà (âïåðåä ê çóáàì, à íå ê çàòûëêó). Ïîëåòíîñòü çâóêà òðåáóåò àêòèâíîãî âîëåâîãî ïîñûëà. Ãîâîðÿùèé äîëæåí òî÷íî çíàòü, ãäå íàõîäèòñÿ îáúåêò åãî âíèìàíèÿ. ×åì äàëüøå îáúåêò, òåì àêòèâíåå äîëæåí áûòü ïîñûë10 . Ðîëü ïîñûëà îñîáåííî âàæíà äëÿ ñöåíè÷åñêîé ðå÷è, ò.ê. èìåííî ïîñûë îáåñïå÷èâàåò ñëû- øèìîñòü äî ïîñëåäíèõ ðÿäîâ çðèòåëüíîãî çàëà. Ïåðåéäåì òåïåðü ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ äûõàíèÿ. Îðãàíû äûõà- íèÿ – ýòî ãðóäíàÿ êëåòêà, äèàôðàãìà, áðþøíîé ïðåññ, ëåã- êèå è äûõàòåëüíûå ïóòè. Â èñêóññòâå âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ äûõàíèå èãðàåò âàæíóþ ðîëü, ò.ê. êðàñîòà è ðîâíîå çâó÷àíèå ãîëîñà ïðåæäå âñåãî çàâèñèò îò ïðàâèëüíîãî åãî óïðàâëåíèÿ. Äëÿ èñêóññòâà äåêëàìàöèè òðåáóåòñÿ òðè ýëåìåíòà: âäîõ– çàäåðæêà–âûäîõ. Âäîõ äîëæåí áûòü áåñøóìíûì è íåçàìåòíûì. Ïîìèìî íåçàìåòíîñòè, îí äîëæåí áûòü âñåãäà ìåäëåííûì è ïðàâèëüíûì, ò.ê. òîëüêî òàêàÿ ðàâíîìåðíîñòü ïîçâîëÿåò ñâî- áîäíî âëàäåòü ãîëîñîì äëÿ íàäëåæàùèõ èíòîíàöèé. È åùå, ÷òîáû âäîõ áûë áåñøóìíûì, íåîáõîäèìî øèðîêîå îòâåðñòèå äëÿ ïðîõîäà âîçäóõà, à äëÿ ýòîãî íóæíî ðàñøèðèòü çåâ è ãëîò- êó. Ýòî äîñòèãàåòñÿ îòòÿãèâàíèåì ñêîëü âîçìîæíî ãîðòàíè è êîðíÿ ÿçûêà è ïðèïîäíÿòèåì ìÿãêîãî íåáà, íàáëþäàÿ ïðè ýòîì, ÷òîáû îïóñêàíèå ãîðòàíè ñîâïàäàëî ñ îïóñêàíèåì äèà- ôðàãìû. Ïðè âûäîõå íåëüçÿ ðàñõîäîâàòü âåñü çàïàñ âîçäóõà. Â ëåãêèõ âñåãäà äîëæíî îñòàâàòüñÿ íåáîëüøîå êîëè÷åñòâî âîç- äóõà. Âûïîëíÿÿ óïðàæíåíèÿ ïî äûõàíèþ è ãîëîñó, íåîáõîäèìî ñëåäèòü çà òåì, ÷òîáû ïåðâûé çâóê ãîëîñà òî÷íî ñîâïàäàë ñ íà÷àëîì âûäîõà, ÷òîáû íå áûëî óòå÷êè âîçäóõà ïåðåä íà÷àëîì ðå÷è, – ýòî ïðèó÷àåò ýêîíîìíî ðàñõîäîâàòü âîçäóõ è äåëàåò ãîëîñ áîëåå ÷èñòûì, îñâîáîæäàÿ åãî îò íåíóæíûõ ïðèçâóêîâ11 .

9 Òàì æå, ñ. 30. 10 Òàì æå. 11 Ñì.: Á.Ñ. Íàéäåíîâ, óêàç. ñî÷, ñ. 26. 163 Ïîñòåïåííîå, ýêîíîìíîå ðàñõîäîâàíèå çàïàñà âîçäóõà îáåñïå- ÷èâàåò ðîâíîå çâó÷àíèå ãîëîñà, à óìåíèå ãîâîðèòü íà äûõà- íèè áåðåæåò ãîëîñîâûå ñâÿçêè. Âìåñòå ñ òåì ïðàâèëüíàÿ ïîäà÷à äûõàíèÿ ñïîñîáñòâóåò ñòàáèëèçàöèè ãîðòàíè. Ñëåäî- âàòåëüíî, íåîáõîäèìî âûáðàòü òàêîé òèï äûõàíèÿ, êîòîðûé îáåñïå÷èâàë áû óìåðåííîå è ðàâíîìåðíîå âîçäóøíîå äàâëå- íèå ïîä ãîëîñîâûìè ñâÿçêàìè. Ñóùåñòâóþò ðàçëè÷íûå òèïû äûõàíèÿ: êëþ÷è÷íîå (ïëå÷å- âîå), ãðóäíîå, ðåáåðíîå, äèàôðàãìàòè÷åñêîå (áðþøíîå). Êàæ- äûé èç ýòèõ òèïîâ äûõàíèÿ èìååò ñâîè ïðåèìóùåñòâà è ñâîè íåäîñòàòêè. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, ïðè êëþ÷è÷íîì òèïå äûõàíèÿ âäîõ ïîâåðõ- íîñòíûé, ãðóäíàÿ êëåòêà íå ìîæåò äîëãî óäåðæàòüñÿ â ðàñøè- ðåííîì ñîñòîÿíèè. Òàêîé òèï äûõàíèÿ îòíþäü íå ýêîíîìåí. Ïðè ãðóäíîì òèïå äûõàíèÿ âäîõ áîëåå ãëóáîêèé, ÷åì ïðè êëþ÷è÷íîì äûõàíèè, íî âñå æå íåäîñòàòî÷íûé ïî îáúåìó. Âåðõíÿÿ ÷àñòü ãðóäè âî âðåìÿ âäîõà ïîäíèìàåòñÿ, à âî âðåìÿ âûäîõà îïóñêàåòñÿ. Ýòî íåïðåðûâíîå äâèæåíèå âåðõíåé ÷àñ- òè ãðóäíîé êëåòêè óòîìëÿåò ÷åëîâåêà. Ïðè ðåáåðíîì äûõàíèè âäîõ ïðîèñõîäèò ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì çà ñ÷åò ðàñøèðåíèÿ ãðóäíîé êëåòêè. Îáúåì âîçäóõà çíà÷èòåëü- íî áîëüøå, ÷åì ïðè êëþ÷è÷íîì è ãðóäíîì äûõàíèè. Äèàôðàãìàòè÷åñêèé òèï äûõàíèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàèáîëåå ãëóáî- êèì. Â ïðîöåññå ýòîãî äûõàíèÿ âûäâèãàåòñÿ âåðõíÿÿ ÷àñòü æè- âîòà, ÷òî ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò îá àêòèâíîé ðàáîòå äèàôðàãìû. Â ïðîöåññå äûõàíèÿ âàæíóþ ðîëü èãðàåò è áðþøíîé ïðåññ, ò.ê. ñîêðàùåíèå êîñûõ ìûøö æèâîòà ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç ýëåìåí- òîâ ïðàâèëüíîãî ãëóáîêîãî âäîõà12 . Èç âñåõ óêàçàííûõ òèïîâ äûõàíèÿ íàèáîëåå öåëåñîîáðàç- íûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ äèàôðàãìàòè÷åñêèé òèï äûõàíèÿ, ïðè êîòîðîì ãðóäíàÿ êëåòêà îñòàåòñÿ íåïîäâèæíîé, òîãäà êàê âäûõàíèå ïðî- èçâîäèòñÿ ïîñðåäñòâîì îïóñêàþùåéñÿ äèàôðàãìû, à âûäûõà- íèå – áðþøíûì ïðåññîì, ñîñòîÿùèì èç ñëîæíîé ñèñòåìû ïðÿìûõ, êîñûõ è ïîïåðå÷íûõ ìûøö. Îíè ñâîèì äàâëåíèåì ïðèâîäÿò ïîñòåïåííî óñòóïàþùóþ äèàôðàãìó â åå èñõîäíîå âûñîêîå ïîëîæåíèå è, äàâÿ ÷åðåç íåå íà ëåãêèå, âûòåñíÿþò èç íèõ òó ÷àñòü âîçäóõà, êîòîðóþ îíè íàáðàëè çà ñ÷åò îïóñêà- íèÿ äèàôðàãìû13 . Çäåñü ãëàâíàÿ ðîëü ïðèíàäëåæèò äèàôðàã-

12 Òàì æå. 13 Ñì.: À.Ì. Âåðáîâ, Òåõíèêà ïîñòàíîâêè ãîëîñà, Ì., 1961, ñ32. 164 ìå, êîòîðàÿ ðåãóëèðóåò âåñü ïðîöåññ äûõàíèÿ. Îäíàêî äåêëà- ìàòîðó, àêòåðó, ëåêòîðó íóæíî ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ òåì òèïîì äûõà- íèÿ, êîòîðûé îáåñïå÷èë áû åñòåñòâåííîå, ñïîêîéíîå, ãëóáî- êîå, íåçàìåòíîå è ðàâíîìåðíîå äûõàíèå. Òàêèì òèïîì ÿâëÿ- åòñÿ ñìåøàííî-äèàôðàãìàòè÷åñêîå äûõàíèå. Öåëåñîîáðàçíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå åãî ïðè ïîñòàíîâêå ãîëîñà äàåò îáû÷íî òî åäèí- ñòâî äûõàòåëüíîé è ãîëîñîâîé ôóíêöèè, êîòîðîå âåäåò ê íîð- ìàëüíîìó ðàçâèòèþ ãîëîñà14 . Èìåííî ýòèì òèïîì äûõàíèÿ äîëæíû ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ äåêëàìàòîð, àêòåð è ëåêòîð. Äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû ðàçâèòü òåõíèêó ñìåøíî-äèàôðàãìàòè÷å- ñêîãî äûõàíèÿ, íåîáõîäèìî ïðîéòè ðÿä ýòàïîâ äûõàòåëüíîé òðåíèðîâêè. Çäåñü äîëæíû áûòü ñîáëþäåíû íå òîëüêî òî÷íàÿ ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü â óïðàæíåíèÿõ, íî è îïðåäåëåííûå ñðî- êè, îòâåäåííûå íà ïðîðàáîòêó êàæäîãî èç íèõ15 . Ïðåæäå ÷åì ïðèñòóïèòü ê òðåíèðîâêå, ó÷àùèéñÿ äîëæåí âûÿñíèòü, â äîñ- òàòî÷íîé ëè ìåðå ðàçâèòà åãî äèàôðàãìà. Äëÿ ýòîãî íàäî âñòàòü ïðÿìî è êðåïêî íà îáå íîãè, ïëîòíî ïîëîæèòü ïðàâóþ ðóêó íà äèàôðàãìó è, âûäîõíóâ íàõîäÿùèéñÿ â ëåãêèõ âîçäóõ, ìåä- ëåííî, ãëóáîêî è ñïîêîéíî âäîõíóòü, íå ïðèáåãàÿ ïðè ýòîì íè ê êàêîìó îñîáåííîìó óñèëèþ èëè íàïðÿæåíèþ16 . Äèàôðàãìà ïðè âäîõå ñîêðàùàåòñÿ, à ïðè âûäîõå ïîäíè- ìàåòñÿ ââåðõ. Ðóêà, ëåæàùàÿ íà ãðàíèöå ãðóäíîé è áðþøíîé ïîëîñòè, äîëæíà ýòî äâèæåíèå îùóòèòü. Åñëè æå ïðè âäîõå äèàôðàãìà îñòàåòñÿ ìàëîïîäâèæíîé, òî íåïîäâèæíîé îñòàåò- ñÿ è ðóêà ó÷àùåãîñÿ: ýòî äîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî îí ïëîõî ïîëüçóåòñÿ äèàôðàãìîé è äîëæåí ïðèìåíèòü äðóãîé ñïîñîá òðåíèðîâêè. Íóæíî íàéòè ïðàâèëüíûé âäîõ â ëåæà÷åì ïîëîæåíèè (òàê íà- çûâàåìîå «ñîííîå» äûõàíèå), ò. ê. â òàêîì ïîëîæåíèè ÷åëîâåê âñåãäà äûøèò ãëóáæå17 . Äëÿ ýòîãî íàäî ëå÷ü íà ñïèíó è, ïî- ëîæèâ ðóêó íà äèàôðàãìó, ïîâòîðèòü ìåäëåííûé, ñïîêîéíûé, ãëóáîêèé âûäîõ, çàòåì âäîõ è ñíîâà âûäîõ. Âûäîõ ìîæíî ïðî- âåñòè íà ïðîòÿæíîì, ìåäëåííîì, íåïðåðûâíîì ïðîèçíåñåíèè çâóêà Ô, Ñ èëè Ç, ÷òîáû, çàêîí÷èâ åãî, ñíîâà âäîõíóòü ãëóáîêî è ìåäëåííî, íå ñíèìàÿ ðóêè ñ äèàôðàãìû. Ïðîäåëàâ òàêîå óï- ðàæíåíèå â òå÷åíèå íåñêîëüêèõ äíåé (äâà-òðè äíÿ) êàæäîå óòðî è êàæäûé âå÷åð, ó÷àùèéñÿ, â êîíöå êîíöîâ îùóòèò òîò ïðà-

14 Ñì.: Å. Ñàðè÷åâà, Ñöåíè÷åñêàÿ ðå÷ü, Ì., 1955, ñ. 151. 15 Òàì æå, ñ. 152. 16 Òàì æå. 17 Òàì æå ñ. 153. 165 âèëüíûé âäîõ, êîòîðûé íóæåí, è, çàïîìíèâ íàéäåííîå äâè- æåíèå ïðè âäîõå ëåæà, óæå ñóìååò ïðîèçâîëüíî ïîâòîðèòü åãî ñòîÿ. Âïîñëåäñòâèè ýòî äûõàíèå ñòàíåò óæå ïðèâû÷íûì, ò.å. íåïðîèçâîëüíûì18 . Çàèìñòâóÿ ìåòîäèêó ñöåíè÷åñêîé ðå÷è, êàê äåêëàìàòîð, òàê è ëåêòîð ìîãóò äîáèòüñÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ñìåøàííî- äèàôðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî äûõàíèÿ, êîòîðîå ðåêîìåíäóåòñÿ äëÿ èñêóññòâà äåêëàìàöèè. Â èñêóññòâå âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ, îñîáîå ìåñòî çàíèìà- åò ïðîèçíîøåíèå, êîòîðîå äîëæíî áûòü áåñïîðî÷íûì ó äåê- ëàìàòîðà. Ïîðîêè ïðîèçíîøåíèÿ ìîãóò áûòü ïðèîáðåòåííûå èëè ïðèðîæäåííûå. È â òîì, è â äðóãîì ñëó÷àå ñóáúåêò äîë- æåí èçáàâèòüñÿ îò ýòèõ ñåðüåçíûõ íåäîñòàòêîâ, åñëè îí õî÷åò ãîâîðèòü ïðàâèëüíî è êðàñèâî. Íàèáîëåå ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àåìûå ïîðîêè ïðîèçíîøåíèÿ ÿâëÿþòñÿ: êàðòàâîñòü, ãíóñàâîñòü è øå- ïåëÿâîñòü19 . Êàðòàâîñòü îáíàðóæèâàåòñÿ ïðè àðòèêóëÿöèè [r] è [l], ÷òî ìîæíî óñòðàíèòü ïðè ïîìîùè äèêöèîííûõ óïðàæíåíèé è ñêî- ðîãîâîðîê. Ïðè÷åì, ïðè ïðîèçíåñåíèè [r] íàäî äåðæàòü ÿçûê íåïîäâèæíî çà àëüâåîëàìè, à ïðè ïðîèçíåñåíèè [l] – ïðèæè- ìàòü êîí÷èê ÿçûêà ê àëüâåîëàì. Ãíóñàâîñòü ïîÿâëÿåòñÿ, êîãäà ñòðóÿ âîçäóõà íàïðàâëÿåòñÿ â íîñ, âìåñòî òîãî, ÷òîáû íàïðàâèòü åå èçî ðòà. Â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå òîëüêî [m, n, G] òðåáóþò ïðîòîê âîçäóõà â íîñ, à ïðè ïðîèçíåñåíèè îñòàëüíûõ çâóêîâ íåîáõîäèìî ïîäíÿòü íåáíóþ çàíàâåñêó è íàïðàâèòü ïðîòîê âîçäóõà èçî ðòà. Øåïåëÿâîñòü ïðîèñõîäèò îò èçëèøíåãî ó÷àñòèÿ ÿçûêà â àð- òèêóëÿöèè øèïÿùèõ è ñâèñòÿùèõ çâóêîâ ðå÷è. Ýòîò íåäîñòà- òîê ìîæíî óñòðàíèòü ïðè ïîìîùè îïÿòü äèêöèîííûõ óïðàæ- íåíèé è ñêîðîãîâîðîê, äîáèâàÿñü ïðàâèëüíîãî óêëàäà ÿçûêà. Â ýòîé ñâÿçè ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî óñòðàíåíèå ïîðîêîâ ðå÷è òðåáóåò çíà÷èòåëüíîãî âðåìåíè è óïîðíîãî òðóäà ïîä ðóêîâî- äñòâîì ôîíåòèñòà èëè ëîãîïåäà. Ê òåõíèêå ðå÷è îòíîñèòñÿ è äèêöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ èãðàåò âàæ- íóþ ðîëü â èñêóññòâå âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ. Äèêöèÿ – ýòî îò÷åòëèâîå, ÿñíîå ïðîèçíåñåíèå êàæäîãî çâóêà, êîòîðîå îáåñ- ïå÷èâàåòñÿ ïðàâèëüíîé ðàáîòîé îðãàíîâ ðå÷è20 . Õîðîøàÿ äèêöèÿ ïðèäàåò ðå÷è êðàñèâîå çâó÷àíèå, ÷òî íå-

18 Òàì æå. 19 Ñì.: Ä. Êîðîâÿêîâ, óêàç. ñî÷., ñ. 20. 20 Òàì æå. 166 îáõîäèìî äëÿ àêòåðà, ÷òåöà, îðàòîðà è ëåêòîðà. Â ýòîé ñâÿçè ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî âîñïðèÿòèå ðå÷è âî ìíîãîì çàâèñèò îò òîãî, íàñêîëüêî ãîâîðÿùèé óìååò âíÿòíî è ÷åòêî àðòèêóëè- ðîâàòü çâóêè òîãî èëè äðóãîãî ÿçûêà. Ìíîãîëåòíÿÿ ïåäàãîãè- ÷åñêàÿ ïðàêòèêà ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî ïëîõàÿ äèêöèÿ î÷åíü ÷àñòî çàòðóäíÿåò ïîíèìàíèå ïðîèçíîñèìîãî òåêñòà. Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, äëÿ àêòåðà, äëÿ äåêëàìàòîðà, äëÿ ëåêòîðà ÿñíàÿ è ÷åòêàÿ äèê- öèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ conditio sine qua non. Ê.Ñ. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé ïðèäàâàë îãðîìíîå çíà÷åíèå äèêöèè â ñöåíè÷åñêîé ðå÷è è âîò ÷òî îí ñîâåòîâàë áóäóùèì àêòåðàì: «Åñëè âû íå ïîêîí÷èòå ñ ýòîé ðàáîòîé òåïåðü æå, òî íå ñïðà- âèòåñü ñ íåé è â áóäóùåì, è ïîñòîÿííî, âî âñå ìîìåíòû âà- øåé òâîð÷åñêîé æèçíè íà ñöåíå, ýòîò øêîëüíûé èçúÿí áóäåò òîðìîçèòü ðàáîòó»21 . Ñêàçàííîå â ðàâíîé ìåðå îòíîñèòñÿ êàê äåêëìàòîðó, òàê è ëåêòîðó. Ðàáîòó íàä äèêöèåé íóæíî íà÷àòü ñ òðåíèðîâêè ðå÷åâîãî àïïàðàòà, äîáèâàÿñü åãî ãèáêîñòè, ïîäâèæíîñòè. Ãèáêèé àïïàðàò ëåãêî ïðåîäîëåâàåò òðóäíîñòè àðòèêóëÿöèîííîé áàçû òîãî èëè äðóãîãî èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà. Ýòà ðàáîòà äîëæíà ñîïðîâîæäàòüñÿ äèêöèîííûìè óïðàæíåíèÿìè, öåëü êîòîðûõ çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òîáû äîáèòüñÿ ÿñíîé è ÷åòêîé àðòèêóëÿ- öèè êàæäîãî çâóêà â îòäåëüíîñòè, à çàòåì â ñëîâàõ è âî ôðà- çàõ22 . Ñðåäè äèêöèîííûõ óïðàæíåíèé îñîáîå ìåñòî äîëæíû çà- íèìàòü ñêîðîãîâîðêè, êîòîðûå íàëàæèâàþò ðå÷åâîé àïïàðàò è ñïîñîáñòâóþò ãèáêîñòè è ïîäâèæíîñòè ðå÷åâûõ îðãàíîâ. Îíè ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ñîáîé äèíàìè÷åñêîå ðàçâåðòûâàíèå «ðå÷åäâèæå- íèé» è ÿâëÿþòñÿ î÷åíü ïîëåçíûìè äèêöèîííûìè óïðàæíåíèÿ- ìè. Äèêöèîííûå óïðàæíåíèÿ äîëæíû ïðîâîäèòüñÿ ïðè ìåäëåí- íîì òåìïå, ïîòîìó ÷òî èìåííî ìåäëåííûé òåìï ïîçâîëèò ãîâîðÿùåìó äóìàòü âïåðåä è êîíòðîëèðîâàòü ñâîè ïðîèçíî- ñèòåëüíûå íàâûêè, ñëóøàÿ ñîáñòâåííîå ïðîèçíîøåíèå. Âìå- ñòå ñ òåì íåîáõîäèìî äîáèòüñÿ ðàçáîð÷èâîñòè ðå÷è, êîòîðàÿ çàâèñèò îò ÷åòêîñòè è èíòåíñèâíîñòè ïðîèçíåñåíèÿ ñîãëàñíûõ. Âî âðåìÿ ðàáîòû íàä äèêöèåé öåëåñîîáðàçíî èçáåãàòü áûñò-

21 Ñì.: Ê.Ñ. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé, Ðàáîòà àêòåðà íàä ñîáîé, ÷. II,, Ì. 1990, ñ. 51. 22 Ïîëåçíî èñïîëüçîâàòü äèêöèîííûå óïðàæíåíèÿ, ïðåäñòàâëåííûå â êíèãå Ñ.Í. Âàðäàíÿí, Pronunciation Practice, 3rd ed., Yerevan, 2012.

167 ðîãî òåìïà, ò. ê. ïðè áûñòðîì òåìïå ïðîèñõîäèò ñìàçûâàíèå è âûïàäåíèå çâóêîâ, ïðîïàäàåò ÷åòêîñòü àðòèêóëÿöèè. Ïîýòîìó ñîáëþäåíèå ìåäëåííîãî òåìïà íà íà÷àëüíîì ýòàïå îáó÷åíèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ òåì íåîáõîäèìûì óñëîâèåì, êîòîðîå îáåñïå÷èâàåò ÿñ- íîñòü è ÷åòêîñòü äèêöèè. Ïðåîäîëåâ òåõíè÷åñêèå òðóäíîñòè, äåêëàìàòîð äîëæåí îá- ðàòèòüñÿ ê ëîãè÷åñêîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòè ðå÷è, ÷òî ïðåäïîëàãàåò ïðàâèëüíóþ ôðàçèðîâêó è ïðàâèëüíóþ ðàññòàíîâêó ëîãè÷åñêèõ óäàðåíèé. Êàæäàÿ ôðàçà èìååò ñâîé ëîãè÷åñêèé öåíòð. Öåí- òðàìè ñòàíîâÿòñÿ íàèáîëåå âàæíûå ïî ñìûñëó ñëîâà. Èìåííî íà ýòè ñëîâà ïàäàåò ëîãè÷åñêîå óäàðåíèå, êîòîðîå äîñòèãàåò- ñÿ ïóòåì òîíàëüíîãî ïîâûøåíèÿ è ïîíèæåíèÿ, óñèëåíèÿ çâó- êà, çàìåäëåííîãî ïðîèçíåñåíèÿ. Èíîãäà âûäåëåíèå ñëîâà èç ðÿäà äðóãèõ äîñòèãàåòñÿ ñ ïîìîùüþ ïàóç – äî è ïîñëå âûäå- ëÿåìîãî ñëîâà23 . Îñíîâíûì ñïîñîáîì âûäåëåíèÿ ñëîâ, íåñóùèõ ëîãè÷åñêîå óäàðåíèå, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîâûøåíèå è ïîíèæåíèå ãîëîñà, ò.å. âûäåëåíèå òîíàëüíîå. Èìåííî èçìåíåíèå âûñîòû òîíà äàåò âîçìîæíîñòü íàèáîëåå ïîëíî ïåðåäàòü âñåâîçìîæíûå îòòåí- êè çíà÷èìîñòè òîãî èëè èíîãî ñëîâà24 . Ëîãè÷åñêîå óäàðåíèå ìîæåò áûòü áî?ëüøåãî èëè ìå?íüøå- ãî çíà÷åíèÿ. Ýòî ðàçëè÷èå óäàðåíèé ïî èõ çíà÷èòåëüíîñòè â ñîåäèíåíèè ñ ðàçëè÷íîé äëèòåëüíîñòüþ ïàóç äàåò âîçìîæíîñòü íàèáîëåå òî÷íî âûðàçèòü ìûñëü àâòîðà, äîíåñòè äî ñëóøàòå- ëÿ25 . Ïðè îïðåäåëåíèè ìåñòà óäàðåíèé ñëåäóåò ïðîäóìàòü, êà- êèå èç ñëîâ ìîãóò áûòü îïóùåíû. Òàêîé ïðèåì íàçûâàþò ñêå- ëåòèðîâàíèåì, ò.å. îáíàæåíèåì ñìûñëîâîãî «ñêåëåòà» ôðàçû26 . Ñëåäóþùèé øàã äåêëàìàòîðà – ýòî èíòîíàöèîííî-ïðîñî- äè÷åñêîå îôîðìëåíèå òåêñòà, êîòîðîå, ïðåæäå âñåãî, çàâèñèò îò ïðîñîäè÷åñêîãî îôîðìëåíèÿ çíàêîâ ïðåïèíàíèÿ. Êàê èçâåñòíî, êàæäûé çíàê ïðåïèíàíèÿ èìååò ñâîå ïðîñî- äè÷åñêîå âûðàæåíèå. Çàäà÷à ÷òåöà, äåêëàìàòîðà çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òîáû îðãàíèçîâàòü âñå çíàêè ïðåïèíàíèÿ ïðîñîäè÷å- ñêè. Îäíàêî èñêóññòâî âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ îãðàíè÷èâàåò- ñÿ íå òîëüêî ëîãè÷åñêîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòüþ. Ãëàâíàÿ ðîëü çäåñü

23 Ñì.: Â.Ñ. Íàéäåíîâ, óêàç. ñî÷., ñ. 44. 24 Òàì æå, ñ. 45. 25 Òàì æå. 26 Òàì æå, ñ. 47.

168 ïðèíàäëåæèò ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îáðàçíîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòè ÷òåíèÿ. Ïåðåäà÷à ñîäåðæàíèÿ õóäîæåñòâåííîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ îòíîøåíèå àâòîðà ê èçîáðàæàåìûì èì ÿâëåíèÿì æèç- íè, åãî îöåíêó ýòèõ ÿâëåíèé, èõ èäåéíî-ýìîöèîíàëüíîå îñ- ìûñëåíèå. Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, âîññîçäàíèå â çâó÷àùåì ñëîâå õó- äîæåñòâåííûõ îáðàçîâ â åäèíñòâå èõ èíäèâèäóàëüíî-êîíêðåò- íîé ôîðìû è èäåéíî-ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ, íàçûâàåò- ñÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îáðàçíîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòüþ27 . Ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îáðàçíóþ âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü íåëüçÿ ðàññìàò- ðèâàòü êàê íåêîòîðîå äîáàâëåíèå ê ëîãè÷åñêîé âûðàçèòåëü- íîñòè. Îáå ýòè ñòîðîíû èñêóññòâà ÷òåíèÿ íåðàçðûâíî ñâÿçà- íû, ÷òî îáóñëîâëåíî ñàìîé ïðèðîäîé ðå÷è28 . Åñëè ëîãè÷åñêàÿ âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü ñïîñîáñòâóåò ïîíèìàíèþ òåêñòà, òî ýìîöèî- íàëüíî-îáðàçíàÿ âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü ñïîñîáñòâóåò ïðîáóæäåíèþ ÷óâñòâà. Ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü âîñïðèÿòèÿ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ çíà÷è- òåëüíî ïîâûøàåòñÿ, êîãäà ÷èòàþùèé íå òîëüêî ïîíèìàåò, ÷òî ãîâîðèò àâòîð, íî è «âèäèò» èçîáðàæàåìóþ èì æèçíü. Ïðîÿâ- ëåíèå ÷óâñòâà, ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê òîìó, î ÷åì ãî- âîðèòñÿ â òåêñòå, – íåîáõîäèìîå óñëîâèå âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òå- íèÿ. Îäíàêî ÷òåö äîëæåí ïåðåäàòü íå òîëüêî îáúåêòèâíûå ÿâ- ëåíèÿ äåéñòâèòåëüíîé æèçíè, íî è ñóáúåêòèâíîå îòíîøåíèå àâòîðà ê ýòèì ÿâëåíèÿì. Âñå ýòî îáðàçóåò ïîäòåêñò õóäîæåñò- âåííîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ29 . Ãëàâíàÿ çàäà÷à ÷òåöà, äåêëàìàòîðà çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â âûÿâëå- íèè è ïåðåäà÷è ïîäòåêñòà ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ. Ïîíÿòü ïîäòåêñò ïî- ìîãàåò òùàòåëüíûé àíàëèç ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ, âäóì÷èâîå è âíè- ìàòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê ñëîâàì àâòîðà, ê ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîìó ïî- ñòðîåíèþ ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, çíàíèå áèîãðàôèè è îáùåãî íàïðàâ- ëåíèÿ òâîð÷åñòâà ïèñàòåëÿ. Â ïîäòåêñòå íàõîäèò ñâîå âûðà- æåíèå òâîð÷åñêîå îñâîåíèå ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ, ëè÷íîå îòíîøåíèå ÷èòàþùåãî ê òåì ÿâëåíèÿì æèçíè, î êîòîðûõ ãîâîðèòñÿ â ïðî- èçâåäåíèè, åãî ïîíèìàíèå ýòèõ ÿâëåíèé, ýìîöèîíàëüíî-âîëå- âàÿ óñòðåìëåííîñòü – òî äåéñòâåííîå íàìåðåíèå, ñ êîòîðûì îí ïðîèçíîñèò ñëîâà òåêñòà30 . Ýòî çíà÷èò, ÷òî íà ñöåíå êàê àêòåð, òàê è ÷òåö âîçäåéñòâóþò íà ñëóøàòåëåé (çðèòåëüíûé çàë), «äåéñòâóÿ ñëîâîì». Âîò ÷òî ïèøåò Ê.Ñ. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé

27 Òàì æå, ñ.62. 28 Òàì æå. 29 Òàì æå, ñ. 64. 30 Òàì æå, ñ. 70. 169 ïî ýòîìó ïîâîäó: «Ó õîðîøåãî àêòåðà äîëæíû çâó÷àòü âñå ãëàñíûå è ñîãëàñíûå. Òîëüêî òîãäà îí ïîéìåò, ÷òî òàêîå ñëîâî, òîëüêî òîãäà îí áóäåò ëþáèòü ñëîâî. Åñëè îí ïðèâûêíåò ê ýòîìó, òîãäà îí íå áóäåò áîëòàòü ñëîâà. Ýòî ñâÿçàíî â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ñ åãî ïðåäñòàâëåíèåì, íî íóæíî òàêæå, ÷òîáû îí ïîëþáèë ñëîâî, êàê çâóê, êàê ïåíèå… ñòèõ ìîæíî ÷èòàòü òîëüêî òîãäà, êîãäà ïîñòàâëåí ãîëîñ… êîãäà çâóê èäåò â ìàñêó, â ëîá, â òåìÿ. Òîãäà… ñëîâî áóäåò ïåòü»31 . Ñëîâà òåêñòà âîññîçäàþò â âîîáðàæåíèè ÷èòàþùåãî îáðà- çû, âûçûâàþùèå ó íåãî ýìîöèîíàëüíûé îòêëèê, ýìîöèîíàëü- íîå îòíîøåíèå, êîòîðîå åñòåñòâåííî è íåïðîèçâîëüíî ïðîÿâ- ëÿåòñÿ â åãî ÷òåíèè âìåñòå ñ ïåðåäà÷åé îñâîåííûõ èì ìûñëåé àâòîðà. Âîçíèêøèå â âîîáðàæåíèè ÷òåöà îáðàçû «çàðàæàþò» åãî ÷óâñòâîì àâòîðà, êîòîðûì îí â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü «çàðàæàåò» ñëóøàòåëåé32 . Ðàçíèöà ìåæäó àêòåðîì è ÷òåöîì çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî àêòåð âîçäåéñòâóåò íà ñëóøàòåëåé ÷åðåç ñâîåãî ïàðò- íåðà, à ÷òåö – íåïîñðåäñòâåííî. Ñêàçàííîå â ðàâíîé ìåðå îò- íîñèòñÿ è ê ëåêòîðó, êîòîðûé òàêæå íåïîñðåäñòâåííî âîçäåé- ñòâóåò íà àóäèòîðèþ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âûðàçèòåëüíîå ÷òåíèå åñòü àêòèâíîå, öå- ëåíàïðàâëåííîå ñëîâåñíîå äåéñòâèå, îáóñëîâëåííîå îòíîøå- íèåì ÷èòàþùåãî ê òåì ÿâëåíèÿì æèçíè, î êîòîðûõ ãîâîðèòñÿ â ïðîèçâåäåíèè, è íàìåðåíèåì, ñ êîòîðûì îí ïåðåäàåò ýòè ÿâëåíèÿ ñëóøàþùèì. Ñî÷åòàíèå ñëîâåñíûõ äåéñòâèé ñîñòàâ- ëÿåò ïðîöåññ ðå÷åâîãî îáùåíèÿ33 . Îáùåíèå ïðåäïîëàãàåò àêòèâíîå âîçäåéñòâèå ÷òåöà íà ñëóøàþùèõ. Îíî ñîçäàåòñÿ òîãäà, êîãäà ÷òåö ïåðåäàåò ïîäòåêñò ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ, «âèäèò» èçîáðàæåííóþ â íåì æèçíü è ñòðåìèòñÿ «âíåäðèòü» ñâîè âè- äåíèÿ â ñëóøàþùèõ. Ïîýòîìó âî âðåìÿ ÷òåíèÿ âñå åãî âíè- ìàíèå, âñå åãî äóõîâíûå ñèëû íàïðàâëåíû íà òî, ÷òîáû çà- ñòàâèòü ñëóøàþùèõ ïðåäñòàâèòü ñåáå, ïîíÿòü, ýìîöèîíàëüíî ïåðåæèòü è ïðàâèëüíî îöåíèòü òî, î ÷åì ãîâîðèòñÿ â òåêñòå. Ýòà íàïðàâëåííîñòü è ñîçäàåò îáùåíèå, â ïðîöåññå êîòîðîãî îñóùåñòâëÿåòñÿ âîçäåéñòâèå ÷òåöà íà ñëóøàòåëåé34 . Â ïðîöåññå ÷òåíèÿ ëîãè÷åñêàÿ è ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îáðàçíàÿ

31 Ñì.: Ê.Ñ. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé, Ñòàòüè, ðå÷è, áåñåäû, ïèñüìà, “Èñêóñòâî”, Ì., 1953, ñ. 673. 32 Òàì æå, ñ. 63. 33 Òàì æå, ñ. 72. 34 Òàì æå. 170 âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü ñëèâàþòñÿ â îäèí èíòîíàöèîííûé ïîòîê è ïðîÿâëÿþòñÿ â òàêîì æå íåðàçðûâíîì åäèíñòâå, êàê ìûñëè, ÷óâñòâà è âîëåâàÿ íàïðàâëåííîñòü ÷èòàþùåãî35 . Îáçîð ëèòåðàòóðû ýòîé ñëîæíîé è îáøèðíîé îáëàñòè óáå- äèòåëüíî ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî èñêóññòâî âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ äîëæíî ñòàòü íåîòúåìëåìîé ÷àñòüþ ôèëîëîãè÷åñêîãî îáðàçî- âàíèÿ. Èçó÷àÿ ýòó îáëàñòü, ôèëîëîã ìîæåò îâëàäåòü òåõíèêîé ðå÷è, ÷òî íåîáõîäèìî äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ ëåêöèé è ïóáëè÷íûõ âûñòó- ïëåíèé. Â òî æå âðåìÿ ýòî ïîçâîëèò ôèëîëîãó ñîâåðøåíñòâî- âàòü êóëüòóðó ðå÷è è äîáèòüñÿ áîëåå ýôôåêòèâíîãî âîçäåéñò- âèÿ íà àóäèòîðèþ.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ

1. Âàðäàíÿí Ñ.Í., Ìàðèàíÿí À. (1992) Ðèòîðè÷åñêèå ïðèå- ìû è âûðàçèòåëüíûå ñðåäñòâà êàê íåîáõîäèìûå êîìïîíåíòû ëåêòîðñêîãî ìàñòåðñòâà â ïðåïîäàâàíèè èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ Òåçèñû äîêë. ðåñïóáë. íàó÷íî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîé êîíôåðåíöèè, Åðåâàí, èçä. ÅÃÓ, ñ. 61. 2. Âàðäàíÿí Ñ.Í., (1996) Ñâåðõñèíòàêòèêà ðå÷åâîãî è ïåâ- ÷åñêîãî ãîëîñîâ, Òåçèñû äîêë. êîíôåðåíöèè «Ñåìèîòèêà è ïðå- ïîäàâàíèå ÿçûêîâ», Åðåâàí, èçä. ÅÃÓ, ñ. 73-74. 3. Âàðäàíÿí Ñ.Í., (1997) Òåìáðàëüíàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ â ðå÷å- âîì è ïåâ÷åñêîì èçãëàøåíèè, Òåçèñû äîêë. êîíôåðåíöèè «Ñå- ìèîòèêà è ïðåïîäàâàíèå ÿçûêîâ», Åðåâàí, èçä. ÅÃÓ, ñ. 77-78. 4. Âàðäàíÿí Ñ.Í., Òèðàòóðÿí À.À. (2003) Îá îñîáåííîñòÿõ ñöåíè÷åñêîé ðå÷è, Òåçèñû äîêë. êîíôåðåíöèè «Ïðîáëåìû ñîâðåìåííîé ëèíãâèñòèêè è ìåòîäèêè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ èíèñòðàí- íûõ ÿçûêîâ», ÐÀÓ, Åðåâàí, ñ. 9. 5. Âåðáîâ À.Ì., (1961) Òåõíèêà ïîñòàíîâêè ãîëîñà, Ì. 6. Ãîëîâèí Á.Í. (1980) Îñíîâû êóëüòóðû ðå÷è, Ì. 7. Æèíêèí Í.È. (1958) Ìåõàíèçìû ðå÷è, Ì. 8. Êîðîâÿêîâ Ä. (1914) Èñêóññòâî è ýòþäû âûðàçèòåëüíîãî ÷òåíèÿ, Ñ. Ïåòåðáóðã. 9. Íàéäåíîâ Á.Ñ., Çàâàäñêàÿ Ï.Ô. (1964) Âûðàçèòåëüíîå ÷òå- íèå, Ì. 10. Ñàðè÷åâà Å.Ô. (1955) Ñöåíè÷åñêàÿ ðå÷ü, Ì.

35 Òàì æå, ñ. 73. 171 11. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé Ê.Ñ. (1953) Ñòàòüè, ðå÷è, áåñåäû, ïèñü- ìà, “Èñêóññòâî”, Ì., ñ. 673. 12. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé Ê.Ñ. (1955) Ðàáîòà àêòåðà íàä ñîáîé, ÷. II, Ì. 13. Vardanian S. N. (2013) English Phonetics, 2nd ed. Yerevan. 14. Vardanian S. N. (2012) Pronunciation Practice, 3rd ed., Yerevan.

172 ²åñ»ëÛ³Ý Ø. ²Ûí³½Û³Ý ². ºñ¨³ÝÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

ä²Þîä²Ü²Î²Ü ÊàêøÆ ²è²ÜÒÜ²Ð²îÎàôÂÚàôÜÜºðÀ ¸²î²Î²Ü ÊàêàôÚÂàôØ

ON SOME STRATEGIES OF COURTROOM DEFENSE

ABSTRACT The paper discusses some strategies of courtroom defense focusing on the unique arsenal of linguistic and psychological tools that the counsel for defense should possess to influence audience and achieve justice.

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176 Ëëïáñ»Ý ÑÇÙÝ³íáñí³Í, Ñ³Ùá½Çã ¨ Ñ»ÝíÇ ·áñÍáõÝ ³å³óáõÛóÝ»ñÇ íñ³: ä³ßïå³ÝÝ Çñ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ Õ»Ï³í³ñí»É üñ³ÝëÇ³ÛÇ ÷³ëï³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ³ë³óí³Íùáí` §Ø»Ýù »Ï»É »Ýù ¹³ï³ñ³Ý áã Ã» ÇÝã áñ µ³Ý ³å³óáõó»Éáõ, ³ÛÉ ÙÇ³ÛÝ óáõÛó ï³Éáõ Ñ³- Ù³ñ, áñ ¹³ï³Ë³½Á áãÇÝã ãÇ ³å³óáõó»É¦ (11): ÜÙ³Ý ¹ÇñùÁ ³ÝËáõ- ë³÷»ÉÇáñ»Ý å³ßïå³ÝÇÝ Ù³ïÝáõÙ ¿ ³Ý·áñÍáõÃÛ³Ý, å³ëÇíáõÃÛ³Ý` Ýñ³ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõÝÁ ë³ÑÙ³Ý³÷³Ï»Éáí ÙÇ³ÛÝ µ³ó³ë³Ï³Ý ÏáÕÙáí: ä³ßïå³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ Çñ³Ï³Ý³óÝ»ÉÇë ÷³ëï³µ³ÝÁ ã³÷³½³Ýó ëÏ½µáõÝù³ÛÇÝ áõ ³ÝÑ³ÕÃ å»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝÇ Ñá·»µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ñ³ñÏ³¹ñÙ³Ý` ³åûñÇÝÇ Ù»Ãá¹Ý»ñÇ ÏÇñ³éÙ³Ý ÝÏ³ïÙ³Ùµ ¨ ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ Ó»éÝ³ñÏÇ ùÝÝã³Ï³Ý áõ ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ëË³ÉÝ»ñÁ Ï³ÝË»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ: ä³ßïå³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëùÁ ÏñáõÙ ¿ ÇÝùÝáõñáõÛÝ µÝáõÛÃ ¨ ÙÇïí³Í ¿ ³Ùµ³ëï³ÝÛ³ÉÇ û·ïÇÝ áñáßáõÙ Ï³Û³óÝ»Éáõ ·áñÍÇÝ: ä³ßïå³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëùÇ ÑÇÙùáõÙ ÙÇßï å»ïù ¿ ÁÝÏ³Í ÉÇÝÇ å³ßïå³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÇÙÝ³- Ï³Ý ·³Õ³÷³ñÁ, Ã»ÉÁ: ¸ñ³ÝÇó ¿ Ï³Ëí³Í ËáëùÇ µáí³Ý¹³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ Ï³éáõóí³ÍùÁ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ Ñ³ñ³µ»ñ³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÁ (11): ²ÛëåÇëáí, ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ËáëùÁ, ³é³í»É³å»ë` å³ßïå³Ý³Ï³Ý Ëáë- ùÁ Çñ µáÉáñ µ³Õ³¹ñÇãÝ»ñáí Ñ³Ý¹»ñÓ ¹³ï³å³ßïå³ÝÇ ·áñÍáõ- Ý»áõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ½µ³Õ»óÝáõÙ ¿ áõñáõÛÝ ¨ ã³÷³½³Ýó Ï³ñ¨áñ ï»Õ, û·- ÝáõÙ ¿ ¹³ï³ñ³ÝÇÝ ×Çßï ÏáÕÙÝáñáßí»Éáõ` ³Ùµ³ëï³ÝÛ³ÉÇÝ Ý»ñÏ³- Û³óí³Í Ñ³Ù³ã³÷ å³ïÅ³ï»ë³Ï ë³ÑÙ³Ý»Éáõ ·áñÍáõÙ: ú·ïí»Éáí Ñá·»µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ·Çï»ÉÇùÝ»ñÇó` å³ßïå³ÝÝ Ç ½áñáõ ¿ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»É ùÝÝíáÕ ·áñÍÇ ÷³ëï³Ï³Ý ïíÛ³ÉÝ»ñÁ Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ í³ñùÇ Ï³é³í³ñ- Ù³Ý Ù»Ë³ÝÇ½ÙÇÝ ÑÇÙÝí»Éáí` ÙÇ µ³Ý, áñ ÑÝ³ñ³íáñ ã¿ ³é³Ýó Ù³ñ¹- Ï³Ýó Ý»ñ³ßË³ñÑÁ, ³ÝÑ³ï³Ï³Ý ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÝ áõ Ýå³- ï³ÏÝ»ñÁ, Ñáõ½³Ï³Ý íÇ×³ÏÝ áõ ³åñáõÙÝ»ñÁ ÉñÇí Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³Éáõ:

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1. Àëåêñååâ Í.Ñ., Ìàêàðîâà Ç.Â. Îðàòîðñêîå èñêóññòâî â ñóäå. – Ë.: Èçä-âî ËÃÓ. 2. Âèíîãðàäîâà Ò.Þ., ßêóøèí Ñ.Þ. (1993) Îñíîâû ìîäå- ëèðîâàíèÿ ïóáëè÷íîé ðå÷è â ñóäå. Êàçàíü. Èçäàòåëüñòâî Êà- çàíñêîãî ãîñóíèâåðñèòåòà. 3. Âëàäèìèðîâ Ë.Å. (1873) Ñóä ïðèñÿæíûõ. – Õàðüêîâ: Óíè- âåðñèòåòñêàÿ òèïîãðàôèÿ. – 257 ñ. 4. Êîíè À.Ô. (1999) Èñêóññòâî ðå÷è íà ñóäå // Ï. Ñåðãåè÷ Èñêóññòâî ðå÷è íà ñóäå. – Òóëà: Àâòîãðàô. – 320 ñ. 5. Êóçíåöîâà Å.À. (2002) Ýêñïðåññèâíîñòü îðàòîðñêîé ìàñêè 177 â ñóäåáíîé çàùèòèòåëüíîé ðå÷è // ×åëîâåê – êîììóíèêàöèÿ – òåêñò. Âûï. 5. -Áàðíàóë: Èçä-âî: ÀÃÓ. 6. Êóçíåöîâà Å.À. Ê ïðîáëåìå îáðàçà ÷åëîâåêà â ñóäåáíîé ðå÷è (íà ìàòåðèàëå ðå÷åé Ô.Í. Ïëåâàêî) // ßçûê. Âðåìÿ. Ëè÷íîñòü. Ìàòåðèàëû Ìåæäóíàðîäíîé íàó÷íîé êîíôåðåíöèè. - Îìñê: Èçä-âî Îìñê. ãîñ. óí-ò, 7. Ëåé÷èê Â. Ì. (2006). Òåðìèíîâåäåíèå: ïðåäìåò, ìåòîäû, ñòðóêòóðà- ñ. 210 8. Ñåðãåè÷ Ï. (1999). Èñêóññòâî ðå÷è íà ñóäå.–Òóëà: Àâòî- ãðàô. – ñ. 320 9. Garner B. (2002). The Elements of Legal Style. – p.1 10. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé Ê.Ñ. (1990). Ðàáîòà àêòåðà íàä ñîáîé ÷. 1, 2. 11. http://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-legal-help/criminal- defense-strategies.html 12. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/linglaw/overview.php

178 ²í»ïÇëÛ³Ý ¼. ¶ÛáõÙñÇÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ù³ÝÏ³í³ñÅ³Ï³Ý ÇÝëïÇïáõï, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

Ê²Ô²ðÎ²ÚÆÜ ö²êî²ðÎØ²Ü ÐÜ²ðÜºðÀ ø²Ô²ø²Î²Ü ÊàêàôÚÂàôØ ON MANIPULATIVE ARGUMENTATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE

ABSTRACT The present paper discusses speech techniques of the strategy of manipulative argumentation used as a means of impact in modern American political discourse. This study focuses on the communicative- pragmatic peculiarities of manipulative argumentation. It also highlights a number of special speech impact techniques such as typifying people and events, false objectivity, amplifying, etc.

ø³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃáõÙ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ-Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý é³½Ù³í³- ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ËáëáÕÇ áñáßáõÙÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ñÃ³·³ÛáõÃÛáõÝÝ »Ý Ý»ñÏ³Û³ó- ÝáõÙ` áñáß³ÏÇ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ñ³çáñ¹³÷á- ËáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ É»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇçáóÝ»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ý³Ë³·ÍÇÝ Ñ³Ù³å³ï³ëË³Ý: Êáëù³ÛÇÝ-Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝ- Ý»ñÁ Ï³ñáÕ »Ý ÉÇÝ»É ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ` ·»ñ³Ï³ÛáÕ, ¨ Ù³ëÝ³íáñ` ·ÉË³íáñ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ï³ñµ»ñ³Ïí³Í Ï»ñåáí Çñ³Ï³Ý³óÝáÕ: Êáëù³- ÛÇÝ Ý»ñ³½¹Ù³Ý µ³ñÓñ ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ïáõÃÛ³Ùµ ¿ ûÅïí³Í Ë³Õ³ñÏ³- ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ: Ê³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏáõÙÁ ·»ñ³Ï³ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿, áñÁ Ý»ñ³éáõÙ ¿ Ë³Õ³ñÏÙ³Ý ¨ ÷³ë- ï³ñÏÙ³Ý Ù³ëÝ³íáñ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: êáõÛÝ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõ- ÝÁ Ýå³ï³Ï áõÝÇ ·³Õ³÷³ñ³Ï³Ý Ù»ñÓ»óÙ³Ý ÑÇÙù»ñ ëï»ÕÍ»Éáí Õ»- Ï³í³ñ»É Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏÇóÝ»ñÇ ·Çï³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ áõ Ñ»ïÑ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý í³ñùÁ: Ê³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ñé»ïáñÇÝ ïñ³Ù³¹ñáõÙ ¿ ·Çï³Ïó³Ï³ÝÇ ¨ »ÝÃ³·Çï³Ïó³Ï³ÝÇ íñ³ Ñ³ÙÁÝÃ³ó Ý»ñ·áñÍÙ³Ý ³ÝíÇ×³ñÏ»ÉÇ ¨ ³ÝÝ³Ë³¹»å Ý»ñáõÅáí ûÅïí³Í Ëáëù³- ÛÇÝ §·áñÍÇùÝ»ñ¦` ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñ, áñáÝó É»½í³Ï³Ý Ï³½Ù³Ï»ñåáõÙÝ áõ ÷á- Ë³ÝóáõÙÁ Ï³ï³ñíáõÙ »Ý ÃÇñ³Ë Ñ³ÝñáõÛÃÇ Ñ³ÙÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ, Ñ³×³Ë ³éûñ»³Ï³Ý å³Ñ³ÝçÙáõÝùÝ»ñÇ Ñ³ßí³éÙ³Ùµ:

179 Ð³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Ï³ñ·áõÙ Ï»ÝïñáÝ³Ï³Ý ï»Õ ¿ ½µ³Õ»óÝáõÙ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ, áñÇÝ Ñ»ï¨áõÙ ¿ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ÑÝ³ñÁ: ì»ñ- çÇÝë é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛ³ÝÝ ³éÝãíáõÙ ¿ áñå»ë Ù³ëÝ³íáñÝ ÁÝ¹Ñ³ÝáõñÇÝ (8) ¨ Ñ³Ý¹»ë ¿ ·³ÉÇë áñå»ë é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý Çñ³óÙ³Ý ÏáÝÏñ»ï Ñ³- Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ù³ÛÉ: Úáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ µ³½Ù³ÏÇáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ »ÝÃ³¹ñáõÙ` Ñ³Ù³ËÙµí³Í é³½Ù³í³ñ³Ï³Ý Ñ³- ÙÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ Ýå³ï³ÏÇ Ý»ñùá: Êáëù³ÛÇÝ ÑÝ³ñÁ ·áñÍáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ñ³çáñ¹³÷áËáõÃÛ³Ý ·áñÍ³- é³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñ ¿, áñÁ Ýå³ëïáõÙ ¿ ÉáÏ³É Ï³Ù ·Éáµ³É ËÝ¹ñÇ ÉáõÍÙ³- ÝÁ` é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý ÑëÏáÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ý»ñùá (5): ø³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÁ »ñ¨³Ý ¿ Ñ³ÝáõÙ ËáëùÇ Ï³éáõóÙ³Ý ûñÇÝ³ã³÷áõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ¨ Éë³ñ³ÝÇ íñ³ Ý»ñ·áñÍÙ³Ý ÙÇçáóÝ»ñÇ ÏÇñ³éáõÃÛ³Ý áñáß³ÏÇ å³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ³ÝÑ³ï³Ï³Ý É»½í³á×Ç ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ßñç³Ý³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ: ê³ ÃáõÛÉ ¿ ï³- ÉÇë Ëáë»Éáõ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ý»ñ³½¹Ù³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ` áñå»ë Ý³Ë³¹Çå³ÛÇÝ »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ, §áñáÝó ³ÝÁÝ¹Ñ³ï ³Ý¹ñ³¹³éÝáõÙ »Ý ³Ûë Ï³Ù ³ÛÝ ³½·³ÛÇÝ-É»½í³Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³ÝñáõÛÃÇ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óáõóÇãÝ»ñÝ Çñ»Ýó ËáëùáõÙ, ¨ áñáÝó Ñ»ï Í³ÝáÃáõÃÛáõÝÁ ïíÛ³É Ñ³ÝñáõÛÃÇ Ù»ç å³ñï³¹Çñ ¿ Ñ³Ù³ñíáõÙ: ²Û¹åÇëÇ Ý³Ë³¹Çå³ÛÇÝ »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ ÃíáõÙ »Ý Ý³¨ Ñ³ïáõÏ ³ÝáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ÑÕáõÙÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³ÛÉÝ¦ (6:52): Ü³Ë³¹Çå³- ÛÇÝ »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ ß³ñùáõÙ Ñ³ñÏ ¿ ¹Çï³ñÏ»É Ý³¨ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ý»ñ³½¹- Ù³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ` ÑÇÙù ÁÝ¹áõÝ»Éáí Ý³Ë³¹»åÇ Ñ»ï¨Û³É Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÃ- ÛáõÝÁ. §Ü³Ë³¹»åÁ ËáëáõÃ³ÛÇÝ å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»óáÕ ÷³ëï ¿, áñÁ Ï³ÝË³í ·áñÍ³¹ñí»É ¿ áñáß³ÏÇ É»½í³Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Ý- ñáõÛÃÇ ³Ý¹³ÙÝ»ñÇ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ¨ ûñÇÝ³Ï ¿ Í³é³- ÛáõÙ Ñ³çáñ¹áÕ ÝÙ³Ý³ïÇå ÷³ëï»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ¦ (3:10): Êáëù³ÛÇÝ Ý»ñ³½¹Ù³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ, Çñ»Ýó ÇÙ³ëï³·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ¨ ·áñÍ³é³Ï³Ý Ñ³ïÏ³ÝÇßÝ»ñáí å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í, ã»Ý Ñ³ÙÁÝÏÝáõÙ Ù»Ï Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ»ï. áõÝ»Ý³Éáí ÛáõñûñÇÝ³Ï ÇÙ³ëï³·áñÍ³µ³- Ý³Ï³Ý ³ï³ÕÓ` ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ ïñ³Ù³µ³Ýáñ»Ý ³í³ñïáõÝ, á×³Ï³Ý ÝßáõÛ- Ã³íáñí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»óáÕ ·áñÍ³é³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñ »Ý, áñáÝù ·áÛáõ- ÃÛ³Ý Çñ³íáõÝù »Ý ëï³ÝáõÙ Ý³Ë³¹Çå³ÛÝáõÃÛ³Ý ßÝáñÑÇí: Ð³ñÏ ¿ Ñ³ßíÇ ³éÝ»É ³ÛÝ Ñ³Ý·³Ù³ÝùÁ, áñ ëáõÛÝ ¹»åùáõÙ ãÇ ÷áËíáõÙ Ý»- ñ³½¹Ù³Ý Ý»ñáõÅáí ûÅïí³Í Ë³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ ·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÁ, ³ÛÉ ÷áËíáõÙ »Ý É»½í³Ï³Ý ¹ñë¨áñÙ³Ý Ó¨»ñÁ` »ÉÝ»Éáí Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÇó: ²ëí³ÍÁ ÑÇÙÝ³íáñ»Éáõ Ýå³ï³Ïáí Ù»çµ»ñ»Ýù Æ. ´áñÇëáí³ÛÇ ï»ë³Ï»ïÁ. §Ø»Ï ·áñÍ³µ³- Ý³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÁ Ï³ñáÕ ¿ ³ñï³Ñ³Ûïí»É ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÝ»ñáí. Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ï³ñµ»ñ ·áñÍáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ (ðå÷åâûå ïîñòóï-

180 êè), áñáÝù áõÝ³Ï »Ý ³ñï³Ñ³Ûï»Éáõ Ù»Ï ·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëï, Ï³½ÙáõÙ »Ý ·áñÍ³é³Ï³Ý- ·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ñ³ñ³óáõÛó¦ (4:214): Ð³ñÏ ¿ ÁÝ¹·Í»É ³ÛÝ Ñ³Ý·³Ù³ÝùÁ, áñ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÝ»ñÁ ëÏ½µÝ³íáñíáõÙ »Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ¨ ïíÛ³É Çñ³¹- ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ã»É³¹ñ³Ýùáí, áñÝ Çñ»ÝÇó Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝáõÙ ¿ §³ÛÝ ½áõ·ÁÝÃ³ó å³ÛÙ³ÝÝ»ñÇ áõ Ñ³Ý·³Ù³ÝùÝ»ñÇ í»ñ³ó³Ï³Ý ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³óí³Í Ï³Õ³- å³ñÁ, áñÁ ë³ÑÙ³ÝáõÙ ¿ ëáóÇ³É³Ï³Ý í³ñùÇ ë³ÑÙ³ÝÝ»ñÁ¦ (4:50): Ð»ï¨³µ³ñ` ·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÁ Ñ³Ý¹»ë ¿ ·³ÉÇë áñå»ë ÷á- ÷áË³Ï (âàðèàíò) (2), ÇëÏ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÝ»ñÁ` áñå»ë ³Ý- ÷á÷áË³ÏÝ»ñ (èíâàðèàíò), (2): È»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñÇ ³Ý÷á÷áË³- Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ï³ñ¨áñ Ýß³Ý³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝÇ ÇÝãå»ë É»½í³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³- Ï³ñ·Ç, ³ÛÝå»ë ¿É É»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñÇ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Çñ³óÙ³Ý` ¹ñ³Ýó ·áñÍ³éáõÃÛ³Ý ÁÙµéÝÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ, Ý³¨ Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ ËáëùáõÙ É»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñÇ ÷áË³Ï»ñåÙ³Ý Ù»Ë³ÝÇ½ÙÝ»ñÁ: È»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñÇ ³Ý÷á÷áË³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ù»ñ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³óÝáÕ Ùï³ÍáÕáõ- ÃÛ³Ý, ×³Ý³ãáÕ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý ¨ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³- óÇÝ Ñ³ñÙ³ñ»óÙ³Ý ³ñ¹ÛáõÝùÝ ¿, áñÁ íÏ³ÛáõÙ ¿ Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ Ùï³Íá- ÕáõÃÛ³Ý, É»½í³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Ï³ñ·Ç ¨ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý ÷áËÏ³å³Ïó- í³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý Ù³ëÇÝ (7:108): ø³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÃáõÛÉ ¿ ï³ÉÇë ï³ñá- ñáß»Éáõ Ë³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý Çñ³óÙ³Ý ÙÇ ß³ñù Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ-Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñ, ³Û¹ ÃíáõÙ` ïÇå³Ï³Ý³ó- Ù³Ý, Ï»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛ³Ý, ã³÷³½³ÝóÙ³Ý, Ã»ñÇñ³½»ÏÙ³Ý ¨ ³ÛÉ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñ: ´³í³Ï³ÝÇÝ µ³ñÓñ ¿ ùÝÝíáÕ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ Çñ³óÙ³Ý Ñ³- ×³Ë³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ïáõÃÛáõÝÁ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃáõÙ` ßÝáñÑÇí Ë³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ ÇÙ³ëï³·áñÍ³µ³- Ý³Ï³Ý ¹ÇÝ³ÙÇ½ÙÇ, áñÁ ·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ý ¨ »ÝÃ³·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ý, µ³Ý³- Ï³Ý ¨ Ñáõ½³Ï³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÝ»ñÇ íñ³ Ñ³Ù³Å³Ù³Ý³ÏÛ³ Ý»ñ·áñÍÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñ³íáñáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ¿: àñå»ë½Ç ÑÇÙÝ³íáñ»Ýù ³ëí³ÍÁ, ¹Çï³ñÏ»Ýù Ñ³Ù³å³ï³ëË³Ý ûñÇÝ³ÏÝ»ñ: ²Ûëå»ë` Çñ³¹³ñÓáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¨ »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ ïÇå³Ï³Ý³óÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ ûÅ³Ý¹³ÏáõÙ ¿ Çñ³¹³ñÓáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¨ ³ÝÑ³ïÝ»ñÇ Ï³ñÍñ³- ïÇå³ÛÝ³óÙ³ÝÁ, ÁÝ¹ áñáõÙ ³Ýï»ëíáõÙ »Ý ï³ñµ»ñ³ÏÇã ·Í»ñÁ, Ñ³ï- Ï³ÝÇßÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: îÇå³Ï³Ý³óÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÁ ·áñÍ³µ³Ýáñ»Ý Ï³ñáÕ ¿ Çñ³óí»É Ù»Ï Ï»ñ- å³ñÇ Ù»ç áÕç ¹³ëÇ Ï³Ù Ù»Ï »ñ¨áõÛÃÇ Ù»ç ÝÙ³Ý³ïÇå »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ Ëï³óÙ³Ý ÙÇçáóáí: Î»ñå³ñÇ Ï³Ù ÇñáÕáõÃÛ³Ý` Ï³ñÍñ³ïÇåÇ í»ñ³- Í»Éáõ Ýå³ï³Ï³áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ÏÝÑ³Ûï ¿ ¹³éÝáõÙ ÝáõÛÝ ÑÝ³ñÇ` ï³ñµ»ñ »ÉáõÛÃÝ»ñáõÙ ÏÇñ³éÙ³Ý ÷³ëïÇó:

181 Today, as we commemorate what the ADA accomplished, we celebrate who the ADA was all about. It was about the young girl in Washington State who just wanted to see a movie at her hometown theater, but was turned away because she had cerbral palsy; or the young man in Indiana who showed up at a worksite, able to do the work, excited for the opportunity, but was turned away and called a cripple because of a minor disability he had already trained himself to work with; or the student in California who was eager and able to attend the college of his dreams, and refused to let the iron grip of polio keep him from the classroom – each of whom became integral to this cause. And it was about all of you. You understand these stories because you or someone you love lived them. (B. Obama, 20th Anniversary of the Americans with Disabilities Act, July 26, 2010). Ðé»ïáñÁ ÑÙïáñ»Ý Ë³µÏ³ÝùÇ ¿ »ÝÃ³ñÏáõÙ áõÝÏÝ¹ñÇÝ` Çñ å³ïáõ- ÙÁ Ï³å»Éáí í»ñçÇÝÇë ÏÛ³ÝùÇ Ñ»ï ¨, ³ÛëåÇëáí, Çñ³óÝ»Éáí ½·³Û³- Ï³Ý Ý»ñ·áñÍáõÙ: øÝÝíáÕ ÑÝ³ñáõÙ ½áõ·³Ù»ïáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ñï³Ñ³Ûïí³Í ¿ Ïóáõñ¹áí (...we celebrate who the ADA was all about. It was about...), Ñ³í»É³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ (...just wanted to see a movie/ ...able to do the work, excited for the opportunity/ ...was eager and able to attend the college of his dreams) ¨ ß³ñ³ÑÛáõë³Ï³Ý ½áõ·³µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ (…but was turned away because she had cerbral palsy/ but was turned away and called a cripple): ø³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ í»ñÉáõÍáõÃÛ³ÝÁ ÝíÇñí³Í µ³½Ù³ÃÇí ³ß- Ë³ïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáõÙ µ³½ÙÇóë ùÝÝí»É »Ý §I¦ ¨ §we¦ ¹»ñ³ÝáõÝÝ»ñÁ, áñáÝù §ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý³óí³Í¦ É»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇ³íáñÝ»ñ »Ý ×³Ý³ãí»É (ï»°ë Vander Zanden, 1977:280, Ù»çµ. Áëï ´³Õ¹³ë³ñÛ³ÝÇ, 2011:103): ê³Ï³ÛÝ áã å³Ï³ë ³ñÅ»ù³íáñ ¨ ·áñÍ³µ³Ýáñ»Ý ·áñÍáõÝ ÙÇçáó ¿ §you¦ ¹»ñ³Ýí³Ý ·áñÍ³ñÏáõÙÁ: ²Ûëå»ë` í»ñÁ µ»ñí³Í ûñÇÝ³ÏáõÙ (You understand these stories because you or someone you love lived them) ³ÏÝ³éáõ ¿ ¹³éÝáõÙ, áñ §you¦ ¹»ñ³ÝáõÝÝ ³Ûë Ñ³Ù³ï»ùëïáõÙ ã»½á- ù³óÝáõÙ ¿ Ñé»ïáñÇ Ï³ñÍÇùÁ. ³ÛÝ ¹³éÝáõÙ ¿ áõÝÏÝ¹ñÇ §Ý»ñùÇÝ Ó³Û- ÝÁ¦` í»ñçÇÝÇë Ù»ç ³ñÃÝ³óÝ»Éáí ³ÝÓÝ³Ï³Ý Ï»Ýë³÷áñÓÇ í»ñÑáõßÁ: ØÇ¨ÝáõÛÝ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï §you¦-Ç ·áñÍ³¹ñáõÙÝ ³½³ïáõÙ ¿ Ñé»ïáñÇÝ ³ë- í³ÍÝ ³å³óáõó»Éáõ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßïáõÃÛáõÝÇó` ÁÝ¹·Í»Éáí Ëáë³ÏóÇ Çñ³- ½»Ïí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ íÏ³Û³Ïáã»Éáí Ëáë³ÏóÇ ë»÷³Ï³Ý ÷áñÓÁ: Êáë³Ï- óÇ ·Çï»ÉÇùÝ»ñÁ Ñé»ïáñÇ §Ó»éùÇÝ¦ ¹³éÝáõÙ »Ý Ñ³Ùá½Ù³Ý ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ: ê³ Ïñ×³ïáõÙ ¿ §ï³ñ³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ¦ ËáëáÕÇ Ï³ñÍÇùÇ ¨ Ëáë³ÏóÇ ·Çï»ÉÇùÇ ÙÇç¨` ÷³ëïáñ»Ý ÝáõÛÝ³óÝ»Éáí ¹ñ³Ýù: ²Ûë ¹»åùáõÙ ÑÝ³- ñÁ »½ñ³÷³ÏíáõÙ ¿, Áëï ÝÛ³ñ¹³É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Íñ³·ñ³íáñÙ³Ý,

182 Ï³å-Ñ³ñ³µ»ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ëï³ïÙ³Ùµ áõÝÏÝ¹ÇñÝ»ñÇ ¨ ß³ñ³¹ñí³Í ÇñáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÙÇç¨ (And it was about all of you), áñÇÝ Ñ³çáñ¹áõÙ ¿ ÙÇ³óáõÙÁ (ïðèñîåäèíåíèå) ¨ í³ñáõÙÁ (âåäåíèå) (You understand these stories because you or someone you love lived them): îÇå³Ï³Ý³óÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÁ ´. úµ³Ù³ÛÇ »ÉáõÛÃáõÙ Çñ Çñ³óáõÙÝ ¿ ëï³- ÝáõÙ ë»÷³Ï³Ý Ï»Ýë³·ñáõÃÛ³Ý ß³ñ³¹ñ³ÝùÇ Ù»ç. ïíÛ³É å³ñ³·³- ÛáõÙ ß»ßïÁ ¹ñíáõÙ ¿ Ý³Ë³·³ÑÇ ³ýñá³Ù»ñÇÏÛ³Ý Í³·Ù³Ý íñ³. I owe what I am to this country I love, and I will never forget it. Where else could a young man who grew up herding goats in Kenya get the chance to fulfill his dream of a college education? Where else could he marry a white girl from Kansas whose parents survived war and depression to find opportunity out west? Where else could they have a child who would one day have the chance to run for the highest office in the greatest nation the world has even known? Where else, but in the United States of America? (B. Obama, “Primary Night Texas and Ohio San Antonio”, TX, March 4, 2008): îíÛ³É Ñ³Õáñ¹Ù³Ý Ù»ç ´³ñ³ù úµ³Ù³Ý Ë³Õ³ñÏáõÙ ¿ §²Ù»ñÇÏÛ³Ý »ñ³½³ÝùÇ¦ ·³Õ³÷³ñÁ, áñÝ ³½·³ÛÇÝ Ùï³ÍáÕáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÇ Ï³ñÍñ³ïÇå ¿, ¨ Çñ Éë³ñ³ÝÇÝ »ÝÃ³·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ýáñ»Ý Ý»ñßÝãáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ ÙÇïùÁ, áñ ÇÝùÝ ¿ ³Ù»ñÇÏÛ³Ý »ñ³½³ÝùÇ Ï»Ý¹³ÝÇ Ù³ñÙÝ³óáõÙÁ: §Where else…?¦ Ñ³ñó³¹ñáõÙÁ ÑÝãáõÙ ¿ Çµñ¨ åÝ¹áõÙ ¨ §Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý- íáõÙ¦ áõÝÏÝ¹ñÇ ÏáÕÙÇó Çµñ¨ §¿É áã ÙÇ ï»Õ¦: Ð³ßíÇ ³éÝ»Ýù Ý³¨ ³ÛÝ, áñ ²Ù»ñÇÏÛ³Ý »ñ³½³ÝùÇ ·³Õ³÷³ñÝ ÇÝù- ÝÇÝ ÏÛ³ÝùÇ áõÕáõ ïÇå³Ï³Ý³óÙ³Ý ¨ Ï³ñÍñ³ïÇå³ÛÝ³óÙ³Ý ûñÇÝ³Ï ¿: Àëï ¿áõÃÛ³Ý Ñé»ïáñÁ ¹ÇÙáõÙ ¿ Ë³ñëËÙ³Ý (ÿêîðåíèå) ÑÝ³ñÇÝ, áñÁ ÝÛ³ñ¹³É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Íñ³·ñ³íáñÙ³Ý Ñ»Ýù³ÛÇÝ ÙÇçáóÝ»ñÇó ¿: Ê³ñëËÙ³Ý »ñÏáõ ÙÇçáó Ï³. ³é³çÇÝÁ ÏñÏÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ ¿, áñÇ ßÝáñÑÇí ½áõ·áñ¹áõÙÝ ³Ùñ³åÝ¹íáõÙ ¿ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÇ ·Çï³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç, ÇëÏ »ñÏñáñ¹Á` ×Çßï Å³Ù³Ý³ÏÇÝ ×Çßï Ý»ñ·áñÍÙ³Ý Çñ³óáõÙÝ ¿, áñÝ ³½³ïáõÙ ¿ ÏñÏÝáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßïáõÃÛáõÝÇó: àõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñíáÕ ÑÝ³ñ- Ý»ñáõÙ Ë³ñëËÙ³Ý ·áñÍ³¹ñáõÙÁ ï»ÕÇÝ ¿ áõ ³ñ¹³ñ³óí³Í, ÇëÏ ÏñÏÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¹ñë¨áñíáõÙ ¿ ÙÇ¨ÝáõÛÝ Ï»ñå³ñÝ»ñÇ Ë³Õ³ñÏÙ³Ùµ ï³ñ- µ»ñ »ÉáõÛÃÝ»ñáõÙ: Ø»Ï ³ÛÉ` Ï»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÇ ÏÇñ³éÙ³Ý ¹»åùáõÙ Ë³Õ³ñÏáõÝ, áñå»ë Ï³ÝáÝ, Çñ³ñ³Ù»ñÅ ï»ë³Ï»ïÝ»ñ ¿ Ñ³ÛïÝáõÙ` Çñ Ñ³Ù³ñ ÁÝ¹áõÝ»ÉÇ ¹ñáõÛÃÝ»ñÁ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»Éáí ¹ñ³Ï³Ý Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ó¨³Ï»ñåÙ³Ùµ: ²ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛ³Ý å³ïñ³ÝùÇ ëï»ÕÍáõÙÝ ¿ ³ÛÝ ÑÇÙÝ³Ýå³ï³- ÏÁ, áñÇ íñ³ ¿ ÑÇÙÝí³Í §Ï»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÁ¦, áñÇ ³Ù»Ý³³ÏÝÑ³Ûï ¹ñë¨áñáõÙÝ »Ýù Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ Ñ³Ï³é³Ïáñ¹Ç ·áí³µ³- 183 ÝáõÙÁ ¨ ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ÷³é³µ³ÝáõÙÁ` áñå»ë ù³Õ³ù³ÏÇñÃ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ ½³ñ·³ó³Í ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÇ ¹ñë¨áñáõÙ: Î»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛáõÝÁ É³í³·áõÛÝë µ³ó³Ñ³ÛïíáõÙ ¿ æáÝ Ø³ùø»ÛÝÇ ·áí³µ³ÝÙ³Ý Ù»ç, ù³ÝÇ áñ ÑÝ³ñÇ ëÏ½µáõÙ ï»Õ ·ï³Í ·áí³ë³ÝùÇÝ Ñ³çáñ¹áÕ ïáÕ»ñÝ áõÕÕí³Í »Ý Ñ³Ï³é³Ïáñ¹Ç ¹ñ³Ï³Ý Ï»ñå³ñÇ ÷áßÇ³óÙ³ÝÁ ¨ µÝáõÃ³·ñíáõÙ »Ý ëáõñ ùÝÝ³¹³ï³Ï³Ýáõ- ÃÛ³Ùµ. Ñ»Ýó ³Ûë ·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ý¹Çå³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý íñ³ ¿ Ï³éáõó- íáõÙ ïíÛ³É ÑÝ³ñÁ. In just a few short months, the Republican Party will arrive in St.Paul with a very different agenda. They will come here to nominate John McCain, a man who has served this country heroically. I honor that service, and I respect his many accomplishments, even if he chooses to deny mine. My differences with him are not personal; they are with the policies he has proposed in this campaign. Because while John McCain can legitimately tout moments of independence from his party in the past, such independence has not been the hallmark of his presidential campaign. (B. Obama, Presumptive Democratic Nominee Speech, June 3, 2008). øÝÝíáÕ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ñ³ïí³ÍáõÙ ´. úµ³Ù³Ý ·áñÍ³¹ñáõÙ ¿ Ë³ñëË- Ù³Ý ÝÛ³ñ¹³É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÑÝ³ñÁ` Ï³å»Éáí æáÝ Ø³ùø»ÛÝÇ ³ÝáõÝÁ æáñç ´áõßÇ` ó³Íñ ÅáÕáíñ¹³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ í³Û»ÉáÕ ¨ Ã»ñ³Ñ³í³ïáõÃÛáõÝ Ý»ñßÝãáÕ ³Ýí³ÝÁ, áñÇ í³ñ³Í ù³Õ³ù³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ³Ýí³Ý³ñÏí»ó Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë Æñ³ùÛ³Ý å³ï»ñ³½ÙÇ ¨ ½³Ý·í³Í³ÛÇÝ áãÝã³óÙ³Ý ½»Ý- ùÁ ãÑ³ÛïÝ³µ»ñ»Éáõ Ñ»ï¨³Ýùáí: Ü»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»Éáí Çñ ³å³·³ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý Ùñó³ÏóÇÝ ÙÇÝã Ýñ³ Ã»Ï- Ý³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý ³é³ç³¹ñáõÙÁ` ´. úµ³Ù³Ý ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³É ÑÇ³óÙáõÝùÇ ¨ Ñ³ñ·³ÝùÇ Ëáëù»ñ ¿ ÑÕáõÙ í»ñçÇÝÇë` ë³ÑáõÝ ³ÝóáõÙ Ï³ï³ñ»Éáí ·á- í³ë³ÝùÇó ùÝÝ³¹³ïáõÃÛ³Ý: §I honor that service, and I respect his many accomplishments, even if he chooses to deny mine.¦ Ý³Ë³¹³- ëáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç Ñ³í»É³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý ÙÇçáóáí (I honor that service/ I respect his many accomplishments) Ñé»ïáñÝ Ñ³Ý¹áõñÅáÕ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ ¹ñë¨áñáõÙ ÷áË³¹³ñÓ Ñ³ñ·³ÝùÇ µ³ó³Ï³ÛáõÃÛ³Ý å³ñ³·³ÛáõÙ` ³Ûë ÙÇïùÁ ë³ëïÏ³óÝ»Éáí ½ÇçÙ³Ý å³ñ³·³ »ñÏñáñ¹³Ï³Ý Ý³Ë³¹³- ëáõÃÛ³Ùµ (even if he chooses to deny mine): Î»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³Éáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ ÁÝ¹·ÍíáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ åÝ¹Ù³Ùµ, áñ æ. Ø³ùø»ÛÝÁ É³í ù³Õ³ù³óÇ ¿, ë³Ï³ÛÝ í³ï ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÇã: Ð³çáñ¹ Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝÝ áõÕÇÕ Ù»Õ³¹ñ³Ýù ¿, áñÝ ³Ýí³Ý³ñÏ- Ù³Ý é³½Ù³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ù³ñï³í³ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿, áñÇ í»ñÉáõÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ÝÑ- ñ³Å»ßï ¿ ¹³éÝáõÙ Ï»ÕÍ ³ÝÏáÕÙÝ³Ï³ÉáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÇ ÉÇ³ñÅ»ù å³ñ- ½³µ³ÝÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ.§Because while John McCain can legitimately tout 184 moments of independence from his party in the past, such independence has not been the hallmark of his presidential campaign.¦ (ø³ÝÇ áñ, ÙÇÝã æáÝ Ø³ùø»ÛÝÁ Ï³ñáÕ ¿ Çñ³í³Ùµ Çñ Ïáõë³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÝóÛ³ÉÇó ³ÝÏ³- ËáõÃÛ³Ý å³Ñ»ñ íÏ³Û³Ïáã»É, ³Û¹ ³ÝÏ³ËáõÃÛáõÝÁ ãÇ »Õ»É Çñ Ý³ËÁÝï- ñ³Ï³Ý ù³ñá½³ñß³íÇ ³Ûó»ù³ñïÁ): ´. úµ³Ù³Ý ÁÝ¹áõÝáõÙ ¿ ³ÝÏ³- ËáõÃÛ³Ý` áñå»ë ÅáÕáíñ¹³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÇÙÝ³ñ³ñ ³ñÅ»ùÇ ·áñÍáõÝ ³é- Ï³ÛáõÃÛáõÝÁ æ. Ø³ùø»ÛÝÇ Ïáõë³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý ·³Õ³÷³ñ³ËáëáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç, ë³Ï³ÛÝ ÙÇ³ÛÝ ³ÝóÛ³ÉáõÙ: ØÇ³Å³Ù³Ý³Ï, ³ÝÏ³ËáõÃÛ³Ý ·³Õ³÷³ñÇ ÑÇÙÝ³íáñáõÙÝ ³ÝóÛ³ÉÇ Ñ³Ù³ï»ùëïáõÙ ÇÝùÝÁëïÇÝùÛ³Ý ûï³ñáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ Ý»ñÏ³ÛÇó, Ë½áõÙ ¿ Ï³åÁ æ. Ø³ùø»ÛÝÇ Ý»ñÏ³ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý Ñ³- Û³óùÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï, ¨ ¹ñ³ ÑÇß³ï³ÏáõÙÁ í»ñçÇÝÇë ÏáÕÙÇó Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ ¿ ëïÇåáÕ³Ï³Ý, å³ñï³¹ñí³Í, áñÇ ³å³óáõÛóÝ ¿ §tout¦ (å³ñï³¹ñ»É www.multitran.ru) µ³ÛÇ ·áñÍ³ÍáõÙÁ: ²é³ÝÓÝ³ÏÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝáõÙ ùÝÝíáÕ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ñ³ïí³ÍÇ »½ñ³÷³ÏÇã Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç §independence¦ (³ÝÏ³- ËáõÃÛáõÝ) ·³Õ³÷³ñ³µ³ÝáõÛÃÇ ·áñÍ³ÍáõÙÁ, áñÁ ïíÛ³É ÑÝ³ñáõÙ Ñ³Ý- ¹»ë ¿ ·³ÉÇë áñå»ë Ý»ñ³½¹Ù³Ý ÛáõñûñÇÝ³Ï ÙÇçáó` ßÝáñÑÇí ³ÛÝ Ëáë- ù³ÛÇÝ ÙÇç³í³ÛñÇ, áñáõÙ ³ÛÝ Ñ³ÛïÝí»É ¿: ²ÛëåÇëáí` Ë³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇ á×³·áñÍ³µ³- Ý³Ï³Ý áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÁ å³ñ½ ¿ ¹³ñÓÝáõÙ ³ÛÝ Ñ³Ý·³Ù³ÝùÁ, Ë³- Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏáõÙÁ Ñé»ïáñÇÝ ½ÇÝáõÙ ¿ ÑÝ³ñ³ÙÇï áõ ÑÙáõï ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñáí, áñáÝù áõÕÇ »Ý Ñ³ñÃáõÙ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ÑÝ³ñ³íáñ ³ñ- ·»ÉùÝ»ñÇ Ñ³ÕÃ³Ñ³ñÙ³Ý, »ñµ»ÙÝ Ý³¨ ßñç³ÝóÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ: Èë³ñ³ÝÝ ³ÏïÇí, Ùï³ÍáÕ, Çñ³½»ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ ùÝÝ³¹³ï³µ³ñ ÁÝÏ³ÉáÕ ÏáÕÙ ¿: àõÝÏÝ¹ñ³Ï³½ÙÁ ï³ñ³ë»é ¿, Ý»ñ³éáõÙ ¿ ï³ñµ»ñ ï³ñÇùÇ, Ñ³Ùá½- ÙáõÝùÝ»ñÇ, ·³Õ³÷³ñ³Ï³Ý ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý ï³ñµ»ñ Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÝ»ñÇ íñ³ ·ïÝíáÕ Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó, áíù»ñ Çñ»Ýó ÁÝïñáõÃÛáõÝÝ »Ý Ï³ï³ñáõÙ §ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ßáõÏ³ÛáõÙ¦ ³é³ç³ñÏíáÕ ·³Õ³÷³ñ³ËáëáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÙÇç¨: ²Û¹áõÑ³Ý¹»ñÓ` ³ÝÏ³Ë Éë³ñ³ÝÇ Ý³Ë³ïñ³Ù³¹ñí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÇó` Ë³Õ³ñÏ³ÛÇÝ ÷³ëï³ñÏÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÝ Çñ³½»ÏáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÝË³÷³Ý ÁÝ- ¹áõÝÙ³Ý, §ëáõñ ³ÝÏÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ¦ ³ñÑ»ëï³í³ñÅ ßñç³ÝóÙ³Ý ¨ Éë³ñ³- ÝÁ Ë³µÏ³ÝùÇ »ÝÃ³ñÏ»Éáõ ÑÝ³ñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝ »Ý ÁÝÓ»éÝáõÙ Ñé»ïáñÇÝ` µ³ñÓñ³óÝ»Éáí ËáëáÕ³Ï³Ý-Ý»ñ·áñÍ³Ï³Ý ³ñ¹ÛáõÝùÇÝ Ñ³ëÝ»Éáõ Ñ³- í³Ý³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ: âË³Ëï»Éáí µ³ñ»ÏñÃáõÃÛ³Ý ë³ÑÙ³ÝÁ` Ñé»ïáñÁ ÑÝ³ñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ ëï³ÝáõÙ ùáÕ³ñÏ»Éáõ ³Ýó³ÝÏ³ÉÇ Çñ³½»ÏáõÃÛáõ- ÝÁ, ëï»ÕÍ»Éáõ ·³Õ³÷³ñ³Ï³Ý ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ Ñ³ñÃ³Ï ¨ ³Û¹ Ñ³ñÃ³ÏÇÝ Ñ³Ù³ËÙµ»Éáõ Éë³ñ³ÝÁ` ÙÇ³Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³é³í»ÉáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ëÝ»Éáí í»ñ- çÇÝÇë ÝÏ³ïÙ³Ùµ ¨ Õ»Ï³í³ñ»Éáí Éë³ñ³ÝÇ Ñ»ïÑ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý í³ñùÁ:

185 ¶ð²Î²ÜàôÂÚàôÜ

1. ´³Õ¹³ë³ñÛ³Ý Ø.². (2010) ø³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý »ÉáõÛÃÁ áñå»ë É»½í³- Ï³Ý ¨ ³ñï³É»½í³Ï³Ý ÇñáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÷áËÝ»ñÃ³÷³ÝóáõÙ: ´³Ý. ·Çï. Ã»ÏÝ.³ëï. Ñ³Ûó. ³ï»Ý.: ºñ¨³Ý, ºäÐ Ññ³ï. 2. Ü³½³ñÛ³Ý ². (1993) È»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ñÙÇÝÝ»ñÇ ýñ³Ýë»ñ»Ý - éáõë»ñ»Ý - Ñ³Û»ñ»Ý áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý µ³é³ñ³Ý, ºñ¨³Ý, ²åáÉáÝ Ññ³- ï³ñ³ÏãáõÃÛáõÝ, - 656 ¿ç 3. Àëåôèðåíêî È.Ô. (2002) Ê ïðîáëåìå äèñêóðñèâíî – òåêñ- òîâîãî óíèâåðñóìà êóëüòóðû // Ëèíãâîðèòîðè÷åñêèå, ïðàãìà- òåîðåòè÷åñêèå è ïðèêëàäíûå àñïåêòû. Ìåæâóç. ñá. íàó÷. òðóäîâ. Âûï. 1. Ñî÷è.- ñ. 5-12 4. Áîðèñîâà È.Í. (2001) Ðóññêèé ðàçãîâîðíûé äèàëîã: Ñòðóêòóðà è äèíàìèêà. Åêàòåðèíáóðã: Èçä-âî Óðàëüñêîãî óí- òà.- 408ñ. 5. Äåéê Ò.À. Âàí. (1989) ßçûê. Ïîçíàíèå. Êîììóíèêàöèÿ. // Ñá. ðàáîò. Ñîñòàâëåíèå Â.Â.Ïåòðîâà. Ïåðåâîä ñ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ïîä ðåäàêöèåé Â.Í.Ãåðàñèìîâà. Ìîñêâà: Èçä-âî “Ïðîãðåññ”.- 310ñ. 6. Êðàñíûõ Â.Â. (1998) Âèðòóàëüíàÿ ðåàëüíîñòü èëè ðåàëü- íàÿ âèðòóàëüíîñòü? // ×åëîâåê. Ñîçíàíèå. Êîììóíèêàöèÿ. Ìîñêâà: Èçä-âî ÌÃÓ.- 352ñ. 7. Øåëÿêèí Ì.À. (2005) ßçûê è ÷åëîâåê. Ê ïðîáëåìå ìîòè- âèðîâàííîñòè ÿçûêîâîé ñèñòåìû. Ìîñêâà: Èçä-âà “Ôëèíòà” è “Íàóêà”.- 289ñ. 8. ×åðíÿâñêàÿ Â.Å. (2006) Äèñêóðñ âëàñòè è âëàñòü äèñêóðñà. Ïðîáëåìû ðå÷åâîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ. Ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòó- äåíòîâ, àñïèðàíòîâ, ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé – ôèëîëîãîâ. Ìîñêâà: Èçä-âà “Ôëèíòà” è “Íàóêà”,- 127ñ. 9. www.multitran.ru

êäàðî²ÚÆÜ Èº¼ìÆ ´²è²ä²Þ²ðÆ ÞºðîºðÀ

ABSTRACT The paper introduces a small excerpt from a substantial study on the Language for Sport, focusing on its specific vocabulary. The paper aims at slicing different layers in Sports Vocabulary, which give the Language for Sport its unique linguo-stylistic coloring.

´³éÁ É»½íÇ ÝÛáõÃ³Ï³Ý ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³Ý µ³Õ³¹ñÇãÝ ¿, áñ ³é³ÝÓÇÝ Ù³- Ï³ñ¹³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ ï³ñµ»ñ »É³Ï»ï³ÛÇÝ ëÏ½µáõÝùÝ»ñáí »ÝÃ³ñÏíáõÙ ¿ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ` µ³é»ñÇ Í³·áõÙ, Ï³½ÙáõÃÛáõÝ (µ³é³·Ç- ïáõÃÛáõÝ) Ó¨³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý, ß³ñ³ÑÛáõë³Ï³Ý Ûáõñ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ (ù»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ) ¨ ³ÛÉÝ (4): ´³éÝ áõÝÇ »ñÏáõ ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³Ý ¹»ñ` ³ÛÝ Ï³ï³ñáõÙ ¿ ³Ýí³ÝáÕ³Ï³Ý ¨ Ñáõ½³³ñï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý ·áñÍ³éáõÛÃ: ø»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ Ï³ñ¨áñÁ µ³éÇ ³Ýí³ÝáÕ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍ³éáõÛÃÝ ¿` µ³éÇ µ³é³ÛÇÝ áõ ù»ñ³Ï³Ý³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïÝ»ñÇ ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ÇëÏ á×³µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ` µ³éÇ ·»Õ³ñí»ëï³Ï³Ý å³ïÏ»ñ, Ñáõ½³³ñ- ï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý·³íáñáõÙ ëï»ÕÍ»Éáõ Ûáõñ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ï³Ù µ³éÇ ·»Õ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ùÁ: ÆÑ³ñÏ», µ³éÇÙ³ëïáí å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í á×³Ï³Ý µáí³Ý¹³Ïáõ- ÃÛáõÝÁ ãÇ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ ë³ÑÙ³Ý³÷³Ï»É ÙÇ³ÛÝ ½·³ó³Ï³ÝÇ ³ñï³Ñ³Ûï- Ù³Ùµ, Ï³ñ¨áñ ¿ Ý³¨ ¹³ïáÕ³Ï³Ý í»ñ³µ»ñÙáõÝùÁ, áñáí å³ÛÙ³Ý³- íáñí³Í ¿ µ³éÇ á×³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ùÁ: ²Ûë ³éáõÙáí á×³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ùÇ ³ñ- ï³Ñ³ÛïÙ³Ý É³í³·áõÛÝ ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ »Ý ÑáÙ³ÝÇßÝ»ñÁ, Ñ³Ï³ÝÇßÝ»ñÁ, µ³½ÙÇÙ³ëïáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ÷áË³µ»ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ´³é³å³ß³ñÇ á×³Ï³Ý ¹³- ë³Ï³ñ·Ù³Ý Ñ»ï Ï³åí³Í ³Ù»Ý³ï³ñµ»ñ Ùáï»óáõÙÝ»ñ »Ý ³ñï³- Ñ³Ûïí»É: ¶áñÍ³é³Ï³Ý ëÏ½µáõÝùáí ³é³çÝáñ¹í»ÉÇë É»½íÇ µ³é³å³- ß³ñÁ µ³Å³ÝáõÙ »Ý áñÏáõ ËÙµÇ` ·ñù³ÛÇÝ ¨ Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý (6,8): ÜÙ³Ý ¹³ë³Ï³ñ·áõÙÁ ãÁÝ¹áõÝí»ó` ËÇëï µ¨»é³óí³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý å³ï×³éáí (7:196): ². ºýÇÙáíÁ ³é³ç³ñÏ»ó ÇÙ³ëï³ÛÇÝ-á×³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ¹³ë³- Ï³ñ·áõÙÁ (7:197): ²Ûë ¨ ÙÛáõë ¹³ë³Ï³ñ·áõÙÝ»ñÇ (3:35, 5:79) Ã»ñáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ ¿ Ñ³Ù³ñíáõÙ ³ÛÝ, áñ ÝÏ³ïÇ ã»Ý ³éÝíáõÙ µ³é»ñÇ Ó¨³ÛÇÝ áõ ÇÙ³ëï³ÛÇÝ Ûáõñ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ (1:42): ²Ûëûñ É»½í³µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç 187 µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ á×³Ï³Ý ¹³ë³Ï³ñ·áõÙÁ Ï³ï³ñíáõÙ ¿ ³é³çÇÝ Ñ»ñ- ÃÇÝ µ³é»ñÇ Ó¨Á ¨ ÇÙ³ëïÁ Ï³ñ¨áñ»Éáí (1:43): ²ë»Ýù, áñ ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇ µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ á×³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ùÁ µ³ó³Ñ³Ûï»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ Ù»Ýù ÝÏ³ïÇ »Ýù áõÝ»ó»É µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ ß»ñï»ñÁ ¨ Áëï ÇÙ³ëïÇ (Ñá- Ù³ÝÇßÝ»ñ, Ñ³Ï³ÝÇßÝ»ñ, µ³½ÙÇÙ³ëï µ³é»ñ, ÷áË³µ»ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ), ÇÝãå»ë ¨ Áëï ³é³ç³óÙ³Ý ³ÕµÛáõñÇ (Ñ³Ù³·áñÍ³Í³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñ, Ëá- ë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñ, Ýáñ³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ): ²Ûë Ùáï»óÙ³Ý ¹»åùáõÙ ³í»ÉÇ ³ÙµáÕç³Ï³Ý å³ïÏ»ñ³óáõÙ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ ¿ Ï³½Ù»É ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ µ³- é³å³ß³ñÇ á×³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É: ´³é³å³ß³ñÇ á×³Ï³Ý µÝáõÃ³·ñáõÙÁ Ï³ï³ñ»ÉÇë Çµñ¨ »É³Ï»ï ÁÝ¹áõÝ»É »Ýù Ñ»ï¨Û³É Ñ³Ý·³Ù³ÝùÝ»ñÁ` ³) µáÉáñ µ³é»ñÁ á×³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ù áõÝ»Ý. µ) µ³é»ñÇ ¹³ë³Ï³ñ·Ù³Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ÝÏ³ïÇ »Ý ³éÝíáõÙ Ó¨Á ¨ ÇÙ³ëïÁ. ·) Ñ³ïáõÏ áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ ¹³ñÓí»É ³Ùë³·ñ³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇ µ³é³å³- ß³ñÇÝ, áñÝ ³ÝÑ³Ù»Ù³ï Ñ³ñáõëï ¿ Éñ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇó: ²Ñ³ ³Ûë ëÏ½µáõÝùÝ»ñáí ¿É å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í` Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»Ýù ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ ß»ñï»ñÁ` ³é³ÝÓÝ³óÝ»Éáí ¹ñ³Ýó á×³Ï³Ý ³ñÅ»ùÝ áõ Ñáõ½³³ñï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý·³íáñáõÙÁ:

³) Ð³Ù³·áñÍ³Í³Ï³Ý μ³é»ñ êåáñï³ÛÇÝ µ³é³å³ß³ñáõÙ ëñ³Ýù Ï³½ÙáõÙ »Ý ³Ù»Ý³ëïí³ñ Ù³- ëÁ, ¹ñ³Ýù ·áñÍ³ÍíáõÙ »Ý Éñ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ ó³ÝÏ³ó³Í Å³ÝñáõÙ, áõÝ»Ý ·áñ- Í³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»Í Ñ³×³Ë³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ¨ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³å»ë É»½íÇ ÑÇÙùÝ »Ý Ñ³Ý¹Çë³ÝáõÙ: ¸ñ³Ýù û·ï³·áñÍíáõÙ »Ý ÇÝãå»ë ·Çï³Ï³Ý, ·»Õ³ñ- í»ëï³Ï³Ý, Ññ³å³ñ³Ï³Ëáë³Ï³Ý, ³Ýå»ë ¿É å³ßïáÝ³Ï³Ý, Ëáë³Ï- ó³Ï³Ý, ·ñ³ë»ÝÛ³Ï³ÛÇÝ ¨ ³ÛÉ á×»ñáõÙ: Ð³ÛïÝÇ ¿, áñ ³Ûë ß»ñïÇÝ Ñ³ïáõÏ »Ý å³ñ½áõÃÛáõÝÁ, Ù³ïã»ÉÇáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ áõ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ²é³Ýó ³Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÇ û·ÝáõÃÛ³Ý å³ñ½³å»ë ³ÝÑÝ³ñ ¿ Ëáëù Ï³éáõó»É: È»½í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇó áÙ³Ýù (3, 5) Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ »Ý, áñ ³Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÁ á×³Ï³Ýáñ»Ý ã»½áù ¿, ÙÛáõëÝ»ñÁ (11, 12) Ñ³Ùá½í³Í »Ý, áñ ³Ûë ³éáõ- Ùáí ã»½áù µ³é»ñ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³å»ë ·áÛáõÃÛáõÝ ãáõÝ»Ý, ù³ÝÇ áñ Ûáõñ³- ù³ÝãÛáõñ µ³é Ï³ñáÕ ¿ ËáëùÇ Ù»ç ï³ñµ»ñ ÏÇñ³éáõÃÛ³Ý å³ÛÙ³ÝÝ»- ñáõÙ Ó»éù µ»ñ»É ÷áË³µ»ñ³Ï³Ý Ýß³Ý³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ, Ñ»ï¨³å»ë ¨ á×³- Ï³Ý ³éáõÙáí ¹³éÝ³É ÝßáõÛÃ³íáñí³Í: ´³Ûó Ï³ñ¨áñ ¿, áñ Ñ³Ù³·áñ- Í³Í³Ï³Ý ³Ûë µ³é»ñÁ μ³½ÙÇÙ³ëï »Ý. §ÙÇ µ³Ý, áñ µÝáñáß ã¿ Ñáõ- ½³³ñï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý á×³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý·³íáñáõÙ áõÝ»óáÕ µ³é»ñÇ ß»ñ- ïÇÝ¦ (10):

188 ²Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÁ, áñ Ï³½ÙáõÙ ¿ Éñ³·ñáõÃÛ³Ý, Ù³ëÝ³íáñ³å»ë ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇ ÙÇçáõÏÁ, ·Ý³Éáí ³í»ÉÇ áõ ³í»ÉÇ ¿ Ñ³Ù³ÉñíáõÙ Ýáñ µ³é»ñáí, ¹ñ³Ýù ·ÇïáõÃÛ³Ý, ³ñí»ëïÇ Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÇ ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý, Ñ³ñë- ï³óÙ³Ý Ñ»ï¨³Ýùáí Ý»ñ³éíáõÙ »Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý áÉáñïÁ, ÙïÝáõÙ »Ý Ñ³Ù³·áñÍ³Í³Ï³Ý µ³é³ß»ñï, Ñ³ñëï³óÝáõÙ É»½áõÝ (match, block, bean, bike, hammer, chuck, kick, status, committee, stadium, goal, player, administration, final, champion).

μ) Êáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý μ³é³ß»ñï ²Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÝ ÁÝ¹áõÝí³Í ¿ ³Ýí³Ý»É ³éûñÛ³-Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý, ù³- ÝÇ áñ É»½íÇ ·áñÍ³éáõÃÛ³Ý µ³Ý³íáñ Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý ï³ñµ»ñ³ÏÝ ¿: ¸ñ³Ý µÝáñáß ¿ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ³ÝµéÝ³½µáëÇÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ²ÛÝ µÝáñáßíáõÙ ¿ ë»ÕÙáõÃÛ³Ùµ, Ñáõ½³³ñï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñÇ, ¹³ñÓ- í³ÍùÝ»ñÇ ·áñÍ³ÍáõÃÛ³Ùµ: Ð³ÛïÝÇ ¿, áñ ³Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÇ û·ï³·áñ- ÍáõÙÁ ï³ñµ»ñ á×»ñáõÙ (·»Õ³ñí»ëï³Ï³Ý, Ññ³å³ñ³Ï³Ëáë³Ï³Ý, Ý³¨ ·Çï³Ï³Ý) Ï³ï³ñíáõÙ ¿ á×³Ï³Ý ÝÏ³ï³éáõÙáí, ³ÛÝ Ñ³×³Ë Ï»ñå³íáñÙ³Ý, ËáëùÇ å³ïÏ»ñ³íáñÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ ¿ û·ï³·áñÍíáõÙ: êåáñï³ÛÇÝ µ³é³å³ß³ñáõÙ Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñÇ ·áñÍ³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ë Ù»Í ï»Õ ¿ ·ñ³íáõÙ ³ÛÝ å³ï×³éáí, áñ é»åáñï³ÅÝ»ñÇ, Ñ³ñ- ó³½ñáõÛóÝ»ñÇ ÁÝÃ³óùáõÙ ³ñï³µ»ñí³Í ËáëùÝ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³Ý ¿, Ñ³×³Ë ãÙß³Ïí³Í: ²ÛÝ ËáëáÕÇ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³Ý ³åñáõÙÝ»ñÇ, ÑáõÛ½»ñÇ ³ñï³- Ñ³ÛïÙ³Ý ÙÇçáó ¿, áñ µ³ó³Ñ³ÛïáõÙ ¿ ³Ûë Ï³Ù ³ÛÝ ³ÝÑ³ïÇ (ëáíá- ñ³µ³ñ Ù³ñ½ÇÏÇ) ÇÝãå»ë ³åñáõÙÝ»ñÁ, ³ÛÝå»ë ¿É É»½í³Ùï³ÍáÕáõ- ÃÛ³Ý Ñ³×³Ë ÇÝùÝ³ïÇå ¹ñë¨áñáõÙÝ»ñÁ. §Only you could bring a victory to team. I could, I stopped the ball well enough, but the goalkeeper blocked my shoot. A metre to the right, a metre to the left, it would be `’goal” certainly. What a pity! Wazarin would say; `’you need a good beat’’¦. ºí Ï³Ù` §He didn’t get it so clean,- commented he. My companion made a derisive smile. - You see, he couldn’t lift that frivolous weight either¦. (Motion-Sport in Finland, 1/97, p. 27). êåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½íáõÙ ³í»ÉÇ ½·³ÉÇ ¿ ³Ûëå»ë ³ë³Í ³éûñÛ³-Ëáë³Ï- ó³Ï³Ý µ³é³å³ß³ñÁ: ê³ Ã»¨ ³ÛÝù³Ý ¿É ãÇ ï³ñµ»ñíáõÙ ·ñù³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇ µ³é³å³ß³ñÇó, ³ÛëáõÑ³Ý¹»ñÓ, ½·³ÉÇ ¿ ¹ñ³ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý·Á: ²Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïáõÙ ³é³í»É ½·³ÉÇ ¿ ÅáÕáíñ¹³Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é³- ß»ñïÁ (9), ³ÛÝ ËáëùÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹áõÙ ¿ Ï»Ý¹³ÝÇ, ³ßËáõÛÅ »ñ³Ý·: ²Ûë- 189 ï»Õ Ù»Í ¹»ñ »Ý Ï³ï³ñáõÙ Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý É»½íÇó »ÏáÕ ÙÇ ß³ñù µ³- é»ñ, µ³é³Ï³å³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ, ¹³ñÓí³ÍùÝ»ñ, ûñÇÝ³Ï‚ §to take courage, to take risk, to guess, to manage, to lose control, to appease, to make somebody eat his word ¨ ³ÛÉÝ¦: §’’The end! There is another record.’’ `’No that is not the end’’ said the athlete sitting next to him. Now the weight will be weighed, then Vorov and he is lifting the weight, the record will not be scored. - I’ll make him eat his words. - But he ought to take care of himself. - How did he take risk! - Try to lift the weight without eating something!¦. (PANORAMA, N7-8, 1980, p.25). Ø³ñ½ãÇ ¨ ÁÝÏ»ñáç ÙÇç¨ »ñÏËáëáõÃÛáõÝÝ Çñ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ ÁÝÃ»ñóáÕÇÝ Ùáï»óÝáõÙ ¿ ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ ÙÇçáó³éÙ³Ý Ý»ñùÇÝ ËáÑ³Ýá- óÇÝ. ³Ûëï»Õ ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã áñáßáõÙ »Ý ·ñ³ÙÝ»ñÁ, áñáÝù Ýí³×íáõÙ »Ý ýÇ½ÇÏ³Ï³Ý, µ³ñáÛ³Ï³Ý áõÅ»ñÇ ³Ý³ë»ÉÇ Ï»ÝïñáÝ³óÙ³Ý, ×Ç·»ñÇ ßÝáñÑÇí: Ø³ñ½ÇÏÁ Ñ³ñÏ³¹ñí³Í ÁÝÃñ»É ¿` ß³ï É³í ÇÙ³Ý³Éáí, áñ ³ÝÓÝ³Ï³Ý ù³ßÁ Ï³ñáÕ ¿ ·»ñ³½³Ýó»É ÁÝ¹áõÝí³Í ã³÷Á, µ³Ûó Ýñ³ Ñ³Ù³ñ å³ñ½³å»ë ³ÝÑÝ³ñÇÝ ¿ ù³Õó³Í Í³Ýñ³ÓáÕÇÝ Ùáï»Ý³É: ê³ ·Çï³ÏóáõÙ »Ý µáÉáñÁ` ¨° Ù³ñ½ÇÏÁ, ¨° Ù³ñ½ÇãÁ, ¨° ëáíáñ³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ý- ¹Çë³ï»ëÁ: ºí ³Ûë »½ñ³Ñ³Ý·áõÙÁ ïñíáõÙ ¿ å³ñ½, ÅáÕáíñ¹³-Ëáë³Ï- ó³Ï³Ý É»½íÇ ÙÇçáóáí. `’Try to lift the weight without eating something”: ²Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïáõÙ Ñ³ÛïÝíáõÙ »Ý Ý³¨ Ñ³ë³ñ³Ï³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý- Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñÁ, ¹ñ³Ýù ëáíáñ³µ³ñ ·ñ³Ï³Ý É»½íÇ ë³ÑÙ³ÝÝ»- ñÇó ¹áõñë »Ý, áõÝ»Ý Ñáõ½³³ñï³Ñ³Ûïã³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý· ¨ ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³ÝáõÙ ·áñÍ³ÍíáõÙ »Ý µ³ó³ë³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³ëïáí` ¹ñ³Ýù ·é»ÑÏ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý »ñ³Ý· áõÝ»Ý (shut up, bastard, beast, blighter, bounder, dicky): êåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½íáõÙ Ñ³Ý¹ÇåáõÙ »Ýù Ý³¨ Å³ñ·áÝ³ÛÇÝ µ³é»ñÇ, áñáÝù ë³ÑÙ³Ý³÷³Ï ·áñÍ³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»Ý` (cheat, beat the air, hair the grattes) ¨ ³ÛÉÝ: ÀÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³å»ë ëñ³Ýó ·áñÍ³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ ãÇ Ëñ³ËáõëíáõÙ, å³ñ- ½³å»ë ³Ûë Ï³Ù ³ÛÝ Ù³ñ½ÇÏÇÝ µÝáõÃ³·ñ»Éáõ, ¹ÇåáõÏ ³ñï³Ñ³Û- ïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ·áñÍ³ÍÙ³Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ï³ñáÕ »Ý á×³Ï³Ý ÝÏ³ï³éáõ- Ùáí û·ï³·áñÍí»É: §They cheated us. They didn’t have any injured player¦. (World basketball, 1995, N3, p.18). ÀÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³å»ë Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é³ß»ñïÁ É³ÛÝ ½³Ý·í³ÍÝ»ñÇ Ñ³- Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý Ù»ç Ù»Í ï»Õ ¿ ·ñ³íáõÙ, ³éûñÛ³ ÷áËÑ³ñ³µ»ñáõÃÛáõÝ- Ý»ñÇ ÙÇçáó ¿ ¨ ß³ï Ñ³×³Ë Ç Ñ³Ûï ¿ ·³ÉÇë »ñÏËáëáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ 190 ÙÇçáóáí: ²Ûë á×Á µ³í³Ï³ÝÇÝ §ß³ñÅáõÝ¦ ¿. ³ÛÝ Ùßï³å»ë »ÝÃ³Ï³ ¿ ÷á÷áËáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ Çñ ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ ËáëùÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹áõÙ ¿ ÇÝùÝ³- ïÇå, Ùï»ñÙÇÏ µÝáõÛÃ: Ø³ëÝ³íáñ³å»ë, ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ é»åáñï³ÅáõÙ ³Ûë µ³é³ß»ñïÁ §Ï»ñå³ñ³ëï»ÕÍÙ³Ý¦ ÇÝùÝ³ïÇå, áã ëË»Ù³ïÇÏ µÝáõÃ³·ñáõÙÝ»ñÇ É³í³·áõÛÝ ÙÇçáó ¿: ²ÛÝ µáÉáñ á×»ñÇ Ñ³ñëï³óÙ³Ý áõ Ñ³Ù³ÉñÙ³Ý ³ÕµÛáõñÝ ¿` ÉÇÝÇ ¹³ ÙÇçÝáñ¹³íáñí³Í, Ã» ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³- Ýáñ»Ý: ä³ï³Ñ³Ï³Ý ã¿, áñ Þ³éÉ ´³ÉÉÇÝ Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý É»½áõÝ ¹ÇïáõÙ ¿ áñå»ë §ÝáñÙ¦` Çµñ¨ É»½íÇ ï³ñµ»ñ³Ï³ÛÇÝ Ó¨»ñÇ ·Ý³Ñ³ïÙ³Ý ã³÷³ÝÇß (12:18):

·) Üáñ³μ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ Ð³ë³ñ³Ï³Ï³Ý ÏÛ³ÝùÇ ÷á÷áËáõÃÛ³ÝÁ ½áõ·ÁÝÃ³ó ÷á÷áËáõÃÛ³Ý ¿ »ÝÃ³ñÏíáõÙ Ý³¨ µ³é³å³ß³ñÁ: êåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½áõÝ Çñ Ù»ç ¿ Ý»ñ³- éáõÙ ¨ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ µ³é»ñ áõ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ, áñáÝù ïíÛ³É Å³Ù³- Ý³Ï³Ñ³ïí³ÍÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ Ýáñ »Ý, ÇëÏ Ñ»ï³·³ÛáõÙ ¹ñ³Ýù ¹³¹³ñáõÙ »Ý Ýáñ³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ÉÇÝ»Éáõó, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ÁÝ¹·ñÏíáõÙ »Ý ³ÏïÇí µ³é³å³- ß³ñÇ Ù»ç: ÀÝ¹Ñ³Ýñ³å»ë Éñ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ Ýáñ³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ Ñ³ïáõÏ »Ý ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇÝ. §futsal, mini-pitch, licence officer, 5th (fifth) official, FIFA commissioner, FIFA licence, licensed player, licensed coach, sub-licence system, referee observer, football agent, match agent, match bonus, golden goal, silver goal, grassroots football, fun football, foreigner quota, indoor pitch, indoor stadium, ground advertising, Hat-Trick project, JIRA poject, FAIR PLAY, bookmaker, bookmakers favourites, football sweepstakes, football pools, anti-racism, anti-doping agency, anti-doping code, sponsor, artificial turf, synthetic turf, mini-tournament, FIFA Media Committee, Players’ Status Committee, mixed zone, zorbeng, zubon, Transfer Committee, transfer certificate¦ êñ³Ýù ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³ÝáõÙ µ³Õ³¹ñÛ³É µ³é»ñ »Ý` Ï³½Ùí³Í µ³ñ¹áõÃÛ³Ý ¨ ³Í³ÝóÙ³Ý ßÝáñÑÇí. §snowboard, freestyle, overtime, playfellow, mountainbike, motorbike¦ Üáñ³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ÙÇ Ù³ëÝ ³é³ç³ÝáõÙ ¿ Ý³Ë³Í³ÝóÝ»ñÇ, ÇÝã- å»ë Ý³¨ í»ñç³Í³ÝóÝ»ñÇ û·ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ¹ñ³Ýù Ñ³×³Ë³ÏÇ »Ý ·áñÍ³Í- íáõÙ ëåáñï³ÛÇÝ ï»Õ»Ï³ïí³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñáõÙ: §Committees, multilateral organisations, athletes and scientists should form an anti-doping agency and continually supervise adherence to the anti-doping code¦. (WORLD HANDBALL magazine, 4/97, p. 9)

191 §UEFA commends all initiatives that pro-actively address the serious probem of racism in football which threatens the spirit of Fair Play and taints football’s role in society as a whole¦. (COMMUNIQUE, Issue twelve, 2005 p. 2)

REFERENCES

1. Ø»ÉùáÝÛ³Ý ê. (1984) ²ÏÝ³ñÏÝ»ñ Ñ³Ûáó É»½íÇ á×³µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý, º.. ¿ç 42: 2. Áàëëè Ø. (1961) Ôðàíöóçñêàÿ ñòèëèñòèêà, Ì. ñ. 18. 3. Âàëãèíà Í.Ñ., Ðîçåíòàëü Ä.Ý. è äð. (1971) Ñîâðåìåííûé ðóññêèé ÿçûê, Ì., ñ. 35, 301-313 4. Âèíîãðàäîâ Â. (1980) Ðóññêèé ÿçûê, Ì., - 639 ñ. 5. Ãàëêèíà-Ôåäîðóê Å. è äð., (1957) Ñîâðåìåííûé ðóññêèé ÿçûê, Ì., ñ. 79. 6. Ãâîçäåâ À. Í. (1952) Î÷åðêè ïî ñòèëèñòèêå ðóññêîãî ÿçû- êà, Ì., - 335 ñ. 7. Åôèìîâ À. (1969) Ñòèëèñòèêà ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà, Ì., ñ. 196. 8. Gairns R. and S. Kedman, (1986) Working with Words, Cambridge. 9. McCathy M. (1988) Some Vocabulary Patterns in Conversation. 10. Robinson P. (1988) Components and Procedures in Vocabulary Learning, Journal of Linguistics. 11. Sheard B. (1962) The Words We Use. New York. 12. Ulman S. (1962) Words and Their Use, Oxford.

192 ¸³ñμÇÝÛ³Ý ². ºñ¨³ÝÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

Èº¼ìÆ Üä²î²Î²ÚÆÜ àôêàôòØ²Ü ØÆ ø²ÜÆ ÊÜ¸ÆðÜºðÆ Þàôðæ

ON SOME PROBLEMS OF TEACHING A TARGET LANGUAGE

ABSTRACT The present article deals with some problems of language acquisition and cognition while teaching a foreign language. It discusses several aspects of learning a second language like language transfer, personal abilities, the age, nationality, motivation, psychology and environment which have their impact on a target language learner. The role of the foreign language instructor, his skillful, experienced, as well as creative work greatly influences the learning process.

“First language acquisition and second language learning are similar processes, but differ in specific content and order of acquisition; baking a cake and baking a loaf of bread may utilize the same process but require different ingredients, oven temperature and cooking time. R. Boyd ÆÝãå»ë Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ¿, ûï³ñ É»½áõ áõëáõó³Ý»ÉÁ ¨ Ûáõñ³óÝ»ÉÁ µ³í³- Ï³Ý µ³ñ¹ ·áñÍÁÝÃ³ó ¿: ²ÛÝ Ï³åí³Í ¿ ÙÇ ß³ñù ·áñÍáÝÝ»ñáí, áñáÝù áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ »Ý, ³ÛÉ¨ Ñ³×³Ë ³éÝãíáõÙ »Ý ïíÛ³É ëáíáñáÕÇ ³ÝÑ³ï³Ï³Ý áõÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇÝ, É»½í³Ùï³ÍáÕáõÃÛ³ÝÁ, ×³Ý³ãáÕáõÃÛ³ÝÁ, ëáóÇ³É³Ï³Ý ¹ÇñùÇÝ, ³½·³ÛÇÝ å³ïÏ³Ý»ÉáõÃÛ³ÝÁ, Ñá·»Ï³Ý íÇ×³ÏÇÝ, ï³ñÇùÇÝ, ßñç³Ï³ ÙÇç³í³ÛñÇÝ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ ·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ý áõ »ÝÃ³·Çï³Ïó³Ï³Ý ¹ñë¨áñáõÙÝ»ñ áõÝ»óáÕ ï³ñµ»ñ ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇÝ: ²Ûë ³Ù»ÝÇó ³ñ¹»Ý ÇëÏ ³ÏÝÑ³Ûï ¿ ¹³é- ÝáõÙ, áñ ûï³ñ É»½íÇ áõëáõóáõÙÁ ÙÇßï »Õ»É ¿ ¨ ÙÝáõÙ ¿ ï³ñµ»ñ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ï»ÝïñáÝáõÙ, áñáÝó Ýå³ï³ÏÝ ¿ áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ í»ñ Ñ³Ý»É ûï³ñ É»½íÇ ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï áõëáõóÙ³Ý ûµÛ»ÏïÇí áõ ëáõµÛ»ÏïÇí

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1 "In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful.” “Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their ut- terances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.” Stephen Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, New York, Pergamon, Press, 1981, pp.54-55. 2 “Memory span is shorter in a foreign language than in the native language and that Memory span increases with mastery of the language.” Robert Lado, The Role of Error Analysis in Second Language Acquisi- tion, 1965. 197 ½áõ·³¹ñáõÙÁ: Î³ñ¨áñ »Ý Ý³¨ ëáóÇ³É-Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ, É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ ³ÝÑ³ï³Ï³Ý ¹ñë¨áñÙ³Ý ·áñÍáÝÝ»ñÁ: êáóÇ³É³Ï³Ý Ùß³- ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ ·áñÍáÝÝ»ñÇó ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë Ýß»É ïíÛ³É ³ÝÑ³- ïÇ ½µ³Õ»óñ³Í ¹ÇñùÁ Ñ³ë³ñ³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç, áñáí ¿É å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í ¿ Ýñ³ ËáëùÇ µ³ñ»ÏÇñÃ ÉÇÝ»ÉÁ: È»½í³Ï³Ý ÇÙ³óáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ ³ÝÓÇ µ³- ñ»ÏñÃáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ùßï³å»ë ·ïÝíáõÙ »Ý ³ÝÙÇç³Ï³Ý ÷áË³½¹»óáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç: ´³ñ»ÏÇñÃ ËáëùÁ µÝáñáß ¿ µ³ñÓñ ëáóÇ³É³Ï³Ý ¹Çñù áõÝ»óáÕ Ë³- íÇÝ Ï³Ù ³ÛÝ Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó, áñáÝù Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóíáõÙ »Ý Ýñ³Ýó Ñ»ï: àã å³ßïáÝ³Ï³Ý ËáëùÁ, áñÁ ï³ñµ»ñíáõÙ ¿ Ý³Ëáñ¹Çó, µÝáñáß ¿ ÁÝï³- Ý»Ï³Ý Ï³Ù ÁÝÏ»ñ³Ï³Ý ÙÇç³í³ÛñáõÙ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ Ùï»ñÇÙÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïóí»ÉÇë: È»½íÇ ×³Ý³ãáÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ñóáõÙ Ï³ñ¨áñ ¿ Ý³¨, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë ¿ Ýå³ï³Ï³Ù»ï É»½áõÝ ÁÝÏ³ÉíáõÙ ïíÛ³É Ñ³ë³ñ³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý ÏáÕÙÇó: ²Ûë å³ñ³·³ÛáõÙ ¿³Ï³Ý ¿, Ã» Ýßí³Í ³ÝÓÁ áñ Ë³íÇÝ ¿ Ñ³- ñáõÙ, ¨ áñ É»½áõÝ ¿ ³Û¹ Ë³íÇÝ ³í»ÉÇ Ñ³ïÏ³Ýß³Ï³Ý, Ï³Ù, ïáÏáë³- ÛÇÝ ³éáõÙáí, Ñ³ë³ñ³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý áñ Ù³ëÝ ¿ Ýßí³Í É»½íáí ËáëáõÙ` Ù»Í³- Ù³ëÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, Ã»± ÷áùñ³Ù³ëÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, Ï³Ù ·áõó» Ñ³ë³ñ³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»Í Ù³ëÁ ÙÇ³Å³Ù³Ý³Ï »ñÏáõ É»½íÇ ¿ ïÇñ³å»ïáõÙ: È»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáÝÝ»ñÁ, áñáÝù µ³óÇ Ñ³ÙÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ ù»ñ³Ï³Ý³Ï³Ý Ï³ñ·»ñÇó µ³ÕÏ³ó³Í »Ý ÙÇ ß³ñù ëÏ½µáõÝùÝ»ñÇó ¨ ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïáõÏ ¹ñáõÛÃÝ»- ñÇó, ÑÇÙÝí³Í »Ý Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ É»½íÇ Ùï³Í»É³Ï»ñåÇ íñ³ ¨ ·ïÝíáõÙ »Ý ë»ñï ÷áËÏ³å³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç, Ñ»ï¨³µ³ñ áõÝ»Ý³Éáí Çñ»Ýó áñá- ßÇã ¹»ñÁ Ýå³ï³Ï³ÛÇÝ É»½íÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ¨ Ûáõñ³óÙ³Ý Ñ³ñóáõÙ: Æ í»ñçá, å»ïù ¿ Ýß»É Ý³¨ É»½íÇ ×³Ý³ãáÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ»ï Ï³åí³Í ³Ý- Ñ³ï³Ï³Ý ¹ñë¨áñÙ³Ý Ù³ëÇÝ, áñÁ å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í ¿ ³ÝÑ³ïÇ Ùï³- íáñ áõÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ»ñáí, ÑÇßáÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ¹ñ¹³å³ï×³éÝ»ñáí, Ëáëù³- ÛÇÝ ÙÇçáóÝ»ñáí ¨ Ñá·»µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ ï»ÕÇ áõÝ»Ý³É Ýå³ï³Ï³ÛÇÝ É»½íáí áñ¨¿ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÙ` ³é³Ýó Ñ³ßíÇ ³éÝ»Éáõ ³Ý- Ñ³ïÇÝ µÝáñáß ³é³ÝÓ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ûï³ñ É»½áõ ëáíáñ»Éáõ ÁÝ- Ã³óùáõÙ:

¶ð²Î²ÜàôÂÚàôÜ

1. Stephen Krashen, (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, New York, Pergamon Press. 2. Robert Lado, (1965) The Role of Error Analysis in Second Language Acquisition. 3. Vivian Cook, (1992) Evidence for Multi-competence, Language Learning.

198 4. L.Selinker, (1993) Language Transfer in Language Learning, Philadelphia. 5. G.Ellis, (1991) Learning to Learn English, Cambridge, University Press. 6. G.A.Miller, (1967) The Psychology of Communication, New York. 7. Noam Chomsky, (1986) Language and the Mind, New York, Harcourt, Brace and World. 8. Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning, IRAL (1977). 9. J.Rubin and I.Thompson, (1982) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner. 10. P.Robinson, (1991) ESP Today: A Practioner’s Guide, New York. 11. D.Crystal, (2001) English as a Classical Language, Omnibus. 12. F.Manguhbai, (2002) Methodology in Teaching a Second Language, Australia.

199 ¶¨áñ·Û³Ý è. ²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ ÃÇí 1 ³ÙμÇáÝ, ºñ¨³ÝÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

ìºðÈàôÌ²Î²Ü ÀÜÂºðò²ÜàôÂÚ²Ü ÐÆØÜ²ÊÜ¸ÆðÀ ²Ü¶ÈºðºÜÆ ÐàôØ²ÜÆî²ð ÎàÔØÜàðàÞØ²Ü ¸²êÀÜÂ²òàôØ

ON ANALYTICAL READING FOR STUDENTS OF HUMANITIES

ABSTRACT Analytical reading infers grammatical, lexical as well as stylistic analysis of the text. Its tasks are permanently specified due to the students’ goals for reading. Some of them read for translating purposes, some of them read for pleasure. Future philologists gain through analytical reading some basic linguistic and literary skills which are of key importance for shaping their background knowledge.

ì»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÇÙÝ³ËÝ¹ÇñÁ Ï³ñ¨áñíáõÙ ¿ Ñ³ï- Ï³å»ë Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý, Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý³µ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý áõëáõóÙ³ÝÁ ÝíÇñí³Í ³ßË³ï³ÝùÝ»ñáõÙ, ù³ÝÇ áñ áñáß Ñ»ï³½áïáÕÝ»ñ (Axelrod R.B. and Cooper C.R., Ìàñëûêî Å.À., Áàáèíñêàÿ Ï.Ê., Ëûñàíîâà Í.Â., Ìèëüðóä Ð.Ï., Îïåðåíêî À.Ê., Îùåïêîâà Ò.Â.) ã»Ý å³ïÏ»ñ³óÝáõÙ í»ñÉáõÍ³- Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³é³Ýó Ý³Ë³Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý³Ï³Ý í»ñÉáõÍáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ Ñ³Ï³é³ÏÁ: ì»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ï³ñµ»ñ ¹³ëÁÝÃ³óÝ»ñáõÙ ï³ñ- µ»ñ Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñ ¿ Ñ»ï³åÝ¹áõÙ: ²Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ áõëáõóáõÙÁ ÑáõÙ³ÝÇï³ñ áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ¹³ëÁÝÃ³óÝ»ñáõÙ áõ- ÝÇ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ ¨ ï³ñµ»ñ³ÏÇã ÏáÕÙ»ñ: ê³Ï³ÛÝ í»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñ- ó³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ñ³ïÏ³å»ë ÁÝÏ³ÉáÕ³Ï³Ý-í»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏáõÙ Ñ³Ù³ñÛ³ ÝáõÛÝ Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñÝ ¿ Ñ»ï³åÝ¹áõÙ: ¸ñ³Ýù »Ý` • Ñ³ñëï³óÝ»É áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ µ³é³å³ß³ñÁ, • ½³ñ·³óÝ»É ¨ Ï³ï³ñ»É³·áñÍ»É ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ ËáëáÕáõ-

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206 ·Çï³Ï³Ý, Ã»° Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ Ûáõñ³óÙ³ÝÁ ÇÝãå»ë ¨ áñ- ù³Ý ¿ Ýå³ëïáõÙ í»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ¹³ å³Û- Ù³Ý³íáñí³Í ¿ Ý³Ë ¨ ³é³ç ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛ³Ùµ:

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1. ÊÉÕ³ÃÛ³Ý ü. Ð. (2000) à×³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µ³é³ñ³Ý. - º., ¼³Ý·³Ï- 97: 2. ä»ïñáëÛ³Ý Ð. ¼. (1987) Ð³Û»ñ»Ý³·Çï³Ï³Ý µ³é³ñ³Ý /¾.´. ²Õ³Û³ÝÇ ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ ËÙµ. -ºñ.: Ð³Û³ëï³Ý: 3. Áàðò Ð. (2000) Îñíîâû ñåìèîëîãèè // Îò ñòðóêòóðàëèçìà ê ïîñòñòðóêòóðàëèçìó. Ñîñò. è âñòóïèò.ñò. Ã.Ñ. Êîñèêîâà. Ì.: Ïðîãðåññ. 4. Âèíîãðàä Ò. (1976) Ïðîãðàììà, ïîíèìàþùàÿ åñòåñòâåí- íûé ÿçûê. - Ì.: „Ìèð“. 5. Ãåç Í. È. Ê âîïðîñó îá èñòîðèè ðàçâèòèÿ èíòåíñèâíûõ ìåòîäîâ çàðóáåæîì // Ìåòîäû èíòåíñèâíîãî îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì. Âûï. 3 / Ðåä. Ñ.È.Ìåëüíèê. — Ì.: ÌÃÏÈÈß, 1977. 6. Ãðåéìàñ À. Æ., Êóðòå Æ. (1983) Ñåìèîòèêà. Îáúÿñíè- òåëüíûé ñëîâàðü òåîðèè ÿçûêà // Ñåìèîòèêà. Ñîñò., âñòóïèò.ñò. è ðåä. Þ.Ñ. Ñòåïàíîâà. Ì.: Ðàäóãà. 7. Êàðàóëîâ Þ.Í. (1982) Ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå îñíîâû ôóíêöèî- íàëüíîãî ïîäõîäà â ëèòåðàòóðîâåäåíèè // Ïðîáëåìû ñòðóêòóð- íîé ëèíãâèñòèêè – 80. – Ì. 8. Êîìèññàðîâ Â.Í. (1990) Òåîðèÿ ïåðåâîäà (ëèíãâèñòè÷åñ- êèå àñïåêòû). Ì.: Âûñø. øê. 9. Êóáðÿêîâà Å.Ñ. (2000) Â íà÷àëå 21 âåêà (Ðàçìûøëåíèÿ î ñóäüáàõ êîãíèòèâíîé ëèíãâèñòèêè)//Êîãíèòèâíàÿ ñåìàíòèêà. Ìàò-ëû âòîðîé ìåæäóíàðîäíîé øêîëû-ñåìèíàðà. ×àñòü 1. - Òàìáîâ. 10. Êóáðÿêîâà Å.Ñ. (2006) ×òî ìîæåò äàòü êîãíèòèâíàÿ ëèíãâèñòèêà èññëåäîâàíèþ ñîçíàíèÿ è ðàçóìà ÷åëîâåêà// Ìåæäóíàð. êîíãðåññ ïî êîãíèòèâíîé ëèíãâ-êå. Ñá. ìàò-ëîâ. - Òàìáîâ. 11. Ëûñàíîâà Í.Â. (1999) Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå îñíîâû îáó÷åíèÿ èíîÿçû÷íîìó èíôîðìàòèâíîìó ÷òåíèþ: Àâòîðåô. äèñ.êàíä. ïåä. íàóê. - ßêóòñê.

207 12. Ìàñëûêî Å.À., (1996) Áàáèíñêàÿ Ï.Ê. Íàñòîëüíàÿ êíèãà ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà. Ìèíñê: Âûøýéøàÿ øêîëà. 13. Ìèëüðóä Ð.Ï. (2003) ×òåíèå ñ ïîíèìàíèåì. Ó÷åá. ïîñîáèå ïî àíãë. ÿç. Òàìáîâ: Èçä. 11 Ó èì. Ã.Ð. Äåðæàâèíà. 14. Îïåðåíêî À.Ê. (1993) Ìåòîäèêà îáó÷åíèÿ ïðîñìîòðî- âîìó ÷òåíèþ òåêñòîâ íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè (íåÿçûêîâîé ÂÓÇ): Àâòîðåô. äèñ... êàíä. ïåä. íàóê. Ìèíñê. 15. Îùåïêîâà Ò.Â., Ïðîëûãèíà Ì.Ì., Ñòàðêîâà Ä.À. (2005) Ïðèåìû îáó÷åíèÿ ðàçëè÷íûì âèäàì ÷òåíèÿ/Èíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêè â øêîëå. - ¹3. 16. Ôèëèïïîâ Ê.À. (2003) Ëèíãâèñòèêà òåêñòà: Êóðñ ëåê- öèé. – ÑÏá. 17. Tauroza, S. and Allison D. (1990) Speech rates in British English. Applied Linguistics, 11. 18. Axelrod R.B. and Cooper C.R., (1987) Reading Critically, Writing Well, New York: St. Martins Press. 19. transfer.eltech.ru/.../_30n90bp85uk2uq1fe0nlgbrg5sc2ug1 fv402ug1fd0...

208 ÂáíÙ³ëÛ³Ý. ¶. ºñ¨³ÝÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

Æð²¸ðàôÂÚàôÜÜºðÀ àðäºê ´²Ü²ìàð ÊàêøÆ ¼²ð¶²òØ²Ü ØÆæàò

SITUATIONS AS MEANS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL SPEECH

ABSTRACT The article considers situations as forms of communication and suggests effective means of the students’ impromptu speech activation in the process of teaching a foreign language. It discusses the constituent parts of a situation: motivation of speech, the mechanism of structure of speech, topic of situation, process of speech, reaction of speakers, etc. Situations are considered as creative, accessible and effective means for the development of students’ oral speech.

âÝ³Û³Í Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³ÝáõÙ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý µ³ñÓñ Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÇÝ, ³ÛÝáõ³Ù»Ý³ÛÝÇí É»½í³Ï³Ý ÙÇç³í³ÛñÇ µ³ó³- Ï³ÛáõÃÛ³Ý å³ï×³éáí áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ µ³Ý³íáñ ËáëùÇ ïÇñ³å»ïáõ- ÙÁ ÙÝáõÙ ¿ ³Ýµ³í³ñ³ñ: àõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÝ ³½³ï Ï³ñ¹áõÙ ¨ Ñ³ëÏ³ÝáõÙ »Ý Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ¨ ·Çï³Ï³Ý ÝÛáõÃ»ñÁ, û·ïíáõÙ »Ý Ñ³Ù³ó³ÝóÇó, ³ÝÏ³ßÏ³Ý¹ í»ñ³ñï³¹ñáõÙ Ï³ñ¹³ó³ÍÁ, ë³Ï³ÛÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïóí»ÉÇë ¨ µ³Ý³íÇ×»ÉÇë áõÝ»ÝáõÙ »Ý ËÝ¹ÇñÝ»ñ: ìÇ×³ÏÁ ßïÏ»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ, Ù³ë- Ý³·Çï³Ï³Ý ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óÇÝ ½áõ·³Ñ»é, Éáõñç áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ å»ïù ¹³ñÓÝ»É áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ µ³Ý³íáñ ËáëùÇ ½³ñ·³óÙ³ÝÁ` ÏÇñ³é»Éáí Ñ³Ýå³ïñ³ëïÇó ËáëùÇ Çñ³óÙ³Ý ÙÇ ß³ñù ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ, ÇÝãåÇëÇù »Ý` Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ËÃ³ÝáÕ Ñ³ñó»ñÁ, ½ñáõÛó- ùÝÝ³ñÏáõÙÝ»ñÁ: ÆÝãå»ë Ñ³ëï³ïáõÙ »Ý Ñá·»µ³ÝÝ»ñÁ. 1. ÊáëùÁ å»ïù ¿ Ýå³ï³Ï³ÛÇÝ ÉÇÝÇ, áõë³ÝáÕÁ å»ïù ¿ ó³ÝÏáõÃ- ÛáõÝ áõ Ùï³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»Ý³ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ýáí Çñ ÙÇïùÁ Ñ³Õáñ¹»Éáõ áõÝÏÝ¹ñÇÝ: ò³íáù, Ù»ñ áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ ËáëùÁ ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³ÝáõÙ Ýå³ï³- Ï³ÛÇÝ ã¿: ²Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ¹³ë»ñÇÝ Ù³ëÝ³Ïó»Éáõ ÑÇÙÝ³Ï³Ý ¹ñ¹³- å³ï×³éÁ ë»ñï³Í ¹³ëÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ ·Ý³Ñ³ï³Ï³Ý ëï³Ý³ÉÝ ¿:

209 2. ÊáëùÇÝ Ñ³ïáõÏ ¿ áñáß³ÏÇ áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ, ³ÛëÇÝùÝ ³ÛÝ ÙÇßï áõÕÕí³Í å»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝÇ ÇÝã-áñ Ù»ÏÇÝ` Ñ³ëó»³·ñí³Í ÇÝã-áñ Ù»ÏÇÝ: àõë³ÝáÕÇ ËáëùÁ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ ¹³ë»ñÇÝ áñå»ë Ï³ÝáÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ ãáõÝÇ, ³ÛÝ áã ÙÇ Ýáñ µ³Ý ãÇ Ñ³Õáñ¹áõÙ Éë³ñ³ÝÇÝ, áõë³ÝáÕÁ ÙÇ³ÛÝ í»ñ³ñï³¹ñáõÙ ¿ ëáíáñ³Í ¹³ëÁ ¹³ë³ËáëÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 3. ÊáëùÁ å»ïù ¿ å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í ÉÇÝÇ Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ: ²ÝÑñ³- Å»ßï »Ý ËÃ³ÝÝ»ñ` ¹ñ¹»Éáõ áõë³ÝáÕÇÝ ËáëùÇ ·áñÍáÕáõÃÛ³Ý: ò³íáù, ËáëùÇ ³Ûë ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ µ³í³ñ³ñ ã³÷áí Ñ³ßíÇ ãÇ ³éÝ- íáõÙ áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óáõÙ. ùÇã »Ý û·ï³·áñÍíáõÙ ÇÝãå»ë ï»- ëáÕ³Ï³Ý, ³ÛÝå»ë ¿É ÉëáÕ³Ï³Ý ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ: 4. ÊáëùÁ µÝáõÃ³·ñíáõÙ ¿ áñáß³ÏÇ Ï³éáõóí³Íù³ÛÇÝ Ûáõñ³Ñ³ï- ÏáõÃÛ³Ùµ: úï³ñ É»½áõ ëáíáñ»ÉÇë ËáëùÇ ×Çßï Ï³éáõóí³Íù³ÛÇÝ Ó¨³- Ï»ñåÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï »Ý í»ñáÑÇßÛ³É ËáëùÇ ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ï- ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí³Í µáÉáñ ¹ñë¨áñáõÙÝ»ñÇ ÇÙ³óáõÃÛáõÝ: Æñáù, »Ã» áõë³ÝáÕÁ ãÇ ïÇñ³å»ïáõÙ ûï³ñ É»½íáí ËáëùÇ Ï³éáõó- Ù³Ý Ù»Ë³ÝÇ½ÙÇÝ, ³å³ Ý³ ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ ÷áË³Ýó»É Ñ³Ù³å³ï³ëË³Ý Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ»ï Ï³åí³Í Ùïù»ñÁ: â³é³ñÏ»Éáí, áñ ³Ý·Çñ ëáíáñ³Í ÝÛáõÃÁ áõë³ÝáÕÇ ÑÇßáÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç É»½í³Ï³Ý ·Çï»ÉÇùÝ»ñÇ ¨ ËáëùÇ ÝÛáõÃÇ Ïáõï³ÏÙ³Ý ÙÇçáóÝ»ñÇó Ù»ÏÝ ¿, ·ïÝáõÙ »Ýù, áñ ãå»ïù ¿ ë³ÑÙ³Ý³÷³Ïí»É ÙÇ³ÛÝ ËáëùÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ïíÛ³É ÙÇçáóáí: êáíáñ³Í ËáëùÁ Ëáëù ã¿, ù³ÝÇ áñ ËáëùÁ ëï»ÕÍ³- ·áñÍ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³ó ¿: êáíáñ³Í ÝÛáõÃÇ í»ñ³ñï³¹ñáõÙÁ ³ÛÝ Ó¨áí, ÇÝãå»ë ³ÛÝ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óíáõÙ ¿ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ¹³ë³í³Ý¹Ù³Ý Å³Ù³- Ý³Ï, áã ÙÇ Ï»ñå Ï³åí³Í ã¿ ëï»ÕÍ³·áñÍ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óÇ Ñ»ï: ´³- óÇ ³Û¹, áõë³ÝáÕÇ ÏáÕÙÇó í»ñ³ñï³¹ñí³Í ï»ùëïÁ ³ñ¹»Ý Ëáëù ã¿, ù³ÝÇ áñ ³ÛÝ Ýå³ï³Ï³ÛÇÝ ã¿ ¨ ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ áõÕÕí³Í ÉÇÝ»É ÇÝã-áñ Ù»- ÏÇÝ: Æñáù, ³Û¹åÇëÇ ËáëùÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ Éë³ñ³Ý ãÏ³, Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛáõÝ ãÏ³, ù³ÝÇ áñ áõë³ÝáÕÁ Ñ³Õáñ¹áõÙ, ÏñÏÝáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ, ÇÝã Éë³ñ³ÝÇ ÙÛáõë áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ·Çï»Ý, ³ë»É »Ý Ï³Ù å»ïù ¿ ³ë»Ý: àõë³ÝáÕÁ ãÇ Ñ³- Õáñ¹áõÙ Çñ ë»÷³Ï³Ý Ùïù»ñÁ, ³ÛÉ ÏñÏÝáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ, ÇÝã Ï³ñ¹³ó»É ¿ ïñí³Í ï»ùëïáõÙ: ê³Ï³ÛÝ, »ñµ áõë³ÝáÕÁ ëáíáñ»É ¿ Ï³å³Ïó»É ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ Ý³Ë³¹³- ëáõÃÛáõÝ ÏáÝÏñ»ï Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç, ³ÛëÇÝùÝ Ñ³ëÝ»É ÇÝùÝ³³ñ- ï³Ñ³ÛïÙ³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÇ, ³å³ ³ñ¹»Ý ¹Åí³ñ ã¿ ³ÝóÝ»É ³½³ï ³ñ- ï³Ñ³ÛïÙ³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÇÝ ¨ ³ë»É ³ÛÝù³Ý Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝ, áñù³Ý å³Ñ³ÝçáõÙ ¿ »ÝÃ³¹ñíáÕ Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ (µÝ³Ï³Ý³µ³ñ ³ñ¹»Ý Ûáõ- ñ³óí³Í µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ, ù»ñ³Ï³Ý³Ï³Ý ÝÛáõÃÇ ë³ÑÙ³ÝÝ»ñáõÙ): ºÃ» áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ëáíáñ»É »Ý ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íáí Ó¨³Ï»ñå»É ×Çßï Ï³éáõóí³Íùáí Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ, ³ÛëÇÝùÝ ïÇñ³å»ïáõÙ »Ý Ý³- Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïÙ³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÇÝ, »Ã» Ýñ³Ýù ëáíá-

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212 Ëáë»ÉÇë Ù»Ýù »ñµ»ÙÝ ÃáõÛÉ »Ýù ï³ÉÇë ëË³ÉÝ»ñ áã Ã» Ñ³Ù³å³ï³ë- Ë³Ý ÑÙïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¨ áõÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ µ³ñÓñ Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏÇ ³Ýµ³- í³ñ³ñáõÃÛ³Ý, ³ÛÉ Ùï³ÍáÕáõÃÛ³Ý` ³ÛÉ ³é³ñÏ³Ý»ñÇ Ñ³ÝÏ³ñÍ³ÏÇ ³ÝóÙ³Ý, ßï³åáÕ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý, áõß³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý ß»ÕÙ³Ý ¨ ³ÛÉ å³ÛÙ³Ý- Ý»ñáí: ÜÙ³Ý ëË³ÉÝ»ñ, í»ñ³å³ÑáõÃÛ³Ý Ï³ñ·áí, ÃáõÛÉ³ïñ»ÉÇ »Ý Ý³¨ ûï³ñ³É»½áõ ËáëùáõÙ: àõëïÇ Ñ³Ýå³ïñ³ëïÇó ËáëùÇ ×ßïáõÃÛ³Ý å³Ñ³ÝçÁ áñáß»ÉÇë å»ïù ¿ Ñ³Ù³ñ»É, áñ ³ÛÝ ãå»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝÇ µ³ó³ñ- Ó³Ï ×Çßï, ³ÛÉ ·áñÍÝ³Ï³Ýáñ»Ý ³ÝëË³É: ÆÝùÝÁëïÇÝùÛ³Ý å³ñ½ ¿, áñ ×Çßï ËáëùÁ å»ïù ¿ ×Çßï ÉÇÝÇ ¨° µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ, ¨° ù»ñ³Ï³Ý³Ï³Ý, ¨° ÑÝãÛáõÝ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³éáõÙÝ»ñáí: Î³ëÏ³Í ãÇ Ñ³ñáõóáõÙ ³ÛÝ, áñ Çñ³Ï³Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý Å³Ù³- Ý³Ï ËáëùÁ å»ïù ¿ ×Çßï ÉÇÝÇ áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ ³éáõÙáí, ³ÛÉ¨ ÁÝÃ³Ý³ ÝáñÙ³É` ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇÝ µÝáñáß ï»Ùåáí: Ð³Ï³é³Ï ¹»å- ùáõÙ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÏÉÇÝÇ ³ÝµÝ³Ï³Ý: ÜÏ³ïÇ áõÝ»Ý³Éáí í»ñÁ Ýßí³ÍÁ` Ñ³Ýå³ïñ³ëïÇó Ëáëù ³ë»Éáí Ñ³ëÏ³ÝáõÙ »Ýù µÝ³Ï³Ý Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõÝÁ` »ÝÃ³¹ñ»Éáí ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ÑÙïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ¨ áõÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý Ù³Ï³ñ- ¹³Ï, áñÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï áõë³ÝáÕÝ Ç íÇ×³ÏÇ ¿ ·áñÍÝ³Ï³Ýáñ»Ý ³ÝëË³É ¨ µÝ³Ï³Ý, áã ¹³Ý¹³Õ` ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇÝ µÝáñáß ï»Ùåáí, ³ÙµáÕç³ó- Ý»É ëáíáñ³Í É»½í³Ï³Ý ÝÛáõÃÁ Çñ³Ï³Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝ Çñ³Ï³- Ý³óÝ»Éáõ Ýå³ï³Ïáí: ²Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ¹³ë»ñÇÝ áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ³ÏïÇíáõÃÛ³Ý ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óáõÙ Ï³ñ¨áñ ¹»ñ »Ý Ë³ÕáõÙ Ý³¨ ËÃ³ÝÇã Ñ³ñ- ó»ñÁ ¨ ÙÇ ß³ñù í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: ê³Ï³ÛÝ µÝ³Ï³Ý-Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý Ï³ñáÕ »Ý ÉÇÝ»É ÙÇ³ÛÝ ³ÛÝ ËÃ³ÝÇã Ñ³ñó»ñÁ ¨ í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, áñáÝù µ³í³ñ³ñáõÙ »Ý í»ñÁ Ýßí³Í å³Ñ³ÝçÝ»ñÇÝ: Üß»Ýù ³Û¹ ïÇåÇ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ. 1. Ð³ñó-å³ï³ëË³Ý í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ (ÙÇ³ÛÝ ³ÛÝ å³ÛÙ³Ýáí, áñ Ñ³ñóÁ å³Ñ³ÝçáõÙ ¿, áñ áõë³ÝáÕÝ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïÇ Çñ Ï³ñÍÇùÁ ³Ûë Ï³Ù ³ÛÝ Ã»Ù³ÛÇ ßáõñç): 2. ¼ñáõÛó ïñí³Í Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É (ïñíáõÙ »Ý ÙÇ³ÛÝ Ñ³Ý- ·³Ù³ÝùÝ»ñÁ, (µ³Ûó áã Ýñ³ µáí³Ý¹³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ), áñÇ ÑÇÙ³Ý íñ³ Ó¨³- íáñíáõÙ ¿ ËáëùÁ): 3. ÆÝã-áñ Çñ³¹³ñÓáõÃÛ³Ý, ·ñùÇó Ñ³ïí³ÍÇ, Ñá¹í³ÍÇ, ¹Çï³Í ýÇÉÙÇ, Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÙ³Ý, Ñ³Ù³ó³ÝóáõÙ ùÝÝ³ñÏíáÕ ÇÝã-áñ Ñ³ñóÇ ßáõñç Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÙ: 4. ¼ñáõÛó-ùÝÝ³ñÏáõÙ ÇÝã-áñ Ñ³ñóÇ ßáõñç (ÝÙ³Ý Ñ³ñó»ñÁ å³ñï³- ¹Çñ å»ïù ¿ ³é³ç³óÝ»Ý áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ Ï»Ý¹³ÝÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛáõÝÁ,

213 Ñ³Ï³é³Ï ¹»åùáõÙ Çñ³Ï³Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÁ áõÕÕ³ÏÇ ï»ÕÇ ãÇ áõÝ»Ý³, ù³ÝÇ áñ ¹ñ³ å³Ñ³ÝçÁ ãÇ ÉÇÝÇ): 5. ¼³Ý³½³Ý Ë³Õ³ÛÇÝ í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ, áñáÝù ÏëïÇå»Ý áõë³Ýá- ÕÇÝ ³ñï³Ñ³Ûï»Éáõ ë»÷³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ýå³ïñ³ëïÇó ¹³ïáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ïíÛ³É Ñ³ñóÇ í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É: Æñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ã»Ù³ïÇÏ³Ý Ï³ñáÕ ¿ ÉÇÝ»É Ï»Ýó³Õ³ÛÇÝ, µ³ñá- Û³Ï³Ý, áõëáõÙÝ³ÏñÃ³Ï³Ý, ÏñáÝ³Ï³Ý, ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý, Ñ³ë³ñ³Ï³Ï³Ý- ïÝï»ë³Ï³Ý ¨ ³ÛÉÝ (“I like to keep a pet, “My favourite tutor (lecturer)”, “My future life”, “Smoking”, “ Should girls go in for sport such as heavy athletics, wrestling, boxing, football?”, “ I can’t imagine my life without the Internet”, “Should Armenia be oriented to Europe or Russia?”, “The achievements of the Independence of Armenia”, “The reasons of the immigration from Armenia”, “Global warming”, “Oecological problems in Yerevan” etc.): Æñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ËÃ³ÝÇã Ñ³ñó»ñÁ, µ³Ý³í»×»ñÁ ûï³ñ É»½íÇ ¹³ë³í³Ý¹Ù³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óáõÙ Ï³ñ¨áñ ï»Õ »Ý ·ñ³íáõÙ` Ù»Í³å»ë Ýå³ëï»Éáí áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ ûï³ñ É»½íáí Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Ùï³ÍáÕ³Ï³Ý ·áñ- ÍÁÝÃ³óÇ ³ÙµáÕç³Ï³Ý ¨ Ýå³ï³Ï³áõÕÕí³Í Ï³½Ù³Ï»ñåÙ³ÝÁ: ¸³- ë³ËáëÇó å³Ñ³ÝçáõÙ »Ý ëï»ÕÍ³·áñÍ³Ï³Ý Ùáï»óáõÙ, áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¨ áõÅ»ñÇ É³ñáõÙ: Æñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ¨ ËÃ³ÝÇã Ñ³ñó»ñÁ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ áõ- ëáõóÙ³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óáõÙ áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ µ³Ý³íáñ ËáëùÁ ½³ñ·³óÝ»Éáõ Ù³ïã»ÉÇ ¨ ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï ÙÇçáóÝ»ñ »Ý, áõëïÇ ¹ñ³Ýù, Ù»ñ Ï³ñÍÇùáí, ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Ý»ñ³éÝ»É µáõÑ³Ï³Ý áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý Íñ³·ñ»ñáõÙ ¨ ¹³- ë³·ñù»ñáõÙ:

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1. Ãîëîâèí, Á. Í. (1988) “Êàê ãîâîðèòü ïðàâèëüíî”, Ìîñêâà. 2. Çèìíÿÿ, È.Ä. (2001) “Ëèíãâîïñèõîëîãèÿ ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëü- íîñòè”. Ì., 3. Ïàññîâ, Å.È. (1985) “Êîììóíèêàòèâíûé ìåòîä îáó÷åíèÿ èíîÿçû÷íîìó ãîâîðåíèþ”. Ì. 4. Òåð-Ìèíàñîâà, Ñ.Ã. (2000) “ßçûê è ìåæêóëüòóðíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ”. Ì. 5. Canal, M. (1981) “From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy”. London. 6. Candlin, C.N.(1981) “The Communication Teaching of English”. London. 7. Celce-Murcia (2001) “Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language”. 3rd edition. Boston, MA; Heinle & Heinle. 214 8. Dobson, J. (1992) “Effective Techniques For English Conversation Groups”. Washington, D.C. 9. Dornyei, Z. (1998) “Motivation in Second and Foreign Language Learning”. CILT: CUP. 10. Koshmanova, I. (2003) “90 Topics for Discussion in English”. Moscow. 11. Numan, D. (2003) “Practical English Language Teaching”.New York, McGraw Hill. 12. Plukhina, Z.A. (1991) “The Way to British Communicate”. Moscow. 13. Widdowson, H.G. (1979) “Teaching Language as Communication”. Oxford University Press.

215 Ð³ñáõÃÛáõÝÛ³Ý È. ºñ¨³ÝÇ å»ï³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³Ý, Ð³Û³ëï³Ý

Èº¼ì²ØÞ²ÎàôÂ²ÚÆÜ î²ððÆ Î²ðºìàðàôÂÚàôÜÀ úî²ð Èº¼ìÆ ¸²ê²ì²Ü¸Ø²Ü ÀÜÂ²òøàôØ

LINGUO-CULTURAL AWARENESS IN TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to reveal the importance of linguo-cultural awareness in the process of foreign language teaching. Three different cultural layers are taken into consideration and are analyzed in the paper. The analysis shows that language and culture are inseparable and interconnected, hence before teaching any foreign language, some cultural concepts must be taken into account. For foreign language teachers it is important to be aware of all inter-cultural situations that foreign language learners may face.

îíÛ³É Ñá¹í³ÍÇ Ýå³ï³ÏÝ ¿ »ñ¨³Ý Ñ³Ý»É É»½í³Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ ï³ññÇ Ï³ñ¨áñáõÃÛáõÝÁ É»½íÇ ¹³ë³í³Ý¹Ù³Ý ÁÝÃ³óùáõÙ, ³å³ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñ»Éáí ï³ñµ»ñ Ù»Ãá¹Ý»ñ` ³é³ç³ñÏ»É ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï ÙÇ- çáóÝ»ñ, áñáÝù ÏËÃ³Ý»Ý áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇÝ ëáíáñ»Éáõ Ó·ïáõÙÁ: ²Ûë ³éáõÙáí Ï³ï³ñí»É »Ý µ³½Ù³ÃÇí ¹Çï³ñÏáõÙÝ»ñ: Þ³ï ·Çï- Ý³Ï³ÝÝ»ñ ÷áñÓ»É »Ý Ó¨³Ï»ñå»É ¨ ³é³ç³¹ñ»É Çñ»Ýó ÏáÕÙÇó Ùï³Í- í³Í ¨ Ñ³ëï³ïí³Í Ù»Ãá¹Ý»ñ, ë³Ï³ÛÝ Ù»ñ Ýå³ï³ÏÝ ¿ ÁÝïñ»É Ýñ³Ý- óÇó ÙÇ ù³ÝÇëÁ ¨ ÏÇñ³é»É` ù³ç³É»ñ»Éáí áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇÝ ³í»ÉÇ É³í ëáíáñ»É: êÏ½µáõÙ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³É, Ã» ÇÝã ¿ É»½áõÝ, áñÇ ßÝáñ- ÑÇí Ù»Ýù` Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ ¿³ÏÝ»ñë, Ï³ñáÕ³ÝáõÙ »Ýù Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïóí»É, ³å³ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñ»É, Ã» ÇÝã ¿ Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÁ, Ñ»ï¨³µ³ñ, ¹Çï³ñÏ»É Ýñ³Ýó ÷áËÑ³ñ³µ»ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³é³ÝÓÇÝ Ñ³Ý¹»ë ·³ÉÁ: Æ±Ýã ¿ É»½áõÝ: È»½áõÝ ÁÝÏ³Í ¿ Ù³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ ÏÛ³ÝùÇ Ï»Ýë³·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý áõ ×³Ý³ãáÕáõÃÛ³Ý ÑÇÙùáõÙ: Ø³ñ¹Ï³ÛÇÝ É»½áõÝ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ ¿ ë³ÑÙ³Ý»É áñ-

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1. Claire Kramsch (1998) Language And Culture… Oxford University Press. 2. David Johnson – English Department Kennesaw State University. Georgia – Teaching Culture in Adult ESL 3. Hemat Purba – Christian University of Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] The importance of including culture in EFL Teaching. 4. Stern. Oxford University Press 1992. Language Learning Strategies in a Foreign Language Learning and Teaching 5. Byram M. 1994.Culture and Language Learning in Higher Education 6. Buttges D. 1990.Teaching Foreign Language and Culture: Social Impact and Political Significance ; Language Learning Journal 2 7. æ³ÑáõÏÛ³Ý ¶. ´. Ðá·»Ï³Ý »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ï³- Õ³å³ñáõÙÁ, Âåñòíèê ÅÃÓ, Åðåâàí 1992 ( ñòð.14-24) 8.http.www//radicalpedogogy.icaap.org/content/issue3_3/7-thanasou las.html. 9. www.lara25.com/mywebdisk/C/-EP/Saluveer.pdf 10. Simple.wikipedia.org./wiki/culture/. 11. Antro.palomar.edu/culture/culture-1.htm

²Ü¶ÈºðºÜ Æð²ì²´²Ü²Î²Ü îºøêîºðÆ Ðºî ²ÞÊ²î²ÜøÀ` àðäºê àôê²ÜàÔÜºðÆ ØÆæØÞ²ÎàôÂ²ÚÆÜ Ð²Ôàð¸²Îò²Î²Ü Î²ðàÔàôÂÚàôÜÜºðÆ ¼²ð¶²òØ²Ü ØÆæàò

ABSTRACT The article focuses on some of the challenges of teaching legal English to non-native students of Law through authentic materials. It represents a new step in the direction of determining the principles of selecting authentic materials as well as specifying types of legal texts based on their content, language, stylistic and genre characteristics.

Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÏáÕÙÝáñáßÙ³Ý ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ »ÝÃ³É»½íÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ¹³ëÁÝÃ³óÁ Ý³Ë³·Í»ÉÇë, ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Çñ³Ï³Ý³óÝ»É áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý ¨ µÝ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛáõÝ, Ñ³ßíÇ ³éÝ»Éáí ¹ñ³Ýó µáí³Ý- ¹³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ, áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ Ý³Ë³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ¹ñ¹³å³ï×³é³ÛÇÝ áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ï³ñÇùÁ, Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ÇÙ³ó³Ï³Ý, Ù³ë- Ý³·Çï³Ï³Ý å³Ñ³ÝçÙáõÝùÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³ÛÉÝ: ÀÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ ³éÙ³Ùµ, Å³Ù³ù³Ý³ÏÇ ëÕáõÃÛ³Ý å³ï×³éáí, ¹³ë³- ËáëÝ»ñÁ Ñ³½í³¹»å ¿ÇÝ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñ í»ñóÝáõÙ ³Ý·ÉÇ³Ï³Ý ß³µ³Ã³Ã»ñÃ»ñÇó, ³Ùë³·ñ»ñÇó, Ñ³- Ù³ó³Ýó³ÛÇÝ ï³ñµ»ñ Ï³Ûù»ñÇó:1 ì»ñçÇÝ ï³ñÇÝ»ñÇÝ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³- Ï³Ý ý³ÏáõÉï»ïáõÙ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý áõëáõó³ÝáõÙ »Ý ³Ý·É³Ëáë »ñÏñÝ»ñáõÙ Ññ³ï³ñ³Ïí³Í ¹³ë³·ñù»ñáí, áñáÝù áã ÙÇßï »Ý µ³í³ñ³ñáõÙ Ñ³- Û³Ëáë áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ å³Ñ³ÝçÝ»ñÁ: ¸ñ³Ýù ÏÇñ³éíáõÙ »Ý Ý³Ë ¨ ³é³ç ³ÛÝ ÑÇÙÝ³íáñÙ³Ùµ, áñ Ý»ñ³éáõÙ »Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Ï³ÏÇó µÝ³·ñ»ñ (authentic texts) ¨ ³é³ç³¹ñ³ÝùÝ»ñÝ áõÝ»Ý Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³- Ï³Ý áõÕÕí³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ:

1 Acta Universitatis Juridica, American Criminal Law Review, American Journal of Criminal Law, Ecclesiastical Law Journal, European Employment Law Cases (EELC), Journal of Law and Economics, Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, Yale Law Journal. 224 Ð³ßíÇ ³éÝ»Éáí ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý ÑÙïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ËÝ¹Çñ ¿ ¹ñíáõÙ Ñëï³Ïáñ»Ý ¹³ë³Ï³ñ·»É Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛ³Ý ëÏ½µáõÝùÝ»- ñÁ: ²í³Ý¹³µ³ñ, Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ý³ÏáõÉï»ïáõÙ ÁÝÃ»ñóáõÙ »Ý áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñ: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝ³·ñ»ñÇ ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛáõ- ÝÁ Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ¨ ³ÝÑ³Ûï å³ï×³éÝ»ñáí Çñ³Ï³Ý³óíáõÙ ¿ ÙÇ³ÛÝ áõëáõó- Ù³Ý ³í³ñï³Ï³Ý ÷áõÉáõÙ: ²Ý·É»ñ»Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñ ÁÝÃ»ñó»ÉÇë, ËÝ¹Çñ ¿ ¹ñíáõÙ Ý³¨ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñ»É É»½í³ÏÇñ Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ, Çñ³í³·»ïÝ»ñÇ í³ñ- ùÇ, í³ñù³·ÍÇ ÝáñÙ»ñÁ: ²Û¹ ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó ¹³ï³Çñ³í³Ï³Ý ï»ùë- ï»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝáõÙ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ µ³ó³Ñ³Ûï»É ïíÛ³É áÉáñïÇ ï»ùëï»ñÁ ëï»ÕÍáÕ- Ý»ñÇ ³ÝÓÝ³ÛÇÝ, Ñá·»µ³Ý³Ï³Ý, Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý áñ³ÏÝ»ñÁ ß³ï ¹Åí³ñ ¿: àõëáõóáÕ³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñáí ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ ÁÝïñ»É ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ï»ùëï»ñ, áñáÝù Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝáõÙ »Ý áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ ³Ý·ÉÇ³óÇ, ³ÛÉ¨ Ñ³Û³- Ëáë Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ, Çñ³í³·»ïÝ»ñÇ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ¨ áã Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ í³ñ- ù³·ÍÇ ÝáñÙ»ñÁ: Àëï Ü. Ü. îñáßÇÝ³ÛÇ` ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ï- óáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¹Åí³ñ³·áõÛÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³ó ¿: ²Û¹ ·áñÍÁÝ- Ã³óÁ ÷áËÁÝÏ³ÉÙ³Ý ¨ Ù»ñÓ»óÙ³Ý Ûáõñ³Ñ³ïáõÏ ¹ñë¨áñáõÙ ¿, áñÇ Ñ³çáÕ Çñ³Ï³Ý³óÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ ·Çï³Ïó»É Ýñ³ µ³Õ³- ¹ñ³Ù³ë»ñÁ ¨ áã Ã» µ³ó³Ñ³Ûï»É ïíÛ³É Ùß³ÏáõÛÃÇ ã³÷³ÝÇßÝ»ñÁ (7:61-77): ´áí³Ý¹³Ï³ÛÇÝ Ýáñ µÝáõÃ³·ñ»ñ ¿ Ó»éù µ»ñáõÙ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý É»½áõÝ Ýß³Ý³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ùáï»óÙ³Ý ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó: È.². Þ»Û·³ÉÁ Çñ³- í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý É»½áõÝ Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÙ ¿ áñå»ë §Ýß³Ý³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ïÇñáõÛÃ Ó¨³íáñáÕ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ Ýß³ÝÝ»ñÇ Ï³½Ù³íáñí³Í ³Ù- µáÕç³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ¦ (9:22): ²Û¹ ³éáõÙáí Ï³ñ¨áñíáõÙ »Ý Ïñ»áÉ Ï³Ù µ³ñ¹ ï»ùëï»ñÁ: Àëï Úáõ. ². êáñáÏÇÝÇ` Ïñ»áÉ³óí³Í »Ý ³ÛÝ ï»ùëï»ñÁ, §áñáÝó ý³Ïïáõñ³Ý µ³ÕÏ³ó³Í ¿ »ñÏáõ áã Ñ³Ù³ë»é Ù³ëÇó` Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ¨ áã Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ, áñÁ å³ïÏ³ÝáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÉ Ýß³Ý³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Ù³Ï³ñ·Ç, Ç ï³ñµ»- ñáõÃÛáõÝ µÝ³Ï³Ý É»½íÇ (6:23): Ü»ñÏ³ÛáõÙë å³ïÏ»ñÝ»ñáí Ñ³Ù³Ïó- í³Í ï»ùëï»ñ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ ¿ ·ïÝ»É ß³ï ³ñ³·` Ñ³Ù³ó³ÝóÇ ÙÇçáóáí: ²Û¹ ³éáõÙáí, áõëáõóÙ³Ý ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï »Ý ³Ý·ÉÇ³óÇ Ñ³Ûï- ÝÇ Çñ³í³·»ïÝ»ñÇ ÏÛ³ÝùÇÝ áõ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³ÝÁ í»ñ³µ»ñáÕ Ïñ»áÉ, å³ïÏ»ñ³½³ñ¹ ï»ùëï»ñÁ, áñáÝù áõÕ»ÏóíáõÙ »Ý Éáõë³ÝÏ³ñÝ»ñáí, ÍÝÝ¹Û³Ý, áõëáõÙÝ³éáõÃÛ³Ý,µÝ³Ï³í³Ûñ»ñÇ, ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõÝ Í³í³É³Í ¹³ï³ñ³ÝÇ å³ïÏ»ñÝ»ñáí ¨ ³ÛÉÝ: ²Û¹åÇëÇ ï»ùëï»ñÁ û·ÝáõÙ »Ý áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇÝ Ñ³ÕÃ³Ñ³ñ»É ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ, Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ ÷áËÝ»ñ-

225 Ã³÷³ÝóáõÙ ³é³ç µ»ñáÕ ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: àõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ³Û¹åÇëÇ ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÙÇçáóáí Ûáõñ³óÝáõÙ »Ý Ã»° Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³é³ñÏ³-Ç- ñáõÛÃÝ»ñÁ, Ã»° µ³é-ÇñáõÛÃÝ»ñÁ: ØÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý áõëáõóÙ³Ý Ï³ñ¨áñ å³ÛÙ³Ý ¿ ûï³ñ³É»½áõ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ Ñ»ï ³ßË³ï³ÝùÁ: ¸ñ³ Ñ³- Ù³ñ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ ï³ñµ»ñ³Ï»É Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ ÑÇÙÝ³- Ï³Ý Å³Ýñ»ñÁ ¨ ï»ùëï»ñÝ ÁÝïñ»É Áëï ³Û¹ Å³Ýñ»ñÇ: î. ì. ²ÝÇëÇÙáí³Ý ³é³ÝÓ³óÝáõÙ ¿ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ ·ñ³- íáñ Å³Ýñ»ñÁ` ûñ»Ýë¹ñ³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï, å³ÛÙ³Ý³·Çñ, ¹³ï³Çñ³í³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³Ï³ñ·Ç Ñ»ï Ï³åí³Í ÷³ëï³ÃÕÃ»ñÁ /¹³ï³Ï³Ý áñáßáõÙ, µá- Õáù³ñÏáõÙ, ·áñÍ ¨ ³ÛÉÝ/, ýÇ½ÇÏ³Ï³Ý ¨ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³ÝÓ»ñÇ ÷³ëï³ÃÕÃ»ñÁ` íÏ³Û³Ï³Ý, ³ÝÓÝ³·Çñ, ³ñïáÝ³·ñáõÙ, Ï³ñ· ¨ ³ÛÉÝ/ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Éñ³·ñáõÃÛáõÝ, Çñ³í³Ï³Ý ¹áÏïñÇÝ³, ³ÛëÇÝùÝ` ·Çï³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï, µ³Ý³íáñ Å³Ýñ»ñ, Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáñÑñ¹³- ïíáõÃÛáõÝ, ¹³ï³Ï³Ý Ëáëù, ×³é /¹³ï³ñ³ÝáõÙ Ù»Õ³¹ñÛ³ÉÇ/÷³ëï³- µ³ÝÇ »ÉáõÛÃÁ, »ñ¹Ù³Ý µ»ñ»ÉÁ, íÏ³Ý»ñÇ Ñ³ñóáõÙÁ/, áëïÇÏ³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ñó³ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ (1:34): ²ÏÝÑ³Ûï ¿, áñ Ýßí³Í Å³Ýñ»ñáí ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ µÝáõÛÃÇ ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ »Ý å³ñáõÝ³ÏáõÙ: ÊÝ¹ÇñÝ ³ÛÝ ¿, Ã» áõëáõóÙ³Ý áñ ÷áõÉáõÙ ÇÝã Å³Ýñ»ñáí ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý Çñ³í³µ³- Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñ áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñ»É: Ð³ïÏ³å»ë ³ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï ¿ Çñ³í³- µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ Ñ»ï Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µ³é³å³ß³ñÇ áõëáõóÙ³- ÝÁ ÙÇïí³Í ³ßË³ï³ÝùÁ, ù³ÝÇ áñ ËáëáõÛÃÁ ÉÇÝ»Éáí Ñ³ñ³ß³ñÅ ¨ Çñ³¹ñ³ÛÇÝ, áõëáõóáÕ³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñáí ÏÇñ³é»ÉÇë Ýå³ëïáõÙ ¿ Ýáñ áõëáõÙÝ³Ï³Ý, åñáµÉ»Ù³ÛÇÝ Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ëï»ÕÍÙ³ÝÁ, É»½- í³ÏÇñÝ»ñÇÝ µÝáñáß Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ Çñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ï³Õ³å³ñÙ³ÝÁ: ²Û¹ ³éáõÙáí Ï³ñ»ÉÇ ¿ ³é³ÝÓÝ³óÝ»É Ø.¶. ò»ñóí³Ó»Ç Ùáï»óáõÙÁ, Áëï áñÇ` §Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý ï»ëáõÃÛ³Ý ßñç³Ý³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ ³é³ÝÓ- Ý³óÝáõÙ »Ý »ñÏáõ Ñ³Û»ó³Ï»ï` ËáëáõÛÃÇ ëï»ÕÍáõÙÁ ¨ ë»ñáõÙÁ /Ïßé³- ¹³ïáõÙ, åÉ³Ý³íáñáõÙ, Ëáë»ÉÁ, ·ñ³íáñ Ó¨³Ï»ñåáõÙÁ/, ¨ ËáëáõÛÃÁ Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³ÉÁ /áõÝÏÝ¹ñáõÙ, ·ñ³íáñ ï»ùëïÇ ÁÝÏ³ÉáõÙ, í»ñÉáõÍáõÃÛáõÝ ¨ Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ/¦ (8:13): ØÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý ÑÙïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ ½³ñ·³óÙ³Ý ï»- ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó Ï³ñ¨áñ ¿ ³ÛÝ, áñ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÁ Ý»ñ³éáõÙ ¿ Çñ³íáõÝùÇ Ñ³ëÏ³óáõÛÃÝ»ñÇ É³ÛÝ ëå»Ïïñ` ³å³óáõÛó, ³ñÅ³Ý³å³ï- íáõÃÛáõÝ, ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝ, Ñ³Ûó³¹ÇÙáõÙ, Ù»Õù, ûñ»Ýù, ½ñå³ñï³Ýù, Çñ³íáõÝù, ³ñ¹³ñ³¹³ïáõÃÛáõÝ, ³ñÅ³Ý³å³ïíáõÃÛáõÝ, íÏ³, ¹³ï, å³ïÇí, ¹³ï³í×Çé ¨ ³ÛÉÝ: È»½í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÁ, Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÇ µáí³Ý¹³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý í»ñ- ÉáõÍáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ³é³ÝÓÝ³óÝáõÙ »Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ Ñ»ï¨Û³É

226 Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñÁ` ï»Õ»Ï³ïí³Ï³Ý, í»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý, ·Ý³Ñ³ïáÕ, Ý»ñ³½- ¹áÕ, Ï³ÝË³ï»ëáÕ, áñáÝù ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïíáõÙ »Ý ÇÝãå»ë explicit, ³ÛÝå»ë ¿É implicit ÙÇçáóÝ»ñáí: Î³ñ¨áñ ¹Çï³ñÏáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ, áñ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÁ ·»ñ³Ï³ ¹Çñù ¿ ·ñ³íáõÙ Ï»Ýó³Õ³ÛÇÝ ËáëáõÛÃÇ ÝÏ³ïÙ³Ùµ: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÁ ëï»ÕÍíáõÙ ¿ ³ñ¹»Ý ·áÛáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»óáÕ ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÑÇÙ³Ý íñ³: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝïñáõÃÛ³Ý Ï³ñ¨áñ å³ÛÙ³Ý ¿ ï»ùë- ïÁ ËáëáõÛÃÇ Ù³Ï³ñ¹³ÏáõÙ ¹Çï³ñÏ»ÉÁ: ¸³ Ýß³Ý³ÏáõÙ ¿, áñ §ï»ùëï¦ Ñ³ëÏ³óáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¹Çï³ñÏíáõÙ ¿ Çñ É³ÛÝ ÇÙ³ëïáí` áñå»ë ß³ñáõÝ³Ï³µ³ñ ½³ñ·³óáÕ Ù³Ïñáï»ùëï: ²Û¹ ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó Ï³ñ¨áñ- íáõÙ »Ý Ý»Õ Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý, Çñ³í³Ï³Ý, Çñ³- í³ïÝï»ë³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÁ: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇ í»ñÉáõÍ³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ»ñó³ÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ³å³·³ Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÁ Ï³ñáÕ »Ý ÁÝ¹Ñ³Ýáõñ å³ïÏ»ñ³óáõÙ Ï³½- Ù»É Çñ³í³Ï³Ý áÉáñïáõÙ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóáõÃÛ³Ý Ù³ëÇÝ: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ·áñÍÁÝÃ³óáõÙ Ù»Í Ýß³Ý³- ÏáõÃÛáõÝ áõÝ»Ý ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÁ, ù³ÝÇ áñ Çñ³í³Ï³Ý áÉáñïÁ ÑÝ³ñ³íáñ ã¿ ³ÙµáÕç³Ï³Ý Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝ»É ³é³Ýó ¹ñ³Ýó Ñ»ï¨áÕ³Ï³Ý áõëáõÙÝ³ëÇñÙ³Ý: ò³ÝÏ³ó³Í Ñ³Ù³ÅáÕáí, ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ÝÇëï, ¹³ï³íáñÝ»ñÇ, Ñ³ßï³ñ³ñÝ»ñÇ, »ñ¹íÛ³É ³ï»Ý³Ï³ÉÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ý- ¹ÇåáõÙ å³ñáõÝ³ÏáõÙ ¿ ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý ³ñí»ëïÇ ï³ññ»ñ: ¶Çï»Ý³Éáí ¨ ï³ñµ»ñ áõëáõÙÝ³¹»ñ³ÛÇÝ íÇ×³ÏÝ»ñáõÙ Ë³Õ³ñÏ»- Éáí ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý »ÉáõÛÃÇ ï»ë³ÏÝ»ñÁ` áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ Ýáñ µ³é³å³ß³ñ »Ý Ûáõñ³óÝáõÙ, ³ÛÉ¨ ëÏëáõÙ »Ý ÑÝ³ñ³íáñÇÝë ×Çßï å³ï- Ï»ñ³óáõÙ Ï³½Ù»É É»½í³ÏÇñ Çñ³í³·»ïÝ»ñÇ, Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ Ùï³- Í»É³Ï»ñåÇ, ³½·³Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ï³ñÍñ³ïÇå»ñÇ, Ñ³Õáñ¹³Ïó³Ï³Ý É»½í³Ï³Õ³å³ñÝ»ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ (5:181-184): Àëï Ü. Î. äñÇ·³ñÇÝ³ÛÇ` ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ËáëùÇÝ µÝáñáß ¿ Ñé»ïáñÇ ¨ áõÝÏÝ¹ÇñÝ»ñÇ ÙÇç¨ Ñ»é³íáñáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³ÕÃ³Ñ³ñáõÙÁ: ¸ñ³Ý Ñ³ëÝáõÙ »Ý ¹»ñ³Ýí³Ý³Ï³Ý ÝßáõÛÃÝ»ñÇ ÏÇñ³éÙ³Ùµ (we all, together with you), Now, we all know that the killer cut his left hand because we have the blood drops to the left side of the bloody shoe prints). Ü. Î. äñÇ·³ñÇÝ³Ý óáõÛó ¿ ï³ÉÇë, áñ Ñé»ïáñ-¹³ï³Ë³½Á Ï³Ù Ù»- Õ³¹ñáÕ ÏáÕÙÁ ï³ñµ»ñ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñ ¿ ÏÇñ³éáõÙ ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ÁÝÃ³ó³Ï³ñ- ·áõÙ ï»Õ ·ï³Í Ã»Å å³Ûù³ñÁ, Ñ³Ï³¹ñíáÕ ÏáÕÙ»ñÇ Ñ³Ï³Ù³ñïáõ- ÃÛáõÝÁ óáõÛó ï³Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ: ²ÛëåÇëáí` Ñé»ïáñ-¹³ï³Ë³½Á ÏÇñ³éáõÙ ¿ å³Ûù³ñÇ ¨ ûï³ñ³óÙ³Ý ï³ñµ»ñ Ó¨»ñ` ÁÝÃ³ó³Ï³ñ·³ÛÇÝ, ÇÝë- ïÇïáõóÇáÝ³É, Ùï³íáñ, ï»ñÇïáñÇ³É-Ï³ñ·³íÇ×³Ï³ÛÇÝ: ÎáÝÏñ»ï ûñÇÝ³ÏÝ»ñÇ í»ñÉáõÍáõÃÛáõÝÁ óáõÛó ¿ ï³ÉÇë, áñ ³å³·³ Çñ³í³µ³Ý-

227 Ý»ñÁ Í³ÝáÃ³Ý³Éáí ³Ý·É³Ëáë Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇÝ, ÏÏ³ñáÕ³Ý³Ý áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³É Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛ- ÃÇ ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÁ, ³ÛÉ¨ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý»É ¨ í»ñ³ñï³¹ñ»É: êïáñ¨ ïñíáõÙ »Ý Ü. Î. äñÇ·³ñÇÝ³ÛÇ ÏáÕÙÇó ³é³ÝÓÝ³óí³Í ïÇå³- Ï³Ý ûñÇÝ³ÏÝ»ñÁ: Ü³ ³é³ÝÓÝ³óÝáõÙ ¿ å³Ûù³ñÇ ¨ ûï³ñ³óÙ³Ý Ñ»ï¨Û³É ÁÝÃ³ó³Ï³ñ·³ÛÇÝ Ó¨»ñÁ` Them versus Us — Üñ³Ýù Ù»ñ ¹»Ù »Ý: úñÇÝ³Ï` §Trial lawyers, brought in from Denver, Colorado, to represent these people against our common person, Kim Pring, who stood up to the evil empire¦: Ð»ÕÇÝ³- ÏÁ Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÙ ¿ ïíÛ³É ûñÇÝ³ÏÁ Ñ»ï¨Û³É Ï»ñå` §¹³ï³Ë³½Ç ¨ å³ßïå³ÝáÕÇ ÙÇç¨ Ù»Í ï³ñμ»ñáõÃÛáõÝ Ï³: ¸³ï³Ë³½Ç Ñ»ï¨áõÙ Éáõé, ë³éÝ áõ ³ÝÑáÕ¹áÕ¹ ûñ»ÝùÝ ¿, ÇëÏ å³ßå³ÝáÕÇ Ñ»ï¨áõÙ Ï»Ý- ¹³ÝÇ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ »Ý¦: Ð»ï³ùñùÇñ »Ý Ý³¨ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ×³ñï³ë³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÇ ËáëáõÛÃ³ëï»ÕÍ Ý»ñáõÅÇ ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó Ñ³Ý¹»ë »ÏáÕ ÇÝëïÇïáõóÇá- Ý³É ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ` VIP people versus little people — §ìÇå¦ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ Ñ³ë³ñ³Ï Ù³ñ¹- Ï³Ýó ¹»Ù: Ð»ÕÇÝ³ÏÁ Ù»ÏÝ³µ³ÝáõÙ ¿` §A great part of the case, folk, is the pain and the misery and the anger that ordinary people and I feel against big guys from big cities to judge us¦ Ý³Ë³¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ñ»ï¨Û³É Ï»ñå` §ØÛáõë ÏáÕÙÇó áõÅ»ÕÝ»ñÇÝ ãÇ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ Ù»Õ³¹ñ»É ³é³Ýó ÑÇÙùÇ¦: ä³ßïå³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëùÇ ïÇå³Ï³Ý ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÇó »Ý Ùï³íáñ ¨ ï»- ñÇïáñÇ³É-Ï³ñ·³íÇ×³Ï³ÛÇÝ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ` - Ùï³íáñ (fancy people versus common people - Ë»ÉáùÝ»ñÁ ëáíá- ñ³Ï³Ý Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó ¹»Ù. Ñ³Ù»Ù³ï»ó»ù` §...they arent proven or disproven by fancy people that come from Stanford University to tell you and me how to think or how we read.¦ - ï»ñÇïáñÇ³É-Ï³ñ·³íÇ×³Ï³ÛÇÝ (city boys versus farm boys – ù³Õ³ù³óÇÝ»ñÁ ·ÛáõÕ³µÝ³ÏÝ»ñÇ ¹»Ù. Ñ³Ù»Ù³ï»ó»ù` §Are we talking about farm boys like Eddie and me and city boys like Mr. Guccione?¦ Ø»ñ »ñÏÇñÁ µ³½Ù³ó»Õ ¿: àã µáÉáñ ³½·áõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÝ »Ý, ¹Åµ³Ëï³µ³ñ, û·ïíáõÙ ÝáõÛÝ Çñ³íáõÝùÝ»ñÇó: Üñ³ ó»ÕÁ, Ï³Ù³, Ã» ³Ï³Ù³ ù³íáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÉáó Ù»Õù»ñÁ: ä³ßïå³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëùÁ áõëáõóáÕ³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñáí ÏÇñ³é»ÉÇë, áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ Ûáõñ³óÝáõÙ »Ý É»½í³ÏÇñ Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇÝ µÝáñáß Ëáë- ù³ÛÇÝ ÑÝ³ñÝ»ñÁ, áñáÝù áã ÙÇßï »Ý Ñ³ÙÁÝÏÝáõÙ Ñ³Û»ñ»ÝÇÝ: úñÇÝ³Ï ³Ý·ÉÇ³óÇÝ»ñÁ û·ï³·áñÍáõÙ »Ý ³åñáõÙ³ÏóÙ³Ý ÑÝ³ñÁ. I greatly sympathize with...; I really feel for you...; I share in your sorrow...; I have nothing but pity in my heart for the witness...

228 Â³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ óáõÛó ¿ ï³ÉÇë, áñ Ñ³Û»ñ»ÝÇÝ µÝáñáß »Ý ÉñÇí ³ÛÉ Ëáëù³ÛÇÝ í³ñí»óáÕáõÃÛ³Ý, ½·³Û³Ï³Ý µ³é»ñ ¨ µ³é³Ï³å³Ïóáõ- ÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ: ²Ý·É³Ëáë Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÁ ×³ñï³ë³Ý»ÉÇë ·áñÍ³ÍáõÙ »Ý ï³ñµ»ñ µ³é³Ï³å³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ, áñáÝù ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝ »Ý Ý»ñÏ³Û³ó- ÝáõÙ Ý³Ë ¨ ³é³ç ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó: úñÇÝ³Ï` Not everybody, not everybody wants to live up to the law or follow the law. Not everybody thinks that the law applies to them. No one is above the law; not the police, not the rich, no one. O.J. Simpson isn’t above the law. ÐÇÙÝ³Ï³ÝáõÙ Ýñ³Ýù Ý³ËÁÝïñáõÙ »Ý ·áñÍ³Í»É áã ÙÇ³ÛÝ ËáëùÇ ëÏÇ½µÁ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝáÕ µ³é»ñ ¨ µ³é³Ï³å³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ (to commence with, opening the debates, as a primary consideration etc) ³ÛÉ ¨ ÁÝÃ³- ó³Ï³ñ·³ÛÇÝ (first, second, last etc.), Ï³Ù` Ñ³Ï³ë³Ï³Ý` (in direct contradiction,on the contrary, doubtful, illogical, ambiguous etc.), Ñ³Ï³- ¹ñ³Ï³Ý (in comparison to, although, even though, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, nevertheless etc.), í»ñ³µ»ñ³Ï³Ý (referring to, to remind, don’t forget, appealing to etc.), Éñ³ó³Ï³Ý (besides, in addition, to add etc.), - Ýå³ï³Ï³ÛÇÝ (finally, to conclude, summing up etc) ¨ ³ÛÉ µ³é»ñ ¨ Ï³å³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ: Æñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÝ áõëáõóáÕ³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³Ïáí ÁÝïñ»ÉÇë, ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Ñ³ßíÇ ³éÝ»É Ýßí³Í µ³é»ñÇ ¨ µ³é³Ï³å³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝ- Ý»ñÇ Ã³ñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý, Ûáõñ³óÙ³Ý ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³Ï- ïÇí ËáëùáõÙ ÏÇñ³é»Éáõ ÑÝ³ñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: ÆÝã í»ñ³µ»ñáõÙ ¿ µ³Ý³íáñ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇÝ, ³å³ ¹ñ³Ýù Ý»ñ³éáõÙ »Ý Ñ³ïí³ÍÝ»ñ µ³Ý³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇó, Çñ³í³µ³Ý³- Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ Ëáë³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇó, ÷³ëï³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛáõ- ÝÇó, Çñ³í³Ï³Ý ï»ùëï»ñÇó: ²Û¹åÇëÇ ËáëáõÛÃÝ»ñáõÙ ÏÇñ³éíáõÙ »Ý ÇÝãå»ë ÝßáõÃ³íáñí³Í, ³ÛÝå»ë ¿É áã ÝßáõÃ³íáñí³Í Ï³Õ³å³ñ³ÛÇÝ ¹³ñÓí³ÍÝ»ñ: ÊáëáõÛÃÁ ï³ñµ»ñ ë³ÑÙ³ÝáõÙÝ»ñ áõÝÇ: §²ÛÝ Ï³å³Ïóí³Í ï»ùëï ¿, áñÝ ³ÙµáÕç³ÝáõÙ ¿ ³ñï³É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý /·áñÍ³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý, Ñ³Ý- ñ³É»½í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ¨ Ñá·»µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáÝÝ»ñáí/ (2:136-137): àõëáõ- óáÕ³Ï³Ý Ýå³ï³ÏÝ»ñáí Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÁ ÏÇñ³é»ÉÇë, ³ÝÑ- ñ³Å»ßï ¿ µ³ó³Ñ³Ûï»É ¹ñ³ Å³Ýñ³ÛÇÝ ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: ¶ÇïÝ³Ï³ÝÝ»ñÝ ³é³ÝÓÝ³óÝáõÙ »Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃÇ ·ñ³íáñ Å³Ýñ»ñÁ` ûñ»Ýë¹ñ³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÁ, å³ÛÙ³Ý³·ÇñÁ, ¹³ï³í³- ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ»ï Ï³åí³Í ÷³ëï³ÃÕÃ»ñÁ /¹³ï³Ï³Ý áñáßáõÙ` legal authority, authority, judicial award, cognition, legal judgement, judgement, judicial decision, decree of the court, decree, court holding, holding,

229 terminer, µáÕáù³ñÏáõÙ` appeal case, petition of appeal, ¹³ï³Ï³Ý ÝÇë- ïÇ ³ñÓ³Ý³·ñáõÃÛáõÝ` court record(s), ·áñÍ` case ¨ ³ÛÉÝ/, ýÇ½ÇÏ³- Ï³Ý ¨ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³ÝÓ³Ýó ÷³ëï³ÃÕÃ»ñÁ /íÏ³Û³Ï³Ý` certificate, ³ÝÓÝ³·Çñ` passport, ³ñïáÝ³·Çñ` permit, licence, Ïï³Ï` (last) will; testament, Ï³ÝáÝ³Ï³ñ·` charter, article, (ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛ³Ý) by- laws, by-law, constitution, manual, standing orders, regulation/, Çñ³í³- µ³Ý³Ï³Ý Ññ³å³ñ³Ï³ËáëáõÃÛáõÝ` juridical journalism, Çñ³í³Ï³Ý ¹áÏïñÇÝ³` legal doctrine ¨ ·Çï³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÁ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ µ³Ý³- íáñ Å³Ýñ»ñÁ` Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáñÑñ¹³ïíáõÃÛáõÝ` legal counseling, ¹³ï³Ï³Ý Ëáëù` pleadings, Ù»Õ³¹ñáÕÇ »ÉáõÛÃÁ ¹³ï³ñ³ÝáõÙ` prosecutor’s speech in court, »ñ¹Ù³Ý µ»ñ»ÉÁ` adjuration, administration of the oath, juration ¨ íÏ³Ý»ñÇ ùÝÝáõÙ` hearing of witnesses, »ñ¹íÛ³É ¹³- ï³íáñÝ»ñÇ ·áñÍÇ Í³ÝáÃ³óáõÙ` country, lay people, fact triersdirection, ¹³ï³í×Çé` sentence, verdict, áëïÇÏ³Ý³Ï³Ý ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝ` police interrogation: ÆÝãå»ë ÝßáõÙ ¿ È. ². ´áñÇëáí³Ý, §³Ý·É»ñ»Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ËáëáõÛÃáõÙ Çñ³í³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÁ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óí³Í ¿ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ï³ñ³ï»- ë³ÏÝ»ñáí, ÇÝãåÇëÇÝ »Ý Ñá¹í³ÍÁ, Ï³ÝáÝ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ /statute/ ¨ ÉÇ³- ½áñí³Í ûñ»Ýë¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ /delegated legislation/ (3:16): Àëï ÝáõÛÝ Ñ»ÕÇÝ³ÏÇ` §Å³Ýñ»ñÇ »ÝÃ³Ñ³Ù³Ï³ñ·áõÙ Ï»ÝïñáÝ³- Ï³Ý ï»Õ ¿ ·ñ³íáõÙ Ñ³Ýñ³ÛÇÝ Ñá¹í³ÍÁ: ØÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ Ñ³Õáñ- ¹³ÏóÙ³Ý ï»ë³ÝÏÛáõÝÇó Ï³ñ¨áñíáõÙ »Ý Çñ³í³Ï³Ý Ñá¹í³ÍÝ»ñáõÙ ÏÇñ³éíáÕ ï»ñÙÇÝÝ»ñÁ ¨ Ñ³ëÏ³óáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ (3:17): Ø³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ÏáÕÙÝáñáßÙ³Ý Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ µÝ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ ï»ùëï»ñÇ ÁÝï- ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ï³ï³ñ»ÉÇë ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ Ñ³ßíÇ ³éÝ»É Ñ»ï¨Û³É ã³÷³ÝÇß- Ý»ñÁ. • µÝ³·ñ³ÛÇÝ Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ï»ùëïÁ å»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝÇ Ù³ïã»ÉÇ, Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ, ï»Õ»Ï³ïí³Ï³Ý ³éáõÙáí µ³½Ù³µÝáõÛÃ ¨ ³ñ¹Ç³- Ï³Ý, Ù³ëÝ³·Çï³Ï³Ý ³éáõÙáí µáí³Ý¹³Ï³ÉÇó, • ³ÛÝ å»ïù ¿ Çñ³Ï³Ý³óÝÇ ÏñÃ³¹³ëïÇ³ñ³Ïã³Ï³Ý ¨ ï»Õ»- Ï³ïí³Ï³Ý, ×³Ý³ãáÕ³Ï³Ý ¨ í»ñ×³Ý³ãáÕ³Ï³Ý ·áñÍ³éáõÛÃ- Ý»ñ, • ³ÛÝ å»ïù ¿ Ý»ñÏ³Û³óÝÇ ³Ý·É³Ëáë Çñ³í³µ³ÝÝ»ñÇ Ù³ëÝ³- ·Çï³Ï³Ý ·áñÍáõÝ»áõÃÛ³Ý ¨ Ï»Ýë³Ï»ñåÇ, Ï»Ýó³Õ³í³ñáõÃÛ³Ý ³é³ÝÓÝ³Ñ³ïÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, Ùß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ, Ý»ñÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ, ÙÇçÙß³ÏáõÃ³ÛÇÝ µÝáõÛÃÇ ÇñáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ, ÇÝãå»ë Ý³¨ ·áñÍ³- µ³Ý³Ï³Ý µÝáõÛÃÇ Çñ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: ²ñ¹ÛáõÝ³í»ï ¿ ÏÇñ³é»É Çñ³í³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ÑÇå»ñï»ùëï»ñÁ áñå»ë ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ áõëáõóÙ³Ý ÙÇçáó: ÆÝãå»ë Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ¿, ÑÇå»ñï»ùëï»ñÁ Ï³- éáõóí³Íù³ÛÇÝ ³éáõÙáí ·Í³ÛÇÝ ã»Ý ¨ Ý»ñ³éáõÙ »Ý Çñ³ñ Ñ»ï ãÑ³ï-

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231 ¶ð²Î²ÜàôÂÚàôÜ

1. Àíèñèìîâà, Ò.Â. (2000) Òèïîëîãèÿ æàíðîâ äåëîâîé ðå÷è: ðèòîðè÷åñêèé àñïåêò: äèñ... ä-ðà ôèëîë. íàóê: 10.02.19/ Ò.Â. Àíèñèìîâà.-Êðàñíîäàð.-417ñ. 2. Àðóòþíîâà Í. Ä. (1990) Äèñêóðñ // Ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé ýíöèêëîïåäè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü. Ì.: Ñîâåòñêàÿ ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ. Ñ. 136-137. 3. Áîðèñîâà, Ë. Àë. (2010) Êîìïîçèöèÿ è ÿçûêîâûå îñîáåí- íîñòè ñòàòóòà êàê ïîäæàíðà â àíãëîÿçû÷íîì þðèäè÷åñêîì äèñêóðñå: ê. ô. í. - 212 4. Ãàëè÷êèíà Å. Í. (2001) Ñïåöèôèêà êîìïüþòåðíîãî äèñ- êóðñà íà àíãëèéñêîì è ðóññêîì ÿçûêàõ (íà ìàòåðèàëå æàíðà êîìïüþòåðíûõ êîíôåðåíöèé) / Å. Í. Ãàëè÷êèíà // Àâòîðåô. äèñ… êàíä. ôèëîë. íàóê.- Âîëãîãðàä,- 19 ñ. 5. Ïðèãàðèíà Í.Ê. (2009) Ðèòîðè÷åñêèå ïàðàìåòðû æàíðà ñóäåáíîé ðå÷è â ïðàêòèêå ðóññêèõ è àíãëîãîâîðÿùèõ ñóäåá- íûõ îðàòîðîâ. [Òåêñò] / Í.Ê. Ïðèãàðèíà // Âåñòíèê Ìîñêîâñ- êîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáëàñòíîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà. – Ñåðèÿ “Ëèíãâèñòèêà”. – ¹ 3. – Ì.: Èçä-âî ÌÃÎÓ, 2009. – Ñ.181- 184. www.vestnik-mgou.ru/mag/2009/ling/3/st39.pdf): 6. Ñîðîêèí Þ.À., Òàðàñîâ Å.Ô. (1990) Êðåîëèçîâàííûå òåêñòû è èõ êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ ôóíêöèÿ [òåêñò] / Þ.À.Ñîðî- êèí, Å.Ô.Òàðàñîâ – Ì: Íàóêà.- 227ñ. 7. Òðîøèíà Í.Í. (2002) Ëèíãâîïðàãìàòè÷åñêèé àñïåêò ìåæ- êóëüóòðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè â èññëåäîâàíèÿõ Ðåíàòû Ðàòìàéð // ÝÐÆÅ, ñ. 61-77. 8. Öåðöâàäçå Ì. Ã. (2011) Ïðîáëåìà èçó÷åíèÿ þðèäè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà â ñîâðåìåííîé ëèíãâèñòèêå: Þðèñëèíãâèñòèêà. ¹ 11. Ñ. 163-168. 9. Øåéãàë Å. È. (2000) Ñåìèîòèêà ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà: Ìîíîãðàôèÿ / Èí-ò ÿçûêîçíàíèÿ ÐÀÍ; Âîëãîãð. ãîñ. ïåä. óí- ò. – Âîëãîãðàä: Ïåðåìåíà. – 368 ñ. 10. Øåõòìàí, Í.À. (2005) Ïîíèìàíèå ðå÷åâîãî ïðîèçâå- äåíèÿ è ãèïåðòåêñò / Í.À. Øåõòìàí.– Îðåíáóðã: Èçä-âî ÎÃÏÓ.–168 ñ.

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