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6/2/12 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Spectral theory From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In , spectral theory is an inclusive term for theories extending the eigenvector and eigenvalue theory of a single square to a much broader theory of the structure of operators in a variety of mathematical spaces.[1] It is a result of studies of linear and the solutions of systems of linear equations and their generalizations.[2] The theory is connected to that of analytic functions because the spectral properties of an are related to analytic functions of the spectral parameter.[3]

Contents

1 Mathematical background 2 Physical background 3 A definition of spectrum 4 What is spectral theory, roughly speaking? 5 Resolution of the identity 6 Resolvent operator 7 Operator equations 8 Notes 9 General references 10 See also 11 External links

Mathematical background

The name spectral theory was introduced by in his original formulation of theory, which was cast in terms of quadratic forms in infinitely many variables. The original was therefore conceived as a version of the theorem on principal axes of an ellipsoid, in an infinite-dimensional setting. The later discovery in quantum mechanics that spectral theory could explain features of atomic spectra was therefore fortuitous.

There have been three main ways to formulate spectral theory, all of which retain their usefulness. After Hilbert's initial formulation, the later development of abstract Hilbert space and the spectral theory of a single on it did very much go in parallel with the requirements of physics; particularly at the hands of von Neumann.[4] The further theory built on this to include Banach , which can be given abstractly. This development leads to the , which covers the commutative case, and further into non- commutative harmonic analysis.

The difference can be seen in making the connection with Fourier analysis. The on the real line is in one sense the spectral theory of differentiation qua . But for that to cover the phenomena one has already to deal with generalized (for example, by means of a ). On the other hand it is simple to construct a group algebra, the spectrum of which captures the Fourier transform's basic properties, and this is carried out by means of Pontryagin . en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 1/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia One can also study the spectral properties of operators on Banach spaces. For example, compact operators on Banach spaces have many spectral properties similar to that of matrices. Physical background

The background in the physics of vibrations has been explained in this way:[5]

Spectral theory is connected with the investigation of localized vibrations of a variety of different “ objects, from atoms and molecules in chemistry to obstacles in acoustic waveguides. These vibrations have frequencies, and the issue is to decide when such localized vibrations occur, and how to go about computing the frequencies. This is a very complicated problem since every object has not only a fundamental tone but also a complicated series of overtones, which vary radically from one body to another. ”

The mathematical theory is not dependent on such physical ideas on a technical level, but there are examples of mutual influence (see for example 's question Can you hear the shape of a drum?). Hilbert's adoption of the term "spectrum" has been attributed to an 1897 paper of Wilhelm Wirtinger on Hill differential equation (by Jean Dieudonné), and it was taken up by his students during the first decade of the twentieth century, among them Erhard Schmidt and Hermann Weyl. The conceptual basis for Hilbert space was developed from Hilbert's ideas by Erhard Schmidt and Frigyes Riesz.[6][7] It was almost twenty years later, when quantum mechanics was formulated in terms of the Schrödinger equation, that the connection was made to atomic spectra; a connection with the mathematical physics of vibration had been suspected before, as remarked by Henri Poincaré, but rejected for simple quantitative reasons, absent an explanation of the Balmer series.[8] The later discovery in quantum mechanics that spectral theory could explain features of atomic spectra was therefore fortuitous, rather than being an object of Hilbert's spectral theory. A definition of spectrum

Main article: Spectrum ()

Consider a bounded linear transformation T defined everywhere over a general . We form the transformation:

Here I is the identity operator and ζ is a . The inverse of an operator T, that is T −1, is defined by:

If the inverse exists, T is called regular. If it does not exist, T is called singular.

With these definitions, the resolvent of T is the set of all complex numbers ζ such that Rζ exists and is bounded. This set often is denoted as ρ(T). The spectrum of T is the set of all complex numbers ζ such that Rζ fails to exist or is unbounded. Often the spectrum of T is denoted by σ(T). The function Rζ for all ζ in ρ(T) (that is, wherever Rζ exists) is called the resolvent of T. The spectrum of T is therefore the complement of the resolvent set of T in the en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 2/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia complex plane.[9] Every eigenvalue of T belongs to σ(T), but σ(T) may contain non-eigenvalues.[10]

This definition applies to a Banach space, but of course other types of space exist as well, for example, topological vector spaces include Banach spaces, but can be more general.[11][12] On the other hand, Banach spaces include Hilbert spaces, and it is these spaces that find the greatest application and the richest theoretical results.[13] With suitable restrictions, much can be said about the structure of the spectra of transformations in a Hilbert space. In particular, for self-adjoint operators, the spectrum lies on the real line and (in general) is a spectral combination of a point spectrum of discrete eigenvalues and a continuous spectrum.[14] What is spectral theory, roughly speaking?

Main article: Spectral theorem See also: Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace

In functional analysis and the spectral theorem establishes conditions under which an operator can be expressed in simple form as a sum of simpler operators. As a full rigorous presentation is not appropriate for this article, we take an approach that avoids much of the rigor and satisfaction of a formal treatment with the aim of being more comprehensible to a non-specialist.

This topic is easiest to describe by introducing the bra-ket notation of Dirac for operators.[15][16] As an example, a very particular linear operator L might be written as a dyadic product:[17][18]

in terms of the "bra" and the "ket" . A function is described by a ket as . The function defined on the coordinates is denoted as:

and the magnitude of by:

where the notation '*' denotes a complex conjugate. This inner product choice defines a very specific inner product space, restricting the generality of the arguments that follow.[13]

The effect of upon a function is then described as:

expressing the result that the effect of on is to produce a new function multiplied by the inner product represented by .

A more general linear operator might be expressed as:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 3/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia where the are scalars and the are a basis and the a reciprocal basis for the space. The relation between the basis and the reciprocal basis is described, in part, by:

If such a formalism applies, the are eigenvalues of and the functions are eigenfunctions of . The eigenvalues are in the spectrum of .[19]

Some natural questions are: under what circumstances does this formalism work, and for what operators are expansions in series of other operators like this possible? Can any function be expressed in terms of the eigenfunctions (are they a complete set) and under what circumstances does a point spectrum or a continuous spectrum arise? How do the formalisms for infinite dimensional spaces and finite dimensional spaces differ, or do they differ? Can these ideas be extended to a broader class of spaces? Answering such questions is the realm of spectral theory and requires considerable background in functional analysis and matrix algebra. Resolution of the identity

See also: Borel #Resolution of the identity

This section continues in the rough and ready manner of the above section using the bra-ket notation, and glossing over the many important and fascinating details of a rigorous treatment.[20] A rigorous mathematical treatment may be found in various references.[21]

Using the bra-ket notation of the above section, the identity operator may be written as:

where it is supposed as above that { } are a basis and the { } a reciprocal basis for the space satisfying the relation:

This expression of the identity operation is called a representation or a resolution of the identity.[20],[21] This formal representation satisfies the basic property of the identity:

valid for every positive integer n.

Applying the resolution of the identity to any function in the space , one obtains:

[22] which is the generalized Fourier expansion of ψ in terms of the basis functions { ei }.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 4/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Given some operator equation of the form:

with h in the space, this equation can be solved in the above basis through the formal manipulations:

which converts the operator equation to a matrix equation determining the unknown coefficients cj in terms of the generalized Fourier coefficients of h and the matrix elements = of the operator O.

The role of spectral theory arises in establishing the nature and existence of the basis and the reciprocal basis. In particular, the basis might consist of the eigenfunctions of some linear operator L:

with the { λi } the eigenvalues of L from the spectrum of L. Then the resolution of the identity above provides the dyad expansion of L:

Resolvent operator

Main article: Resolvent formalism See also: Green's function and

Using spectral theory, the resolvent operator R:

can be evaluated in terms of the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of L, and the Green's function corresponding to L can be found.

Applying R to some arbitrary function in the space, say φ,

This function has poles in the complex λ-plane at each eigenvalue of L. Thus, using the calculus of residues:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 5/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

where the line integral is over a contour C that includes all the eigenvalues of L.

Suppose our functions are defined over some coordinates { xj }, that is:

[23] where the bra-kets corresponding to { xj } satisfy:

[24] and where δ (x − y) = δ (x1 − y1, x2 − y2, x3 − y3, ...) is the Dirac delta function.

Then:

The function G(x, y; λ) defined by:

is called the Green's function for operator L, and satisfies:[25]

Operator equations

See also: Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations and Integral equation

Consider the operator equation:

in terms of coordinates:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 6/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A particular case is λ = 0.

The Green's function of the previous section is:

and satisfies:

Using this Green's function property:

Then, multiplying both sides of this equation by h(z) and integrating:

which suggests the solution is:

That is, the function ψ(x) satisfying the operator equation is found if we can find the spectrum of O, and construct G, for example by using:

There are many other ways to find G, of course.[26] See the articles on Green's functions and on Fredholm integral equations. It must be kept in mind that the above mathematics is purely formal, and a rigorous treatment involves some pretty sophisticated mathematics, including a good background knowledge of functional analysis, Hilbert spaces, distributions and so forth. Consult these articles and the references for more detail. Notes

1. ^ Jean Alexandre Dieudonné (1981). History of functional analysis (http://books.google.com/books? id=mg7r4acKgq0C&printsec=frontcover) . Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-86148-3. http://books.google.com/books? id=mg7r4acKgq0C&printsec=frontcover. 2. ^ William Arveson (2002). "Chapter 1: spectral theory and Banach algebras" (http://books.google.com/books? en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 7/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia id=ARdehHGWV1QC) . A short course on spectral theory. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95300-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=ARdehHGWV1QC. 3. ^ Viktor Antonovich Sadovnichiĭ (1991). "Chapter 4: The of Hilbert space: the spectral theory of operators" (http://books.google.com/books?id=SR1QkG6OkVEC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181) . Theory of Operators. Springer. p. 181 et seq. ISBN 0-306-11028-8. http://books.google.com/books? id=SR1QkG6OkVEC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181. 4. ^ John von Neumann (1996). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics; Volume 2 in Princeton Landmarks in Mathematics series (http://books.google.com/books? id=JLyCo3RO4qUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=mathematical+foundations+of+quantum+mechanics+inauthor:von+i nauthor:neumann&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false) (Reprint of translation of original 1932 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02893-1. http://books.google.com/books? id=JLyCo3RO4qUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=mathematical+foundations+of+quantum+mechanics+inauthor:von+i nauthor:neumann&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 5. ^ E. Brian Davies, quoted on the King's College London analysis group website "Research at the analysis group" (http://www.kcl.ac.uk/schools/pse/maths/research/analysis/research.html) . http://www.kcl.ac.uk/schools/pse/maths/research/analysis/research.html. 6. ^ Nicholas Young (1988). An introduction to Hilbert space (http://books.google.com/books? id=_igwFHKwcyYC&pg=PA3) . Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-521-33717-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_igwFHKwcyYC&pg=PA3. 7. ^ Jean-Luc Dorier (2000). On the teaching of linear algebra; Vol. 23 of Mathematics education library (http://books.google.com/books? id=gqZUGMKtNuoC&pg=PA50&dq=%22thinking+geometrically+in+Hilbert%27s+%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%2 2thinking%20geometrically%20in%20Hilbert%27s%20%22&f=false) . Springer. ISBN 0-7923-6539-9. http://books.google.com/books? id=gqZUGMKtNuoC&pg=PA50&dq=%22thinking+geometrically+in+Hilbert%27s+%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%2 2thinking%20geometrically%20in%20Hilbert%27s%20%22&f=false. 8. ^ Cf. Spectra in mathematics and in physics (http://www.dm.unito.it/personalpages/capietto/Spectra.pdf) by Jean Mawhin, p.4 and pp. 10-11. 9. ^ Edgar Raymond Lorch (2003). Spectral Theory (http://books.google.com/books? id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1) (Reprint of Oxford 1962 ed.). Textbook Publishers. p. 89. ISBN 0-7581-7156-0. http://books.google.com/books? id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1. 10. ^ Nicholas Young. op. cit (http://books.google.com/books?id=_igwFHKwcyYC&pg=PA81) . p. 81. ISBN 0-521- 33717-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_igwFHKwcyYC&pg=PA81. 11. ^ Helmut H. Schaefer, Manfred P. H. Wolff (1999). Topological vector spaces (http://books.google.com/books? id=9kXY742pABoC&pg=PA36) (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 36. ISBN 0-387-98726-6. http://books.google.com/books? id=9kXY742pABoC&pg=PA36. 12. ^ Dmitriĭ Petrovich Zhelobenko (2006). Principal structures and methods of representation theory (http://books.google.com/books?id=3TkmvZktjp8C&pg=PA24) . American Mathematical Society. ISBN 0821837311. http://books.google.com/books?id=3TkmvZktjp8C&pg=PA24. 13. ^ a b Edgar Raymond Lorch (2003). "Chapter III: Hilbert Space" (http://books.google.com/books? id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1) . op. cit.. p. 57. ISBN 0-7581-7156- 0. http://books.google.com/books?id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1. 14. ^ Edgar Raymond Lorch (2003). "Chapter V: The Structure of Self-Adjoint Transformations" (http://books.google.com/books?id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1) . op. cit.. p. 106 ff. ISBN 0-7581-7156-0. http://books.google.com/books? id=X3U2AAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:spectral+intitle:theory+inauthor:Lorch&cd=1. 15. ^ Bernard Friedman (1990). Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics (http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1) (Reprint of 1956 Wiley ed.). Dover Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-486-66444-9. http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1. 16. ^ PAM Dirac (1981). The principles of quantum mechanics (http://books.google.com/books? id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA29) (4rth ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 29 ff. ISBN 0-19-852011-5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 8/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://books.google.com/books?id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA29. 17. ^ Jürgen Audretsch (2007). "Chapter 1.1.2: Linear operators on the Hilbert space" (http://books.google.com/books?id=8NxIgwAOU6IC&pg=PA5) . Entangled systems: new directions in quantum physics. Wiley-VCH. p. 5. ISBN 3-527-40684-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=8NxIgwAOU6IC&pg=PA5. 18. ^ R. A. Howland (2006). Intermediate dynamics: a linear algebraic approach (http://books.google.com/books? id=SepP8- W3M0AC&pg=PA69&dq=dyad+representation+operator&cd=32#v=onepage&q=dyad%20representation%20opera tor&f=false) (2nd ed.). Birkhäuser. p. 69 ff. ISBN 0-387-28059-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=SepP8- W3M0AC&pg=PA69&dq=dyad+representation+operator&cd=32#v=onepage&q=dyad%20representation%20opera tor&f=false. 19. ^ Bernard Friedman (1990). "Chapter 2: Spectral theory of operators" (http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1) . op. cit.. p. 57. ISBN 0- 486-66444-9. http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1. 20. ^ a b See discussion in Dirac's book referred to above, and Milan Vujičić (2008). Linear algebra thoroughly explained (http://books.google.com/books?id=pifStNLaXGkC&pg=PA274) . Springer. p. 274. ISBN 3-540-74637- 4. http://books.google.com/books?id=pifStNLaXGkC&pg=PA274. 21. ^ a b See, for example, the fundamental text of John von Neumann. op. cit (http://books.google.com/books? id=JLyCo3RO4qUC&printsec=frontcover) . ISBN 0-691-02893-1. http://books.google.com/books? id=JLyCo3RO4qUC&printsec=frontcover. and Arch W. Naylor, George R. Sell (2000). Linear in Engineering and Science; Vol. 40 of Applied mathematical science (http://books.google.com/books?id=t3SXs4- KrE0C&pg=PA401) . Springer. p. 401. ISBN 0-387-95001-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=t3SXs4- KrE0C&pg=PA401., Steven Roman (2008). Advanced linear algebra (http://books.google.com/books?id=bSyQr- wUys8C&pg=PA233) (3rd ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-387-72828-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=bSyQr- wUys8C&pg=PA233., I︠ U︡ riĭ Makarovich Berezanskiĭ (1968). Expansions in eigenfunctions of selfadjoint operators; Vol. 17 in Translations of mathematical monographs (http://books.google.com/books? id=OPPWBE3WQqkC&pg=PA317) . American Mathematical Society. ISBN 0-8218-1567-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=OPPWBE3WQqkC&pg=PA317. 22. ^ See for example, Gerald B Folland (2009). "Convergence and completeness" (http://books.google.com/books? id=idAomhpwI8MC&pg=PA77) . Fourier Analysis and its Applications (Reprint of Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole 1992 ed.). American Mathematical Society. pp. 77 ff. ISBN 0-8218-4790-2. http://books.google.com/books? id=idAomhpwI8MC&pg=PA77. 23. ^ PAM Dirac. op. cit (http://books.google.com/books?id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q=&f=false) . p. 65 ff. ISBN 0-19-852011-5. http://books.google.com/books? id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 24. ^ PAM Dirac. op. cit (http://books.google.com/books?id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=&f=false) . p. 60 ff. ISBN 0-19-852011-5. http://books.google.com/books? id=XehUpGiM6FIC&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 25. ^ Bernard Friedman. op. cit (http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1) . p. 214, Eq. 2.14. ISBN 0- 486-66444-9. http://books.google.com/books? id=gnQeAQAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:applied+intitle:mathematics+inauthor:Friedman&cd=1. 26. ^ For example, see Sadri Hassani (1999). "Chapter 20: Green's functions in one dimension" (http://books.google.com/books?id=BCMLOp6DyFIC&pg=RA1-PA553) . Mathematical physics: a modern introduction to its foundations. Springer. p. 553 et seq. ISBN 0-387-98579-4. http://books.google.com/books? id=BCMLOp6DyFIC&pg=RA1-PA553. and Qing-Hua Qin (2007). Green's function and boundary elements of multifield materials (http://books.google.com/books?id=UUfy8CcJiDkC&printsec=frontcover) . Elsevier. ISBN 0- 08-045134-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=UUfy8CcJiDkC&printsec=frontcover. General references

Edward Brian Davies (1996). Spectral Theory and Differential Operators; Volume 42 in the Cambridge en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 9/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Studies in Advanced Mathematics (http://books.google.com/books? id=EXtKuJAksSUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Spectral+intitle:Theory+intitle:and+intitle:Differential+i ntitle:Operators&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Spectral%20theory%20&f=false) . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58710-7. http://books.google.com/books? id=EXtKuJAksSUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Spectral+intitle:Theory+intitle:and+intitle:Differential+i ntitle:Operators&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Spectral%20theory%20&f=false.

Nelson Dunford; Jacob T Schwartz (1988). Linear Operators, Spectral Theory, Self Adjoint Operators in Hilbert Space (Part 2) (http://books.google.com/books? id=eOFfQQAACAAJ&dq=isbn:0471608475&cd=1) (Paperback reprint of 1967 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0- 471-60847-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=eOFfQQAACAAJ&dq=isbn:0471608475&cd=1.

Nelson Dunford; Jacob T Schwartz (1988). Linear Operators, Spectral Operators (Part 3) (http://books.google.com/books? id=B0SeJNIh3BwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0471608467&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false) (Paperback reprint of 1971 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-60846-7. http://books.google.com/books? id=B0SeJNIh3BwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:0471608467&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false.

Sadri Hassani (1999). "Chapter 4: Spectral decomposition" (http://books.google.com/books? id=BCMLOp6DyFIC&pg=RA1-PA109#v=onepage&q=&f=false) . Mathematical physics: a modern introduction to its foundations. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98579-4. http://books.google.com/books? id=BCMLOp6DyFIC&pg=RA1-PA109#v=onepage&q=&f=false.

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Spectral theory of linear operators" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=S/s086520) , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4, http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=S/s086520

Shmuel Kantorovitz (1983). Spectral Theory of Banach Space Operators;. Springer.

Arch W. Naylor, George R. Sell (2000). "Chapter 5, Part B: The Spectrum" (http://books.google.com/books?id=t3SXs4- KrE0C&pg=PA411&dq=%22resolution+of+the+identity%22&cd=8#v=onepage&q=%22resolution%20o f%20the%20identity%22&f=false) . Linear Operator Theory in Engineering and Science; Volume 40 of Applied mathematical sciences. Springer. p. 411. ISBN 0-387-95001-X. http://books.google.com/books? id=t3SXs4- KrE0C&pg=PA411&dq=%22resolution+of+the+identity%22&cd=8#v=onepage&q=%22resolution%20o f%20the%20identity%22&f=false.

Gerald Teschl (2009). Mathematical Methods in Quantum Mechanics; With Applications to Schrödinger Operators (http://www.mat.univie.ac.at/~gerald/ftp/book-schroe/) . American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-4660-5. http://www.mat.univie.ac.at/~gerald/ftp/book-schroe/. See also

Spectrum (functional analysis), Resolvent formalism, Decomposition of spectrum (functional analysis) , Spectrum of an operator, Spectral theorem Self-adjoint operator, Functions of operators, Operator theory en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory 10/11 6/2/12 Spectral theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sturm–Liouville theory, Integral equations, Compact operators, operators, Completeness Lax pairs Spectral graph theory List of functional analysis topics External links

Evans M. Harrell II (http://www.mathphysics.com/opthy/OpHistory.html) : A Short History of Operator Theory Gregory H. Moore (1995). "The axiomatization of linear algebra: 1875-1940". Historia Mathematica 22: 262–303. DOI:10.1006/hmat.1995.1025 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.1995.1025) .

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