Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2013 | 5(2): 3603–3619 Review The conservation of Accipitridae vultures of Nepal: a review Richard J. Harris ISSN 3 Burbank Crescent, Singleton, NSW, 2330, Australia Online 0974-7907 [email protected] Print 0974-7893 OPEN ACCESS Abstract: Of the nine Accipitridae vulture species found within Nepal the IUCN categorises White-rumped, Indian Vulture, Slender-billed and Red-headed Vultures as Critically Endangered and Egyptian Vulture as Endangered. Dramatic declines have occurred since the mid 1990s with the White-rumped Vulture, Indian Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture population declining by over 97%. The remaining species are listed as Near Threatened or Least Concern. Veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac has been proven to be a key threat in the region for Gyps vultures and appears likely that it may also affect other Accipitridae vultures. The drug is transferred to vultures via consumption of dead livestock carcass. Ingestion of the drug causes visceral gout and kidney failure, which leads to the birds’ death. Consumption of diclofenac and the majority of other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are fatal to individuals. Only one NSAID, meloxicam, has been tested and proven safe for vultures. There are other factors such as food shortage in local scale, habitat loss, climate change and pesticides/poisoning that play some role on population decline. Managing vulture conservation across Nepal can be problematic just as it is throughout the Indian subcontinent due to the variable level of protection afforded to vultures through legislation and enforcement in each political region particularly regarding NSAID regulation and use. However, great gains have been made on removing diclofenac from sale within the Indian subcontinent. Continuing and enhancing the holistic conservation approach between all stakeholders, government and non-government organisations, across the species range is required to conserve them for future generations. Indeed, it is likely that a number of species will become extinct if a greater conservation effort is not forthcoming in the very near future. Keywords: Diclofenac, Gyps, Nepal, NSAIDs, threatening processes, vulture. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o2816.3603-19 | ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:9B0EB522-E857-44A2-9D33-F6D79244C50F Editor: Chris Bowden, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK Date of publication: 26 February 2013 (online & print) Manuscript details: Ms # o2816 | Received 30 May 2011 | Final received 06 November 2012 | Finally accepted 07 February 2013 Citation: Harris, R.J. (2013). The conservation of Accipitridae vultures of Nepal: a review. Journal of Threatened Taxa 5(2): 3603–3619; doi:10.11609/JoTT. o2816.3603-19. Copyright: © Harris 2013. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Funding: Self funded. Competing Interest:None. Acknowledgements: I wish to thank Dr Hem Baral of Himalayan Nature, Nepal and Dr. Iain Taylor of Charles Sturt University, Australia for their invaluable guidance and advice during the process of researching and writing this manuscript. Author Details: Member, Birdlife Australia 3603 Vultures of Nepal: a review Harris Introduction Considerable aggregations can form during consumption of carcases (Gilbert et al. 2006; Jackson et al. 2008). Nepal supports nine Accipitridae vulture species (Baral Vultures are exposed to diclofenac when they feed on et al. 2003; DeCandido et al. 2012; IUCN 2012h; Subedi carcases of livestock that were dosed with the drug & DeCandido unpub.). These are Lammergeier Gypaetus shortly before death. Birds die as a result of visceral barbatus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, gout that subsequently causes kidney failure. Death White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Indian Vulture usually occurs within a few days of exposure (Green et G. indicus) (recent visitor), Slender-billed Vulture G. al. 2004; Oaks et al. 2004; Swan et al. 2006). tenuirostris, Himalayan Vulture G. himalayensis, Griffon The use of NSAIDs along with other threats introduced Vulture G. fulvus (a passage migrant), Cinereous Vulture by humans continues to impact on population viability Aegypius monachus (a winter visitor) and Red-headed of many vulture species. Vultures play a key role in the Vulture Sarcogyps calvus. Taxonomy and nomenclature wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services follow BirdLife International (2011). (Sekercioglu 2006; Olea & Mateo-Tomás 2009), and Three Gyps species, White-rumped Vulture, Indian were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose off Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture, and one Sarcogyps animal and human remains in India, Nepal and Tibet species, Red-headed Vulture, are found across the Indian (Rahmani 2004; IUCN 2012c). This review outlines subcontinent and are in grave danger of extinction. The distribution, population status and principal threats to three Gyps species have rapidly declined by more than Accipitridae vultures that are resident within, or migrate 97% since the mid 1990s (Gilbert et al. 2002; Cuthbert to Nepal, with emphasis on human induced impacts et al. 2006; Baral & Gautam 2007; Arshad et al. 2009). on individuals and populations. I also outline current Recent data suggests that Red-headed Vultures are likely conservation efforts in Nepal, some of which I observed to decline by at least 90% by end 2016 (Cuthbert et al. during November-December 2010. 2006). The IUCN has classified these four vulture species as Critically Endangered (IUCN, 2012c,f,g,j). Population Study Area of Egyptian Vulture (Cuthbert et al. 2006) and Himalayan Nepal is located between two of the world’s most Vulture (Acharya et al. 2009) is also declining. Little is highly populated countries, China to the north and India known about the population trends of other vulture to the south, east and west. It is located between 26020’– species. 30026’N & 80015’–88010’E. The majority of Nepal lies Wild ungulates are not a large part of the diet of in central Himalaya and covers an area of 147,181km2 these species in Nepal. Their diet consists mainly of averaging 870km from east to west with a population of domestic livestock (Baral 2010). Population declines approximately 30 million people (Government of Nepal were first noticed in India in the early 1990s (Satheeson 2010; RAOnline 2010b). 1999), while the linking of the deaths to the veterinary use of the NSAID diclofenac did not occur until 2003 Topography (Oaks et al. 2004; Shultz et al. 2004). Between 2000– Nepal is generally divided into five broad 2003 Oaks et al. (2004) studied the high adult and biogeographic regions (Fig. 1). These are the Terai subadult mortality resultant of renal failure and visceral <750m, Siwaliks 700–1,500 m, Middle Mountains 1,500– gout. Their study revealed a direct correlation between 2,700 m, High Mountains 2,200–4,000 m, and High renal failure, visceral gout and the diclofenac residue Himalaya 4,000–8,000 m. Eight of the highest peaks in presence in the kidney or liver. Diclofenac is commonly the world and the world’s deepest gorge (5,791m) in used to treat pain and inflammation in livestock in India, the Kali Gandaki Valley, are located in this region. The Pakistan and Nepal (Green et al. 2004; Oaks et al. 2004; snowline varies from 5,000m in the east to 4,000m in Shultz et al. 2004). Controlled experiments confirmed the west (RAOnline 2010b). All five bioregions parallel the contributory relationship of diclofenac poisoning on each other, from east to west, as continuous ecological both captive Asian and African White-backed Vultures belts, occasionally bisected by the country’s river systems (Oaks et al. 2004; Swan et al. 2006). Vultures are carrion (RAOnline 2010c). feeders consuming both fresh and putrid dead animals. Abbreviations: BCN - Bird Conservation Nepal; DDT - Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; DFZ - Diclofenac Free Zone; GIS - Geographic Information System; IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature; NGOs - Non-government Organisations; NSAIDs - Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs; SAVE - Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction; VDC - Village Development Committee; VSZ - Vulture Safe Zone. 3604 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2013 | 5(2): 3603–3619 Vultures of Nepal: a review Harris Figure 1. Biogeographic regions of Nepal. Adapted from (RAOnline, 2010c) Climate Conservation StatuS OF Nepal’S VulTures Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate with five identified climatic zones (Table 1) based on altitude There has been a catastrophic decline in the (Savada 1991; Vetaas & Grytnes 2002). The significant populations of three Gyps species in the Indian differences in climatic conditions are principally subcontinent, White-rumped Vulture, Indian Vulture correlated with the enormous variation in altitude from and Slender-billed Vulture (Table 2) (Gilbert et al. 2002; the south to the north of the country (Savada 1991; Prakash et al. 2003). Red-headed Vulture has also RAOnline 2010a). suffered catastrophic declines in the Indian subcontinent including Nepal (Cuthbert et al. 2006) believed to be primarily due to diclofenac poisoning (Green et al. 2004; Meteyer et al. 2005; Cuthbert et al. 2006; Swan et al. 2006; Cuthbert et al. 2007; Naidoo & Swan 2009). This Table 1. Climatic