DOCSLIB.ORG

Informing an Effective Response to Climate Change

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Informing an Effective Response to Climate Change Informing an Effective Response to Climate Change Demand for information to support climate-related decisions has grown rapidly as people, organizations, and governments have moved ahead with plans and actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Today, however, the nation lacks comprehensive, robust, and credible information systems to inform climate choices and evaluate their effectiveness. This report examines information needs and recommends ways the federal government can better inform responses by enhancing climate change and greenhouse gas information and reporting systems and by improving climate communication and education. cross the nation, people, state, and local policies that businesses, organiza- has prompted many state and Ations, and governments business leaders to call for the are making decisions in development of a more predict- response to climate change. As able and coherent policy of June 2010, twenty-three environment at the federal states have established targets level. This report, part of the for reducing greenhouse gas congressionally requested emissions. A number of major America’s Climate Choices cities, including Los Angeles suite of studies, identifies the and New York, have also types of decisions that need to announced strong emission be made about climate change reduction plans. Private compa- and assesses the information nies are taking significant and reporting systems needed steps to reduce their carbon SOURCE: USDA, photo by Scott Bauer to both inform and evaluate footprints and pursue new responses. low-carbon markets. Citizens are making decisions about whether to make their homes Framework for Measuring Progress and transportation modes more energy effi- Although the many non-federal efforts to cient, and also whether to support climate and reduce emissions and/or adapt to future energy policies. climate changes carry considerable potential Similarly, plans to adapt to the impacts of to reduce risks related to climate change, there climate change are also underway. Municipal is currently no comprehensive way to assess managers and resource managers are among the effectiveness of those efforts. Even the those on the front lines, considering how a federal response is difficult to evaluate as range of potential climate impacts might affect there is no clear, accessible, and coordinated the resources, infrastructure, and people they roadmap on federal responsibilities and protect and manage. Alaskans face imminent policies. In addition, the number of agencies adaptation choices as some villages threatened beginning to respond to climate change has by sea-level rise and other consequences of expanded far beyond the core research func- climate change consider relocating. Industries tions of the U.S. Global Change Research that will be affected by climate change—for program to include agencies such as those example, insurance and agriculture—are with responsibility for infrastructure, security, assessing potential effects on operations, and housing. The federal government should supply chains, and products. learn from the different approaches to climate The diverse climate change responses to related decision-making used by other levels date have resulted in a patchwork of regional, of government and the private sector, and avoid unnecessarily preempting effective measures revised in light of new information and experience; already taken. information and reporting systems allow for ongoing To provide a policy framework that promotes evaluation of responses to climate risks. The report effective responses at all levels of American recommends that decision makers implement an society, the federal government should build on its iterative risk management strategy to manage existing efforts and establish clear federal leader- climate decisions. Federal agencies should review ship, responsibility, and coordination for climate and revise risk insurance programs; private firms related decisions, information systems, and should consider climate change risk disclosure. services. This could include aggregating and disseminating “best practices” through a web-based Systems and Services to Support clearinghouse, and creating ongoing assessments to Decision Making enable regular exchange of information. There is a growing demand for better informa- tion on climate change. Some of this demand is the Need for Adaptive Management result of new regulatory or reporting structures, such Because many climate-related decisions must as state and regional greenhouse gas trading schemes address and incorporate uncertainty and the expec- or EPA requirements. In addition, there is increasing tation of surprises, decision makers need to assess concern that climate change may already be affecting the level of acceptable risk, much as they do with local water resources, ecosystems, and health. other personal or business decisions, such as saving To meet this demand, good information systems for retirement, buying insurance, investing in and services are needed. Without such systems, infrastructure, or launching new products. Most decision makers cannot evaluate whether particular people recognize the need to act despite uncertainty. policies and actions are achieving their goals or Decision makers can benefit from a systematic and should be modified. Unfortunately, dissemination of iterative framework for responding to climate climate information is often inadequate. This report change, in which decisions and policies can be emphasizes that information should be tailored to user needs, provided at space and timescales to support decision-making, communicated clearly, Box 1. Examples of Climate Information Needs and accompanied by decision support tools that Hydroelectric dam managers allow exploration of alternative pathways. • Impacts of climate change on traditional planning Climate Services parameters, for example, the “100-year flood” • Impacts of projected changes in temperature and Decision makers are now expecting and precipitation on local watersheds demanding up-to-date and reliable climate informa- tion to integrate into management decisions, such as Fisheries managers those listed in Box 1. Climate services should provide • Impacts of modest changes or shifts in climate conditions on fisheries resources and productivity the essential information on climate conditions, variability, and change needed for effective decision • Impacts of climate change in conjunction with other environmental stressors making. Various forms of climate services are already planned or provided by federal agencies, including U.S. Navy climate service and outreach programs at NOAA, • Ongoing and rapid changes in the Arctic region DOI and USDA, as well as information provided by • Higher spatial and temporal resolution of climate private consultants and state climatologists. information In order to meet National needs for state-of-the- Transportation managers art information on climate change, its impacts, and • Linkages between sea level rise and erosion, response options, a coordinated system of climate flooding, and damage to infrastructure, to support services is needed. Core elements of such a service 10 to 30 year planning efforts are outlined in Box 2. In the panel’s judgment, no Businesses single government agency or centralized unit can • Effects of climate change on risk disclosure; perform all the functions required; a system that product supply chain involves multiple agencies and regional expertise is Public Health Officials needed. Aligning the roles of federal agencies for successful climate services will require very clear • Long-term climate impacts on major disease vectors, air quality, and extreme weather forecasts. leadership at the highest level of government and ongoing evaluation. energy use. Those tools, coupled with incentives, can Box 2. Summary of Core Climate Service Functions foster changes in behavior. The federal government 1. A user-centered focus that responds to the decision should review and promote credible and easily making needs of government and other actors at understood standards and labels for energy effi- national, regional, and local scales; ciency and carbon/greenhouse gas information. 2. Research on user needs, response options, effective Information about the International Context information delivery mechanisms, and processes for sustained interaction with multiple stakeholders; The world is connected by the flow of goods, 3. Enhanced observations and analyses designed materials, food products, and more. Climate-related specifically to provide timely, credible, authoritative, information from other countries is essential to U.S. and regionally useful information on climate change climate choices for reasons that include: 1) the and vulnerability, and effectiveness of responses; economic and market couplings of the U.S. with the 4. Trustworthy and timely climate modeling to support rest of the world; 2) shared water and other natural federal decision making about limiting emissions resources; 3) disease spread and human health; 4) and adaptation; humanitarian relief efforts; and 5) human and 5. A central and accessible web portal of information national security. For example, many U.S. farmers’ that includes a system for sharing response strategies incomes are sensitive to climate impacts on export and access to decision support tools; markets. The federal government should support 6. Capacity building and training for linking knowledge the
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Beyond Storms & Droughts
    BEYOND STORMS & DROUGHTS: The Psychological Impacts of Climate Change JUNE 2014 2 Beyond Storms & Droughts: The Psychological Impacts of Climate Change ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors Susan Clayton Whitmore-Williams Professor of Psychology College of Wooster Christie Manning Visiting Assistant Professor, Environmental Studies Macalester College Caroline Hodge Associate Manager, Communications & Research ecoAmerica Reviewers ecoAmerica & the American Psychological Association thank the following reviewers who provided valuable feedback on drafts of this report: Elke Weber, Janet Swim, & Sascha Petersen. Partners The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA's membership includes more than 130,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowl- edge to benefit society and improve people's lives. ecoAmerica grows the base of popular support for climate solutions in America with research-driven marketing, partnerships, and national programs that connect with Americans' core values to shift personal and civic choices and behaviors. MomentUs is ecoAmerica's newest initiative. MomentUs is a strategic organizing initiative designed to build a critical mass of institutional leadership, public support, political will, and collective action for climate solutions in the United States. MomentUs is working to develop and support a network of trusted leaders and institutions who will lead by example and engage their stakeholders to do the same, leading to a shift in society that will put America on an irrefutable path to a clean energy, ultimately leading toward a more sustainable and just future.
    [Show full text]
  • Let's Talk Health & Climate
    LET’S TALK HEALTH & CLIMATE COMMUNICATION GUIDANCE FOR HEALTH PROFESSIONALS building climate leadership 2 Let’s Talk Health & Climate: Communication Guidance for Health Professionals ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THIS GUIDE IS BROUGHT TO YOU BY AUTHORS ABOUT THIS GUIDE Kirra Krygsman Let’s Talk Health and Climate: Communication Guidance for Health Meighen Speiser Professionals is designed to be useful for experienced and novice climate change and health communicators alike. This guide synthesizes the latest academic research and message testing on CONTRIBUTORS climate communications from across the social sciences into a Cyndy Merse practical guide to support meaningful discussion of climate change and health with individuals and groups. More than 20 Sabine Marx sources went into this project. Jennifer Tabola REVIEWERS SPECIAL THANKS Laura Anderko, PhD, RN, Professor and Endowed Chair, ecoAmerica is grateful to Georgetown University the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for David T. Dyjack, DrPH, CIH, Executive Director, National its generous support. Environmental Health Association We would also like to Howard Frumkin, MD, DrPH, Dean, University of Washington extend our thanks to the School of Public Health entire Climate for Health Leadership Circle for their Tracy Kolian, MPH contribution to the work of Jay Lemery, MD, Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine, engaging their peers and the University of Colorado School of Medicine public to elevate climate solutions as a health priority. Frank Loy, Former Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs Edward Maibach, MPH, PhD, Director, Center for Climate Change, Communication George Mason University Leyla Erk McCurdy, PHD Phil., Consultant, Health and Environment Jerome A. Paulson, MD, FAAP Mona Sarfaty, MD, MPH, Director, Climate and Health Program, George Mason University, Center for Climate Change Comm.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Change Communication Guide
    1 e Contents Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose and Goal .............................................................................................................................. 2 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Who Can Use This Guide? ................................................................................................................ 3 Who Does Caltrans Communicate With? ..................................................................................... 4 How to Use This Guide ....................................................................................................................... 5 Best Practices for Communicating with Caltrans Staff and Partners ...................................... 6 Clearly define your goals. ............................................................................................................. 6 Develop and align your messages with your goals. ............................................................... 6 Be consistent with your message. ............................................................................................... 7 Understand your unique audiences. .......................................................................................... 8 Conduct frequent, two-way engagement. ............................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Toward an Effective Pedagogy of Climate Change: Lessons from a Physics Classroom
    Toward an Effective Pedagogy of Climate Change: Lessons from a Physics Classroom Vandana Singh, Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, Framingham State University Introduction The crisis of climate change has been widely recognized by international organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the World Economic Forum (IPCC, 2014; WEF Global Risks Report, 2017), as a significant threat to humankind and the biosphere, with some impacts already being felt and likely to worsen (IPCC 2014, 2018) in ways that we may not be able to entirely predict (Lenton et al., 2008b). Additionally, climate change has been described (Levy & Patz, 2015; Weston, 2008) as a multifaceted justice issue, including intergenerational justice, since it disproportionately affects those who have contributed least to the creation of the problem, such as people of color, the economically disadvantaged, indigenous people, the rural poor, especially in the Global South, immigrants, including ‘climate refugees,’ and the young. Young people, despite not having lived long enough to contribute significantly to climate change, are expected to bear a disproportionate share of the consequences, especially if they also belong to marginalized groups. Unfortunately their education in high school and college is unlikely to have prepared them for the changes that are underway, in part because of systemic roadblocks in mainstream education (Kwauk, C., 2020). If climate change is offered at all, it is either through specialized optional courses, or presented in various courses in a disjointed or piecemeal fashion, and, additionally, there is lack of adequate teacher training on the pedagogy of climate change (Plutzer et al., 2016).
    [Show full text]
  • Communicating CC
    Knowledge Building Series: Communicating Climate Change Part 2 of 3 2011 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY REGION 8 Part 2 of the Climate Change Knowledge Building Series includes tips for communicating climate change to others. Understanding climate change can be a challenge because it is complex and technical, but not intuitive. Because climate change is a global phenomenon, people may not necessarily see changes where they live. The key is to learn how to communicate this complex issue to various stakeholders in ways that are understandable and translate into action. First, you must know your audience. Knowing Your Audience Regardless of your audience, you might start by explaining basic terminol- ogy like climate change, global warming, greenhouse gases and the Green- house Gas Effect, as well as the difference between weather and climate. These terms are often used interchangeably and incorrectly when talking about climate change. Part 1 of this series, “Climate Change 101” includes some definitions and there are other good resources listed on the last page. Sample Messages Elementary & Middle School Students: Climate change may be a big problem, but there are many little things we can do to make a difference. High School, College Students and Adults: Many greenhouse gases come from things we do everyday, like drive cars and use electricity. These things are not wrong, we just have to be smart about it and take actions to offset our emissions of carbon dioxide. Community Leaders: You can show leadership by doing a greenhouse gas inventory, developing a climate change action plan, and considering how your community can adapt to a changing climate.
    [Show full text]
  • Arctic Climate Connections Curriculum: a Model for Bringing Authentic Data Into the Classroom Anne U
    JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 63, 185–197 (2015) Arctic Climate Connections Curriculum: A Model for Bringing Authentic Data Into the Classroom Anne U. Gold,1,a Karin Kirk,2 Deb Morrison,3 Susan Lynds,1 Susan Buhr Sullivan,1 Andrey Grachev,1,4 and Ola Persson1,4 ABSTRACT Science education can build a bridge between research carried out by scientists and relevant learning opportunities for students. The Broader Impact requirements for scientists by funding agencies facilitate this connection. We propose and test a model curriculum development process in which scientists, curriculum developers, and classroom educators work together to scaffold the use of authentic, unprocessed scientific data for high school students. We outline a three-module curriculum structure that facilitates these goals. This curriculum engages students in the collection, description, visualization, and interpretation of data; develops understanding of the nature of science; includes prompts to develop higher-order thinking skills; builds knowledge of regional relevance of climate change in students; uses active learning techniques; and can be easily integrated with the Next Generation Science Standards. The curriculum was reviewed and tested in the classroom. To shed further light on the curriculum development process, we gathered reflection data from the scientists, curriculum developers, and educators. Scientists appreciated the collaborative process in which they contributed their expertise without requiring a large time commitment or strong expertise in science education. The curriculum developers viewed the modular structure as helpful in breaking complicated scientific concepts into teachable steps. Classroom educators appreciated the detailed description and step-by-step instructions to navigate data analysis tools like Excel or Google Earth.
    [Show full text]
  • Communicating Environmental and Sustainability Science
    Communicating Environmental and Sustainability Science Challenges, opportunities, and the changing political context C L I M A T E outreach A Knowledge Report for Mistra formerly COIN Climate Outreach Climate Outreach is Europe's leading specialist in climate change communication, bridging the gap between research and practice. Our charity is focused on building cross-societal acceptance of the need to tackle climate change. We have over 12 years of experience helping organisations communicate about climate change in ways that resonate with the values, sense of identity and worldview of their audiences. We work with a wide range of partners including central, regional and local governments, charities, business, faith organisations and youth groups. The Old Music Hall, 106-108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JE, UK +44 (0) 1865 403 334 @ClimateOutreach @ [email protected] f Climate Outreach www.climateoutreach.org in Climate Outreach Project team Authors Dr Adam Corner, Research Director, Climate Outreach Dr Chris Shaw, Senior Researcher, Climate Outreach Jamie Clarke, Executive Director, Climate Outreach Editing & Production Anna Stone, Research Coordinator, Climate Outreach Léane de Laigue, Head of Communications, Climate Outreach Elise de Laigue, Designer, Explore Communications - www.explorecommunications.ca Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the support and input of Kjell Asplund, Maria Gunther, Brigitte Nerlich, Matthew Nisbet, Robert Watt and Victoria Wibeck. This report was commissioned by Mistra ahead of a possible research initiative on Science Communication. It was written by Dr Adam Corner, Dr Chris Shaw and Jamie Clarke, who are responsible for the content. Cite as: Corner, A., Shaw, C. and Clarke, J. (2017). Communicating Environmental and Sustainability Science - Challenges, opportunities, and the changing political context.
    [Show full text]
  • The Challenge of Communicating Unwelcome Climate Messages
    The challenge of communicating unwelcome climate messages Dr Tim Rayner & Mr Asher Minns November 2015 Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research Working Paper 162 The challenge of communicating unwelcome climate messages The Tyndall Centre, University of East Anglia Tim Rayner - University of East Anglia [email protected] Asher Minns - University of East Anglia [email protected] Tyndall Working Paper 162, November 2015 Please note that Tyndall working papers are "work in progress". Whilst they are commented on by Tyndall researchers, they have not been subject to a full peer review. The accuracy of this work and the conclusions reached are the responsibility of the author(s) alone and not the Tyndall Centre. Tyndall Working Paper The Challenge of Communicating Unwelcome Climate Messages Tim Rayner Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia Asher Minns Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia Contents Preface .................................................................................................................................................... 2 Executive summary ................................................................................................................................. 3 1. Introduction: What unwelcome messages do we have to convey? ................................................... 4 2. To which ‘audiences’ are these unwelcome messages most relevant? ............................................. 7 3. The risks and opportunities of communicating
    [Show full text]
  • Emissions Reductions Needed to Stabilize Climate
    Questions and Answers Emissions Reductions Needed to Stabilize Climate by Susan Joy Hassol, for the Presidential Climate Action Project 1. How much can the atmosphere's temperature rise from its current level before we cross the threshold into dangerous climate change? What exactly constitutes “dangerous human interference with the climate system” is somewhat subject to interpretation. Many analysts think we have already crossed into “dangerous” territory and that what we must now seek to avoid is truly catastrophic climate change. The European Union and many scientific bodies have concluded that avoiding the most severe outcomes will require keeping the total global average warming to no more than 2ºC/3.5ºF relative to pre-industrial levels (about 1.1Cº/2ºF above present levels). While remaining below this threshold does not guarantee avoidance of significant adverse impacts, if we exceed it, impacts are projected to become much more severe, widespread, and irreversible, and we are likely to cross more dangerous thresholds in the climate system that could trigger large-scale catastrophic events. Some have suggested (Hansen et al., 2006) that principal criteria for defining “dangerous” should include sea level rise and extinction of species, as these are effects that could not be reversed on timescales relevant to humanity. Also note that a global average rise of 2ºC/3.5ºF means that the center of large continents, including North America, will see temperature increases about twice this large, with even larger increases in the Polar Regions. For further details, see IPCC 2007, Working Groups 1 and 2 reports. 2. What limits must be put on atmospheric concentrations of CO2 (and CO2e) to stay below that temperature? 1 To have a good chance (not a guarantee) of avoiding temperatures above those levels, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide would need to peak below about 400 to 450 ppm and stabilize in the long-term at around today’s levels.
    [Show full text]
  • Strategies for Communicating Climate Change to Extension Audiences AUTHORED BY: CLAIRE NEEDHAM BODE, MARTHA C
    WWW.PINEMAP.ORG Strategies for Communicating Climate Change to Extension Audiences AUTHORED BY: CLAIRE NEEDHAM BODE, MARTHA C. MONROE, MARK MEGALOS This fact sheet is in the second in a series on climate change communication. The first, “Challenges in Communicating Climate Change to Extension Audiences,” outlines four areas of communication challenges. This fact sheet provides strategies in response to each of the four challenges presented in factsheet 1. Mapping the future of southern pine about the scientific consensus on human- management in a caused climate change. changing world Clearly and simply communicate that 97% of climate scientists are convinced that human-caused climate change is happening.1 Most Americans are not aware that the vast majority of climate scientists agree about climate change and its causes.2 Correcting this misperception can have CHALLENGE #1: CLIMATE CHANGE significant impact: those who recognize it IS COMPLEX, UNCERTAIN, AND are much more likely to agree that climate VARIABLE. change is happening, will impact their lives, and that there is still time to take action. Climate change is complicated, hard (Maibach et al., 2014; Kotcher et al., 2014). to simplify, and uncertain, yet likely Consider using analogies and framing to manifest in all facets of community climate change agreement in terms of risk life. Planning and zoning, agriculture, management: “If 97% of physicians agreed transportation, and public health are on a diagnosis, would you search for further impacted by climatic change. Yet active evidence?” Or, “If 97% of engineers agreed campaigns by groups with a financial that a bridge was structurally unsound, interest in fossil fuels (McCright and would you seek another opinion?” (van der Dunlap) have led to wide-spread Linden et.
    [Show full text]
  • CONNECTING on CLIMATE: a Guide to Effective Climate Change Communication
    CONNECTING ON CLIMATE: A Guide to Effective Climate Change Communication start with people Connecting on Climate: A Guide to Effective Climate Change Communication CONTENTS Foreword: A Context For Climate 1 Highlight the benefits of taking action 24 Change Communication Align solutions with your audience's 24 Using This Guide to Unlock Success 2 values and priorities in Climate Change Communication Scale from local to global solutions 25 THE BASICS: PUTTING PEOPLE FIRST 5 Put technological solutions 25 1. Put Yourself in Your 6 in context Audience’s Shoes TIPS: Emphasize solutions 28 Identify how values shape climate 6 and benefits engagement 4. Bring Climate Impacts 29 Align climate messages with your 7 Close To Home audience’s worldviews Focus on local impacts 29 Understand how identity shapes 9 climate engagement Highlight personal experience 31 Appeal to people’s desire to be 11 Pair impacts with solutions to 32 “good people” avoid emotional numbing TIPS: Put yourself in your 15 Focus on the “what,” not the “when” 32 audience’s shoes Be sensitive to recent losses and 33 2. Channel the Power of Groups 16 “near misses” How people think and behave 16 TIPS: Bring climate impacts 34 differently in groups close to home Mobilize social groups and 17 5. Connect Climate Change 35 networks to Issues That Matter to TIPS: Channel the power of groups 20 Your Audience CRAFTING YOUR MESSAGE: 21 Connect climate change to the 35 SOLUTIONS, IMPACTS, FRAMING, issues that matter to your audience AND IMAGERY using content frames 3. Emphasize Solutions and Benefits 22 Provide a coherent narrative: 35 Lead with solutions to boost 22 match audience priorities with engagement structure frames Show your audience members how 23 TIPS: Connect climate change to 40 they can become part of the solution issues that matter to your audience CRED | ecoAmerica 6.
    [Show full text]
  • A Large-Scale Bibliometric Analysis of Global Climate Change Research Between
    A large-scale bibliometric analysis of global climate change research between 2001 and 2018 Hui-Zhen Fu1*, Ludo Waltman2 1 Department of Information Resources Management, School of Public Affairs, Zhejiang University, No. 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China 2 Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8249-1752 *Author to whom correspondence should be addressed E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Global climate change is attracting widespread scientific, political, and public attention owing to the involvement of international initiatives such as the Paris Agreement and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. We present a large-scale bibliometric analysis based on approximately 120,000 climate change publications between 2001 and 2018 to examine how climate change is studied in scientific research. Our analysis provides an overview of scientific knowledge, shifts of research hotspots, global geographical distribution of research, and focus of individual countries. In our analysis, we identify five key fields in climate change research: physical sciences, paleoclimatology, climate-change ecology, climate technology, and climate policy. We draw the following key conclusions: (1) Over the investigated time period, the focus of climate change research has shifted from understanding the climate system toward climate technologies and policies, such as efficient energy use and legislation. (2) There is an imbalance in scientific production between developed and developing countries. (3) Geography, national demands, and national strategies have been important drivers that influence the research interests and concerns of researchers in different countries. Our study can be used by researchers and policy makers to reflect on the directions in which climate change research is developing and discuss priorities for future research.
    [Show full text]