Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu: a Case Study
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Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu: A Case Study Phil Lagace A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN RELIGION AND CULTURE at the UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN 2016 © Copyright Philip Lagace, April 2016, All Rights Reserved Permission to Use The following Permission to Use statement comes from the CGSR: In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. Requests for permission to copy of to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Linguistics and Religious Studies University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan [S7N 5A5] Canada OR Dean College of Graduate Studies and Research University of Saskatchewan 107 Administration Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A2 Canada i Abstract There has been a persistent tendency in the study of religion to emphasize its textual and historical elements, at the expense of ritual, practice, and custom. This trend is evident in the available academic works concerning the androgynous Hindu deity, Ardhanārīśvara. Scholarship largely overlooks Ardhanārīśvara in living context, including information about dedicated sites of worship. To attend to this gap, this project explores Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu, as it is home to a hilltop temple wherein Ardhanārīśvara is the presiding deity. An analysis of my fieldwork observations and impressions yields two types of contributions. The first relates to areas of previous scholastic focus; new information is provided on Ardhanārīśvara iconography, mythological narratives, and regarding interpretations of the figure. The second type of contribution involves unexplored content, including information on the aforementioned site of worship and the place of Ardhanārīśvara in ritual within this context. Additionally, the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of this thesis stress understanding observable phenomena as dynamic. This led to astute observations regarding Ardhanārīśvara that also go delineated. These provisions reaffirm the significance of those areas identified as overlooked in the study of religion and provide a more robust treatment of the figure. ii Acknowledgements I am immensely grateful to my supervising professor, Dr. Braj Sinha, whose insights have greatly assisted this project and my life in general. I am also very thankful to my committee members, Dr. George Keyworth, Dr. Lisa Vargo, and Susan Shantz, whose support and feedback helped this thesis come to fruition. A special thanks also goes to the graduate chair, Dr. Mary Ann Beavis, for her involvement throughout my program. iii Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my parents: to my father for introducing me to India and for his work ethic and sense of adventure, and to my mother for her sense of compassion. iv Note For all non-English terms I provide Romanization, with diacritics, in italics. v Table of Contents Permission to Use: i Abstract: ii Acknowledgements: iii Dedication: iv Note: v Table of Contents: vi Introduction: 1 Chapter One: Contextualizing Ardhanārīśvara: 6 1.1 Introduction: 6 1.2 Modern Misconceptions of Hinduism: 7 1.2.1 Orientalism and the Emergence of the Modern Conception of Hinduism: 7 1.2.2 The World Religions Paradigm: 11 1.2.3 Approaching Hinduism: 12 1.2.4 Approaching Hinduism in the Context of Religion: 14 1.3 Contemporary Approaches to Hinduism: 16 1.3.1 Textual Approach: 16 1.3.2 Philosophical and Theological Approaches: 17 1.3.3 Historical Approach: 18 1.3.4 Archaeological Approach: 19 1.3.5 Art Historical and Visual Approaches: 20 1.3.6 Anthropological Approaches: 21 1.3.7 Interdisciplinary Approach: 22 1.4 Concepts Relating to Fieldwork: 23 1.4.1 The Concept of Power: 23 1.4.2 The Concept of Experience: 25 1.4.3 My Relative Position: 27 1.5 Approach to Fieldwork: 29 1.5.1 Rationale for Fieldwork: 29 1.5.2 Fieldwork and the Dynamism of Observable Phenomena: 30 1.5.3 Fieldwork and Experience: 32 1.5.4 Participant Observation: 32 vi Chapter Two: Ardhanārīśvara in Contemporary Scholarship: A Literature Review: 34 2.1 Introduction: 34 2.2 Introduction to Ardhanārīśvara: 34 2.2.1 Conceptual Antecedents: 35 2.2.2 Origins and History of the Ardhanārīśvara image: 37 2.2.3 Ardhanārīśvara Iconography: 38 2.3 Iconographic Features of the Male Half of Ardhanārīśvara: 39 2.3.1 Iconographic Features of the Female Half of Ardhanārīśvara: 41 2.3.2 Iconographic Features Shared by Male and Female Halves of Ardhanārīśvara: 42 2.3.3 Variations in Ardhanārīśvara Iconography: 43 2.3.4 Haṭhayoga iconography: 44 2.3.5 Viśuddha Cakra: 45 2.3.6 Ājñā Cakra: 45 2.4 Ardhanārīśvara in Textual Sources: 45 2.4.1 Iconographic Texts: 46 2.4.2 Ardhanārīśvara in Mythology: 47 2.4.3 Cosmogonic Themes in Ardhanārīśvara Myths: 47 2.4.4 Elements of Devotionalism in Ardhanārīśvara Myths: 49 2.4.5 Ardhanārīśvara in the South Indian Bhringi Myth Series: 49 2.4.6 Ardhanārīśvara in Devotional Poetry: 50 2.5 Ardhanārīśvara in the Performing Arts: 52 2.6 Conceptualizations of Ardhanārīśvara: 53 2.6.1 Cosmogonic/Philosophical Interpretations: 53 2.6.2 Interpretations of Ardhanārīśvara as a Symbol of Devotionalism: 56 2.6.3 Interpretations of Ardhanārīśvara as a Symbol of Cult Syncretism: 57 2.6.4 Feminist Interpretations of Ardhanārīśvara: 58 2.7 Associations of Ardhanārīśvara with Tantra: 59 2.7.1 Ardhanārīśvara and Tantra: Mysticism: 59 2.7.2 Ardhanārīśvara and Tantra: Inversion of Normative: 60 2.7.3 Ardhanārīśvara and Tantra: Miscellaneous Information: 61 2.8 Ardhanārīśvara in Practice: 62 2.8.1 Ardhanārīśvara in the Lives of Devotees: 62 2.9 Concluding Remarks: 63 vii Chapter Three: Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode: Town, Temple, and Devotional Practices: 65 3.1 Introduction: 65 3.2 Information Regarding Fieldwork Location: 67 3.2.1 City of Tiruchengode: 67 3.2.2 The Ardhanārīśvara Temple: 69 3.3 Mythological Narratives: 72 3.3.1 Mythological Narratives: Site Origin: 72 3.3.2 Mythological Narratives: Temple Deities: 73 3.4 Iconography of Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode: 76 3.4.1 The Ardhanārīśvara Icons: 76 3.5 Local Expressions Regarding Ardhanārīśvara: 79 3.5.1 Conceptualizations of the Ardhanārīśvara Icons: 79 3.5.2 General Conceptualizations of Ardhanārīśvara: 82 3.6 Ritual Activity Involving Ardhanārīśvara Icons: 84 3.6.1 A Note on Ritual: 84 3.6.2 Daily Pūjās: 86 3.6.3 Darśan: 87 3.6.4 Pilgrimage: 89 3.6.5 Circumambulation: 91 3.6.6 Prasād: 92 3.7 Related Temple and Town Activity: 93 3.7.1 Miscellaneous Observations Regarding the Ardhanārīśvara Temple: 93 3.7.2 Store Shrines for Ardhanārīśvara in Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu: 95 3.8 A Note on Hegemony: 96 3.9 Concluding Remarks: 98 Chapter Four: Deity, Devotees, and Religious Topography: 99 4.1 Introduction: 99 4.2 Analysis of Observations Relating to Prior Scholarly Focus: 102 4.2.1 Iconography: 102 4.2.2 Mythological Narratives: 105 4.2.3 Interpretations of Icon: 107 4.2.4 Conceptualizations of Ardhanārīśvara: 108 viii 4.3 Analysis of Observations Relating to Unexplored Areas: 112 4.3.1 Ardhanārīśvara Temple in Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu: 112 4.3.2 A Note on Śaiva Siddhānta: 114 4.3.3 Ardhanārīśvara in Practice: 116 4.3.4 Ardhanārīśvara Worship with Regards to Henotheism and Kathenotheism: 117 4.4 Ardhanārīśvara and Fluidity: 119 4.4.1 Blurriness of Categories: 119 4.4.2 Distinctive Relationships with Ardhanārīśvara: 120 4.4.3 Transactions between Ardhanārīśvara and Devotees: 122 4.4.4 Tiruchengode as Ardhanārīśvara Temple: 124 4.5 Conclusions and Contributions: 126 4.5.1 Contributions to Those Areas of Previous Scholarly Focus: 126 4.5.2 Contributions to Unexplored Areas: 129 4.6 Closing Remarks: 131 4.6.1 Future Studies: 132 Appendix: 134 Bibliography: 139 ix Introduction Vibrant illustrations of enigmatic deities are what first drew me to Hinduism. From a mischievous blue baby, to a muscular monkey hoisting an entire mountain, to a dark goddess with a bloody tongue, the visuals of Hinduism struck me as altogether fascinating. Much of India, known for its prevalent Hindu population, is punctuated with such images. South India contains monumental towers covered in rainbow-coloured sculptures of mythological figures, stickers of goddesses stare from car windows, and gods adorn the signboards of various shops. In fact, the images are so pervasive that some argue it is perhaps more sensible for students of Hinduism to begin by familiarizing themselves with the iconography of the Hindu pantheon rather than attempting to proceed chronologically from some distant historical point, which often happens to be the case.1 The project at hand intuitively began in this manner. I allowed my initial attraction to the rich images serve as my departure point. I was leafing through volumes of artwork depicting the Hindu pantheon and paused when I came across Ardhanārīśvara. Ardhanārīśvara is a composite deity; its body is split into male and female halves by a vertical axis.2 The explicit use of symbolism intrigued me.