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The Soldier's Life: Martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Early

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The Soldier's Life: Martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Early The Soldier’s Life: Martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Early Byzantine Empire Michael Edward Stewart BA, MA A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in May 2012 School of History, Philosophy, Religion, and Classics - Abstract This dissertation argues that martial virtues and images of the soldier’s life represented an essential aspect of early Byzantine masculine ideology. It contends that in many of the visual and literary sources from the fourth to the seventh centuries CE, conceptualisations of the soldier’s life and the ideal manly life were often the same. By taking this stance, the dissertation challenges the view found in many recent studies on Late Roman masculinity that a Christian ideal of manliness based on extreme ascetic virtues and pacifism had superseded militarism and courage as the dominant component of hegemonic masculine ideology. Though the study does not reject the relevance of Christian constructions of masculinity for helping one understand early Byzantine society and its diverse representations of masculinity, it seeks to balance these modern studies’ often heavy emphasis on hagiographical Christian sources with the more customary attitudes we find in the secular, and indeed some Christian texts, praising military virtues as an essential aspect of Roman manliness. Indeed, the reader of this dissertation will find that the “manliness of war” is on display in much of the surviving early Byzantine literature, secular and Christian. Chapter 1 examines how modern historians formulate and use “masculinity” as a tool of historical inquiry. It provides a brief summary of the growth of gender studies in the past forty years, and explores some the current debates surrounding “masculinity” as a viable tool of historical enquiry. Chapter 2 focuses on the continuing relevance of martial virtues in Late Roman conceptualisations and representations of heroic manliness. The chapter provides a brief summary of the close link between the soldier’s life and codes of manliness from the Republic to the Early Empire. It describes the supposed demilitarisation of the Roman upper classes and the use of non-Romans in the Roman army in the Later Empire. It closes with a discussion on how these shifts influenced representations of “true” manliness in both the ancient texts and in some modern works on Late Roman masculinity. Chapter 3 examines the seeming paradox, between the images of ideal martial manliness disseminated by the fifth-century Roman emperors and their supporters, and the reality of the increasing demilitarisation of a segment of the Roman leadership. It seeks to understand how the declining military role of the emperor after the death of Theodosius I in 395 influenced literary representations of idealised leadership that had long depended on the intimate connections between an emperor’s courage, his manliness, and the well-being of the Empire. Chapter 4 disputes the thesis presented by several recent studies that a new Christian ideology had emerged as the hegemonic masculine ideal by the fourth century. It also rejects the idea found in some studies that i Christian intellectuals rejected militarism as a key component of its ideology. Chapter 5 concentrates on one early Byzantine historian, Procopius, and discusses the ways he utilised the field of battle to not only explain the reconquests of Justinian, but to comment on the role that courage, manliness and men’s virtues played in determining events. Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Statement of Contributions to Jointly Authored Works Contained in the Thesis No jointly-authored works. Statement of Contributions by Others to the Thesis as a Whole ii My advisor John Moorhead has helped with revisions of each of my chapters. Statement of Parts of the Thesis Submitted to Qualify for the Award of Another Degree None Published Works by the Author Incorporated into the Thesis Parts of chapter 5 were adapted from material found in my MA thesis, Between Two Worlds: Men’s Heroic Conduct in the Writings of Procopius completed at San Diego State University in May 2003. Additional Published Works by the Author Relevant to the Thesis but not Forming Part of it None iii Acknowledgements When one’s pursuit of one’s academic dreams spans three decades and two continents, there are many people whom need to be thanked when the goal is achieved. First, none of this research would have been possible without the support of my loving wife Gina and my children John-David, Annabelle, and Sophie who put up with numerous nights of daddy typing away surrounded by a sea of books and notes. Thank you for highlighting sections of my expensive books that I would never have thought of highlighting. I would also like to pay special tribute to my mother, Anne Marie, who always shared her love of learning and academia with a son more interested in playing with his baseball cards. Your efforts were worth it. My dad Ted and his wife Pam were always there for moral support as well. To my big sister Jenny, thank you for all of your kindness over the years, gifts of precious books, and for all the unpaid editing. I must give special thanks for valuable insights given on my topic, via either email, snail mail or personal comments, made by Averil Cameron, Anthony Kaldellis, Geoffrey Greatrex, and especially Conor Whately, who allowed me to see his research on Procopius before publication. San Diego State University provided me with the academic tools to tackle my topic. Alvin Coox, Joanne Ferraro, Harry McDean, and Francis Bartholomew all shared their knowledge and love of teaching during my undergraduate years when I made the transition from journalism to history. Many other scholars have helped me over the past ten years of graduate study. I must offer special mention to Mathew Kuefler who shared with me his love of the medieval and ancient world. His insights and research on ancient masculinity and sexuality laid the foundation for this study. The one-on-one time he spent helping me develop and hone my writing and historiographical skills during my MA proved invaluable when I took on this larger project. David Christian passed down to me his passion for looking at the larger picture when examining historical events. Elizabeth Cobbs-Hoffman gave me self-belief at a time in my academic career when I needed to make the decision if I wanted to tackle a PhD as a more “mature” student. Geoff Ginn, Kriston Rennie, Tom Stevenson, and Andrew Bonnell are amongst the many scholars at the University of Queensland who have provided me with insightful comments on my work and support during the past six years. Special thanks must also be given to the Greek instructors within Classics who allowed me to sit in many classes of intense, yet entertaining, sessions learning to read the prose of my ancient Greek authors. The biggest thank you for this project, however, must go to John Moorhead, who kindly met with a loquacious freshly-arrived immigrant with dreams of iv pursuing a dissertation in sunny south-east Queensland. He always met my constant barrage of emails on a myriad of topics with sharp and pithy replies. His positive spirit kept me going on the days I wanted to give up, and his diligent perseverance allowed me to find my topic. During this period, he was not only a mentor and a colleague, but also a friend. v Keywords Gender, masculinity, courage, martial, virtues, Byzantine, Roman, soldiers, Christianity, manliness Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) 200205 Culture, Gender, and Sexuality 40%, 210306 Classical Greek and Roman history 35%, 220401 Christian Studies (incl. Biblical Studies and Church History) 25% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 2103, Historical Studies, 100% vi Table of Contents CHAPTER PAGE ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... i DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................
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