Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49715-2 — Critical Thinking in Psychology Edited by Robert J

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49715-2 — Critical Thinking in Psychology Edited by Robert J. Sternberg , Diane F. Halpern Index More Information

Index

abnormal psychology anecdotal evidence, 159 opportunities to promote critical thinking, anti-Islamism, 358 113–114 anti-Semitism, 358 academics argument analysis, 156, 169 susceptibility to uncritical thinking, 322 Ariely, D., 186–188 ACE Psychological Examination, 318 Aristotle (384–322 bce), 1 actively open-minded thinking (AOT), 49–54, Armenian genocide, 357 182–183 “Aryan physics”, 13 avoidance of bias, 49–50 astrology, 21–22, 89, 329 conﬁdence level for study results, 50–51 attention consideration of alternative explanations, selective or restricted, 360–361 54–57 attitude polarization, 128–129 critical process in science, 51–54 Aum Supreme Truth cult, 329 evaluation of sources, 52–53 authoritarian leaders science as example of, 54–57 attraction to, 363–364 search and inference, 50 followers’ need to feel special, 363 test of beliefs about good thinking, 53–54 targeting of out-groups, 363 Actively Open-Minded Thinking Scale, 86 authority altercast, 336 Acxiom, 216 autism, 23 ad hominem attacks, 161–162 belief in a link with vaccines, 2, 23–24 Addeo, Dorothy, 337 claims for the facilitated communication affect heuristic, 29 technique, 14, 71 AIDS holding therapy proposed by Tinbergen, 20–21 claim of treatment with natural remedies, 24 availability heuristic, 78, 284–285 claims about the cause of, 21 AIDS counselors B.o.B (rapper), 2 ability to interpret HIV test results, 203–205 Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), 251–252, 253 alchemy, 10 bait-and-switch, 340 Alexander, Scott, 190 base rate neglect, 25 Alexander Technique, 20 Bayes’ rule, 202–203, 216–217, 218–219 algorithms Bayes’ theorem, 43 power of, 197 behavioral nudges, 368–369 versus simple heuristics, 208–209 belief bias, 25 altercasting belief perseverance, 81–82 social inﬂuence tactic, 335–337 beliefs alternative facts, 358, 366 critical thinking and, 5 alt-right activism, 339 Bem, D., 264–265 Alzheimer’s disease, 23 Berkeley, George (1685–1753), 251 analytical skills, 320, 322, 323 Bermuda triangle, 329 analytical thinking, 309 between-subjects experimental design, 254–255, anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 285–286 256–257

377

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49715-2 — Critical Thinking in Psychology Edited by Robert J. Sternberg , Diane F. Halpern Index More Information

378 Index

bias intelligence and, 25 using AOT to avoid, 49–50 recognizing and reconciling our own biases, bias blind spot, 25 230–231 narcissism and, 26–27 types of, 173–174 biased assimilation, 128–129 cognitive disequilibrium, 131 Bible code, 11, 44–45 cognitive dissonance, 46 big data analytics obstacle to critical thinking, 365 survival rates versus mortality rates, 206–208 social influence tactic, 340–341 big data predictive analytics, 208–212 cognitive heuristics, 283–286 Big Foot, 329 cognitive illusions, 283, 296 bin Laden, Osama cognitive inability conspiracy theories, 85 obstacle to critical thinking, 361–362 biological and cognitive psychology cognitive laziness opportunities to promote critical thinking, obstacle to critical thinking, 364–365 111–112 cognitive nudges, 368–369 bipartisanship, 162–163 Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), 87 Black Mirror (TV series), 214–215 cold fusion, 14, 19–20 Blair, Tony, 208 College Level Academic Skills Test (CLAST), 232 blind-spot bias, 174, 184 Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA), 318 blind spots Columbus, Christopher, 1 overconfidence, 356 COMPAS algorithm, 209–210 blogs computer agent, 146 quality of information, 160 conceptual replication, 263 Bloom’s taxonomy, 235, 245 conditional probabilities, 202–203, 217, 219 bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 310 confidence level for study results, 50–51 Boring, E. G., 250 confirmation bias, 25, 166–167, 173, 370 Bouchard, T., 29 confounding, 253, 255 boundary conditions, 263 congeniality effect, 128–129 bounded rationality, 3 conjunction fallacy, 173, 229 Boxer, Barbara, 369 Conspiracist Mentality Questionnaire, 85 brain performance conspiracy theories, 70, 71, 357 attempts to improve or maintain, 40 conspiracist mentality, 84–86 brainwashing, 332–333 critical thinking and, 86–87 breast cancer dual-process theory and, 86–87 claims for the Ardyss Angel Bra, 164 general tendency to accept unsubstantiated Brothers and Sisters of the Red Death cult, 329 claims, 93–94 Bush, George W., 162 generality of belief in, 83–86 monological thinking, 83–84 Cajal, Santiago Ramón y (1852–1934), 13 nature of, 83 California Critical Thinking Skills Test, 317 Pizzagate, 329, 337, 338, 339 cancer diagnosis algorithm, 205–206 reducing belief in false theories, 88–89 Carrel, Alexis (1873–1944), 13 Type 1 thinking and, 86–87 Carreyrou, John, 342 control variables, 253–254 Carson, Benjamin (Ben) (b. 1951), 11–12 convergent thinking, 312–313 China converging associates paradigm, 259 Social Credit System, 214–216 Conway, Kellyanne, 358, 366 suppression of access to websites, 360–361 Cornell Test of Critical Thinking, 90 CIS-WEB (Competent Information Search in the counterbalancing of experimental conditions, World Wide WEB), 140 255–256 classical conditioning, 41–42 crazy beliefs and behaviors climate change, 39, 46, 69, 70, 71 human propensity for, 328–330 Clinton, Hilary, 329 myth of some exotic influence, 332–333 cognitive bias myth that the people must be crazy, 331–332 bias blind spot, 25 myths about causes, 330–333 ideological-commitment bias, 174, 175–179 social influence analysis, 333–334

Index 379

social influence tactics, 334 when it becomes skepticism, 241–242 vulnerability to undue influence, 333 See also actively open-minded thinking (AOT) creative skills, 320, 322, 323 critical-thinking disposition, 75–76, 153, 155 creative thinking, 309, 310 critical-thinking journeys creativity Jonathan Baron, 64 critical thinking and, 6 D. Alan Bensley, 94–95 creativity testing, 318 Douglas A. Bernstein, 114 criminal justice system Jason L. G. Braasch, 144–145 COMPAS algorithm, 209–210 Kevin Brady, 305 predictive policing, 209–210 Heather A. Butler, 167 critical process in science, 51–54 Dana S. Dunn, 243–244 critical-reasoning errors, 173 Gerd Gigerenzer, 216–217 critical thinking Arthur C. Graesser, 145 approaches to measuring and teaching, Jane S. Halonen, 242–243 321–322 Diane F. Halpern, 167–168 assessing pronouncements of eminent Scott Lilienfeld, 28–29 scientists, 28 Anthony R. Pratkanis, 347 blends of types, 320 John Ruscio, 304 cognitive skills and strategies associated Robert J. Sternberg, 322 with, 154 critical-thinking skills, 154 consequences of failure to think critically, development in education, 105 103–104 teaching challenges, 4–5 creativity and, 6 transfer across knowledge domains, 4–5 culture and, 6–7 ways to enhance your skills, 368–371 definitions, 2–4, 152–153 ways to improve, 166–167 discipline-specificdefinitions, 225–227 cults, 329, 336, 338, 341 disconnection from intelligence, 25 creating groups of believers, 338 domains of, 322 culture emotional influences, 321 critical thinking and, 6–7 high IQ and, 5 Curie, Pierre, 13 impact on quality of life decisions, 156–157 importance in the world of work, 4 De Niro, Robert, 164 influence of knowledge base, 318–319 deductive logic, 158–159 influence of motivation, 319 deductive reasoning errors, 174 justifying the time and effort required, 288–291 Deep Blue (computer), 197 kinds of, 320 democracy nature of, 152–156 social credit system as alternative to, 214–216 need for digital risk literacy, 198–199 threat of mindless voters, 2 need in the present day, 2 dependency altercast, 337 obstacles to. See obstacles to critical dependent variable, 252–253 thinking Derrida, Jacques (1930–2004), 358 personality and, 5–6 dialogical thinking, 84 reasons for failure to think critically, 198–199 Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997) refuting unsubstantiated claims, 71–72 conspiracy theories, 85 relevance in the digital age, 197 dietary supplements role of executive processes, 309, 312 health benefits claimed for, 22 role of knowledge-acquisition digital age components, 322 need for digital risk literacy, 198–199 role of knowledge-acquisition processes, 312 power of algorithms, 197 role of metacomponents, 309, 312, 322 reasons for failure to think critically, 198–199 role of performance components, 312, 322 relevance of critical thinking, 197 search for the truth, 152 scams, 198 tools for the digital age, 212–214 social anxiety of the iGeneration, 197 trumped by desire, 198 digital risk literacy Type 2 thinking and, 73 big data predictive analytics, 208–212

380 Index

digital risk literacy (cont.) education, lack of cancer diagnosis algorithm, 205–206 obstacle to critical thinking, 361–362 complex algorithm versus simple heuristic, egocentrism, 26–27, 362 208–209 ego-depletion studies critical thinking tools, 212–214 failure to replicate results, 41 false-positive rates in medical tests, 205–206, Einstein, Albert (1879–1955), 58 212–213 emotions Google flu trends, 210–212 influence on critical thinking, 321 interpretation of online HIV test results, obstacles to critical thinking, 359–360 200–205 employers meaning of medical test results, 200–205 value of critical thinking in employees, 4, need for, 198–199 164–165 online dating sites, 199–200 energy points, 330 predictive policing, 209–210 Ennis, R., 71, 354, 355 search queries used to predict cancer, 205–206 erroneous beliefs Social Credit System in China, 214–216 susceptibility to, 281 survival rates versus mortality rates, 206–208, ethical disengagement, 362 213–214 Etzioni, Oren, 212 digital surveillance systems, 214–216 eugenics, 13, 19 digital technology everyday life aids to avoiding and overcoming critical thinking and quality of life decisions, misinformation, 138–143 156–157 hidden biases in search algorithms, 130 need for critical thinking, 156–157 direct replication, 263 evolution deniers, 14 disinterestedness of science, 175 executive processes disjunction fallacy, 173 role in critical thinking, 309, 312 divergent thinking, 312–313 existence proofs, 12 DNA teleportation claim, 23 experimental method domain-generality of critical thinking between-subjects design, 254–255, 256–257 limitations on, 318–320 choice of experimental design, 256–257 domain-specificity of critical thinking, 10–12, confounding, 253, 255 15–16, 24–25, 153–155, 365–366 control variables, 253–254 Nobel Laureate case examples, 17–24 counterbalancing of experimental conditions, STEM disciplines, 309–310 255–256 studies, 313–318 dependent variable, 252–253 domains of knowledge, 4–5 differential carryover effect, 253–254 transfer of critical-thinking skills history of, 250–252 Doyle, Arthur Conan (1859–1930), 11, 76, 329, 337 hypothesis testing, 252–254 Drake fortune scam, 328, 338, 339, 341 independent variable, 252–253 DRM paradigm, 259, 261 matched-groups design, 255 du Maurier, George (1834–1896), 332 practice effects, 255 dual-process theory of cognition, 72–74 randomization, 254–255 belief in conspiracy theories, 86–87 sample experiment (false memories), 258–261 subject variables, 257–258 echo-chamber effect, 130, 132, 147, 160–161, 361 variables, 252 breaking down echo chambers, 370 within-subjects design, 255–257 Eddy, D., 216, 217 experimental research education boundary conditions, 263 development of critical thinking skills, 105 conceptual replication, 263 domain-specificity of critical thinking, direct replication, 263 225–227 example of critical thinking with regard to impact on critical-thinking skills, 165–166 replication, 271–273 need for critical-thinking skills, 165–166 external validity, 262 overcoming obstacles to critical thinking, factors likely to produce false effects, 266–267 367–368 false memories, 261–262

Index 381

generalizability and limitations, 261–271 foolishness HARKing, 266–267 obstacle to critical thinking, 362–363 internal validity, 262 Ford, Henry (1863–1947), 224, 240 Jenkins’ approach to generalizability, 270–271 Fox News, 370 p-hacking, 267 fraud replication, 263–264 role in the replication crisis, 45–46 replication crisis, 264–266 Freberg, L., 177–179 reproducibility projects, 267–269 Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939), 57 researcher degrees of freedom, 266–267 frontal lobotomy, 14 suggested reforms for research standards, 268–269 gambler’s fallacy, 361 systematic replication, 263 Gardner, H., 310 Type 1 errors, 267 generalizability of critical-thinking skills, 15–16 external validity, 262 Generation Z, 241 extrasensory perception, 13, 70, 90 Generic Conspiracist Belief scale (GCB), 84, 86 face validity, 5 genetically engineered crops, 39 Facebook genetics echo-chamber effect, 161 racist claims, 18–19 fake news, 160 Giaever, Ivar (b. 1929), 14 facilitated communication technique Giuliani, Rudi, 152 claim to help autistic people, 14, 71 Glaser, Donald (1926–2013), 25 fact-checking of online information, 137 global warming fact-checking websites, 131 dispute about human involvement, 21 faculty members skepticism of, 14 range of political affiliations, 184–188 Goldstein, Ross, 342 fairy photographs hoax (1920s), 11, 329 Google flu trends, 210–212 fake news, 160, 198, 238, 240 Gould, Stephen J. (1941–2002), 176 false-alarm rate, 219 granfallooning false dilemma fallacy, 162 social influence tactic, 337–338 false memories, 261–262 groups sample experiment, 258–261 granfallooning, 337–338 false-positive rate, 219 influence of social identity on members, familiarity backfire effect, 81 337–338 fantasies trump critical thinking, 356–358 groupthink, 242 fast vs. slow thinking, 230 Grove, W., 29 Feynman, R., 329 guru complex, 27–28 file drawer effect (statistical distortion), gurus, 336 44 Gutenberg, Johannes (d. 1468), 198 filter-bubble effect, 130, 147 flat-earthers, 1–2, 157–158 Halpern, Diane F., 3 flower remedies, 330 Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (HCTA), flu 156–157 Google flu trends, 210–212 HARKing, 266–267 Flynn, Michael T., 339 Hartley, David (1705–1757), 251 foolish thinking Hartzell, Oscar (1876–1943), 328, 337, 341 assessing pronouncements of eminent hate sites scientists, 28 portrayal as patriotic organizations, 160 guru complex, 27–28 Hawking, Stephen (1942–2018), 15 imbalance theory of foolishness, 26 health information motivated reasoning, 26 need for critical thinking, 163–164 narcissism and, 26–27 Heaven’s Gate cult, 329 negative aspects of openness, 27 Helmholtz, Herman von (1821–1894), 111 personality and, 26–27 Herbalife, 22 sources of, 24–28 Herrnstein, Richard, 63

382 Index

heuristics, 219 general intelligence (g), 311 versus complex algorithms, 208–209 independence from critical thinking, 10–12, 25 Hill, Betty and Barney, 329 motivated reasoning and, 26 hindsight errors, 174 Nobel disease, 12–15 HIV testing sources of foolish thinking in intelligent interpretation of results, 200–205 people, 24–28 HIV virus theory of multiple intelligences, 310 claims about its role in AIDS, 21 intelligence testing hoaxes, 329 correlation with critical-thinking ability, Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679), 251 313–318 Hoffrage, U., 217 interactive lecturing, 106–107 holding therapy (proposed cure for autism), internal validity, 262 20–21 Internet Holmes, Elizabeth, 328, 336, 339, 342 acquiring new misconceptions, 126, 133–135 Holocaust, 176, 357 assessing credibility of sources, 132, 137–138 homeopathy, 20, 23 automated selection of information, 361 Honeycutt, N., 177–179 avoiding misinformation, 133–138 Horton, R., 51–52 censorship of, 360–361 human judgment computer tutoring environments, 138–143 college admissions system, 39–40 continued influence of misinformation, Hume, David (1711–1776), 251 135–137 hyperpartisanship, 359 critical stance when accessing information, 125 hypnosis, 13, 332–333 directly training learners on information hypothesis, 54 quality, 139–140 implausible hypotheses, 61–62 ease of acquisition of misinformation, 133–135 prediction in scientific research, 59–61 echo-chamber effect, 130, 132, 160–161, 361 pre-registration of research hypothesis, 61–62 fact-checking of information, 137 hypothesis testing, 252–254 fact-checking websites, 131 filter-bubble effect, 130 IBM Watson computer system, 197, 211–212 hidden biases in search algorithms, 130 ideological-commitment bias, 174, 175–179 influence of algorithms, 160–161 ideology influence of pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, obstacle to critical thinking, 359 and attitudes (KBAs) on engagement, iGeneration, 241 127–130 Ignarro, Louis J. (b. 1941), 22–23 interactive digital technologies for critical illusory truth effect, 364–365 thinking training, 140–143 imbalance theory of foolishness, 26 lack of professional gatekeeping, 125 immigrants misplaced trust in search engine results fear of, 358, 363 presentation, 134 independent variable, 252–253 need for critical thinking, 159–161 information Operation ARA training program, 142–143 selective or restricted attention to, 360–361 Operation ARIES training program, 142–143 information scent, 128 overcoming misconceptions, 125–133 Infowars, 339 preponderance of misinformation, 125 Ingram, Paul, 330, 336, 338 prioritizing information that is consistent with intellectual hubris, 27 prior knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes intellectual humility, 27, 356 (KBAs), 126 intelligence refutation texts, 131–132 assessing pronouncements of eminent revising previous accurate understandings, 126, scientists, 28 133–135 bias blind spot, 25 SEEK Web Tutor, 141–142 cognitive bias and, 25 selection of information from search engine critical thinking and high IQ, 5 results pages (SERPs), 128 critical thinking and Nobel Disease, 24–28 selective or restrictive attention to distinction from critical thinking, 359–360 information, 360–361

Index 383

self-selection of information, 361 Locke, John (1632–1704), 251 sourcing strategies, 132, 137–138 logical fallacy, 161 suppression of access to websites, 360–361 logical-mathematical intelligence, 310 thinking critically about online information, Lombroso, Cesare (1835–1909), 176 130–132 Loomis, Eric, 209 thinking critically to avoid misinformation low-balling, 340 encountered, 137–138 Lykken, D., 29 using technology to help avoid and overcome Lytle, Larry, 330, 336, 339, 342 misinformation, 138–143 introductory psychology courses magnet therapy, 70, 89 reconfiguring to incorporate critical thinking, matched-groups experimental design, 255 114–118 Matthew effect, 280 intuitive thinking errors, 25 May, Theresa, 208 invulnerability McCarthy, Jenny, 23 illusions of, 362 McDermott, K., 271 sense of, 26, 27 measles Irving, Kyle, 2 consequences of not vaccinating, 163 vaccine deniers, 2 Jenkins, J. media approach to the generalizability of research, problems in reporting science, 48–49 270–271 medical testing job performance false-positive rates, 205–206, 212–213 need for critical thinking, 164–165 interpretation of test results, 200–205 John Birch Society, 357 Meehl, P., 29, 304 Jordan, Michael, 16 memory Josephson, Brian (b. 1940), 19–20 retrieval of repressed memories, 19 Mendeleev, Dimitri (1834–1907), 15 Kahneman, D., 15, 230, 265, 282–286 Merton, Robert K. (1910–2003) Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804), 198 canons of science, 175 Kardashian, Kim, 369 met.a.ware (source and data evaluation), 139–140 Kasparov, Garry (b. 1963), 197 meta-bias Kennedy, John F. (1917–1963) bias blind spot, 25 conspiracy theories about his death, 71, 83, 357 metacognition, 147 knowledge-acquisition components, 323 metacognitive awareness, 230–231 role in critical thinking, 322 metacognitive monitoring, 75, 82 knowledge-acquisition processes metacomponents, 323 role in critical thinking, 312 role in critical thinking, 309, 312, 322 knowledge base, 318–319 metaphysics, 13 influence on critical thinking, 312 methodology Kobach, Kris, 357 role in the replication crisis, 46–48 Milgram, S., 56 language Mill, J. S. (1806–1873), 52 teaching approaches, 40 Mills, C. Wright (1916–1962), 347 law modus ponens argument (P, therefore Q), 174 need for critical thinking, 161–163 modus tollens argument (not–Q, therefore not– lead time bias, 206–207 P), 174 learning styles concept momentum effects, 280 debate in psychology, 129 See also sports momentum Lenard, Phillip (1862–1947), 13 Moniz, Egas (1874–1955), 14 Lewin, K., 217 monological thinking, 83–84 Lewis, M., 341 Montagnier, Luc (b. 1932), 23–24 Lilienfeld, S., 76 moon landings Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865) hoax claims, 71 assassination conspiracy theory, 83 moral values Loch Ness monster (Nessie), 329 five dimensions of, 358

384 Index

motivated reasoning, 26, 128–129 obstacles to critical thinking motivated skepticism, 173 attraction to toxic leaders, 363–364 motivations cognitive dissonance, 365 influence on critical thinking, 319 cognitive inability, 361–362 obstacles to critical thinking, 359–360 cognitive laziness, 364–365 MSNBC, 370 context effects, 366–367 Mullis, Kary (1944–2019), 21–22 disregard for truth, 358 Multi-Level Marketing schemes, 338 domain-specificity of critical thinking, multiple intelligences, theory of, 310 365–366 multiple sclerosis, 23 emotions, 359–360 multiplistic world view, 241 foolishness, 362–363 myside bias, 25, 49–50, 57, 128–129, 173, 370 ideology, 359 illusory truth effect, 364–365 naïve realism, 174, 189–190 lack of education, 361–362 narcissism level of value and respect for critical thinking, among brilliant scientists, 27 366–367 bias blind spot and, 26–27 motivations, 359–360 natural frequencies, 203, 216–217, 220 obsession with fantasies, 356–358 natural remedies, 164 overconfidence, 356 natural sampling, 217 persuasibility, 364 Nazi racial ideology, 13 principles to overcome obstacles, 367–368 negotiation religion, 359 approaches to, 40 selective or restricted attention to information, Newton, Isaac (1642–1727), 10–11, 57 360–361 Niteworks Zeitgeist, 366 health benefits claimed for, 22 occult Nobel disease, 12–15 belief in, 11 assessing pronouncements of eminent omnipotence scientists, 28 illusions of, 362 implications for the psychology of critical sense of, 26, 27 thinking, 24–28 omniscience sources of foolish thinking in intelligent illusions of, 362 people, 24–28 sense of, 26, 27 Nobel Laureates O’Neal, Shaquille, 164 domain specificity of critical-thinking skills online dating sites (case examples), 17–24 digital risk literacy, 199–200 Louis J. Ignarro, 22–23 online HIV testing Brain Josephson, 19–20 interpretation of results, 200–205 Luc Montagnier, 23–24 openness to experience Kary Mullis, 21–22 positive and negative aspects, 27 Linus Pauling, 17–18 Operation ARA training program, 142–143 William Shockley, 18–19 Operation ARIES training program, 142–143 susceptibility to weird ideas, 12–15 optimism Nikolaas Tinbergen, 20–21 unrealistic, 26, 362 Nobel Prize overconfidence criteria for award, 15 obstacle to critical thinking, 356 nonage self-imposed, 198 p-hacking, 44, 45, 267 Norton, M., 186–188 paranormal beliefs, 70, 71, 89–90 Nosek, B., 268 critical thinking and, 90–92 null hypothesis, 43, 54 general tendency to accept unsubstantiated claims, 93–94 Obama, Barack, 83, 104, 357 reducing, 92–93 obsession with fantasies paranormal investigations, 11, 13 obstacle to critical thinking, 356–358 parapsychology, 13, 89–90

Index 385

Parkinson’s disease, 23 practical skills, 320, 322, 323 Parship online dating site, 199–200 practical thinking, 309 partisanship, 359 practice effects, 255 Pasteur, Louis (1822–1895), 58 prediction in scientific research, 59–61 Pauli, Wolfgang (1900–1958), 13 predictive policing, 209–210 Pauling, Linus (1901–1994), 17–18 presidential election performance components, 323 fake news stories, 160 role in critical thinking, 312, 322 priming effects personality failure to replicate results, 40–41 foolish thinking and, 26–27 prior probability, 202 traits associated with critical thinking, 5–6 probabilities persuasibility reporting methods, 40 obstacle to critical thinking, 364 projection tactic, 341–342 persuasion pseudoscience, 70, 71 self-generated, 338–339 belief in, 89–90 peudoscience critical thinking and, 90–92 reducing belief in, 92–93 general tendency to accept unsubstantiated phantom dreams claims, 93–94 social influence tactic, 334–335 psychic phenomena, 13 phrenology, 11 critical thinking and, 5 physiognomy, 176 psychic phone services, 339 Piaget, Jean (1896–1980), 258–259 psychological misconceptions, 71 Pinker, S., 280 among psychology students and professionals, Pizzagate conspiracy theory, 337, 338, 339 74–75 Planck, Max (1858–1947), 46 availability heuristic, 78 planning fallacy, 243 belief perseverance, 81–82 plate tectonics, 46 critical-thinking dispositions and, 75–76 Platt, J., 58 definition, 74 Podesta, John, 329 dual-process analysis, 79 political affiliations endorsement of, 74–79 range of affiliations among faculty, 184–188 extent of endorsement, 74–75 political correctness, 366 familiarity backfire effect, 81 politics metacognitive monitoring, 82 attraction to toxic leaders, 363–364 Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI), 77, avoidance of cognitive dissonance, 365 80 consequences of lack of critical thinking, 104 reducing, 79–81 disregard for truth, 358 refutation texts, 131–132 election of autocrats, 356–358 refutational approach, 79–81 enhancement of critical-thinking skills, refuting your own misconceptions, 81–82 368–371 Test of Psychological Knowledge and hyperpartisanship, 359 Misconceptions (TOPKAM), 76–78 ideological obstacles to critical thinking, 359 psychological science implications of lack of critical thinking, studies of the nature of critical thinking, 356–358 313–318 need for critical thinking, 161–163, 354–355 psychologists obsession with fantasies, 356–358 susceptibility to lapses in critical thinking, partisanship, 359 355–356 religious obstacles to critical thinking, 359 psychology Politifact (fact-checking website), 131 chance of studies drawing a false Popper, Karl (1902–1994), 51, 57, 264 conclusion, 42 post-truth era, 358 debate over learning styles concept, 129 posterior probability, 202, 213, 220 disciplines as porous cults, 188–190 Power Balance Wristband domain-specificity of critical thinking, 24–25 claims for, 164 educators’ resistance to assessment, 233–235 power of a statistical test, 43–44 examples of the replication problem, 40–42

386 Index

psychology (cont.) priming effects, 40–41 impact of the strong liberal/progressive problems in reporting science, 48–49 position of most researchers, 179–188 reasons why replications do not work, 44–45 lack of implementation of findings, 39–40 self-serving bias, 45–46 particular problems for study replication, 42 statistical problems, 46–48 prevalence of inaccurate KBAs, 129–130 statistical significance of results, 42–44 promoting critical thinking about representativeness heuristic, 283–284 psychological science, 110–114 reproducibility projects, 267–269 reasons why replications do not work, 44–45 research papers replication crisis, 40–45 how to evaluate, 62–63 statistical significance of results, 42–44 researcher degrees of freedom, 266–267 suggested reforms for research standards, Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS), 90, 92 268–269 Richet, Charles (1850–1935), 13 transfer of critical-thinking skills from another risk literacy, 199 domain, 24–25 See also digital risk literacy psychology courses Ruscio, A. M., 304 critical thinking in introductory psychology Russell, Bertrand (1872–1970), 1, 3 courses, 114–118 Russia incorporating critical thinking, 105–107 censorship of the Internet, 360 interactive lecturing, 106–107 introducing critical thinking, 107–110 Sagarin, B. J., 333 promoting critical thinking about satisficing, 3 psychological science, 110–114 scams, 160, 198, 328 providing opportunities for students to Schawlow, Arthur (1921–1999), 14 practice critical thinking, 107–110 schemer schema, 342–346 structured critical thinking system, 106–107 Schmidt, Eric, 216 Publishers Clearing House (PCH), 330–331, 339, Schwinger, Julian (1918–1994), 14 342, 346–347 science bold predictions approach, 57–58 quack medicine, 338, 339 challenges to value-driven findings, 176–177 quack psychotherapists, 338 consideration of alternative explanations for results, 54–57 racism, 14 conveying findings to the public, 63 genetic claims, 18–19 crisis of credibility, 40–45 randomization in experimental design, 254–255 critical process, 51–54 Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI), 77, 80, 86 disinterestedness, 175 rationalization trap distrust of, 157–159 social influence tactic, 340–341 example of actively open-minded thinking rebirthing, 71, 330 (AOT), 54–57 recency heuristic, 211 how to evaluate a research paper, 62–63 refutation texts, 131–132 implausible hypotheses, 61–62 regression to the mean, 362 lack of implementation of findings, 39–40 religion, 51 meanings of ‘theory’, 57 critical thinking and, 5 Merton’s canons of science, 175 obstacle to critical thinking, 359 neglect of science in public discourse, 39–40 replication, 263–264 potential solutions for the replication crisis, application of critical thinking, 271–273 58–63 replication crisis, 40–45, 264–266 prediction in research, 59–61 ego-depletion studies, 41 pre-registration of research hypothesis, 61–62 examples in psychology, 40–42 problems with media reporting, 48–49 fraud and, 45–46 problems with traditional reporting of methodological issues, 46–48 research, 58–62 overconfidence and, 356 reasons why replications do not work, 44–45 particular problems in psychology, 42 replication crisis, 40–45 potential solutions, 58–63 teaching methods, 63

Index 387

universalism, 175 human propensity for crazy beliefs and using questions to narrow the study behaviors, 328–330 approach, 58 myths about causes of crazy beliefs and scientific community behaviors, 330–333 impact of sociopolitical sameness on scientific Pizzagate conspiracy theory, 329 progress, 179–188 scams, 328 implications of sociopolitical homogeneity, scientific and critical appraisal of weird beliefs, 176–179 329–330 scientific method, 158 social media, 329 scientific progress third person effect, 344 impact of sociopolitical sameness in the vulnerability to undue influence, 333 scientific community, 179–188 when the schemer schema does not work, scientific reasoning, 158–159, 280 342–346 application to sports momentum, 288–302 social influence analysis consider alternative explanations, 291–293 author’s experience, 347 consider the role of chance, 296–297 crazy beliefs and behaviors, 333–334 establish a specific, replicable protocol, social influence tactics, 334 293–296 altercasting, 335–337 justifying the time and effort required, 288–291 appeal to basic desires, 334–335 systematic and comprehensive data comparison point or set, 342 collection, 293 control information flow, 342 weigh all available evidence, 297–302 define and label an issue, 342 screening programs deflecting attention and blame for misdeeds, misunderstanding of survival rates, 206–208, 341–342 213–214 door-in-the-face, 342 seances, 338 emotional see-saw, 342 Sedlmeier, P., 217 expectations, 342 SEEK Web Tutor, 141–142 expert snare, 342 selective exposure hypothesis, 128–129 fear appeals, 342 selective perception, 173 granfallooning, 337–338 self-generated persuasion, 338–339 misleading questions, 342 self-persuasion, 333 norm of reciprocity, 342 self-serving bias phantom dreams, 334–335 role in the replication crisis, 45–46 placing the target in a particular social role, sensation and perception courses 335–337 opportunities to promote critical thinking, projection tactic, 341–342 112–113 rationalization trap, 340–341 sensitivity of a test, 201–203 repetition, 342 shills resolving cognitive dissonance, 340–341 use by con criminals, 340 scarcity, 342 Shockley, William (1910–1989), 18–19 securing initial commitment, 340–341 Shroud of Turin, 342 self-generated persuasion, 338–339 skepticism social consensus, 339–340 when it subverts action, 241–242 storytelling, 342 Skinner, B. F., 355 use of shills, 340 slippery slope argument, 162 use of testimonials or witnesses, 339–340 Smalley, Richard (1943–2005), 14 using the social identity of the target, Snopes.com (fact-checking site), 81, 131 337–338 social consensus vivid appeal, 342 social influence tactic, 159–161 social media Social Credit System in China, 214–216 automated selection of information, 361 social influence echo-chamber effect, 160–161 cults, 329 fake news, 160 hoaxes, 329 need for critical thinking, 159–161 how to reduce your susceptibility, 346–347 Pizzagate conspiracy theory, 329

388 Index

social media (cont.) persistence of belief in, 280–281 polarization of views, 161 representativeness heuristic, 283–284 self-generated persuasion, 339 role of System 1 thinking, 282–287 social anxiety of the iGeneration, 197 susceptibility to erroneous beliefs, 281 social reinforcement systematic and comprehensive data guru complex, 27–28 collection, 293 social science community weighing all available evidence, 297–302 implications of sociopolitical asymmetry, Stanovich, K., 182–183 176–179 statistical distortion Society for Experimental Social Psychology choice of statistical method, 44–45 (SESP), 177 file drawer effect, 44 sociological imagination, 347 p-hacking, 44, 45 sociopolitical asymmetry statistical significance of study results, 42–44 disciplines as porous cults, 188–190 statistics sociopolitical divisions confidence level for study results, 11 two sides citing different evidence, 190–191 interpretation of medical test results, 200–205 sociopolitical homogeneity problems with interactions between variables, impact on scientific research, 179–188 47–48 implications for the scientific community, problems with use of controls in studies, 47 176–179 role in the replication crisis, 46–48 political affiliations among faculty, 184–188 STEM study of income/wealth inequality definition, 323 perceptions, 186–188 STEM disciplines Soros, George, 354 approaches to measuring and teaching critical Sourcer’s Apprentice computer-based learning thinking, 321–322 environment, 139 blends of types of critical thinking, 320 sources convergent versus divergent thinking, 312–313 evaluation of, 52–53 disconnect between course work and research space alien abductions, 329, 357 skills, 309 specificity of a test, 201–203 disconnect between standard tests and research Spinoza, Baruch (1632–1677), 364 skills required, 310–313 spirit photography, 11 domain-specificity of critical thinking, spiritualism, 11, 13, 76 309–310 spoon bending, 329 emotional influences on critical thinking, 321 sports momentum influence of knowledge base on critical analysis of NFL results, 280–281 thinking, 318–319 anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 285–286 influence of motivation on critical application of critical thinking, 288–302 thinking, 319 application of scientific reasoning, 288–302 kinds of critical thinking, 320 availability heuristic, 284–285 limitations on domain-generality of critical characteristics of System 2 thinking, 288–302 thinking, 318–320 cognitive heuristics, 283–286 method of assessment of students, 310–313 consideration of alternative explanations, studies of critical thinking in psychological 291–293 science, 313–318 consideration of the role of chance, 296–297 test correlations related to test format, 319–320 definition, 281–282 transfer of skills learned to practice, 310–313 establishment of a specific, replicable protocol, stereotypes, 230 293–296 straw man argument, 161 features of uncritical thinking, 282–287 straw man fallacy, 161 hot hand in baskeball, 280 Strutt, John William, 3rd Baron Rayleigh identifying patterns and ascribing significance (1842–1919), 13 to them, 282–287 subject variables, 257–258 justifying the time and effort required for subliminal messaging, 332–333 System 2 thinking, 288–291 survival rates nature of momentum effects, 280 lead time bias, 206–207

Index 389

meaning of, 206–208 view of the Texas Republican Party, 359 misunderstanding of, 213–214 ways to improve critical-thinking skills, versus mortality rates, 206–208 166–167 Susan G. Komen, 213 when skepticism subverts action, 241–242 Svengali, 332 teaching science, 63 Swami, V., 86–87 telemarketing fraud, 339, 342 symbol systems, 310 telepathy, 19, 70, 89 synchronicity, 13 Tellegen, A., 29 System 1 thinking Test of Psychological Knowledge and cognitive heuristics, 283–286 Misconceptions (TOPKAM), 76–78 System 2 thinking, 288–302 testing justifying the time and effort required, 288–291 influence of format on test correlations, systematic replication, 263 319–320 Texas Republican Party taxometric method, 304 view on teaching of critical thinking, teaching critical thinking, 165–166 359 accreditation, 232–233 theory approaches, 321–322 meanings in science, 57 assurance of learning, 232–233 Theranos scam, 328, 336, 339, 342 authentic assessment, 236 third person effect, 344 avoiding routinized teaching, 236–238 Thomson, Joseph (1856–1940), 13 challenges, 4–5 Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1907–1988), 20–21 countering ignorance as social bliss, 240–241 Todd, Chuck, 152 demonstrating evidence of learning, 232–233 Toplak, M. E., 182–183 desirable difficulty of learning, 242 Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, 318 discipline-specificdefinitions of critical toxic leaders thinking, 225–227 attraction to, 363–364 discomfort of abandoning certainty, 240–241 illusory truth effect, 364–365 domain-specificity of critical thinking, 15–16 trait vs. state conundrum, 227–230 educators’ resistance to assessment, 233–235 transcendental meditation (TM), 19 explaining methods for evaluating transfer of critical-thinking skills, 4–5, 15–16 information, 238–240 Trump, Donald, 83, 104, 339, 357 maintaining mental momentum, 236–238 truth metacognitive awareness, 230–231 disregard for, 358 mindfulness, 237 search for, 152 overcoming obstacles to critical thinking, Tsipursky, G., 152 367–368 Tversky, A., 283–286 pedagogical challenges, 224–225 Type 1 errors, 267 performance standards, 232–233 Type 1 thinking, 72–74 perspectives, 224–225 acceptance of unsubstantiated claims, 93–94 promoting objectivity, 238–240 belief in conspiracy theories, 86–87 pursuit of continuous improvement, 236–238 Type 2 thinking, 72–74 recognizing and reconciling our own biases, 230–231 UFOs, 357 search for a formal critical thinking inventory, universalism of science, 175 232–233 unrealistic optimism, 26, 362 state-based approach, 227–230 unsubstantiated claims student evaluations of faculty teaching conspiracy theories, 71 performance, 235–236 dual-process theory of cognition, 72–74, 93–94 students’ reluctance to participate in debate, endorsement of psychological misconceptions, 240–241 74–79 students’ resistance to active learning, 235–236 examples of, 69–71 time and effort involved in critical thinking, general tendency to accept, 93–94 240–241 potential for harmful consequences, 71 trait vs. state conundrum, 227–230 reducing psychological misconceptions, 79–81

390 Index

unsubstantiated claims (cont.) Watson, John, 355 refutation of own misconceptions, 81–82 Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Type 1 thinking, 72–74, 93–94 (WGCTA), 90, 91, 317 Type 2 thinking, 72–74 Watson-GlaserTM II Critical Thinking using critical thinking to refute, 71–72 Appraisal, 165 URL (Uniform Resource Locator), 147 weird beliefs scientific and critical appraisal, 329–330 vaccination Welch, Edgar, 329 opposition to, 11 Welch, Robert W. (1899–1985), 357 vaccine deniers, 2, 23–24, 39, 46 wellness information consequences of not vaccinating, 163 need for critical thinking, 163–164 vaccines West, R., 182 claim of link with autism, 23–24 Whittaker, Sudie, 341 variables, 252 wisdom-based skills, 322, 323 verbal reasoning, 156, 169 wise thinking, 309 viewpoint diversity within-subjects experimental design, 255–257 two sides citing different evidence, 190–191 workplace vitamin supplements importance of critical thinking, 4 health benefits claimed for, 17–18, 22 need for critical thinking, 164–165 Vonnegut, Kurt (1922–2007), 337 Yerkes-Dodson law, 292 Wagner, Richard (1813–1883), 357 Yeti, 329 Wakefield, Andrew, 23 Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823–1913), 11 Zeitgeist Wason deductive reasoning task, 174 obstacle to critical thinking, 366 water memory, 20, 23 Zigerell, L. J., 190–191 Watson, James (b. 1928), 14 Zuckerberg, Mark, 160