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Genetic Diversity of Glossina Fuscipes Fuscipes Along Manangwa et al. Parasites & Vectors (2017) 10:268 DOI 10.1186/s13071-017-2201-x SHORT REPORT Open Access Genetic diversity of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes along the shores of Lake Victoria in Tanzania and Kenya: implications for management Oliver Manangwa1* , Gamba Nkwengulila2, Johnson O. Ouma3,4, Furaha Mramba5, Imna Malele1, Kirsten Dion6, Mark Sistrom7, Farrah Khan8, Serap Aksoy9 and Adalgisa Caccone6 Abstract Background: Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are sole vectors for trypanosomiasis, which affect human health and livestock productivity in Africa. Little is known about the genetic diversity of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, which is an important species in Tanzania and Kenya. The main objective of the study was to provide baseline data to determine the genetic variability and divergence of G. f. fuscipes in the Lake Victoria basin of Tanzania and Kenya in order to guide future vector control efforts in the region. Findings: Two hundred and seventy five G. f. fuscipes from 8 sites along the shores of Lake Victoria were screened for genetic polymorphisms at 19 microsatellite loci. Samples were collected from two sites in Kenya and six sites in Tanzania. Four of the Tanzanian sites were located in the Rorya district, on the eastern shores of Lake Victoria, while the other two sites were from Ukerewe and Bukoba districts from the southern and western Lake Victoria shores, respectively. Four genetically distinct allopatric clusters were revealed by microsatellite analysis, which sorted the sampling sites according to geography, with sites separated by as little as ~65 km belonging to distinct genetic clusters, while samples located within~35kmfromeachothergroupinthesamecluster. Conclusion: Our results suggest that there is ongoing genetic admixture within sampling sites located ~35 km from each other, while sites located ~65 km apart are genetically isolated from each other. Similar patterns emerged from a parallel study on G. f. fuscipes analyzed from the Lake Victoria Uganda shores. From a control perspective these results suggest that for sites within the same genetic cluster, control efforts should be carried out in a coordinated fashion in order to avoid re-invasions. Future work should focus on better quantifying the extent and spatial patterns of the observed genetic discontinuities of the G. f. fuscipes populations along the Tanzanian shores. This will aid in their control by providing guidelines on the geographical extent of the area to be treated at the same time. Keywords: Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, Tsetse flies, Trypanosomiasis, Microsatellite genetic diversity, Lake Victoria basin * Correspondence: [email protected] 1Vector and Vector Borne Disease Institute, P. O. Box 1026, Tanga, Tanzania Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Manangwa et al. Parasites & Vectors (2017) 10:268 Page 2 of 8 Background depend much on the biogeographical limits of the target Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossina) remain to be insects of tsetse species in such a way that maximum benefit is economic and medical importance in sub-Saharan gained from the natural barriers to reinvasion of the previ- Africa. They transmit pathogenic trypanosomes that ous controlled areas [5]. One factor that can improve the cause sleeping sickness to humans and nagana to live- application of various control methods is knowledge on stock [1, 2]. The occurrence of the disease in humans tsetse population genetics in addition to ecological infor- and livestock has greatly limited the development of mation [9]. Studying the genetic differentiation between dif- agriculture and human health in the region [3]. Esti- ferent populations of G. f. fuscipes will lead to novel insights mates by FAO show, Africa loses over 3 million cattle into the relationships between genetically distinct popula- and other domestic livestock due to trypanosomiasis tions, including geographical distribution, hybridization and every year [4]. The annual losses, in terms of reduced migration patterns. This knowledge can then be used to meat and milk production and in terms of the costs inform ongoing or planned vector control programs across related to treatment and controlling the disease, have a target geographical region to identify the most suitable been estimated at US $1.2 billion [5]. No vaccine has areas to target control to avoid re-infestation of cleared been developed for the disease to date both for humans habitats. Studies on the population structure of G. f. fuscipes and cattle due to the ability of trypanosome parasites to have been carried out in some parts of East Africa, particu- change their surface proteins by antigenic variation [6, 7]. larly along Lake Victoria shores in Uganda [8, 15–18], and Drugs which are used to treat cattle have been used for reported high genetic structuring of the species in the area. long time; as a result drug resistance is increasing rapidly All authors confirmed the presence of two distinct lineages which in the long run will seriously affect the use of these of G. f. fuscipes in Uganda using mtDNA and microsatellites drugs for animal trypanosomiasis control. Similarly, drugs markers except author 18. The isolation of northern and which are used to treat humans are toxic, expensive and southern G. f. fuscipes populations which were thought to difficult to administer at village settings and also have bad occur as a result of fragmentation during extreme drought side effects [1, 8]. Therefore, tsetse control remains the in East Africa warrants these populations to be treated most effective method of reducing trypanosome infections separately during eradication. Likewise, population study of in animals and human in sub-Saharan countries [6–9]. another tsetse riverine species G. palpalis gambiensis in Glossina fuscipes fuscipes is one of the most important Senegal also indicated the species was sufficiently isolated tsetse species in the Palpalis group, subgenus Nermohina and currently eradication is underway [9, 19]. However, Robineau-Desvoidy [10]. In Tanzania the species is widely population structure of G. p. palpalis in Burkina Faso and distributed along the shores of Lake Victoria supported by G. p. gambiensis in Equatorial Guinea indicated high gene vegetation growing close to the water [11]. The species is flow compared to other riverine tsetse species [20, 21]. found at the eastern margin in Uganda which extends Similarly, population structure study on the same species in further east along the shores of Lake Victoria in Western Cameroon indicated the species had heterozygote deficit Kenya. The fly is also found in southern Sudan, Chad, the suggesting suppression to be the best option to control the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of tsetse species in the area [7]. Congo (DRC) and Angola [12, 13]. Various methods have Little is known on the population structure and gene been employed in tsetse control in different areas in flow of G. f. fuscipes in the Lake Victoria basin in Kenya Africa, but the success of these methods varied. Some of and Tanzania. The information will be useful in the these interventions used in the past included bush clearing planning of effective regional control of the tsetse (destroying vector habitat), elimination of wild animals species in the Lake Victoria basin (the Lake Victoria (reservoir host of the parasites), insecticide ground spray- basin includes parts of Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) ing, live bait technology and the use of baited traps and under Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradica- targets. Despite the fact that tsetse fly densities were tem- tion Campaign (PATTEC) initiative [22]. Lake Victoria porarily reduced, some of the methods used in the past basin is one among important regions which have are not used today because of environment reason and been identified for tsetse eradication by PATTEC. also they are against animal conservation [2, 5, 6]. Sterile This report describes patterns of genetic differenti- Insect Technique (SIT) and Sequential Aerial Technique ation among G. f. fuscipes sampled in Tanzania and (SAT) have become promising methods which have been Kenya and relates them to the recommendations for successful used to eradicate tsetse flies in some parts of guiding future vector control efforts in the region. Africa. SIT was successfully used to eradicate Glossina austeni in Unguja Island in Tanzania [2, 14] and SAT has Methods been successfully applied in the Okavango Delta in north- Study sites and data collection ern Botswana in the eradication of Glossina morsitans Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were sampled at 8 localities centralis [5]. The success of these control interventions around Lake Victoria, with 2 sites in Kenya (KIS and MAN) Manangwa et al. Parasites & Vectors (2017) 10:268 Page 3 of 8 and 6 sites in Tanzania. These sites include 4 locations on [23]. The vegetation of the study sites was bushy vegetation
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