Botanicals: a Phytocosmetic Desk Reference

BOTANICALS: A PHYTOCOSMETIC DESK REFERENCE

Frank S. D’Amelio, Sr.

CRC Press Boca Raton New York

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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

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No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2118-2 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper

I would like to dedicate this book to my beloved mother for her inspiration and never-ending love for botanicals or as she would say “God’s Herbs.” To my wife Josephine for her enduring patience; to my children; to my beloved grandmother Susan, who gave me my first inspiration for the sciences, when on my seventh birthday surprised me with my first microscope and in later years passed on her knowledge of botanicals to me; and to my father for his encouragement and persevering interest in my work through the years; and special thanks to my brother Michael for his most helpful input.

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Botanicals: A Phytocosmetic Desk Reference by Frank S. D’Amelio is a complete Desk Reference covering a large number of botanicals, their various constituents, properties, and uses of importance to plant and cosmetic chemists, pharmacists, herbalists, aromatherapists, and others interested in the properties and uses of botanicals. It is a well written text, nicely illustrated, featuring several hundred monographs of commonly used botanicals. Its pages include various forms of plant extracts, their extraction and identification technologies, and medicinal as well as cosmetic applications. Numerous cosmetic formulations are included, as is an extensive glossary of therapeutic terms and a Botanical Listing for cross-reference purposes. This book is recommended for everyone with interests in the properties and uses of botanicals and their cosmetic applications.

Heber W. Youngken Emeritus Dean and Professor College of Pharmacy University of Rhode Island

This book is intended to be a brief overview of phytochemistry for the cosmetic formulator. It is in no way intended to be a comprehensive book on botanicals; however, I saw the need for some form of reference book that the cosmetic chemist could have handy. Over the past 25 years while working with botanicals, many cosmetic chemists expressed their interest in such a book. I have kept it to the point and researched to find the most common folkloric use of botanicals and their various constituents. It was almost impossible, in this brief overview, to list all the botanicals and their constituents, as many plants contain several hundred compounds. I listed those that I felt would be of greatest interest, and included a brief overview of phytochemistry, eliminating theory and technique as there are many excellent books on this subject which are listed in the bibliography. I have listed current INCI names, with Japanese cross-references. These are, however, constantly changing. In a small book such as this, it is virtually impossible to cover the entire subject of cosmetic and medicinal plants chemistry, but I am confident that the broad spectrum of information included will be very helpful to those involved in cosmetic nutritional and pharmaceutical industries. It is, however, my hope that this book will help to stimulate the reader’s appetite for the further investigation of botanicals.

The healer has been with us for as long as man has existed. Initially, just an observer who noted that a certain leaf or mud next to a particular pond soothed and healed a wound faster. Over time, the tenders of the sick and wounded gathered knowledge about those things in nature that performed best. This knowledge differentiated the healer from the rest of the tribal community. They were the loners out in the fields and woodlands gathering, sorting, observing, experimenting. Always wanting to know more, always wanting to find a more active plant, they never ceased being amazed by natures wondrous cures. Originally, the knowledge was passed from master to pupil as it is today in many cultures we in the West classify as primitive. And then the Babylonian, Chinese, and Egyptian healers began to transcribe their secret remedies on to clay tablets and papyrus. The great healers become scientists — botanists and pharmacologists — whose fame spread throughout the land and whose works are treasured to this day, men like Shen Nong, Theophratus, Mithri- dates, Galen, Dioscorides, and Avicenna. When I think of Frank D’Amelio, the vision is of a latter-day cross between the ancient healer whose eyes widen at the thought of experimenting with an unknown botanical, and the modern plant pharmacologist searching for the active component, but in his heart knowing that the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts. Frank truly loves his chosen field and exudes a boyish enthusiasm whenever we talk of the power of plants. His knowledge is vast and his desire to share that knowledge is the reason for this labor of love. But more than anything, he wants all of us who read this book to truly respect nature’s pharmacy, to use plants wisely, and to demand quality and performance from our suppliers. As formulators and purveyors, all we have at the end of the day is the integrity of that which we produce and sell. Let it reflect brightly upon us.

Joseph Gubernick Estee Lauder

Herbalist and analytical chemist, Frank D’Amelio, Sr. has 31 years of experience in the botanical industry. He is an associate referee on botanical drugs for the Association of Analytical Chemists and a member of the Institute of Food Technologists. He founded Bio- Botanica, Inc., in 1973 and is the author of many articles and books on botanicals.

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I am most grateful to all my friends and acquaintances who assisted in the accomplishment of this book. Special thanks to Joseph Gubernick for taking the time out of his busy schedule to review the manuscript and many thanks for his most useful suggestions; to my secretary Geraldine Saiya for her diligent typing and many late hours; to Gene Berube and Sunyl Ratnayake for proofreading the manuscript; to Gennaro Nunziata for his wealth of knowledge of the botanical business and for the donation of his personal library of over 250 rare books on botanicals; to Bio-Botanica for allowing me to utilize and photograph their facility; and to Lipo Chemicals for contributing their standard formulations with botanicals. I would also like to thank Mary Lou Quinn and Ruth Quimby from the University of Chicago/Napalert for always reacting to my spontaneous needs; and Subhash Kekatpuray for editing Indian botanicals. Special thanks to Professor Dr. Youseff Mirhom for proofreading the manuscript and for his many helpful suggestions; to Violet Liquori for designing the book cover and helping with the illustrations; to Susan Fox of CRC Press for her precious time, patience, and assistance in editing the manuscript; to Barbara Norwitz of CRC Press for her enduring patience; and to all my friends and associates for their help whose names would be almost impossible to list.

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Chapter 1 Phytochemistry 1.1 Constituents of Drugs...... 1 1.1.1 Liquids...... 1 1.1.2 Phenols ...... 1 1.1.3 Tannins...... 1 1.1.4 Proteins ...... 1 1.1.5 Alkaloids...... 2 1.1.6 Carbohydrates...... 2 1.1.7 Glycosides ...... 5 1.1.8 Volatile Oils...... 5 1.1.9 Resins and Resin Combinations ...... 6

Chapter 2 Botanical Examination Procedures 2.1 Botanical Terminology...... 9 2.2 Some Common Terminology ...... 9 2.3 Procedures ...... 10 2.3.1 Microscopical Techniques...... 10 2.3.2 Solubilities...... 11 2.3.3 Physical Constants...... 11 2.3.4 Ultraviolet Light...... 11 2.3.5 Yield to Solvents ...... 11 2.3.6 Ash Determination ...... 11 2.3.7 Assay Procedures ...... 11 References ...... 11

Chapter 3 Quality Control 3.1 Plant Identification ...... 13 3.2 Macromorphology ...... 14 3.3 Micromorphology...... 23 3.4 UV and Visible Spectroscopy of Botanical Constituents...... 24 3.5 Infrared Spectroscopy...... 25 3.6 Thin-Layer Chromatography and Developing Solvent Systems...... 26 3.7 Methods of Identification...... 26 3.8 Gas Chromatography...... 28 3.9 Adulteration of Drugs ...... 30 3.10 Diagnostic Structures of Different Drug Groups ...... 35

Chapter 4 Preparations 4.1 Forms of Extracts ...... 39 4.1.1 Extraction Terminology...... 39 4.1.2 Percolation...... 40 4.1.3 Decoctions ...... 41 4.1.4 Infusions ...... 42 4.1.5 Fluid Extracts ...... 43

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC 4.1.6 Tinctures ...... 44 4.1.7 Preparation of Aromatic Waters ...... 45 4.1.8 Comparison of Extracts and Tinctures ...... 45 4.1.9 Extracts Strengths...... 46 4.1.10 Product Strength, Concentration, and Standardization...... 46 4.1.11 Oleoresins...... 48

Chapter 5 Aromatherapy 5.1 History ...... 49 5.2 Properties of Essential Oils for Use in Aromatherapy...... 49

Chapter 6 Botanicals for Cosmetic Use 6.1 Habitat, Range, Description, Properties, and Constituents ...... 51 6.2 Hair Care Botanicals ...... 225 6.3 Botanical Quick Reference Table ...... 229 6.4 Oriental Botanicals Used in Cosmetics ...... 233 6.4.1 Japanese Botanicals Cross-Reference Table...... 247 6.5 Indian Botanicals...... 253 6.6 Botanical Cross-Reference Table...... 269 6.7 Index of Botanicals by Scientific and Common Names ...... 283

Chapter 7 Marine Natural Products 7.1 Marine Algae...... 289 7.2 Biomedical Potentials of Marine Natural Products...... 295 References ...... 298

Chapter 8 Formulations 8.1 Natural Saponins Base Shampoo...... 299 8.2 Natural Shampoo...... 300 8.3 Cellulite Gel Base ...... 301 8.4 All Natural Blooming Bath Oil ...... 302 8.5 Natural Sunscreen Oil SPF 8+...... 303 8.6 Spray Moisturizer...... 304 8.7 After-Sun Moisturizing Gel with Aloe...... 304 8.8 Super Moisturizing Clear Gel with Lipocare HA/EC...... 305

Chapter 9 Glossary...... 307

1.1 CONSTITUENTS OF DRUGS Plant constituents of medicinal importance form an extensively diverse group of chemical compounds showing greater variation in solubility and stability. They can be broadly classified as follows: (1) fixed oils, fats, and waxes (lipids), (2) phenols, (3) tannins, (4) proteins, (5) alkaloids, (6) carbohydrates, (7) glycosides, (8) volatile oils, and (9) resins and resin combinations

1.1.1 Lipids The term lipid refers to fixed oils, fats, and waxes. They are esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols and closely related derivatives. In plants, lipids are associated with reserve food materials such as proteins. In most cases, they are stored in seeds, spores, and vegetative perennial organs such as bulbs. Fats and fixed oils are generally esters of long-chain fatty acids (such as stearic, palmitic, oleic acids) combined with trihydric alcohol, glycerol; hence, they are also called triglycerides. Waxes contain higher monohydric alcohol moieties such as cetyl, myristyl, and stearyl alcohols instead of the trihydric alcohol. Fats and waxes are extensively used in pharmaceutical preparations for dermatogical applications.

1.1.2 Phenols Phenols are compounds in which one or more hydroxyl groups are directly attached to a carbon atom of an aromatic nucleus. They are widely distributed in plants, usually in combination with sugars as glycosides. Phenols are water soluble and mildly acidic in nature. Polyhydric phenols are powerful reducing agents. Phenolic acids are also abundant in plants as caffeic, ferulic, and coumaric acids.

1.1.3 Tannins Tannins are chemically complex substances. They usually occur as a mixture of polyphenols. They comprise a large group of complex substances that are widely distributed in the plant kingdom and usually localized in specific plant parts such as fruit, barks, leaves, stems, roots, etc. They are generally soluble in water, have astringent action, and usually bitter taste. Tannins precipitate proteins from solution and are able to combine with them, rendering them resistant to proteolytic enzymes. When applied to living tissues, this action is known as astringent action and forms the basis of therapeutic applications of tannins. Tannins are employed in medicine as astringents, both in the gastrointestinal tract and on skin abrasions. In the treatment of burns, proteins of exposed tissues are precipitated, forming a mildly antiseptic protective coat under which regeneration of new tissue takes place. In the antidotal treatment of alkaloidal poisoning, tannin solutions are extremely valuable for inactivating alkaloids by the formation of insoluble tannates. Recently, interesting antiviral and anti-cancer properties have been attributed to certain tannins. There are two distinct groups of tannins: the hydrolyzable or pyrogallol tannins (blue-black with ferric chloride, TS) and the condensed or catechol tannins (green-black with ferric chloride, TS).

1.1.4 Proteins Proteins are nitrogenous organic substances produced by and associated with living matter. They occur in both the plant and animal kingdoms. Those from plants are more easily isolated

in crystalline form. Plants usually store proteins in the form of aleurone grains. Proteins are derived from amino acids, which are the building units. Proteins are of enormous importance in metabolism; only a few isolated proteins are employed as therapeutic agents. Whole glandular products, oil-bearing plant seeds, antitoxins, serums, and globulins contain proteins in combination with other biochemical substances — all of these substances possess therapeutic activity.

1.1.5 Alkaloids The term alkaloid can be defined as a plant base. Alkaloids mean “alkali-like,” referring to the basic nature of these plant constituents. They are essentially basic nitrogenous compounds of vegetable origin, possessing some marked physiological action. The names of alkaloids end in -ine to differentiate them from glycosides, which end in -in. The basicity of alkaloids is usually due to amino nitrogen. Alkaloids occur in many families of flowering plants, particularly in the dicotyledons and less commonly in monocotyledons, gymnosperms, and cryptogams. Alkaloids are found in all parts of plants, but mostly in fruits, stems, bark, roots, leaves, and seeds. Alkaloids are generally insoluble in water and soluble in ether or chloroform and other nonpolar solvents. Being basic in chemical character, they form water-soluble salts with acids. They are usually classified according to the nature of the basic chemical structures from which they derive. Basic chemical structures generally found are phenylalkylamine, pyridine, piperidine, tropane, quinoline, isoquinoline, indole, carboline, imidazole, purine, phenanthrene, and steroidal. It is recently agreed that alkaloids should not be necessarily basic in nature and the nitrogen present might be an amide; for example: colchicine. In fact, alkaloids possess potent physiologic activities. The physiological and pharmacological action of alkaloids varies widely. For example: Analgesic and narcotic: morphine, codeine CNS stimulant: strychnine, brucine, caffeine Mydriatics: atropine, homatropine Myotics: physostigmine, pilocarpine Hypertensive: ephedrine Hypotensive: reserpine, veratrine Vermifuge: pelletierine Local anesthetic: cocaine Antimalarial: quinine Antiemetic: emetine Muscle relaxant: curare Antispasmodic: papaverine Uterine stimulant: ergometrine Antigout: colchicine

1.1.6 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are either aldehydic or ketonic alcohols in which hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same ratio as in water. Carbohydrates are widely used in pharmaceutical preparations in numerous applications. They are broadly classified into three major groups: (1) true sugars, (a) monosaccharides, (b) obligosaccharides; (2) polysaccharides; and (3) derived carbohydrates.

The following is the general pattern of carbohydrate biogenesis:

The photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle can be summarized as follows:

1. True sugars a. Monosaccharides. i. Pentoses: L-arabinose, D-xylose, D-ribose, and apiose. ii. Hexoses: D-glucose (dextrose), D-fructose (levulose), D-mannose, and L-galactose.

Hexose Derivatives Derivative Group replaced New group Example

6-Deoxy sugars C6 hydroxyl –H Rhamnose, epimarose, fucose 2-Deoxy sugars C2 hydroxyl –H Digitoxose, cymarose, diginose, sarmentose, oleandrose, digitalose (these are 2,6-deosy sugars)

Methyl ethers –OH –OCH3

Uronic acids –CH2OH –COOH Glucuronic, galacturonic

Osamines (amino sugars) –OH –NH2 Glucosamine, galactosamine

Sugar esters –OH –O–SO3H

–OH –O–PO3H2

Pentoses –CH2OH –H

b. Oligosaccharides (less than 9 monosaccaride units). Those occurring naturally are usually di-, tri-, and tetrasaccharides i. Disaccharides: Non-reducing: sucrose, trihalose Reducing: maltose, lactose, turanose, cellobiose, gentiobiose, melibiose ii. Trisaccharides: Raffinose (non-reducing). iii. Tetrasaccharides: Stachiose (non-reducing). 2. Polysaccharides (non-sugars). a. Starch: it is the principal food reserve of plants. It gives alpha-D glucose on complete hydrolysis, it is formed of amylose, which is a straight chain of alpha- 1,4-glycosidic bonds (more soluble in water) and amylopectin, which is branched presumably through an additional alpha-1,6-glycosidic bond (less soluble in water and more viscous in solution). b. Dextrins: obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch. c. Glycogen, which is the reserve polysaccharide of the animal kingdom. d. Inulin, a fructosan (molecular weight about 5000) consisting of a linear chain of B-(1,2)-fructofuranose units. e. Cellulose, the most widely distributed skeletal polysaccharide and most abundant and chemically resistant of all substances elaborated by living cells. It is a linear polysaccharide, consisting simply of 1,4-linked B-D-glucopyranose units. f. Lichenin: a cellulose-like polysaccharide that occurs as a cell wall constituent in lichens as Iceland Moss. Unlike cellulose, lichenin is soluble in hot water to form a colloidal solution. It contains both B-1,4- and B-1,6-linkages. g. Dextran: used as a plasma substitute. It is an alpha-1,6-linked polyglucan. 3. Derived carbohydrates: polysaccharide complexes that yield in addition to monosaccharide, their sulfate esters, uronic acids, or amino sugars. They include hemicellulose, pectins, alginates, gums, mucilages, and some microbial polysaccharides. They are natural plant hydrocolloids, transluscent, amorphous substances. They find diverse applications in pharmaceutical industries as tablet binders, emul- sifiers, gelling agents, suspending agents, stabilizers, and thickeners. Therapeuti- cally, they are ingredients in dental and other adhesives and in bulk laxatives. Gums are soluble in water; mucilages do not dissolve but form slimy masses.

1.1.7 Glycosides Glycosides are nonreducing substances that, on hydrolysis brought about by reagents or enzymes, yield one or more reducing sugars among the products of hydrolysis. The non- sugar part of the molecule is called the aglycone or genin; the sugar component is called the glycone. The glycosidic linkages: the usual linkage between the sugar and aglycone is an oxygen linkage, connecting the reducing group of a sugar and an alcoholic or phenolic hydroxy group of the aglycone. Such glycosides, sometimes called O-glycosides, are the most common ones found in nature. Other glycosides do, however, occur; for example, S-glycosides and N-glycosides. In S-glycosides (e.g., sinigrin), the sugar is linked to the thiol (sulfhydryl) group of the aglycone. In N-glycosides (e.g., the streptidine moiety of streptomycin, glucosamine, or adenosine), the sugar is linked to the amino group of the aglycone. There are also C-glycosides (e.g., barbaloin) in which the sugar is linked to the aglycone by a carbon-to-carbon bond. Classification: glycosides are usually classified into the following groups using the chemical nature of the aglycone. 1. Phenol (e.g., arbutin) 2. Alcohol (e.g., Salicin) 3. Lactone or coumarin (e.g., daphnin) 4. Flavone (e.g., rutin) 5. Anthraquinone (e.g., gluco aloe-emodin) 6. Aldehydes (e.g., glucovanillin) 7. Cyanophore (e.g., amygdalin) 8. Thiocyanate (e.g., sinigrin) 9. Steroid (e.g., digitoxin) 10. Saponin (e.g., digitonin) 11. Indoxyl (3-hydroxyindole) (e.g., indican) 12. Others in which are included neutral principles (e.g., crocin and picrocrocin, gentiopicrin and gentiamarin). Function of glycosides in plants: certain functions have been attributed to the glycosides, for example, as sugar reserves, regulating, detoxifying, and defensive roles. Pharmacological activity: glycosides can possess important pharmacological properties; for example, digitoxin, strophanthin, and ouabain are cardiac stimulants; sennosides, cascarosides, and barbaloin are laxatives; sinigrin (after hydrolysis) is a local irritant; salicin is an analgesic; and hesperidin is used for capillary fragility. 1.1.8 Volatile Oils Volatile oils are odorous principles found in various parts of the plant. They are products of plant metabolism. They are called volatile oils because they are volatile in steam and at higher temperatures evaporate. They are also called essential oils because they represent the “essences” or odoriferous constituents of plants. Some families of the phanerogams are rich in species producing volatile oils (about 2000 species, representing about 87 families). The chief families are Pinaceae, Lauraceae, Ruta- ceae, Myrtaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Asteraceae. Occasionally, certain volatile oils are also found in animal sources, for example, in the liver of fish. Depending on the plant family, volatile oils can occur in specialized secretory structures, such as glandular hairs (Lamiaceae and Asteraceae), modified parenchyma or oil cells (Lau- raceae and Piperaceae), oil tubes (ducts) or vittae (Apiaceae), as well as in internal lysigenous or schizogenous passages or glands (Pinaceae and Rutaceae). Volatile oils can be formed directly by the protoplasm, by the decomposition of the resinogenous layer of the cell wall, or by hydrolysis of certain glycosides. In the conifers, volatile oils can occur in all the tissues;

in the rose, they appear in appreciable quantities only in the petals; in cinnamon, only in the bark and leaves; in umbelliferous fruits, only in the pericarp; in the mints, in the glandular hairs of the stems and leaves; and in orange, one kind of oil in the flower petals and another kind in the rind of the fruit. Volatile oils are frequently found in the plant associated with other substances such as gums and resins and they, themselves, tend to resinify on exposure to air. In most cases, essential oils obtained from different organs of the same species have similar compositions; but in few instances, essential oils obtained from different organs of the same plant possess different physical, chemical, and odor characteristics. For example, the essential oil of the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Fam. Lauraceae) is rich in cinnamic aldehyde, while the essential oil prepared from the leaves of the plant contains eugenol as a main constituent. The volatile oil obtained from the root of the same plant, however, is rich in camphor. It should also be noted that the chemical composition of an essential oil prepared from the same organ of one species varies to some degree according to the environmental conditions under which the plant has grown. However, several ecological theories attribute to them such tasks as attraction of insects, thus aiding in cross-pollination of the flowers or many act as repellents to insects or animals (defense agents), thus preventing the destruction of the flowers and leaves. They can also serve as solvents for wound-healing resins. Volatile oils play an important role in the economy of man. They can be used for their therapeutic action; for example, local stimulants, carminatives, diuretics, mild antiseptics, local irritants, anthelmentics, or parasiticides. They can be also used as spices and for flavoring of foods, confections, beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and tobacco. Undoubtedly, the presence of the antiseptic oils in the spices prevents excessive growth of bacteria, resulting in less food spoilage. In addition, they are widely used in perfumery. Classification 1. Hydrocarbon volatile oils: bitter orange, turpentine, juniper, cade, etc. 2. Alcoholic volatile oils: mentha, coriander, geranium, rose, sandalwood, etc. 3. Ester volatile oils: lavender, rosemary, sweet orange, neroli, etc. 4. Aldehyde volatile oils: cinnamon bark, cassia bark, lemon, lemongrass, etc. 5. Ketonic volatile oils: caraway, dill, spearmint, etc. 6. Phenolic volatile oils: cinnamon leaf, clove, thyme, ajowan, horsemint, etc. 7. Ethers: anise, star anise, fennel, parsley, nutmeg, etc. 8. Oxides and peroxides: eucalyptus, cajuput, chenopodium, etc. 9. Non-terpenoid and derived from glycosides: mustard, wintergreen, bitter almond, etc. 1.1.9 Resins and Resin Combinations The term resin is applied to indicate a group of related solid or semisolid substances of very complex chemical nature and variable chemical composition. These substances, however, have somewhat common physical and solubility properties. A strict definition of a resin is not possible. In general, these substances are brittle secretions or exudations of plant tissues, either produced normally or as the result of pathogenic conditions (sometimes induced intentionally to produce the resin). Resins, as a class, are hard, transparent or translucent brittle substances.

They are generally heavier than water (sp. gr. 0.9–1.25). They are amorphous (rarely crystallizable). On heating at comparatively low temperatures, resins soften and finally melt, forming sticky or adhesive fluids, without volatilization or decomposition. When heated in a closed vessel, they decompose and yield empyreumatic products, consisting chiefly of hydrocarbons; but when heated in the air, resins burn readily with a smoky flame, owing to the large amount of carbon present in their structure. Resins are bad con- ductors of electricity and when rubbed become nega- tively electrified. Resins are insoluble in water and hence have little Volatile oil distillation apparatus taste. They are usually insoluble in petroleum ether, with few exceptions (e.g., colophony, when freshly powdered, mastic). Resins dissolve more or less completely in alcohol, chloroform, and ether, forming solutions which, on evaporation, deposit the resin as a varnish-like film. They are also soluble to a great extent in many other organic solvents (e.g., acetone, carbon bilsulfide), as well as in fixed and volatile oils. Resins dissolve in chloral hydrate solution (used for clarification of sections of plant organs). Chemically, resins are complex mixtures of resin acids, resin alcohols, resinotannols, esters, and resenes. Some investigators believe that resins are oxidation products of terpenes. They can be considered as final products in destructive metabolism. Resins are rich in carbon and contain little oxygen in their molecules, but do not contain any nitrogen. Most resins undergo slow change on keeping; they darken in color and become less soluble due to slow oxidation. They are not pure chemical substances, but consist of a mixture of numerous substances. The chemical properties of the resinous substances are based on the functional groups present in these substances. On this basis, they are divided into resin alcohols, resin acids, resenes (neutral inert compounds), and glycosidal resins. Some resins are acidic and when heated with alkalies form soaps (resin soaps). The solutions of resins in alkalies differ from ordinary soap solutions in the fact that they cannot be “salted out” by the addition of common salt, unless very large quantities of salt are employed. In plants, resins occur in different secretory structures, viz. resin cells (ginger), schizogenous or schizolysigenous ducts or cavities (Pinus and Savin), and glandular hairs (cannabis). Resins are preformed in the plant as normal physiological products, but the yield is sometimes increased by injury, as in case of Pinus. Many products (e.g., benzoin and balsam Tolu) are not formed by the plant until it has been injured; that is, they are of pathological origin. The secretion from naturally occurring secretory structure is called primary flow to distinguish it from abnormally formed secretory structures, which is called secondary flow. Resins are usually produced in ducts or cavities; they sometimes do not occur in specialized secretory structures, but impregnate in all the elements of a tissue. For example, in Guaiacum wood, the resin is found in all the tissues of the heart wood of Guaiacum officinale tree (i.e., in the vessels, fibers, wood parenchyma, and medullary rays cells). In this case, they occur as tyloses, cutting off the conduction in these areas to increase the effective use of root pressure and capillarity in forcing water and nutritive materials to tops of these tall trees. It is noteworthy to mention here that, in rare cases (e.g., shellac), the resin occurs as a result of sucking the juice of the plant by scale insects, converting the juice into a resinous substance that covers the insects and the twigs of the plant. The insect (in the case of shellac) is called lac insect, Laccifer lacca, order, Hemiptera; Family Coccidae.

Resins are often associated with volatile oils in more or less homogeneous mixtures, the mixtures being known as oleoresins. These are, therefore, liquid or semi-liquid substances, depending on the amount of volatile oil present. Natural oleoresins are exemplified by turpentine, copaiba, and Canada balsam. Resins also occur in mixtures with gums, the mixtures being called gum-resins. The gum is usually similar in composition to gum acacia but not identical with it and is often accompanied by oxidase enzymes. Since gums are water-soluble carbohydrate derivatives, they can be separated from resins rather easily. Gamboge is the dried exuded resinous emulsion obtained by the incision of the bark of Gar- cinia Hanburyi (Fam. Guttiferae). Proba- bly, the only true medicinal gum-resin is gamboge, which contains no volatile oil. Resins can also occur in association with Gum acacia volatile oil and gum and are called oleo- gum-resin, (e.g., asafoetida). No hard and fast distinction can be made between these three groups because products such as ammoniacum and mastic — which are usually considered as gum-resin and resin, respectively — both contain volatile oil. This means that the nomenclature of these resinous combinations is at best only an artificial one because it is often found that small amounts of volatile oil are present in gum-resins and small amounts of gum in oleoresins. In some cases, resins can also be combined in a glycosidal manner with sugars, as in the resins of the Convolvulaceae, being called glycoresins. Such glycoresins are found in Ipomea, Jalap, and Podophyllum. Balsams, on the other hand, are resinous substances that contain varying amounts of aromatic balsamic acids, viz. benzoic acid or cinnamic acid or both, or esters of these acids. They often contain small amounts of volatile oil as well. The term balsam has been often wrongly applied to some oleoresins, such as Canada turpentine and copaiba (in such terminology as Canada balsam, balsam of Copaiba, etc.) In general, resins and related products are used as rubefacients, expectorants, parasiticides, antispasmodic, carminatives, purgatives, cathartics, counter irritants, and anthelmintics. Mucilages are viscous, usually white amorphous (when in a pure form) masses, that form colloidial, nonadhesive solutions with water. On hydrolysis, they form a mixture of pentoses, hexoses, and uronic acids. Most mucilages contain varying amounts of component sugars (i.e., glucose, xylose, arabinose, galacturonic and glucuronic acids). One well-known mucilage containing plant is psyllium; the seed contains a bulking cathartic. Another is flax seed; like most seeds, it stores the mucilage in the epidermis. The mucilage is deposited directly onto the cell wall during its formation. Mucilage also occurs in the cells and tissues of many different plants; for example, in seaweeds, flowers, fruits, leaves, barks, roots, and seeds. Some plants containing mucilage are althea root (Althea officinalle), slippery elm bark (Ulmus fulva), Comfrey root (Symphytum officinale), and malva (Malva sylvestris). Mucilages are used by herbalists for irritations of varying kinds, and also to assist other healing agents in a formula. Mucilages also form a fine layer on the skin and mucosa, protecting it and helping to soothe inflammation. Mucilages are not readily absorbed by the skin and are more local in action; they can be incorporated into lotions, creams, mouthwashes, cough syrups, ointments, shave creams, etc. (anywhere soothing is required). Mucilages can also be used to help form emulsions.

2.1 BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY Maceration: Soaking a botanical in a suitable solvent(s) for a specified period of time, anywhere from several hours to 3 weeks (21 days) until the soluble portions are dissolved in the menstruum. Expression: The process of forcibly separating liquids from solids. Digestion: Maceration with gentle heat 40–60°C Percolation: A displacement whereby a powdered or cut botanical contained in a suitable vessel, having a bottom outlet, is deprived of its soluble constituents by the descent of a solvent through it. Example: the percolation of water through wood ashes, by which it is exhausted of potash, etc., the solution commonly known as lye. Percolator: (Laboratory scale) A cylindrical or conical vessel with a porous diaphragm (wire mesh, gauze, cotton) below, in which the botanical is loaded and its soluble constituents are extracted by the descent of a solvent (menstruum) through it. Menstruum: A term used to describe the solvent used to extract the botanical of its various constituents (e.g., water, or alcohol and water, acetone, ether, etc.). Percolate: The solution coming from the percolator and containing the extracted substance. Extraction: The act of withdrawing something from an organized structure or unorganized mass, by traction, suction, expression, distillation, treatment with a solvent, or by chemical or physical means. In pharmacy, extraction exclusively means the withdrawal of the soluble constituents from crude or partially refined drugs by treatment with suitable solvents, and to the removal of these constituents from the liquids in which they are held in solution by treatment of the solutions with immiscible solvents or by mechanical methods. Extractive: The material dissolved by the soluble portion of the botanical when it is solubalized in the menstruum, regardless of which of the two extractive processes are involved. Marc: The botanical residue that remains after the extraction (percolation); also referred to as the spent herb.

2.2 SOME COMMON TERMINOLOGY* Cortex — Bark Gummi — Gum Extractum — Extract Oleum — Oil Flores — Flower Radix — Root Folia — Leaf Resina — Resins Folliculi — Pod Rhizoma — Rhizome Fructus — Fruit/Berries Semen — Seed Herba — Entire plant above ground Succus — Juice Botanical extracts should also be identified and fingerprinted. As with the raw materials, both physical and chemical tests should be performed. In addition to the TLC in chemical testing, UV and IR spectroscopic data of the diluted extracts should also be obtained. TLC together

* To be used when purchasing botanicals to properly identify the plant part.

with UV and IR spectra give excellent fingerprints for identification. Most of the time, TLC comparison with a standard active compound is also carried out.

2.3 PROCEDURES 2.3.1 Microscopical Techniques The diameter of starch grains will assist in distinguishing varieties of ipecacuanha and also in distinguishing cassia from cinnamon bark, as well as identification of commercial starches. The diameter of fibers, the width of vessels, the height of sclerenchymatous cells, and the length of stomata are also valuable parameters. Microscopic Measurment Q.C. botanical laboratory. (Photo courtesty of Bio-Botanica®.) A simple method of measuring under the microscope is with the use of an eyepiece micrometer, consisting of a scale mounted in an eyepiece so that its divisions can be read by the eye lens. By its use, an object or part of an object can instantly be made to coincide with the scale and measured. However, because it is the magnified object, and not the object itself, that is compared with the scale, the direct reading are not the actual dimensions, although they are readily converted into such by the use of a factor that is constant for the same objective and tube length. Calibration: To determine this factor a stage micrometer with, for example, the scale of 1 mm. Divided in 100 divisions (1 division = 0.01 mm) is placed on stage and adjusted so that a certain number of divisions of the eyepiece micrometer cover a certain number on the stage micrometer, both of which are carefully counted. If five divisions of the stage scale (= 0.05 mm) cover 20 divisions of the eyepiece scale, then the value of each division of the latter is 0.05 mm ÷ 20 = 0.0025 mm. Therefore, if an object, examined with the same objective and tube length as above, is covered by 50 divisions of the eyepiece scale, its true size is 50 u 0.0025 mm = 0.125 mm. In the same manner, the factors for the other objectives can be determined, always using a definite tube length. Micromeasurements are commonly expressed in microns, also known as micrometers, one thousand of which equal one millimeter (1000 µ = 1 mm or 1 µ = 0.001 mm). That is, 0.125 mm = 125 µ.

Stage micrometer

2.3.2 Solubilities The behavior of certain drugs toward particular solvents is very characteristic, for example, the solubility of colophony in light petroleum, the solubility of balsam Peru in a solution of chloral hydrate, the solubility of castor oil in half its volume of light petroleum and the turbidity produced with two volumes of the solvent, and the solubility of balsam Peru in an equal volume of alcohol, 90%, and the production of a turbidity with a larger volume. 2.3.3 Physical Constants Constants such as specific gravity, optical rotation, viscosity, and refractive index are especially valuable for oils and fats, oleo-resins, balsams, and similar substances. 2.3.4 Ultraviolet Light It is a useful routine procedure to examine in ultraviolet (UV) Soxhlet extraction section light all material upon which one is required to report. Many drugs fluoresce when the cut surface or the powder is exposed to UV radiation. For certain drugs, UV light provides very useful information. Some pieces of rhapontic, Indian and Chinese rhubarb are very difficult to differentiate, especially if they are present in the powdered form. Similarly, Derris elliptica, D. malaccensis, and Lonchocarpus urucu can be distinguished by their characteristic fluorescence. Other drugs, such as hydrastis, calumba, viburnum, and wild cherry bark exhibit characteristic fluorescences under UV light. 2.3.5 Yield to Solvents This is particularly useful for certain drugs that yield appreciable amounts of solutes to certain solvents. Examples: the yield of fixed oil when linseed is extracted with ether; the yield to water of liquorice root; the yield to water of properly fermented gentian as compared to overfermented or nonfermented samples. Solubility in different solvents is a useful means to detect the presence of vegetable debris or foreign material in unorganized drugs. 2.3.6 Ash Determination Ash determination is especially applicable to powdered drugs. When exhausted or mixed with sandy or earthy matter, they will give a high total ash value. However, vegetable drugs can contain varying amounts of calcium oxalate, which yields varying amounts of calcium oxide or carbonate on incineration. The latter is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid; the remaining ash will be the “acid-insoluble ash,” which in such case is often of more value than the “total ash”. In this way, one can obtain evidence of the presence of excessive earthy matter, which is likely to occur with roots and rhizomes and with leaves that are densely pubescent or sticky, and tend to retain earthy matter splashed on to them (e.g., digitalis and henbane leaves). Some drugs when exhausted by water give a considerable “water-soluble ash” and this is an important indication of the presence of exhausted material substituted for the genuine article, such as tea leaves and ginger rhizome. 2.3.7 Assay Procedures Low results obtained by assaying for active constituents such as alkaloids, resins, volatile oil, glycosides, vitamins, or other constituents will determine the presence of inferior or exhausted drugs, while complete absence of the assayed constituent will suggest the substitution of a worthless botanical.

REFERENCES Wallis, T. E., Textbook of Pharmacognosy, 4th ed., J. A. Churchill Ltd., London. 1960. Trease, G. E. and Evans, W. C., Pharmacognosy, 11th ed., Bailliere Tindall, London, 1978.

3 Quality Control

3.1 PLANT IDENTIFICATION Choosing the right plant is very important. Many plants have common names and, therefore, identification can be confusing. For example, Yellow Root can be any one of the following: Zanthorrhiza apifolia Coptis trifolia Jeffersonia diphylla Celastrus scandens Hydrastis canadensis However, plants have different virtues and chemical constituents. As seen in the example, the correct Latin (botanical name) should be used when identifying a plant as well as which part of the plant holds the active constituent, i.e., leaf, fruit, seed, root, flower, stem, etc., or the entire plant. There are also certain constituents that are only available in the fresh plant juice that may be destroyed when dehydrated. Fortunately, very few plants lose their actives upon drying, as most enzymes and compounds remain stable when in a dehydrated state, providing that they were dried properly. The method of identification of the raw material includes physical and chemical testing. Physical tests (organoleptic) usually performed include: comparison of the appearance, color, odor, and taste of the botanical with a known reference standard; and other tests like loss on drying, ash content, and microscopy. Chemical tests include tests for solubility (total extractives) in water, organic solvents (ethanol, methanol, hexane), thin-layer chromatographic behavior of these extracts, etc. The proper method of extraction is also extremely important in order to preserve the inherent properties of the botanical. This starts with the proper solvent system, then maceration, percolation, distillation, super critical fluid extraction, counter current extraction, lipidic extraction, etc. There are many forms of extracts available. One should start with botanical terminology. When ordering a botanical, ask for it by its common name first, then the Latin name along with the plant part desired. Example: Golden Seal Root (Hydrastis canadensis) or Golden Seal Radix. If this is not specified, one could purchase the extract of the plant leaf, which is only 20% the cost of the root extract, and would contain very Botanical herbarium (photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®) little hydrastine, canadine, and berberine.

Lycopodium at u600 (spores) Lycopodium at u10 (spores) (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

3.2MACROMORPHOLOGY The particulars used for crude drugs and herbs differ from those requiredfor purely biological descriptions, because one is frequently concerned with dried structures, which might have been subjected to manipulation during preparation for market. For systematic study, one should be able to classify the material into one of the following morphological groups before further detailed consideration. 1.Dusting powders: One should be able, however, to differentiate between mineral powders, starches, and other natural powders such as spores (Lycopodium), pollen grains, glands, and hairs (Kamala, Lupulin, Cowhage). 2.Woods: Used pharmaceutically consist almost entirely of the tissue named xylem and the great bulk is secondary xylem formed by the activity of the cambium. A large proportion of most commercial woods consists of “heartwood” and consists of dead cells, the vessels being usually blocked by ingrowths. Xylem consisting of conducting elements and living cells is named sapwood eg. Quassia Wood. The transversely cut surface is most useful for providing distinguishing characters showing annual rings and fine parallel lines crossing them at right angles these are the “medullary rays” coniferous woods show only tracheids and no vessels. Fig. 1 is an example of a confierous wood, while Fig. 2 is that of an angiosperm. 3. Barks: Barks consist of the external tissues of stems and roots removed by peeling them after making suitable longitudinal and transverse incisions through the outer layers. Separation of the bark occurs at the weakest layer which is the cambium. Commercial barks may be constituted of some or all of the following tissues, viz., secondary phloem, primary phloem, cortex and periderm (which is the botanical bark). The bark of Witch Hazel (Fig. 3) is a representative example.

Fig. 1 (courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

4.Leaves: Example, argel leaf. They are appendages to the stem showing a great variety of external form. There are, however, two features that are constant, viz., leaves possess neither nodes nor internodes and branches arise in their axils. In the great majority of plants, leaves may be recognized, in addition, by four well-marked characters: (1) their flattened form, (2) their thinness, (3) the presence of chlorophyll, and (4) the presence of supporting or conducting strands — the veins. Some constants are particularly useful for differentiation purposes.* The expanded blade or lamina is not always the whole of the leaf; frequently, the blade is attached to the stem by a stalk — the petiole; if there is no stalk, the leaf is termed sessile. A summary diagram of terms used for leaf description is shown in Fig. 4. 5.Flowers: In a commercial sense, the term flowers is used to include a number of inflorescences in addition to flowers as defined Argel leaf botanically. There are also several drugs that consist of parts of flowers and are named accordingly. All these structures are grouped for the purpose of pharmacognosy under the heading flowers. Individual flowers have a short axis with undeveloped internodes, and the floral leaves are generally arranged in whorls named from below upward, the calyx made of sepals, the corolla made of petals, the androecium made of stamens (filaments and anthers), and the gynaecium made of carpels (ovaries, styles, stigmas). Among common drugs, saffron and corn-silk consist of styles and stigmas only; red poppy, red rose and marigold of petals only; elder flowers of petals and stamens; tilia of inflorescences and bracts. Achillea millefolium L. (Fig. 5) is an example of the flower, and the photograph shows different pollen grains that help in the identification process. Note that the presence of certain elements as pollen grains, fibrous layer of anthers, papillosed epidermis of petals, and distinctly papillosed epidermis of stigma are characteristic features of flowers. 6.Seeds: A seed is a plant member derived from a fertilized ovule; it contains an embryo and is constructed so as to facilitate its transportation. The most important structures found in seeds are the testa showing the hilum, micropyle, and often a raphe. Within the testa is the kernel that is formed of embryo (radicle and cotyledon [s]) with or without endosperm and/or perisperm. The testa can be derived from one or two integuments and is formed of different characteristic layers, which are a useful identification tool. A good example showing the most important structures of seeds and testa is Grains of Paradise (Fig. 6). 7. Fruits: Concurrently with the development of the seed from the ovule, the ovary wall develops to form a case, called the pericarp, for the seeds, thus forming a fruit. The wall of the pericarp is usually divisible into three regions; epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The most important fruits may be classified as:

* Vein-islet number: Average number of vein-islets per sq. mm. Palisade ratio: The average number of palisade cells beneath each of the epidermal cells of the leaf. Stomatal index: The percentage that the number of stomata [S] form of total number of epidermal cells (E) and stomata together in the same unit area; i.e., S u/(E + S).

Fig. 4

Fig. 5Achillea millefolium L.

a.Simple Fruits i.Dry fruits Cremocarps: Umbelliferous fruits Legumes: Senna pods, Tamarind, Cassia Pod Capsules: Vanilla, Poppy, Cardamon ii.Succulent fruits Drupes: Prune, Cocculus Berries: Capsicum, Bael, Orange, Colocynth b.Aggregate Fruits Star Anise c.Compound Fruits Hops In general, fruits show two scars: one from the attachment to the stalk and the other left by the style and stigma. No common detailed structure can be given for fruits as there is a big differentiation between them. However, Caraway (see Fig. 7) may be taken as an example of umbelliferous fruits. 8.Entire organisms (herbs): This includes entire plants as Irish moss and ergot and also drugs derived from flowering plants and consisting of flowering tops that include smaller stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, as well as others consisting of

Grains of paradise — Seed Grains of paradise — Seed (Diagrammatic longitudinal cut u7) (Entire seed u7)

Grains of paradise — Seed (Diagrammatic transverse cut u10) Fig. 6 Grains of paradise seed. Aframomum melegueta Rosc. Family: Zingiberacaea

Fig. 7 Caraway fruit

all parts of the plant growing above ground level, such as Broom Tops (see drawing) and in some instances also the root and rhizome (e.g., Chiretta herb, Fig. 8). 9.Rhizomes and roots: Commercial rhizomes almost always contain a considerable proportion of root and, similarly, commercial roots often consist of rhizome in the upper part. Rhizomes are stem structures growing horizontally, vertically, or in an oblique direction at the surface of the ground in which much of the lower part is embedded. The surface bears scale-leaves with occasional buds in their axils and is often marked with the encircling scars of fallen aerial leaves. The lower surface of horizontal rhizomes and the entire surface of vertical and oblique rhizomes bear the roots, which are usually slender and adventitious. Scars of fallen roots appear as small circular marks. The root differs from the rhizome in that it bears only one kind of lateral appendage, namely, branches, which are similar in construction to the main root: the origin of these branches is described as endogenous because the growing point arises in the pericycle, and the branch bores its way through the comparatively wider cortical tissues. A representative example is White Hellebore (see Fig. 9). 10. Unorganized drugs: These are materials having a structure that is fairly uniform throughout and are not composed of cells built up into definite plant or animal members or organs. They are usually derived from parts of plants or animals by some process of extraction, such as incision (e.g., opium), decoction (e.g., agar), expression (e.g., olive oil), or are natural secretions (e.g., beeswax and myrrh).

3.3 MICROMORPHOLOGY This is a valuable tool for identifying drugs and detecting many adulterants simply by an examination of calcium oxalate crystals or by the details of structure of the trichomes and other features. Thus Surinam quassia is recognized by the absence of calcium oxalate and the predominance of uniseriate medullary rays; the varieties of senna by the vein-islet numbers and by the palisade ratios; many adulterants of belladonna herb by the palisade ratio, by the stomatal index, or by the trichomes. For the detection of adulterants in powdered drugs, knowledge of microscopical structure is essential. Therefore, it is necessary to know the histology of the genuine drug and its common adulterants. For example, rhubarb and ginger are characterized by their non-lignified vessels. Senega root is characterized by the absence of calcium oxalate crystals, starch, fibers, and sclerenchyma; Henna leaf by the absence of starch. Microscopical techniques, however, require years of experience to acquire a really good knowledge of the microscopy of drugs and other plant material. Clearing agents, mountants, and stains are commonly used and a cover glass must always be applied to protect the microscope Plant identification and archiving lenses and facilitate examination. For (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®) microscopical measurements, stage and eyepiece micrometers, as well as camera

Fig. 8

Fig. 9 White hellebore (all three horizontal)

lucida are used. Drugs (dehydrated) should be prepared beforehand for microscopical examination by exposing them to moist atmosphere or by soaking or boiling them in water. Sometimes, chromic/nitric should be used for very hard and lignified material. Alcohol should also be used for examination of mucilage or water-soluble cell contents. Structures are frequently obscured by the abundance of cell contents, the presence of coloring matters, and the shrinkage or collapse of the cell walls. Reagents are therefore used for the removal of cell-contents, for bleaching, and for restoring as far as possible the original shape of the cell wall. Some commonly used mountants are glycerin, alcohol, carbolic acid, lactophenol, clove oil, and Canada balsam have clearing effect. The following clearing and bleaching agents are particularly useful: Chloral hydrate solution: Dissolves proteins, starch, chlorophyll, volatile oils, and resins, and expands shrunken cells. It does not dissolve calcium oxalate crystals and can be used for their detection. Potassium hydroxide solution: 5% aqueous solution is generally used; it rapidly dissolves starch, protein, etc. and causes swelling of cell walls. It should be washed out as soon as clearing is completed as more prolonged action is liable to cause disintegration. Ether–alcohol: Equal parts of ether and alcohol are useful for removal of fixed and volatile oils, fats, resins, tannins, or chlorophyll. Defatting is particularly necessary for oil seeds such as linseed and strophanthus. Solution of chlorinated soda: It removes starch and lignin and bleaches dark-colored sections such as those of many barks and for removing chlorophyll from leaves. Wash sections with water as soon as bleaching is complete. Preparation of isolated elements: Disintegration and isolation of tissues is essential for determining the shape and size of cells and their distribution and relation in the different tissues and layers. The most important reagents used for this purpose are 5% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide for common drugs except sclerenchymatous tissues such as testas of capsicum and colocynth seeds or for the separation of lignified Hand microtome with knife hairs such as those of nux vomica and strophanthus; chromic/nitric is mandatory.

3.4 UV AND VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY OF BOTANICAL CONSTITUENTS The absorption spectra of various plant constituents can be measured utilizing very dilute solutions against a solvent blank using a UV/VIS spectrophotometer. Colorless compounds are usually measured in the 200–400 nm (nanometer) range and colored compounds from 200 to 700 nm. Spectral measurements are an important tool for the phytochemist for the identification of many plant constituents and also for screening crude plant extracts for particular classes of compounds. The most widely used solvent is ethanol. Other solvents include methanol, water, hexane, ether, and petroleum ether (pet ether). Chloroform generally is not used as it absorbs strongly at 200 to 260 nm. When the concentration or the molecular weight of the compound is unknown, absorbance values should be used.

UV spectroscopy is useful in fingerprinting a botanical extract. It can also be used to quantitate, by performing concentration curves utilizing a standard substance and known dilutions.

UV and Visible Absorption Maxima of Some Common Compound Groups Visible spectral range Ultraviolet range Pigment class (nm)a (nm)

Chlorophylls (green) 640–660 and 430–470 Anthocyanins (mauve or red) 475–550 ca. 275 Carotenoids (yellow to orange) 400–500 (a major peak with two minor peaks or inflections) Anthraquinones (yellow) 420–460 3 to 4 intense peaks 220–290 Chalcones and aurones (yellow) 365–430 240–260

a The values are approximate, depending on solvent and pH.

UV/Vis spectrograph (photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

3.5 INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY Spectra of plant extracts can be measured utilizing a recording IR spectrophotometer, either in solutions of chloroform or carbon tetrachloride, or making a mull with Nujol (mineral oil). If the substance is in a solid state, mix with KBr (potassium bromide) using approximately 1 to 2 mg. finely powdered plant material and 10 to 100 mg KBr. Then press under anhydrous conditions. This will give you a transparent disk. The spectrum usually takes approximately 3 to 5 minutes to record, unless one has an FTIR. Many functional groups can be identified by their characteristic vibration frequencies. This makes IR the simplest and often the most reliable method of classifying a compound. In addition, IR can be used not only to fingerprint the botanical but also for comparison to determine if a synthetic is being used as an adulterant.

Characteristic IR Frequencies Approximate positions of characteristic bands above 1200 cm–1 Class of compound Compounds

Alkanes 2940 (S), 2860 (M), 1455 (S), 1380 (M) Aromatics 3050 (W-M), 2100–1700 (W), 1600, 1500, 1580 (W-M) Alcohols and phenols 3610 (W-M), 3600–2400 (broad), 1410 (M) Esters/lactones 1820-1680 (S) Carboxcylic acids 3520 (W), 3400–2500 (broad M), 1760 (S), 1710 (S) Amines 3500 (M), 3400 (M), 3400-3100 (variable), 1610 (M) Cyanides 2225 (W-S) Isocyanates 2270 (VS)

Note: Band intensities: W = weak, M = medium, S = strong, VS = very strong.

3.6 THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) From the variety of chromatographic methods presently available, TLC has become widely adopted for rapid and positive analysis of drug and cosmetic preparations. The main reasons include: (1) results can be obtained in a very short time; (2) semiquantitative information of the major active compounds can also be obtained; (3) it gives a chromatographic fingerprint that can be documented; and (4) it is inexpensive. The procedure requires very little equipment and great sensitivity can be achieved with microgram quantities. The major absorbent used in TLC is silica gel 60 with a fluorescent indicator in it (silica gel 60 F254). Aluminum oxide is also sometimes used. Precoated absorbents on glass plates, aluminum, or plastic sheets are also commercially available. The reproducibility is excellent on glass plates. The other advantage of a glass plate is that sometimes the plate has to be heated to a certain temperature (e.g., a plate sprayed with anisaldehyde–sulfuric acid must heat for 105°C for 5 minutes). In addition, strong spray reagents can be sprayed onto glass plates (e.g., sulfuric acid). Some constituents in the extract can be seen under UV light (wavelength 254 or 365 nm) if the plate has the fluorescent indicator in it. Reference compounds are needed as markers when performing TLC. Once the TLC plate is spotted with the extract, it must be developed in a suitable solvent system using a closed developing chamber (usually a glass chamber) to separate the compounds. It is customary to line the inside of the development chamber with filter paper in order to help saturate the atmosphere inside with the solvent phase. (The exception would be when using water as the solvent; then the filter paper can be eliminated.) When development is complete, the compounds can be visualized using a spray reagent and/or long or short UV rays. TLC has wide application in phytochemistry and can be used for almost any class of compound, with the exception of the highly volatile constituents.

3.7 METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION The method of identification of the raw material includes physical and chemical testing. The physical tests usually performed include: comparison of the appearance, odor, and taste of the material with the standard reference sample. Other tests like loss on drying, ash content histology, and powder microscopy are also performed. Some typical aromatic notes that are hard to forget would be Asafoetida, Valerian, Lavender, Chamomile, etc.; as one gains experience, one can just look at the herb or even fragments of it and be able to identify it. Chemical tests are solubility (total extractives) in water, organic solvents (usually methanol), and thin layer chromatographic behavior of these extracts.

A Brief List of TLC Developing Solvent Systems Compound Absorbent Solvent system Detection group

Alkaloids Silica gel Methanol:chloroform (85:15) UV Toluene:ethyl acetate:diethylamine Dragendorff (70:20:10) Anthocyanins Silica gel n-Butanol:acetic acid:water (40:10:20) UV Cellulose Anisaldehyde–sulfuric acid Cardiac glycosides Silica gel Ethyl acetate:methanol:water (81:11:8) Kedde reagent, antimony chloride Chloroform:methanol:water (65:35:10) Flavonoids Silica gel Chloroform:Acetone:Formic Acid (75: UV, natural product, reagent 16.5: 8.5) Indoles Silica gel Chloroform:ethyl acetate:formic acid p-Dimethylamino (5:4:1) cinnamaldehyde Monosaccharides Silica gel n-Butanol:acetic acid:ether:water Aniline hydrogen phthalate (9:6:3:1) and UV Phenols Silica gel Acetic acid:chloroform (1:9) Folin reagent

Polyacetylenes Silica gel Chloroform:methanol (1:9) Isatin/H2S04 Saponins Silica gel Chloroform:methanol:water (64:50:10) Vanillin/sulphuric acid n-Butanol:water (1:1) Anisaldehyde/sulphuric acid Terpenes Silica gel Chloroform:methanol (95:5) Vanillin/sulphuric acid Ethyl acetate:methanol:water (77:15:8) Anisaldehyde/sulphuric acid

Note: This table contains only suggestions of solvent systems and is by no means comprehensive.

Densitometer (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Crude drugs have always been subjected to different and extensive adulteration processes; hence, proper identification of the starting material is crucial and of paramount importance. There is a simple quantitative test to check for powder adulteration. The total extractives can

be taken. This usually requires overnight extraction along with a reference standard; the extract should be within 10% of the reference standard. Botanical extracts should also be identified and fingerprinted. As with the raw materials, both physical and chemical tests should be performed. In addition to the TLC in chemical testing, UV and IR spectroscopic data of the diluted extracts should also be obtained. TLC, together with UV and IR spectra, give excellent fingerprints for identification. When the material has passed previous scrutiny, it is worthwhile to analyze it quantitatively for its main active ingredient(s) using appropriate colormetric, spectrometric, or chromatographic (GLC, HPCL, etc.) procedures in order to establish its strength. Powdered botanicals have been known to be adulterated in the past with various diluents (e.g., rice hulls, spent herb). The simple test would be an overnight extractive: determination against the known extractives of the same plant. If there is a diluent added, such as rice hulls or spent herb, it will show up by having less soluble solids. Example: Overnight extractives of Horehound herb should be 25%.

3.8 GAS AND LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY Gas chromatography, a separation technique, has gained much attention in a broad range of applications and fields of study. The demand for gas chromatographic (GC) systems has grown tremendously over the past several years, with expected growth well into the next generation. The versatility of GC has made it an important tool for the separation of substances in many different disciplines. In phytochemistry, GC is now being used for the quantitative and qualitative analyses of many plants that were traditionally analyzed by UV absorption after lengthy extractions or column chromatography. For plant volatiles and essential oils, it provides fast and accurate separations and can be used to assay the substances against a known reference standard. GC can also be used as a secondary means of identifying plants. After extraction of the plant material, the resulting solution is properly prepared and is injected into the GC, and a chromatogram is obtained using a programmed method and can be compared to a known herb/botanical standard. This is also referred to as “fingerprint analysis.” However, GC is basically used for the identification of any substance that will volatilize. As the market demands more precise and informative information concerning the ingredients and chemical constituents, the use of the GC will continue to grow. It has become an irreplaceable tool for the analysis of plants and plant extracts for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. GC/MS is also a very valuable tool for the phytochemist. GC/MS instrumentation can be purchased with software that will enable the analyst to create his/her own library or a library that contains thousands of compounds can be purchased. However, it is recommended that the analyst create his/her own library of known compounds and also purchase what is presently available on the market. The next instrument of great value is the Integrity LC/MS (Courtesy of Waters Corpora- tion). This system, comprised of an Alliance HPLC System, photodiode array detector, and single-quadrupole Thermabeam mass detector, separates and quantifies analytes in complex extracts and transports the analytes into the mass detector where analyte molecules are fragmented into well-characterized, information-rich electron ionization spectra. From these spectra, analysts can deduce the intricate details of the molecular structure of natural products. With library search software, analysts can compare spectra to stored spectra of hundreds of thousands of known compounds and confidently identify many target compounds. System control, data acquisition, and results management are all performed by Waters Millennium Chromatography Software.

GC/MS (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Integrity LC/MS (Photo courtesy of Waters® Corporation)

The Waters Alliance HPLC System featuring the Micromass Platform LC Mass Detector is comprised of a Waters Alliance HPLC System, photodiode array detector, and single- quadrupole Platform LC Mass Detector made by Micromass, Ltd. This system is for scientists who want to quantify and confirm the identity of target natural compounds in complex extracts

Waters Allience LC\MS systme featuring the micromass platform LC detector (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

— some of which may be present at low levels — by ascertaining their molecular weight. The HPLC front-end resolves the target compounds and transports them into the mass detector which converts the sample stream into electrically charged molecular ions which are then separated by charge and produce what is known as a mass chromatogram. Instrument control, data acquisition, and reporting is accomplished with Micromass MassLynx Software. Another useful instrument available to the analytic chemist is the scanning densitometer. It can be used to measure the spot density of a chromatogram, enabling the analyst to quantitate (approximately) the compound by the density at a specific RF value (see Page 27). 3.9 ADULTERATION OF DRUGS Adulteration constitutes a very serious problem with crude drugs, and often occurs when a drug is difficult to obtain or when its price is comparatively high. The adulterator chooses a suitable material that is cheap and readily available. While the macroscopic resemblance is essential for the entire material, in the case of powdered drugs, the color and general texture are more important. Hence, the adulterant can be any kind of material, not necessarily belonging to the same morphological group as that of the genuine drug; for example, powdered guaiacum wood has been used to adulterate powdered nux vomica and dextrin to mix with powdered ipecacuanha. Methods used for adulteration include: 1. Manufacture of substitutes simulating the general form and appearance of various drugs, such as ergot, nutmeg, coffee, beeswax, honey, etc. 2. Substitution of inferior commercial varieties; for example, adulteration of Alexan- drian senna by Arabian, Obovate, or Provence senna, or Cochin, African, and Japanese ginger to adulterate Jamaica ginger.

Suggested Chromatographic Applications Chart Note: This list is only suggestions and by no means comprehensive Marker or Genus major constituents Analytical system

Aesculus Aescin TLC: Silica; 1,2-dichloroethane-ethanol-methanol-water (50:20:20:6); spray detection 1% vanillin and 5% sulfuric acid in ethanol; Rf 0.46. Arctium Inulin HPLC: TSK G3000PW (7.5 mm i.d./65 cm); mobile phase, distilled water; detection, 190 nm flow rate, 1.0 ml/min. HPLC: Zorbax ODS (4.6 mm i.d. u 25 mm); mobile phase,

CH3CN-H2O (73:27); flow rate, 1.0 ml/min. Baptisia Lupine alkaloids, GC: HC1 washed silanized chromosorb W coated with one of cytisine these: 3% XE-60, 5% DC560, or 3% SE-30; 15 psi argon; Anagyrine, 220–223°C. 13-OH sparteine, thermopsine, baptifoline, sparteine, lupanine, flavonoids HPLC: BONDPACK C18 mobile quercetin phase, water- methanol-acetic acid Kaempferol (65:30:5); flow rate, 3.1 ml/min. Apigenin, luteolin, genistein

Calendula Calenduladiol, ursadiol TLC: AgNO3 treated silica TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ethyl acetate-formic acid-acetic acid-water (100:11:11:27); detection: Naturstoff Reagent UV 365 nm.. Centella Asiaticoside HPLC: Water’s Carbohydrate Analysis Column (3.9 mm u 30 cm); mobile phase, acetonitrile-water (83:17); flow rate, 2.5 ml/min.; detection, UV 202 nm. Echinacea Polysaacharide HPLC: DEAE Sepharose C1-6B (2.6 u 50 cm): mobile phase, 0.02 M Pi buffer pH 7.5, followed by 0.0–1.0 M NaC1 gradient. HPLC: P-Bondagel E-250, E-500 and E-100 (Waters); mobile phase, 0.2 M Pi buffer pH 7; UV detection (homogencity test). Sugars: arabinose, HPLC: Water’s Carbohydrate Analysis Column (3.9 mm x 30 xylose, galactose, cm); mobile phase, acetonitrile-water (83:17); flow rate, rhamnos 2.5 ml/min; detection, R1,4x. Eleutherococcus Ginsenosides, HPLC: Water’s Carbohydrate Analysis Column (3.9 mm u panaxatriol, 30 cm); mobile phase, acetonitrile-water (84:16); flow rate, panaxadiol, panaxoside 2 ml/min; detection, UV 202 nm.

Eleutherosides TLC: Kieselgel developed w/CHC13-MeoH-water (70:30:10); detection UV 365 nm and vanillin in phosphoric acid. Ephedra Ephedrine HPLC: Zorbax CN; mobile phase, 0.0009 M dibutylaminephosphate pH 2.2; flow rate, 0.8 ml/min for 7 min, then 1.5 ml/min; UV 320 nm detection. HPLC: Ion pair TSK gel LS-410 5p ODS bonded silica gel (4 mm i.d. u 15 cm); mobile phase, water-acetonitrile-sodium dodecyl sulfate-phosphoric acid (65:35:0.5:0.1) flow rate, 1 ml/min; 50°C. TLC: Kieselgel developed w/toluene-ethylacetate-diethylamine (70:20:10) detection, ninhydrin or dragendorff spray.

Suggested Chromatographic Applications Chart Note: This list is only suggestions and by no means comprehensive Marker or Genus major constituents Analytical system

Ephedrine HC1 HPLC: u BONDAPAK octadecylsilane C18 10u (8mm u 10 cm): guard column, C18 corasil BONDAPAK 37-50 u (3mm u 2.5cm); mobile phase, 0.01 M potassium phosphate monobasic pH 5.7 & 5.5-methanol (67:33); flow rate, 2.0 ml/min.

Fucus Fucole TLC: Kieselgel developed w/CHC13-Me2CO (9:1); spray vanillin

in H2SO4 Ginko Flavonoid glycosides HPLC: Hibar RT 250-10 kaempferol 3-0-glycoside (Lichrosorb RP-18 7u 250 quercetin 3-0-glycoside mm u 10 nm i.d., Merck(; isohamnetol 3-0-rutinoside mobile phase, water-quercetin 3-0- rutinoside acetonitrile-acetic acid: flow rate, 6 ml/min; detection, Hewlet-Packard 1040 M high-speed spectrophotometer CCC: Ito (2.6 mm, i.d., 66 m capacity 350 ml); phase A: water; phase B: ethyl acetate; phase C: ethyl acetate-2-butanol (6:4). Start w/ 350 ml phase A, introduce sample, begin rotation, 2 liters phase B and C; flow rate, 4.5 ml/min.; detection, UV 340 nm. HPLC: Hibar Lichrosorb-Diol 5m (0.4 cm i.d. u 25 cm), w/guard; mobile phase, hexane-chloroform-tetrahydrofuran (gradient); flow rate, 1 ml/min; detection, UV 330 nm. Gymnema Gymnemagenin HPLC: u BONDAPAK C 18 gymnemic acid mobile phase, methanol-water (50:50) flow rate, 2 ml/min.

Harpagophytum Harpagoside TLC: Silica gel developed harpagide w/ CHC13-EtOH (2:1); spray

vanillin-H2SO4 or phloroglucin-HC1. HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18 mobile phase, methanol-water (50:50); detection UV 278 nm; flow rate, 2 ml/min. TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ ethyl acetate-formic acid-water

(77:15:8); vanillin in H2SO4.

Hydrastis Hydrastidine, berberine, TLC: silica developed w/CHC13-MeOH (93:7)

canadine, canadaline, CCD: Craig-Post Apparatus (200 stages); CHCl3-phosphate citric hydrastine acid buffer (10 ml:10 ml) with discontinuously decreasing pH. TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ n-propanol-formic acid-water (90:1:9); detection UV 365 nm; hydrastine Rf 0.05. TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ toluene-ethyl acetate-diethylamine (70:20:10); detection, UV 365 nm; hydrastine Rf 0.9. Marrubium Marrubiin LC: Alumina eluted w/ ethyl ether-pet ether (8:2)

TLC: kieselgel developed w/ CHC13-MeoH (95:5); detection,

vanillin in H2SO4; Rf 0.5. Flavonoids, apigenin, HPLC: BONDPACK C18; mobile phase, water-methanol-acetic luteoline, quercetin acid (65:30:5); flow rate, 3.1 ml/min. Passiflora Vitexin HPLC: Zorbax ODS (2.0mm i.d. u 25 cm at 75°C); mobile phase, methanol-water (15% to 95%, increasing 3%/min); flow rate, 0.5 ml/min; 75°C; detection, UV 270 nm. HPLC: Zorbax-ODS; mobile phase, ethanol-water gradient containing 0.1 M phorphoric acid. HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18 (3.9 i.d. u 30 cm); mobile phase, isopropanol-tetrahydrofuran-water (5:15:85); flow rate, 1.5 ml/min; detection, UV 340 nm. HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18; mobile phase, acetonitrile-acetic acid-water (gradient).

Suggested Chromatographic Applications Chart Note: This list is only suggestions and by no means comprehensive Marker or Genus major constituents Analytical system

HPLC: Zorbax ODS (2.0) mm i.d. u 25 mm); mobile phase, methanol-water (15 to 95% increaseing 3%/min); flow rate 0.5 ml/min; detection, UV 270 nm. Rumex Essential oils GLC: Yanaco-G8 w/ flame ion detector; Carbowax-20M on 80–100 mesh Chromosorb W (2.25m u 3 mm); temp., 70 to 200°C increasing 2°C/min; helium flow, 30 ml/min. Salix Salicin HPLC: Spherisorb ODS II 3u; mobile phase, tetrahydrofuran- water-methanol (gradient); detection, UV 230 nm. Salicylic acid HPLC: u BONDAPAK-phenyl (3.9 mm u 30cm); mobile phase, 30% MeoH in 5 mM tetrabutylammonium phosphate pH 7.5; detection, UV 313 nm. Schizandra Schizandrin,

gomisin TLC: Silica developed w/hexane-acetone (5:1) spray, 50% H2SO4. Scutellaria Catalpol HPLC: Develosil ODS-5; mobile phase, tetrahydrofuran-dioxane- methanol-acetic acid-phosphoric acid 5%-water (145:125:50:20:2:658). HPLC: ODS (TSK gel LS-410) 5u (4mm i.d., u 150 mm); mobile phase, water-acetonitrile (68:32)-5 mM tetra-n-amylammonium bromide, pH 4 w/ phosphoric acid; flow rate, 1.0 ml/min; detection, UV 280 nm. Serenoa Mannitol, caproic acid, HPLC: Water’s Fatty Acid, analysis Column (3.9 mm u 30 cm): caprylic acid, capric mobile phase acetonitrile-tetrahydrofurane-water (45:20:35); acid flow rate, 2.0 ml/min; detection, R1. Trifolium Isoflavones, HPCL: u BONDAPAK C18 (3.9 mm i.d. u 30 cm); mobile phase, formononetin, methanol-water (27:73); flow rate, 2.5 ml/min.; detection, UV biochanin-A, genistein, 254 nm daidzein, prunitrin Calycosin, HPLC: Partisil-10 ODS-2 (4.6 mm i.d. u 25 cm); mobile phase, pseudobaptigenin methanol-water (2.1:1); flow rate, 1.0 ml/min; detection, UV 250 nm w/ shift reagents. HPLC: Lichrosorb RP-18 5m (4 u 250 mm); mobile phase, acetonitrile-water (gradient); flow rate, 1.8 ml/min. Vaccinium Arbutin, cannivonine HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18; mobile phase, water- methanol- acetic acid (42:50:8). HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18 (4.6 mm i.d. u 25 cm) u 2 in series; mobile phase, water-methanol-acetic acid (53:37:10); flow rate, 0.3 ml/min; detection, UV 280 nm. HPLC: Hypersil ODS 3u (0.5 u 10 cm); mobile phase, formic acid-water-methanol (gradient); flow rate,1.5 ml/min.; detection, photodiode array. HPLC: u BONDAPAK C18 10u (4 mm i.d. u 300 mm); mobile phase, methanol-water acetic acid (19:71:10); flow rate, 4 ml/ min.; detection, UV 280 & 546 nm.

Suggested Chromatographic Applications Chart Note: This list is only suggestions and by no means comprehensive Marker or Genus major constituents Analytical system

Valerian Valepotriates, HPLC: uBONDAPAK C18 (mm i.d. u 30 cm); mobile phase, acevaltrate, methanol-water (60:40); 2.7 ml/min; detection, UV 256 & valerosidatum, valtrate 206 nm. HPLC: Spherisorb Silica S5W (4.6mm i.d. u 250 mm, 5u Chrompack); mobile phase, 0.8% methanol in hexane; flow rate, 2.0 ml/min; detection, UV 254 nm. TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ toluene-ethyl acetate (75:25); detection, conc. acetic acid-hydrochloric acid (2:8). TLC: Kieselgel developed w/ hexane-methylethylketone (80:20); detection, dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent. Sesquiterpenes, GLC: 1.5% SE-30 Chromosorb W 60-80 mesh (2.25 m u 4mm); valeranone detection, hydrogen flame ionization. Vinca Vincristine, vincamine HPLC: LiChrosorb-RP-8; mobile phase, acetonitrile-0.01 M ammonium carbonate (47:53); flow rate, 1.5 ml/min; detection, UV 298 nm. HPLC: u BONDPAK C18 (3.9 mm u 30 cm), 2 connected in

series; mobile phase, acetonitrile-0.01 M Na2HPO4 pH 7.4 (1:1), flow rate 10 ml/min; detection, UV 254 nm. Vitex Flavonoids, vitexin, TLC: Kieselgel-DC eluted w/toluene-butanone (9:1); UV vitexinine detection before and after spraying with aturstoffreagent. HPLC: Zorbax-ODS; mobile phase, ethanol-water gradient containing 0.1 M phorphoric acid.

3. Substitution of exhausted drugs. The dried exhausted material sometimes closely resembles the genuine drug; for example, cloves and umbelliferous fruits after preparation of their volatile oils. 4. Substitution of apparently similar but cheaper natural substances, usually having no relation to the genuine drug. Ailunthus species can be substituted for belladonna, senna, mentha, etc; peach and apricot kernels for almonds; scented bdillium for myrrh; and chestnut leaves for hamamelis leaves. 5. Addition of worthless heavy material such as sand, stone, boiler scale, or lead shot. Addition of barium sulfate to silver-grain cochineal and manganese dioxide to black-grain cochineal are other examples. 6. Addition of synthetic principles to fortify inferior products, such as adding citral to oil of lemon, or benzyl benzoate to balsam Peru. 7. The occurrence of large amounts of parts of the plant other than that which constitutes the drug. For example, excessive amounts of stems might be present in drugs, such as lobelia, stramonium, or hamamelis leaves. 8. Powdered drugs are even more susceptible to adulteration by powdered waste products of suitable color and density; for example, powdered olive stones, guaiacum wood, hazelnut shells, walnut shells, coconut shells, almond shells, dextrin, etc. Sometimes, the color of the adulterant needs adjustment by roasting to the correct tint.

3.10 DIAGNOSTIC STRUCTURES OF DIFFERENT DRUG GROUPS 1. Dusting powders: In addition to the specific chemical tests, the microscopical structure is a definite confirmation of the nature of the powder. 2. Woods: Structures present: Vessels, fibers, wood parenchyma, and medullary rays, which often cross the fibers and vessels. The powder is usually entirely lignified. Structures absent: Cork, sieve tubes, ordinary cellulose parenchyma. Vessels are absent from the wood of most gymnosperms (e.g., pine and juniper). Nut shells and fruit stones, in powder, consist almost entirely of lignified stone cells, with a few pieces of spiral vessels and cellulose parenchyma. 3. Barks and galls: Structures present: Sieve tubes and cellulose parenchyma. Fre- quently also cork, pericyclic and phloem fibers, stone cells, calcium oxalate crystals, starch grains, and occasionally secretory tissue (e.g., oil cells and laticiferous cells or tubes). Structures absent: Epidermal tissues, palisade cells, xylem vessels, tracheids, and aleurone grains. 4. Leaves: Structures present: Epidermis with stomata, cellulose parenchyma, not very abundant small-sized vascular elements. Frequently also trichomes, glands, palisade cells, and crystals of calcium oxalate. Foliage leaves contain chlorophyll. Leaves from bulbs contain no chlorophyll. 5. Flowers: Structures present: Pollen grains, fibrous layer of the anther wall, papillose surface of the stigma. Frequently also delicate yellow, red, or blue fragments of leaf-like structures showing a slightly papillose epidermis. 6. Seeds: Structures present: Aleurone grains are always present. A little vascular tissue, consisting of small-sized elements only. Some form of carbohydrate reserve (e.g., starch, hemicellulose, or oil). 7. Fruits: Structures present: The same structures as for seeds and also more highly developed vascular tissues and other lignified and strongly built elements from the pericarp, often including a well-marked epidermis and a sclerenchymatous endocarp. 8. Herbs: Structures present: All structures characteristic of both leaves and flowers. Also epidermis, vessels, fibers, and parenchyma characteristic of herbaceous stems, frequently particles of small seeds, especially the diagnostic epidermis. 9. Rhizomes and Roots: Structures present: Cork and vascular tissues in varying amounts, usually abundant parenchyma, which often contains starch in large amounts. Structures absent: Chlorenchyma, palisade tissue, and aleurone grains. 10. Unorganized drugs: These can be sorted by first observing the solubility toward alcohol and then applying other tests. Microscopical examination, however, will be useful for detecting any foreign structure or adulterant.

Reagents For The Detection of Phytochemical Constituents by Color Reaction Caution: Extreme caution should be used when preparing the following reagents (fume hood, protective glasses, gloves, masks, etc.)

Acacia, Mucilage of: 4 parts gum acacia dissolved in 6 parts water. Alkanna, Tincture of: 1 part bruised Alkanet root macerated in 5 volumes Red with oils, resins, cutinized and alcohol (90%) for a week and then filtered. suberized walls. Keep for 6 months. To be used diluted with equal volume of water. Dilution better done on the slide.

Aniline Chloride Solution of: 2 g dissolved in a mixture of 60 cc alcohol (95%) and Yellow with lignified walls, etc. 38 cc water, with 2 cc hydrochloric acid added. To be freshly prepared. Benzidine, Solution of: 1 g dissolved in 100 cc alcohol. To be freshly prepared. Blue with oxidizing substances. Braemer’s Reagent: 10 g sodium tungstate and 20 g sodium acetate dissolved Brownish precipitate with tannins. in 100 cc water. Bromine Water: A saturated aqueous solution (about 1 in 30). Calberla’s Solution: Glycerine 5 ml For staining pollens. Alcohol (ETOH) 10 ml

D.I. H2O 15 mil 2 drops Basic Fuchsin (saturated aqueous solution)

Chloral Hydrate Solution: 5.0 g chloral hydrate is dissolved in 20 ml D.I. H2O with Used to clarify. the aid of heat. Chlorinated Soda Solution: 30 g crystalline sodium carbonate dissolved in 50 cc of Used for clearing and bleaching. water; then mixed with 20 g chlorinated lime triturated with 150 cc water; the mixture ocasionally shaken during 3 or 4 hours and then filtered. Chlorophyll, Alcoholic Solution of: Can be prepared by extracting some green leaves, killed Green with oils, suberin, etc. The reaction by steam, with alcohol (90%) on a water bath. To be is better carried out in the dark. freshly prepared. Chlor-Zinc-Iodine Solution: 30 g zinc chloride dissolved in 10 cc water and to this (Schulze’s Solution) is added a solution of 1 g iodine and 5 g potassium Blue with cellulose and starch iodide in 4 cc water; left for some time, filtered, if necessary, through glass wool. Deteriorates on keeping. Chromic and Nitric Acid: Dissolve 10 g chromium trioxide in 15 cc nitric acid For the disintegration and isolation of the (70%) and add water to 100 cc. elements of lignified tissues. Corallin Soda: To be freshly prepared by mixing 1 volume of solution Red with callose , ligno, cellulose, starch, of 5% of corallin in alcohol (90%) with 20 volumes of and some mucilages. 25% solution of sodium carbonate in water. Cuoxam or Ammoniacal Solution of To be freshly prepared by rubbing down 1 g copper Copper Oxide: carbonate in a mortar with 20 cc water and then (Schweizer’s Reagent) Dissolves gradually adding, with continued stirring, 20 cc strong cellulose. ammonia (sp. gr. 0.880). Dragendorff Reagent: Add 7.0 g sodium iodide and 2.6 g basic bismuth Orange, red color of precipitate with carbonate to 25 ml glacial acetic acid and boil 3 to 4 min. alkaloids. Let solution stand for approximately 12 hours and filter off the sodium acetate (precipitate). Take 20 ml of the clear filtrate (red-brown) and mix with 80 ml ethyl

acetate and 0.5 ml D.I. H2O. Store in amber bottle. Erdmann’s Reagent: 10 drops dilute nitric acid (1%) in 20 cc sulfuric acid. Alkaloids (phenanthrene)

Fehling’s Solution: Solution A: 34.64 g copper sulfate and 0.5 cc sulfuric Red precipitate with reducing substances acid dissolved in water and made up to 500 cc. such as reducing sugars (e.g., Solution B: 176 g sodium potassium tartrate and 77 g dextrose). of sodium hydroxide dissolved in water and made up to 500 cc. Equal volumes of solutions A and B are mixed and boiled immediately before use.

Ferric Chloride Solution: 1.0 g ferric chloride is dissolved in 60 ml D.I. H2O To detect tannins: (phenolic hydroxyl groups)

Blue-black or green-black color is 1 ml stock solution is diluted with 9 ml D.I. H2O prior observed. to use. Froede’s Reagent: 1 g ammonium molybdate in 100 ml sulfuric acid Alkaloids (opium) Glycerin, Dilute: 1 volume glycerin diluted with 2 volumes water. Used for mounting. Hydrochloric Acid: Dilute (10%) and concentrated (33%) Dissolves calcium oxalate crystals; gives yellow with colchicine; the strong solution will dissolve silk. Indicator, Universal: Add 2 drops of the indicator to 5 cc of the liquid; note Approximate pH determination the coloration and read off from the table, on the label, the corresponding approximate pH. Iodine Solution: 1.27 g iodine and 0.5 g potassium iodide dissolved in Brown precipitate with alkaloids and as 3 ml water and made up to 100 ml. iodine water. Iodine Water: 1 volume iodine solution diluted with 5 volumes water. Blue with starch and amyloids; yellow or brown with proteins Lactophenol (Amann’s): A mixture of 20 g phenol, 20 g lactic acid, 40 g glycerin, Used for clearing and mounting. and 20 ml water. Lead Subscetate Solution: 1.75 g lead monoxide, in powder, added to a solution of Granular precipitates with gums and 2.5 g lead acetate in 75 cc water; left aside for 48 hours mucilages. with occasional shaking; filtered, then sufficient recently boiled and cooled water is passed through the filter to produce 100 ml. Lime Water: 1 g calcium hydroxide shaken thoroughly and repeatedly Carbon dioxide with 100 ml water. Set aside until clear, and the clear liquid is siphoned when required for use. Mandelins Reagent: 1 g ammonium vanadate in 200 g sulfuric acid. Alkaloids (strychnine) Mayers Reagent — For Alkaloids: Precipitate with alkaloids (except the 1.353 g mercuric chloride in 60 ml water, mixed with a purine bases and certain other alkaloids, solution of 5 g potassium iodide in 20 cc of water, and e.g., colchicine) then diluted to 100 ml with water.

Methylene Blue: 0.4% alcoholic solution. Stains some mucilages, lignin, suberin, and cutin blue. Millon’s Reagent: 1 cc mercury dissolved in 9 ml fuming nitric acid in a Red precipitate with proteins flask placed in cooled water, and then diluted with equal volume of water. a-Naphthol: 10% alcoholic solution. Followed by sulfuric acid gives violet with inulin and other carbohydrates. Osmic Acid: 1% solution in water. Store away from light. Brown to black with oils Phloroglucin: 2% solution in alcohol (90%). With hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, stains lignified walls red. Picric Acid: 1% alcoholic or aqueous solution. Stains proteins yellow Potash, Caustic: 5% potassium hydroxide in water. Used for clearing, dissolving certain cell contents, and disintegration of cellulosic tissues. Potash, Alcoholic Solution of: 5 gm of potassium hydroxide dissolved in 100 ml of alcohol (90%). It must be recently prepared. Potash, Ammoniacal Solution of: Stick potash washed with water to remove the carbonate It saponifies fixed oil, producing after incrustation and then water added in a quantity some time groups of radiating needle- sufficient to dissolve all the potash. The saturated crystals with non-drying oils and solution decanted and mixed with equal volume of granules with drying oils. strong ammonia Potassium Methoxide: 5 g potassium, in small pieces, added to 50 g methyl Gives with santonin red to carmine-red alcohol under reflux condenser. color. Ruthenium Red: Freshly prepared by dissolving 0.008 gm in 10 cc of lead Red with many gums and mucilages. acetate solution (10%). Scarlet Red (Scharlach R): Scarlet red added to saturate a mixture of 2 ml potash (10%), 7 ml alcohol (90%) and 1 ml of water. Sudan or Soudan (Red) III: 0.01 g dissolved in 5 ml alcohol (90%); 5 ml of glycerin Red with suberin, cutin and oils added. Sulfuric Acid: 10, 66, and 80% by volume. Does not dissolve suberized and cutinized walls. Tannic Acid: 10% aqueous solution containing 10% alcohol. Precipitates with proteins and alkaloids

Color reactions can be carried out in a white spot plate depression. Place a few milligrams of test sample in the depression and, with a dropper or a glass rod, add the reagent to the suspect material and observe the color changes for several minutes.

4.1 FORMS OF EXTRACTS The following table is a quick guide as to the many forms of extraction on the market today. Since native extracts can be manufactured on many different types of matrices, the extract manufacturer should be consulted when choosing the proper excipient (matrix) for a specific application.

Type of preparation Abbreviation Properties

Tincture Tinct. Usually high in alcohol, 60–90%; 1/10 or 1/5 the strength of a fluid extract. Fluid extract F.E. Full strength 1:1, 1 ml of fluid extract is the equivalent of the total extractives from 1 g dehydrated botanical, usually contains alcohol (20–60%). Solid extract S.E. Contains no alcohol, usually four to six times the strength of a fluid extract. A molasses consistency. Powdered extract P.E. Same as a solid extract except in powdered form. Homeopathic dilution H.P. 3x, 4x, 5x, etc. Note: Start with a mother tincture Homeopathic preparations are (10% solution) 1x and dilute. Serial type dilution and official and have specific succussion. monographs for each 0.1 = 1x (mother tincture) botanical (see bibliography) 0.01 = 2x 0.001 = 3x Oil extract OLEUM Contains oil soluble constituents of the botanical. Native extract N. E. Same as a solid extract (S.E.) except it has not been adjusted to a definite strength. It is the solid portion that remains after distillation of the percolate. For further manufacturing F.F.M. An intermediate solid extract used for further manufacturing. Aqueous extract AQU A water extract usually by infusing the herb or decocting. Propylene glycol P.G. An extract in P.G. of various dilutions: 1:1, 5:1, etc. 1,3-Butylene glycol 1,3BG Same as P.G. but the solvent is 1,3BG. Glycerin GLY Same as P.G. but the solvent is glycerin.

4.1.1 Extraction Terminology Maceration: Soaking a botanical in suitable solvent(s) for a specified period of time, anywhere from several hours to 3 weeks (21 days) until the soluble portions are dissolved in the menstruum. Expression: The process of forcibly separating liquids from solids. Digestion: Maceration with gentle heat 40–60°C

Percolation: A displacement whereby a powdered or cut botanical, contained in a suitable vessel, having a bottom outlet, is deprived of its soluble constituents by the descent of a solvent through it. Example: the percolation of water through wood ashes, by which it is exhausted of potash, etc., the solution commonly known as lye. Percolator: (Laboratory scale) A cylindrical or conical vessel with a porous diaphragm (wire mesh, gauze, cotton) below, in which the botanical is loaded and its soluble constituents are extracted by the descent of a solvent (menstruum) through it. Menstruum: A term used to describe the solvent used to extract the botanical of its various constituents (e.g., water, or alcohol and water, acetone, ether, etc.). Percolate: The solution coming from the percolator and containing the extracted substance. Extraction: The act of withdrawing something from an organized structure or disorganized mass, by traction, suction, expression, distillation, treatment with a solvent, or by chemical or physical means. In pharmacy, extraction exclusively means the withdrawal of the soluble constituents from crude or partially refined drugs by treatment with suitable solvents, and to the removal of these constituents from the liquids in which they are held in solution by treatment of the solutions with immiscible solvents or by mechanical methods. Extractive: The material dissolved by the soluble portion of the botanical when it is solubalized in the menstruum, regardless of which of the two extractive processes are involved. Marc: The botanical residue that remains after the extraction (percolation); also referred to as the spent herb. 4.1.2 Percolation General Method For Extracting Botanicals Moisten 1000 g (1 kg) powdered botanical with a sufficient quantity of the prescribed menstruum to render it evenly and distinctly damp and macerate for 6 hours in a tight covered container. This will enable the plant cells to absorb the menstruum. Then pack it in a cylindrical percolator. The packing of the percolator is very important. If packed too tightly, the product will not percolate; or, if packed too loosely, the menstruum will channel, giving a weak extract (see diagram). Add enough of the menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, cover the percolator, and macerate for the prescribed time, usually 48 hours. Then open the (Hoffman clamp) valve and allow the percolation to proceed slowly. Collect and reserve the first 850 ml percolate. Continue percolation by gradually adding more menstruum over the herb until the botanical is exhausted. The percolate is usually tested for remaining actives. When no more actives remain, the botanical is considered exhausted. Recover the alcohol from the remainder of the percolate and concentrate to a soft extract in a vacuum apparatus

Rotary evaporation unit (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Pilot plant (showing distillation and spray drying) (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

at a temperature not to exceed 45°C. Dissolve this residue in the reserved portion of the percolate, mix thoroughly, add a sufficient quantity of the menstruum to make the fluid extract measure 1000 ml (1 liter), and filter. 4.1.3 Decoctions Decoctions are usually prepared by boiling the vegetable substance or substances that contain water-soluble and heat-stable constituents for a period of time. These are usually the hard substances, such as twigs, roots, barks, etc. Cut or powdered herb (60 g) is placed in a suitable vessel and 1 liter of cold water, preferably distilled, placed over it. Cover the vessel well and boil the mixture for 15 minutes. Allow it to cool; then strain the liquid through cheesecloth or screen and pass enough cold water through the strainer to make the product measure 1 liter

Percolation in lab (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Extraction department showing percolators (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

and filter. Refrigerate or preserve. Note: Decoctions will only last a few days unless preserved or frozen. 4.1.4 Infusions Infusions are usually prepared from botanical substances containing water-soluble constituents. They are difficult to standardize and are unstable and particularly susceptible to attack by various fungi and bacteria. Therefore, after preparation of an infusion, it should be placed in a refrigerator. In order to prepare an infusion, the herb is usually cut or coarsely ground. It is customary to use approximately 60 g herb in 1 liter of water, preferably distilled. Moisten the herb in water. Allow it to stand for 15 minutes and then add the balance of the liter of boiling water. Cover the vessel tightly and allow it to stand approximately 30 minutes. Strain the mixture and pass enough water through the strainer to make the infusion measure 1 liter. If hot water affects the constituents of the product, cold water should be used. Let it set for approximately 1 hour and then strain as above and filter. Refrigerate or preserve. Under refrigeration, infusions will only last a few days unless preserved or frozen.

Section of extactos and distillation (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®)

Microorganisms in Botanicals Most botanicals are either cultivated or gathered in the wild and are usually con- taminated with fungi, bacteria, or other microorganisms and thus should be cleaned or sterilized before use. However, heat sterilization can have a detrimental effect on some of the active constituents of the plant. Ethylene oxide (ETO) treatment is one form of sterilization. However, I have done several studies on this and found certain changes in compounds due to a reaction with ETO. The other alterna- tives would be gamma-radiation, which is very effective, especially in inactivating

larvae. However, there is also CO2 sterilization, which seems to work well, as well as cold filtration and pasteurization. Chemical and microtesting should be done before and after sterilization to determine which method is best for the particular botanical. 4.1.5 Fluid Extracts This form of extract was introduced into the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) in Micro department (biology plate) 1880 for the first time as a distinct class of preparations. Their distinct character is the concentration of the active constituents of botanical substances into a small bulk and in liquid form. Their advantages consist of greater convenience of administration and assimilation and in the fact that they have not been subjected to excessive heat. Fluid extracts are prepared by

maceration, percolation, and evaporation. The most common menstruum are alcohol and water or vegetable glycerine, or a combination thereof, depending on which combination will extract the virtues of that particular plant material. The advantages that extracts have over infusions and decoctions are that decoctions and infusions are made with water, are weaker, need preservatives, and usually precipitate on standing. Extracts contain those substances that do not readily release their virtues to just plain water alone and do not readily precipitate. Additionally, they are higher in actives and do not require preservatives, as they contain alcohol. They are also uniform in strength: 1 ml fluid extract is equivalent to 1 g dehydrated botanical.* 4.1.6Tinctures Most tinctures represent the active constituents of 10 to 20 g (dehydrated) botanical per 100ml. Therefore, they are 1/10 to 1/5 the strength of a fluid extract. To convert fluid extracts to tinctures, take 10 to 20 ml fluid extract and Q.S. with a 60% (approximate) aqueous ethanol solution. This applies only to true fluid extracts of a 1:1 strength where 1 ml fluid extract is equivalent to the total extractives of 1g crude dehydrated botanical. A tincture can also be made by the same process as a fluid extract (seeSection4.1.2). Use 100 to 200 g dried botanical and add menstruum until 1000 ml percolate are collected. No vacuum concentration is used. Maceration is another procedure. 100 to 200 g botanical are placed into a suitably sized vessel with a tight lid. Add 1000 ml menstruum and let macerate for 7 to 14 days with shaking several times a day. Strain and press the botanical to remove all menstruum. Pass additional fresh menstruum through the strainer until 1000 ml percolate are collected. Filter, usually through a Whatman #1 or equivalent. Concentration/Standardization of Extracts 5:1 10:1 20:1 etc. These dilutions are usually referred to in the cosmetic industry and the strength will vary according to the manufacturer. A typical example: 5:1 P.G. propylene glycol = 20% the strength of a fluid extract (1 kg herb to make 1 liter) or could be 20% the strength of a tincture (200 g herb to make 1 liter). Therefore, it would take 40 g herb to make 1 liter of 5:1 extract; 100 to 200 g dry botanical are needed to make 1000 ml (1 liter) of standard USP/NF tincture. Note: When preparing extracts or tinctures, from either fresh or dry botanicals, all botanicals should be calculated on a dry weight basis and any moisture should be calculated as water. Usual laboratory method, i.e., 5 g botanical are placed in a tared weighing dish and placed in an induced draft oven set at 105°C for 2 hours and then weighed, and the solids are calculated. At present, there is really no standardization of cosmetic extracts. However, some manufacturers prepare extracts utilizing a known constituent (marker) and standardizing on that: for example, Golden Seal Root contains hydrastine, berberine, and canadine. However, the proper standardization would be to standardize on the hydrastine instead of on the berberine. Berberine is abundant in other botanicals such as Berberis aquifolium and Berberis vulgaris. These are approximately 5% the cost of Golden Seal Root and would make an excellent adulterant (at present, crude Golden Seal Root costs approximately $50.00 per pound).

* Note: All official extracts in the USP and NF were uniform in strength. However, many companies are marketing liquid extracts of varying strengths. Therefore, check with the manufacturers, as strengths vary widely.

Berberine is what gives Golden Seal Root its beautiful yellow color, while hydrastine is colorless. Crude Golden Seal Root contains approximately 1.5 to 4% hydrastine —

C21H21N6 — depending upon the size, age, and time of year collected. 4.1.7 Preparation of Aromatic Waters Aromatic waters are basically saturated solutions of volatile oils or other aromatic or volatile substances in D.I. or distilled water. Their odors and tastes are similar, respectively, to those of the botanical or volatile substances from which they are prepared, and they should be free from empyreumatic and other foreign odors. Aromatic waters can be prepared by one of the following processes: 1. Solution: The volatile oil, or other specified volatile substance 2 ml or 2 g D.I. or distilled water, a sufficient quantity. To make 1000 ml Shake the volatile substance (suitably comminuted if a solid) with 1000 ml purified water in a bottle, preferably 1/2 gallon to 1 gallon size, and repeat the shaking several times during a period of about 15 minutes. Set the mixture aside for 12 hours or longer, filter through wetted filter paper, and pass enough D.I. or distilled water through the filter to make the product measure 1000 ml. 2. Distillation: Place the odoriferous portion of the plant or drug from which the aromatic water is to be prepared in a suitable still with sufficient D.I. or distilled water to cover the botanical and distill most of the water, carefully avoiding the development of empyreumatic odors through the charring or scorching of the substances. Separate the excess oil, and preserve or use the clear water portion, filtering if necessary. 2a. Alternative Solution Method: Thoroughly incorporate the volatile oil (or the suitably comminuted volatile solid) with 15 g talc or with a sufficient quantity of purified siliceous earth or pulped filter paper. Add 1000 ml D.I. or distilled water, and thoroughly agitate the mixture several times during 10 minutes. Then filter the mixture, returning the first portions, if necessary, to obtain a clear filtrate, and add enough D.I. or distilled water through the filter to make the product measure 1000 ml. Note: Aromatic waters should be preserved and kept away from light. Avoid excessive heat; preferably kept in a cool area. 4.1.8 Comparison of Extracts and Tinctures Extracts are either viscous semisolid masses, dry solid, or powdered products prepared by exhausting drugs with appropriate solvents (menstruums), carefully evaporating the solutions to obtain the prescribed consistency, and adjusting the products to a fixed standard. Pilular extracts are viscous semisolid products prepared by exhausting drugs with appropriate solvents (menstruums) and carefully evaporating the solutions to the proper consistency. Powdered extracts differ from pilular extracts in that they are dry and prepared either as granular or fine powders. Powders are usually prepared from native extracts; native extracts are resinous and of a honey-like consistency. The native extract is usually vacuum dried, spray dried, or oven dried. They offer high concentrations of active ingredients, need no preservation, and contain very little water, which lowers shipping costs. They are also stable and have a longer shelf life than other forms of extracts. Powdered extracts are often preferred to pilular extracts because they can be more accurately weighed, easily dispensed, and conveniently stored in tightly stoppered containers.

Tinctures are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solutions of botanical extracts and are approximately 1/10 the strength of fluid extracts. Tinctures are usually processed by maceration and/or percolation of the leaves, bark, or roots of plants (see above). Because of the rather high ethyl alcohol content in these preparations, preservatives are not needed and the result is a pure liquid containing active constituents. Tinctures of extracts in propylene glycol, butylene glycol, glycerin, etc. should contain appropriate preservatives and most can be manufactured at the same strengths as alcoholic tinctures or extracts. 4.1.9 Extract Strengths A note on the strengths of extracts, tinctures, etc. This is very controversial. In Europe, a 5:1 extract would be one part extract is the equivalent of five parts total extractives of dehydrated botanical. How- ever, in the United States, a 1:5 extract is just the opposite, whereby one part extract is the equivalent of five parts of total extrac- Industrial size spray dryer (used to convert tives of the dehydrated botanical. Recently, liquid into powders) the cosmetic industry has been using extract (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®) strengths of 5:1; 10:1, etc. However, these extract strengths are contrary to the previous definition. A 5:1 extract in propylene glycol (P.G.), glycerin, 1,3-butylene glycol, etc. would represent 20% of a 1:1 extract, as a 5:1 extract contains the total extractives of 20 g dehydrated botanical in 100 g solvent. A 1:1 extract represents the total extractive 100 g dehydrated botanical in 100 g solvent. Obviously, a 1:1 extract, in a cosmetic formulation, would be too concentrated in many instances, as most 1:1 botanical extracts are dark in color, creating many difficulties to the formulating chemist. To avoid confusion, consult with the manufacturer as to the strength and how the strength was determined: by dry weight or fresh weight. If it was calculated from fresh weight, most botanicals will lose approximately 80% of moisture during the drying process; therefore, in a true strength extract, the moisture content would have to be calculated so that one starts with a known dry weight, as described in the Homeopathic Pharmacopeia.* 4.1.10 Product Strength, Concentration, and Standardization Dilutions of 5:1, 10:1, etc. are often found in the cosmetic literature. The true strength will vary, depending on the manufacturer. A typical 5:1 extract could be 20% of a fluid extract (where one part botanical yields 1 part fluid extract) or 20% of a tincture (where one part botanical yields 5 to 10 parts extract). The starting botanical, fresh or dried, is always measured on the dry basis. The dry weight of the herb is usually determined gravimetrically at 105°C.**

* The Homeoopathic Pharmacopoeia Convention of the United States, 1997. ** Weigh 5 g ground botanical into a tared weighing dish. Dry 2 hours in an induction oven at 105°C. Reweigh and calculate the dried weight.

Extract Comparison 5:1 PHARMACEUTICAL GRADE EXTRACT: 1 kg extract is made from 5 kg crude botanical

5:1 COSMETIC GRADE EXTRACT: 1 kg extract is made from approximately 100 to 200 g crude botanical

Example: 5000 g crude to make 1 kg of 5:1 (pharmaceutical grade) approximately 200 g crude to make 1 kg of 5:1 (cosmetic grade)

5:1 Pharmaceutical grade extracts are prepared so that 5 kg botanical produces 1 kg extract, while 5:1 cosmetic grade extracts are prepared so that 1 kg botanical produces 5 to 10 kg extract. While pharmaceutical grade extracts are 5 to 10 times stronger, they are not practical to work with in cosmetic formulations. Many pharmaceutical botanical extracts are very resinous, dark in color, and not soluble in most cosmetic products. European and American manufacturers use different strength systems. European manufacturers designate a 5:1 extract as being prepared by 5 kg of the dried botanical making 1 kg finished extract. American manufacturers have been reporting this ratio as 1:5; that is, 1 kg extract is prepared from 5 kg dried botanical. With the preponderance of European botanicals entering the U.S., the former designation is becoming the standard. One should always check with the manufacturer as to the strength system reflected in the product name. Standardization would appear to provide a more scientific basis for reporting strength. Golden Seal (Hydrastis canadensis L. Ranunculaceae) contains hydrastine, berberine, and canadine. Analytical procedures (TLC, GLC, and HPLC) are available to assay these active constituents. Golden Seal extracts could be standardized to any or all. Since berberine (which gives the Golden Seal its yellow color) is available in quantity from other botanicals (Berberis vulgaris, which is approximately 20 times less costly), it would make sense to standardize on hydrastine rather than berberine. Berberine from other botanicals could be used to adulterate the extract. Crude Golden Seal Root (depending on the age of the root and time of year collected) contains approximately 1.5 to 4.0% hydrastine. A 5:1 pharmaceutical grade extract would theoretically contain 7.5 to 20% (actual yields are greater than 5%) hydrastine, while a 5:1 cosmetic grade extract would theoretically contain 0.15 to 0.8% (actual yields are greater than 0.04%). However, standardization can be carried to the extreme. Selective extraction of one ingredient could lead to a severe weakening or even absence of other ingredients. To make a Golden Seal extract with a 25 to 30% hydrastine content, extreme extraction procedures would have to be used. This would cause the berberine, canadine, fixed and volatile oils, resins, and starches to be significantly reduced. This would also destroy the holistic balance of the extract. Many herbal practitioners and cosmetic chemists find that the ingredients in holistically balanced herbal extracts work better synergistically to give improved performance over the isolated single ingredient. A perfect example would be Valerian Root extract, which has been standardized on valepotriates, and then on valeric acid. Research indicates that neither of these constituents are the active. However, the entire plant works as a sedative much better and without side effects compared with the isolated constituents. Thus, no one knows for sure what the active compound is in valerian. However, valerenic acid is used as a marker in order to determine the strength of the extract, actually the ratio of the crude drug to extract. If the dried plants contain 0.5% of essential oil, then a 1:3 or 3:1 extract ratio should theoretically contain four

times the amount of oil, or 1.5% oil. However, there are usually losses during extraction. Therefore, an extract of Valerian Root representing 3x the crude should contain not less than 0.8% essential oil. 4.1.11 Oleoresins Oleoresins are extracted from the crude botanicals using various solvents (e.g., ether, alcohol, or other suitable solvent) and filtration, followed by evaporation of the solvent. A thick, oily resinous mass remains, consisting of an oil, either fixed or volatile, holding resin and sometimes other active matter in solution. Oleoresins are decidedly more potent than fluid extracts. However, most are difficult to work with due to their gummy nature, which makes them hard to dissolve in cosmetic preparations.*

* The Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia Convention of the United States, 1997.

5.1 HISTORY Although its use can be traced back thousands of years to the ancient Egyptians, aromatherapy is rapidly becoming one of the more popular forms of holistic healing. Aromatherapy utilizes essential oils, which are the concentrated aromatic part of the plant. Some say these oils are the herbal energy of the botanical and represent the heart and soul of the plant. Some examples of the concept of aromatherapy would be the burning of incense, aromatic waters, and perfumes. Essential oils stimulate the nerves and the olfactory system. Aromatherapists believe that the oils are picked up by the nerve endings and passed on until they eventually reach the pituitary gland. This, in turn, affects the adrenals, thereby reducing stress. Certain oils are known to be calming and relaxing, while others are said to lift one’s spirits. For example, if one walked through a forest on a spring day, one might sense the invigorating fresh scent of pine, a field of clover or the relaxing tranquil fragrance of lavender. This is the essence of aromatherapy.

5.2 PROPERTIES OF ESSENTIAL OILS FOR USE IN AROMATHERAPY

Essential oil Properties

Angelica Root Carminative, cleanser, antispasmodic, revitalizing. Angelica archangelica Aniseed Carminative, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic. Pimpinella anisum Basil Poor memory, nervous fatigue, mental strain. Ocymum basilicum Bay Stimulates scalp, hair growth. Pimenta racemosa Benzoin Skin elasticity, energy imbalance, anxiety, loneliness, exhaustion, Styrax benzoin sadness. Cardamon Stimulant, aphrodisiac, impotence, digestive problems. Elettaria cardamomum Chamomile German Anti-inflammatory, soothing, calming anger. Matricaria chamomila Clarry Sage Cell regeneration, scalp stimulant, hair growth, antidepressant, Salvia sclarea euphoric. Frankincense Revitalizing, tonic, wrinkles, mild stimulant. Boswellie carterii Ginger Root Stimulant, digestive problems, poor memory. Zingiber officinale Jasmine Moisturizing, soothing, antidepressant, euphoric. Jasminium odoratissimum

Lavender Anti depressant, Lavendula officinalis calming.

Lemon Antidepressant, uplifting during depression. Citrus limonia Melissa Antidepressant, stimulates metabolism. Melissa officinalis Myrrh Aging skin, wrinkles, mouth ulcers, inflammations, cell proliferant, Commiphora molmol opens psychic centers. Rose Aging skin, moisturizes, shock, grief, anti depressant, uplifting. Rosa centifolia Sandal wood Mood elevating, antidepressant, euphoric. Santalum album Neroli Nervous tension, anxiety. citrus aurantium (var. amara)

These oils can be compounded into massage creams, lotions, vaporizers, bath oils, house sprays, shampoos, etc. Note: Never use essential oils for internal use. Essential oils are very concentrated. Therefore, very little is needed. Example: to be effective, approximately 2 to 4 drops of essential oil can be placed in a bath. This is only a brief review of aromatherapy. If the reader has further interest, I recommend the following books:

Bardeau, Fabrice, La Medicine Par Les Fleurs, 1976. Ryman, Danielle, The Aromatherapy Handbook, C.W. Daniel Company, Saffron, Walden, Essex, England, 1984. Valnet, Jean, The Practice of Aromatherapy, Destiny Books, Rochester, VT, 1982.

6.1 HABITAT, RANGE, DESCRIPTION, PROPERTIES, AND CONSTITUENTS A

ADDERS TONGUE Erythronium americanum L. INCI* Name Part Used: Family: Liliaceae Erythronium americanum Oil Seed Synonyms: Serpents Tongue, Erythronium americanum Extract Herb Yellow Snowdrop Part Used: Dried aerial part

Habitat and Range United States Description Grows in moist meadows, flowers in April or May. Adder’s Tongue is an indigenous, perennial herb, with a cormus or bulb at some distance below the surface, which is white internally, and fawn-colored externally. The scape is naked, slender, and 3 or 4 in. high. The leaves are two, subradical, lanceolate, and involute at the point, pale-green, with purplish or brownish spots, about 5 in. long, and one of them nearly twice as wide as the other. The flower is single, droping, yellow, liliaceous, spotted near the base, expanded and revolute in the sunshine, and closing somewhat at night and on cloudy days. The segments of the perianth are oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, the inner Adders Tongue ones being bidentate near the base. Stamens

* Formerly CTFA.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC six, filaments flat, anthers oblong-linear. Ovary obovate; style club-shaped, longer than the stamens, three-lobed at top, terminating in three undivided stigmas. The capsule is oblong- obovate, and three-valved; the seeds rather numerous and ovoid, with a loose membranous tip. Properties Emollient, antiscrofulous. The oil is used externally for wounds and various cuts and abrasions. A poultice of the plant has been applied to boils. The aqueous extract has been shown to have activity against G + Ve and G – Ve bacteria.1,2 Constituents 2 D-Methylene butyrolactone C5H6O2. No further analytical data available.

1. Cavalitto, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 68, 2332, 1946. 2. Heinz, A., Drogenkunde, 8th ed., Hoppe. Pub. W. de Gruyter, Berlin, 1975.

AGRIMONY Agrimonia Eupatoria L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84775-40-6 Agrimony (Agrimonia Eupatoria) Leaves Family: Rosaceae Agrimony (Agrimonia Eupatoria) Dried herb Synonyms: Stickwort Powder Cocklebur Liverwort (England) Part Used: Dried herb Habitat and Range British Isles, in hedges and fields and by ditches, flowering in July and August. Description Agrimony is a perennial herb, growing to the height of 2 or 3 ft having stems but little branched, and covered with a soft, silky pubescence. The leaves are alternate, long, nearly smooth beneath, interruptedly pinnate, having from 3 to 5 or 7 oblong-ovate, coarsely serrated leaflets, between which are interspersed several smaller ones. The root is long, fibrous, and tapering, and of reddish-brown color. It is much branched at the summit, producing numerous heads. The flowers that bloom in July and August are small, yellow, and borne in a dense, racemose spike, from to 1 foot long. The calyx-tube is curiously fluted with 10 ribs, conical, and surmounted with reddish, hooked bristles. Agrimonia has a bitterish, harsh, subastringent taste, which is somewhat aromatic, but unpleasant. This taste is strongest in the root. Its odor is aromatic, and especially more fragrant when in bloom. Properties Its action is a mild astringent, mild tonic, diuretic, and anti-inflammatory. In vitro study of an aqueous extract inhibited by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.1 An ethanol extract has shown anti-viral effects against Colombia Sk virus in mice.2 The Chinese use the whole herb of Agrimonia pilosa for hematemesis, epistaxis, functional bleeding, and hematuria. The whole herb and root contains, agrimonol (= agrimonine), agrimonolide, pyrocatechol, pyrogallic acid, and phlobaphene. The leaf and stem contain luteolin 7-0-B-glucoside.

Constituents Tannin, volatile oil, eupatorin, gum, phytosterin, flavonoids, luteolin, apigenin, 7-0-B-glucoside, quercitrin, nicotinic acid, choline, citric acid and silicic acid, catechin, triterpenes, ursolic acid, and polysaccharides. 1. Patrascu, V., et al., Ser. Dermato-Vernol, 29(2), 153-157, 1994. 2. Peter-Horvath, M., et al., Rev. Med., 10(2), 190-193, 1964.

ALDER Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertn *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Betulaceae Alnus glutinosa Synonyms: Common Alder, Scottish Mahogany Part Used: Bark, fruiting tops, leaves Habitat and Range Fast-growing riverside tree. Description The tree attains 25 m in height and keeps its leaves, which are roundish, wedge shaped, wavy-serrated, usually abrupt at the tip, glutinous; sharply and deeply incised in some varieties until late autumn. Fruit “cones” last through winter and are joined in spring by yellow-green catkins and sticky new shoots. The bark is dark gray and ridged.

Properties Alnus glutinosa Astringent, tonic, alterative, an infusion of the leaves was used as a hair rinse to help prevent hair loss, and also to help relieve dandruff. However, this should only be done once a week. It was also used when mixed with flour (oat) as a face pack for cleansing. It reportedly tightens the skin and increases blood flow. Alder also helps to unclog pores, as do other types of face packs, after which a good face cream should be applied. Constituents Tannins, glycosides, organic acids, and minerals.

ALFALFA Medicago sativa L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84082-36-0 Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Extract N/S Family: Leguminosae N/S Synonyms: Lucern EU NAME Part Used: Leaf Medicago sativa Habitat and Range Grassland on chalk soils; southwest Asia, Europe, United States.

Description Lucerne is an erect or ascending perennial plant with a deep root system. The stems reach a height of 30 to 60 cm and bear trifoliate leaves, the leaflets being narrowly obovate and the margin serrate in the apical third with an acute apex. The flowers are borne in axillary racemes of 7 to 10 flowers and about 3 to 4 cm long. The papilionaceous flowers have pedicels about 2 mm long and the corolla is purple or blue. The fruit is a spirally twisted legume with two to three turns. Alfalfa Properties Used in facial steams, a mild exfoliant in oils, creams, lotions, hair rinses, bath gels, oils, etc. Alfalfa is also high in minerals, which would suggest its use in baths. Alfalfa is also very rich in protein, which can be of benefit as a vegetal protein source in hair conditioners, etc. Constituents The leaf is rich in protein, calcium and trace minerals, carotene, boron, vitamins E and K and numerous water-soluble vitamins, saponin, and tannin.

ALOE Aloe vera L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 85507-69-3 Aloe barbedensis Plant material — leaves Family: Liliaceae Aloe barbedensis Extract Leaves Synonyms: Curacao Aloes Aloe barbedensis Gel Juice from leaves Part Used: Leaf and leaf inner Aloe barbedensis N/S gel Habitat and Range Africa, West Indies, and Barbados Islands. Description Curacao aloes occur as solidified masses packed in boxes or large gourds. Curacao aloe is an inspissated juice. The outline of the broken pieces is irregular. The size of the pieces is variable. The texture is waxy. The color varies from orange-brown to blackish-brown. The surface is dull and smooth. The fracture is conchoidal. The odor is strongly aromatic. The taste is intensely bitter and pungent. Properties The inner gel is used for sunburn, sun poisoning, and burns, and is employed in skin creams, lotions, hair treatments, cuts, scratches, irritated skin, insect bites, etc. Aloe is a subject by itself and is too large to cover in this handbook. Further reading is recommended. Constituents Some recent analytical data suggest aloe contains over 130 different constituents. To date, this has not been verified. Aloe contains 99.50% moisture and the average solids being 0.50% (5 grams; Aloe gel placed in an induced draft oven for 2 h at 105°C). The outer rind contains a bitter yellow latex composed of the anthraquinone barbaloin (a glucoside of aloe, emodin) and iso-barbaloin plus O-glycosides of barbaloin called aloinosides, chrysophanic acid. The

inner gel is devoid of anthraquinone glycosides. The inner gel contains a polysaccharide, glucomanine.

Aloe vera

APPLE Pyrus malus L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rosaceae Apple (Pyrus malus) Extract Fruit Synonyms: Fresh cider Apple (Pyrus malus) Leaf Extract N/S Part Used: Fruit Apple (Pyrus malus) Pectin N/S Pyrus malus N/S Description Common apple, Macintosh, Granny, Rome, Delicious. Properties Excellent in hair rinses to give golden highlights to light hair (in an acid medium). Also used in face creams and lotions as a mild exfoliant. It contains malic acid. Constituents Malic acid, sugars, and pectin.

ARBOR VITAE Thuja Occidentalis

Thuja

*INCI Name Part Used: Family: Cupressaceae Thuja Occidentalis Leaves Synonyms: White Cedar Thuja Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Swamps, mountain slopes of eastern Canada. Description Evergreen tree with the leaves in four (4) rows on the two-edged branchlets, having a strong aromatic odor when bruised. Cones oblong, ⁿ in. long, with few (6 to 10) pointless scales. The tree is approximately 20 to 50 ft. in height, having pale, shoddy bark and light, soft durable wood. Extensively cultivated as an ornamental bush. Properties Arbor Vitae is said to have antiviral activity and has been used to treat warts, moles, and polyps, both internally and externally. It has been used to treat cancer and has been incorporated into liniments as a counter irritant. Constituents Arbor Vitae contains volatile oil, containing thujone, flavonoids, tannins, wax, and mucilage.

ARNICA Arnica montana L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 8057-65-6 Arnica montana Plant material-flowers Family: Asteraceae Arnica montana Extract Flowers and roots Synonyms: Arnica Flowers, Wolf’s Bane, Leopard’s Bane Arnica montana N/S Part Used: Medicinal flowering heads Habitat and Range Europe and Northern Asia.

Description Consisting chiefly of tubular and ligulate flowers, usually with the involucre and receptacle present; involucral bracts narrowly lanceolate, about 1 cm long, dark green and pubescent; receptacle slightly convex, deeply pitted and densely short-hairy; ray flowers yellow, the ligulate portion up to 2 cm long more or less folded lengthwise, three-toothed, 7- to 12-veined, pistillate; tubular flowers perfect, reddish yellow, stamens without a tail-like appendage; the cypsella spindle-shaped, 5 to 7 mm long, dark brown, finely striate; glandular-pubescent and surmounted by a pappus a little longer than the cypsella and composed of a single circle of nearly white barbellate bristles. Odor characteristic and agreeable; taste bitter and acrid. Properties Various uses as a stimulant to increase blood circulation, including application to unbroken skin that has been bruised (black and blue marks). Combines well with various other herbs to stimulate hair growth but is only to be applied to unbroken skin. Has been used for hematomas, sprains, edema, inflammation of the oral mucosa, inflamed insect bite, and surface phlebitis. Top- ically, Arnica has antiphlogistic effects and in some cases can be antiseptic and analgesic, Arnica tincture DAB 10, 1 part herb and 10 parts 70% ethanol. In mouthwashes, the tincture is usually diluted to 10%; ointments usually contain 20 to 25% tincture. Arnica oil usually employed at a maximum of 15%. Note: There can be side effects. Arnica should not be used on broken skin, due to its ability to increase circulation and Arinca montana prevent clotting. Constituents Over 10 flavonoid glycosides (including glucosides of betuletol, isorhamnetin, patuletin, kaempferol, quercetin, pectolin arigenin); fatty acids (fumaric, lauric, palmitic, stearic); and alpha-hydroxy acids (lactic, malic). Sesquiterpene lactones, polyacetylenes, xanthophylls, and essential oil.

ARTICHOKE Cynara scolymus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-14-6 Artichoke (Cynara scolymus) Leaves Family: Asteraceae Extract Synonyms: Globe artichoke Part Used: Flower heads, leaves, root Habitat and Range Rich soils; northern Mediterranean. Description This plant is perennial, with subspinose, pinnate, and undivided leaves. The heads are discoid and homogamous; the involucre dilated and imbricate; the scales ovate, with fleshy bases, emarginate and pointed; the receptacle setaceous; the pappus plumose and sessile; and the cypsella not beaked.

Properties Helps to increase circulation. Also employed in jaundice. Arti- choke stimulates the secretion of bile; artichoke is also reportedly used to treat hardening of the arteries, to help treat liver damage from alcohol abuse, and is said to lower cholesterol levels. Around the holidays, Italians eat the artichoke leaves prepared with parsley, bread crumbs, garlic, and extra virgin olive oil steamed first then baked. Italians say artichokes are good for keeping the blood thin especially after a heavy meal. Cosmetically, artichoke extract would lend itself nicely to products where an increase in circulation is needed. Cynarin reportedly is hepatoprotective, cholagogue, diuretic, choleretic, and hypocholesterolytic. Artichoke Constituents Numerous enzymes (i.e., oxydase, peroxidase, cynadase, ascorbinase), cynarin, ascorbic acid, caffeoylquinic acid derivatives, tannin, beta-carotene, flavonoids, trace minerals, protein, sterols, vitamins, and over 80 compounds with cynarin and luteolin being active.

BALM OF GILEAD Populus tacsmahacca Mill Populus candicans Air *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Salicaceae Balm of Gilead Buds Synonyms: Balsam poplar, (Commiphora gilidensis) Extract balm buds Popular Leaves, twigs, Part Used: Buds, leaves (Populus candicans) Extract buds Habitat and Range The Balm-of-Gilead tree, which has mostly escaped from cultivation, is found along roadsides or streams from Newfoundland to Minnesota and Georgia. Description Balm of Gilead buds occur as solitary buds and agglutinated masses of buds. These buds are sessile. They measure up to 13 mm in width and up to 28 cm in length. The buds are simple or clustered in twos, or in threes occasionally. The base is truncate or depressed. The margin has projecting points of scales. The apex is acute. The outline varies from ovate to ovate-lanceolate. The surface of the imbricated scales is smooth, and is covered with a thin coat of sticky resin. The inner surface is more stocky that the outer. The scales enclose numerous undeveloped leaves. The color is reddish brown. The odor is balsamic. The taste is pungent and bitter. Properties Aromatic antiseptic, resinous substance. Has been used on blemishes, sores, cuts, and various skin diseases. Herbalists use it for treating colds. It is a stimulating expectorant.

* Formerly CTFA.

Constituents Resin, volatile oil, populin, acetophenone, salicin, farnesene D-alpha-bisabolol. Flavonoids, chrysin and apigenin, galangin, izalpinin, 5-0-methylgalangin, rhamnetin, 3,7-di-o-methyl quercetin, pinocembrin. BARBERRY Berberis vulgaris L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 8054-40-8 Berberis vulgaris Dried Rhizome/root Family: Berberidaceae Berberis vulgaris Root bark Synonyms: Pipperidge Bush, mistakenly Extract called Oregon Grape Root Part Used: Bark of root and/or stem Habitat and Range Woodland; Europe, North America, and the Middle East. Description Cylindrical, knotty, strongly branched, usually cut into pieces of varying length and up to 45 mm in diameter; usually splitting somewhat on drying; externally light yellowish brown, longitudinally wrinkled and scaly; fracture hard and tough; bark 1 mm in thickness, easily separable into layers; wood yellow, color more pronounced upon wetting, distinctly radiate, and showing rings of growth; pith of rhizome small, sometimes excentric. Odor slight; taste distinc- Barberry tive, very bitter; on chewing, tinges saliva yellow. Properties Astringent, circulatory stimulant, has been used for indolent ulcers. Used in shampoos and hair rinses to add highlights to light-colored hair. Bactericidal. Internally used to treat liver disorders, gallstones. Berberis is said to dilate blood vessels Constituents Contains myricinic acid (an acrid astringent resin), tannic and gallic acids, volatile oil. Berberine, isoquinoline alkaloids including palmatine, berbam- ine, oxyacanthine, jateorrhizine, bervulcine, magnoflorine, and columbamine BAY LAUREL Laurus nobilis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Lauraceae Laurel Dried leaf Synonyms: Sweet Bay Laurel, Grecian Laurel, True Bay, Mediterranean Bay Part Used: Dried leaf Habitat and Range Native to the Mediterranean region.

Description It is an evergreen tree with small, pale yellow flowers, shiny black berries, and glossy aromatic foliage. Properties Sweet Bay is a common household spice known as bay leaf. The oil is used mainly as a fragrance ingredient in creams, lotions, perfumes, soaps, and detergents. Italians use an infusion of Bay Leaf and Fennel Seed to help alleviate colic in infants: two to three Bay leaves and five to six Fennel seeds boiled in 1 pint of water, covered, cooled and placed in a baby bottle. Constituents 0.3 to 3.1% volatile oil that is composed mainly of cineole (30 to 50%), D-pinene, linalool, D-terpineol, D-terpineol acetate, and others. The leaf also contains germacranolides, catechins, alkaloids, and plant acids.

BEARBERRY Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. Spr. Eng *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84776-10-3 Bearberry Leaves Family: Ericaceae (Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi) Extract Synonyms: Kinnikinik/Uva-ursi Parts Used: Leaves Habitat and Range North America, Northern and Central Europe, Asia. Description Leaves obovate, spatulate, 12 to 30 mm in length, 5 to 13 mm in breadth; summit obtuse; base acute; tapering; margin entire, slightly revolute; upper surface dark green, glabrous, finely reticulate; undersurface yellowish-green; petiole about 3 mm in length, slightly pubescent; texture coriaceous, brittle; odor slight; taste slightly bitter, astringent. Properties Bearberry leaf has been used to treat urinary disorders. It is said to be diuretic and have antibacterial activity. Herbalists use it to treat cystitis. However, the arbutin works best in an alkaline medium. Uva-ursi owes its benefits to its high content of the glycoside arbutin. Uva- ursi is astringent, due to its high tannin content. Bearberry is also said to inhibit the formation of tyrosine and melanin. The hydroquinone is used as a skin bleaching agent, and used also to treat scar tissue and freckles. Treating small areas works best, as large areas can give skin a marble effect. It is also wise to avoid sunlight to prevent repigmentation. Constituents Phenolic glycosides espressed as arbutin (6–10%), along with methyl arbutin, phenolcarboxylic acids, gallic and ellagic acids, hydroquinone derivatives, quercetin, hyperoside, syrin- gic and p-coumaric acids, ursolic acid, and volatile oil.

BED STRAW...... SeeGALIUM

BEE POLLEN Apis mellifera *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apidae Pollen Extract Flower pollen Synonyms: Pollen Part Used: Plant pollens collected by worker bees, combined with plant nectar and bee saliva Description Bee pollen consists of various plant pollens collected by worker bees. Pollen is a combination of plant nectar and bee saliva. Pollen is used as a source of food for the male drones. The bees carry the pollen with their hind legs. The commercial collection of pollen is done by placing a screen, reducing the hole at the entrance to the beehive, therefore forcing the bees to leave it behind as they enter the hive. This is taken up in a collection vessel. Bee pollen is a good source of nutrients and would lend itself well in cosmetic and hair care formulations. Properties Restoring, dissolving, softening, restrains infection, reduces inflammation, clears toxins, promotes tissue repair. Good for skin ulcers, scabs, eruptions, boils, sores, and abscesses. Constituents Contains approximately 30% protein, 55% carbohydrate, 1 to 2% fat, and 3% minerals and trace vitamins.1 Promotional literature lists almost 100 vitamins, minerals, enzymes, amino acids, and other compounds identified in bee pollen. 1. Mirkin, G., JAMA, 262, 1854, 1989.

BILBERRY Vaccinum myrtillus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84082-34-8 Bilberry Fruit, leaves Family: Vacciniaceae (Vaccinium myrtillus) Synonyms: Huckleberry, Whortleberry, Extract Hurtleberry Part Used: Fruits, leaves Habitat and Range Woods; British Columbia, California, Wyoming, Michigan, Europe, and Asia. Description Dwarf shrub, 20 to 50 cm high; leaf-blades thin, ovate, only slightly paler beneath, 3 to 5 cm long; corolla ovoid-lanceolate, about 5 mm long, 4 mm wide; berry 8 to 10 mm in diameter. Properties Astringent for eyecare products, sores, wounds, and ulcers, anti-inflammatory, tonic, antiseptic. The extract of the berries recently has been shown to be useful for increasing the strength of capillaries, and to replace retina purple, reducing visual eye fatigue. A tea of the leaf is high in chromium (approx. 9.0 ppm) and is said to lower blood sugar levels. German Commission E Monograph states that Bilberry leaf tea is used for treatment and prevention of diabetes melitus.1

Constituents Tannins, anthocyanosides, arbutin, (trace amount) asperuloside, myrtillin, ursolic acid, quinic acid, fatty acids, peonidin glucosides. 1. German Commission E Monograph, BANZ No. 76, 4-23-87.

BIRCH Betula alba L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-15-7 Birch (Betula alba) Bark Extract N/S Family: Betulaceae Birch (Betula alba) Extract Leaves and bark Synonyms: Paper Birch, Birch (Betula alba) Leaf Extract N/S White Birch, Canoe Birch Birch (Betula alba) Oil N/S Part Used: Young leaves Birch (Betula alba) Sap Tapping of the tree and bark

Habitat and Range Europe and Asia; naturalized in northern North America. Descriptions A medium-sized tree commonly known as the White Paper or Canoe Birch having white bark that separates in layers and shows numerous lenticels and ovate, doubly-serrate leaves that are slightly hairy and glandular-dotted on the veins beneath. Properties The bark, leaves, and flowers have been used to treat skin disorders such as acne, psoriasis, and eczema.1 The leaves are said to be antibacterial and used by herbalists to treat gout and rheumatism. The tea of the leaves is also diuretic and is said to dissolve kidney and bladder stones. The oil has the familiar smell of wintergreen (methyl salicylate) and is used to fragrance soaps and as a flavoring in candy. Constituents 10 to 15% Betulin (Betula camphor), betuloresnic acid, essential oil, saponins, betulol, apigenin dimethyl ether, betuloside, gaultherin, methyl salicylate, ascorbic acid. 1. Mabey, R., New Age Herbalist, Macmillan, New York, 1988.

BLACK COHOSH Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Ranunculaceae Black Cohosh Rhizome and root Synonyms: Black Snakeroot, Squaw Root, Bugbane, Rattleroot, Bugwort, Rattleweed, Cohosh Part Used: Rhizome and root Habitat and Range It grows in the most temperate zones of the Northern hemisphere; Europe, North Asia, parts of Arctic Siberia, and in North America in open woods at the edges of dense forests from Ontario to Tennessee and west to Missouri.

Description This perennial grows to 8 ft and is topped by a long plume of white flowers that bloom from June to Sep- tember. Its leaflets are shaped irregularly with toothed edges. Rhizome horizontal, somewhat branched, from 2 to 15 cm in length and from 1 to 2.5 cm in thickness; externally dark brown, slightly annulate from circular scars of bud scales; the upper surface with several buds and numerous large stem bases terminated, frequently, by deep cup-shaped scars, each of which shows a radiate structure; or less frequently by fibrous strands, lower and lateral surfaces with numerous root scars and a few short roots; fracture horny; internally whitish and mealy or dark brown and waxy, bark thin, wood radiate and about the same thickness as the pith; taste bitter and acrid. Roots cylindrical or obtusely four-angled, up to 3 mm thick; externally dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled; fracture short; internally, bark dark brown, wood yellowish and showing three to six rays. Black cohosh Properties It is known to affect climacteric symptoms, particularly depression and hot flushes. It possesses estrogenic activity; it suppresses LH release and binds to estrogen receptors. It has also been used for dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, and rheumatism. Constituents It contains triterpenoid glycosides, mainly actein (xyloside of acetylacteol) and 27-deoxy- actein (xyloside of 27-deoxyacetylacteol). The drug also contains considerable amounts of isoflavonoids, mainly formononetin. Additional constituents are isoferulic acid, tannins, resins, fatty acids, starch, and sugar.

BLACK WALNUT Juglans nigra L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Juglandaceae Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) Leaves, bark, Synonyms: Persian Walnut, Black Extract or hulls Walnut Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) N/S Part Used: Hulls Shell Extract Shell of nut Habitat and Range Woods, Massachusetts, Florida, Texas, and Minnesota. Description A tree up to 50 m high, with dark brown heartwood and rough dark bark; leaflets 11 to 23, lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex, rounded or subcordate at the base, serrate, 8 to 10 cm long, glabrous above, minutely downy beneath and on the petiole; fruit globose, 5 to 8 cm long, glabrous; nut 4-celled at the top and bottom, with thick ridges. Properties Walnut has been employed as a hair dye (black/brown), and also used externally for its antiseptic properties in many kinds of skin diseases. It is an astringent, anthelmintic, and detergent. Black Walnut also has application in suntanning products. Herbalists use Black Walnut to expel worms (anthelmintic). Constituents Juglone, hydrojuglone (mostly as monoglucoside), juglandic acid, fixed and volatile oils, tannins, and trace minerals.

BLADDERWRACK Fucus vesiculosus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84696-13-9 Bladderwrack Dried thallus Family: Fucaceae (Fucus vesiculosus) Extract Synonyms: Bladder Fucus, Black Tang Part Used: Whole thallus Habitat and Range Shore of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans.

Description Fucus occurs as entire and as broken pieces of the plant (thallus). These pieces measure up to 4 dm in length and up to 2 cm in width. The thallus is dichot- omously branched. The base of the thallus is cylindrical and the branches are mostly flattened. Each branch separates into two branches or is simple. The texture is cartilaginous. The color varies from brown to black. The surface has air vesicles usually occurring in pairs, a prominent midrib, and frequently white deposits of saline matter. Frequently, the tips of the branches are enlarged because of great numbers of rounded projecting, reproductive tissues. The odor is slight. The taste is saline and mucilaginous. Properties It has been used to treat obesity, rheumatism, myx- Bladderwrack oedema, cellutitis, slimming activity, as a wash for psoriasis, massage for cellulite, sprains, and bruises. Herbalists incorporate it in formulas to help boost the immune and lymphatic systems, probably due to its iodine content. It can be added to hair and skin care products. See Chapter 7 for further discussion. Constituents Polyphenols (polyphloroglucinols), algae polysaccharides (about 12% alginic acid, fucans), steryl glucosides, trace minerals (mainly iodine).

BLUEBERRY LEAF...... SeeBILBERRY

BORAGE Borago officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84012-16-8 Borage Flowering tops Family: Boraginaceae Synonyms: Burrage, Bugloss, Bourrache Part Used: Flowering tops Habitat and Range Throughout the United States and Europe, mainly cultivated for commercial use. It is easily grown from seed. Description An annual robust plant, up to 60 cm high, hollow stem, simple or branched, covered with bristly hairs; elliptical leaves wrinkled, rough, the lower ones on short petioles, the upper leaves, sessile; flowers, on long stalks, about 2 cm in diameter; calyx of five sepals, five pointed corolla, usually blue, sometimes white; flowers from June through September. Fruit is ovoid and light brown. Properties Borage contains a high amount of mucilage, which is very emollient and soothing and therefore reduces reddening of sensitive skin, skin cleansing and lightening. It helps remove impurities from clogged pores. Borage has a cucumber-like odor. Constituents Vitamin C, saponins, tannins, and minerals. Mucilage and pyrrolizdine alkaloids. The seeds contain an oil high in omega-3 fatty acids.

BURDOCK Arctium lappa L. *INCI Name Part Used: Burdock (Arctium lappa) Extract Roots Family: Asteraceae Burdock (Arctium lappa) Seed Oil N/S Synonyms: Foreign Burdock, Burdock (Arctium majus) Extract Roots European Burdock, Gobo Burdock (Arctium minus) Extract Roots Part Used: Roots, rhizomes, leaf, and fruit Habitat and Range Europe and Northern Asia; sparingly naturalized in the United States, mostly in the Eastern States. Description The root is fusiform, of variable length, from 5 to 20 mm in diameter near the crown; frequently split or in broken pieces; externally grayish brown, longitudinally wrinkled, the crown somewhat annulate, sometimes surmounted by a wooly tuft of leaf remains; fracture somewhat horny; a dark cambium Burdock

separating the thick brownish bark from the yellowish porous and radiate wood, centrally hollow or containing a white, pith-like tissue. Odor slight, becoming pyroligneous on milling; taste is mucilaginous, sweetish, and slightly bitter. Properties It is used as a poultice for boils and abscesses, eczema, psoriasis, scaly skin, cutaneous eruption, cystitis, gout, anorexia nervosa, and can be used in facial steams. It has been combined with comfrey, licorice, and fennel to restore skin tone and smoothness. It is also used in hair conditioners, shampoos, creams, lotions, gels, and baths. Herbalists extol its use for cleansing the blood; in cases of acne, the leaves are applied locally to relieve insect bites, abrasions, and for its soothing effect on chapped skin. Constituents

Polyunsaturated compounds, polyalkenes, and polyalkynes including C13-alkynenes and sulfur-containing acetylinic compound. Arctinone, arctinol, arctinal etc., fatty acids, volatile oils, lignin, inulin, fukinanolid, sterols.

BOXWOOD Buxus sempervirens L. *INCI Name Part Used: Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) Leaves Family: Buxaceae Extract Synonym: American Boxwood Part Used: Leaves and bark Habitat and Range Europe, North America, acid soils. Description Boxwood is an evergreen shrub or small tree with small, yellow-green flowers in spring, berries with black seeds, and leafy stems with a distinctive scent. Properties The leaves are reportedly used to improve horses’ coats and to stimulate hair growth. The leaves and bark were used to treat rheumatism and expel worms. The Boxwood is toxic to animals. The distilled oil is used to treat toothache and hemorrhoids. Constituents Approximately 27 alkaloids, including buxine and buxozine C, tannins, fat, and oil.

BUTCHER’S BROOM Ruscus aculeatus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-38-4 Butcherbroom (Ruscus aculeatus) Rhizome Family: Liliaceae Extract Synonyms: Box Holly Part Used: Flowering tops Habitat and Range Woods, bushy places, dry hills, Europe. Description A dense, dark green shrub with thick, oval rigid, and spiny-pointed false leaves ca. 2 cm long, borne on green, ribbed, much-branched stems 25 to 80 cm. Flowers greenish, ca. 3 mm across, 1 to 2 subtended by minute brown bracts and borne on the upper surface of the false leaves. Leaves, scale-like, papery ca. 5 mm. Fruit, a globular red berry ca. 1 cm. Properties Increases circulation. Emmenagogue, sudorific, diuretic, inhibits inflammation, used for hemorrhoids to reduce swelling and inflammation, supposedly having a tonic effect on blood vessels. The extract has been used with success, for the treatment of varicose veins. Constituents Ruscogenins ruscodibenzofuran, ruscoside, rutin, saponin, mucilage, chrysophanic acid.

CACTUS FLOWERS Optuntia, Ficus-indica L *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Cactaceae Prickly Pear (Opuntia tuna) Flowers and Synonyms: Prickly pear, Barbary fig Extract stems Part Used: Flowers Habitat and Range Native of tropical America. Description In pieces of varying length, from 1.5 to 4cm in diameter, and from 5 to 9 angled; the angles at intervals of about 2 cm with tufts of from 9 to 12 acicular spines about 5mm in length, together with about the same number of bristles about 1cm in length; at irregular intervals branched roots sometimes present. It has a strong, herby odor; taste acidulous and mucilaginous. Properties Astringent for wounds and various skin ailments, healing for sensitive skin. Cactus flowers (optuntia) Constituents Flavonoids, isorhamnetin-glucoside, kaempferol, luteolin, penduletin, piscidic-acids, quercitrin, rutin, and beta-sitosterol.

CALENDULA...... See MARIGOLD

CAPSICUM Capsicum annum/frutescens L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84625-29-6 Capsicum annuum Extract N/S Family: Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens Plant material, Synonyms: Red or Cayenne dried ripe fruit Pepper; Mexican, Mombassa, African Capsicum frutescens Dried fruit or Sierra Leone Pepper; Chilies Extract Capsicum frutescens Oleoresin N/S Part Used: Fruit Capsicum frutescens N/S

* Formerly CTFA.

Capsicum

Habitat and Range South America. Description Capsicum occurs as entire fruits attached to and mixed with pedicles and calyxes. Capsicum is a berry. The outline varies from oval to ovate to oblong-conical. The base is constricted and is attached to a pedicel and a persistent five-toothed calyx, or is free from these. The apex is acuminate or acute. The fruits vary greatly in size. Mexican capsicums measure 19 mm or less in length and 6 mm or less in diameter. Mombassa capsicums measure 18 mm or less in length and 6 mm or less in diameter. Sierra Leone capsicums measure 19 mm or less in length and 6 mm or less in diameter. Nyassaland capsicums measure 21 mm or less in legnth and 7 mm or less in diameter. African capsicums measure 26 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter. The Mexican variety is deep red; the Mombassa variety is mostly light red; the Sierra Leone variety is light red, yellow, and brown; the Nyassaland variety is red, yellow; the African variety is yellowish-brown, red, gray, and greenish-red. The epicarp is thin and tough. The seeds are compressed and pointed. The odor is aromatic. The taste is pungent and warming.

Properties Carminative, counter-irritant, antiseptic, rubefacient used for neuralgia, rheumatic pains; in combination with tincture of myrrh is very antiseptic. Used in hair tonics to stimulate follicle along with nettles, jaborandi, colocynth, etc. Capsicum owes its virtues to capsaicin. Caution Should not be used around eyes or mucous membranes. Constituents Cayenne pepper contains a crystalline pungent alkaloid capsaicin, flavonoids, fatty acids. Dihydrocapsaicin and related alkaloids, carotene capsanthin, and vitamins A and C.

CARROT Daucus carota L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae Carrot Root, fruit Synonyms: Wild Carrot, Queen Anne’s Lace Part Used: Root, fruit Habitat and Range Native to Europe, Asia, and North America; naturalized in North America. Description Annual or biennial herb with erect, branched, hairy stem, leaves, segmented. It has a long tap root, and umbels of white to purple-tinged flowers. Carrot Fruit Oil (commonly called carrot seed oil), is obtained by steam distillation, while Carrot Root Oil is obtained by solvent extraction. Properties Carrot Fruit Oil is used primarily as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes up to 0.4%. Carrot Root Extract is used in certain sunscreen preparations and as a source of E-carotene and Vitamin A. It is said that the extract restores the elasticity of the skin, keeping it smooth and soft. Face packs are made by grating fresh carrots, and applying to the face for 20 minutes. After, the face is rinsed with warm water and a rich face cream is applied. Constituents Carrot Fruit Oil contains carotol (up to 18.29%), daucol, D-pinene, geraniol, geranyl acetate, and others. Carrot Root Oil contains high concentrations of carotenes.

CASCARA BARK Rhamnus purshiana De Candolle *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rhamnaceae Rhamnus Bark Synonymns: Rhamnus, Sacred Bark, Chittem Bark, purshiana Bear Wood, Buckthorn, Bitter Bark, Yellow Bark Part Used: Bark collected at least 1 year prior to use

Habitat and Range Abundant in western United States and exported from San Francisco. Other considerable plantations are found in British Columbia and exported from Vancouver. The tree has been successfully cultivated in Kenya. Description The tree is 4.5 to 10 m high with reddish-brown bark and hairy twigs. The bark occurs in flattened, curved pieces or quills of variable length, 1.5 to 5 mm thick. The outer surface is dark purplish-brown with whitish lenticels. It is frequently covered with lichen, bryophytes, and sometimes even encrusted with mussel-scale insects. The inner surface is yellow to reddish-brown and longitudinally striated. Fracture is short but fibrous in the inner bark. Taste bitter and slightly acrid; odor distinct. It gives red color with ammonia TS. Properties Tincture can be applied externally as mild antiseptic. In small doses, it acts as stomach ache treatment. It is much used as a laxative. Constituents Cascara contains about 6 to 9% anthracene derivatives, which are present both as normal O-glycosides and as C-glycosides. The following groups of constituents are not recognized: 1. Four primary glycosides or cascarosides A, B, C, and D; they contain both O- and C-glycosidic linkages. Their structures have now been finally determined as the C-10 isomers of the 8-O-B-D-glucopyranosides of aloin and chrysophanol.1 Cascarosides of Rhamnus purshiana. Configurations: Cascaroside A = 10B, R = OH; B = 10D R = OH; C = 10B, R = H; D = 10D, R = H. 2. Two aloins, barbaloin derived from the aloe-emodin enthrone and chrysaloin derived from chrysophanol anthrone. These C-glycosides are probably breakdown products from (1). 3. A number of O-glycosides derived from emodin, emodin oxanthrone, aloe-emodin, and chrysophanol. 4. Various diathrones, including those of emodin, aloe-emodin and chrysophanol, and the heterodianthrones palmidin A, B and C (see “Rhubarb”). 5. Aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, and emodin in the free state. 1. Wagner et al., Z. Naturforsch, Teil C, 444, 1974; Teil B, 267, 1974. See formula. 2. Trease, G. E. and Evans, W. C. in Pharmacognosy, 12th ed., Publ. Bailliere Tindall, London, 1983.

CATNIP Nepeta cataria L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84929-35-1 Catnip (Nepeta cataria) Extract Herb Family: Lamiaceae Synonyms: Catmint Part Used: Leaves and tops Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized in North America, from New Brunswick south to Georgia and Kansas. Description Top, from 10 to 20cm long, much branched, or crushed and broken; stems quadrangular, downy, up to 4mm in diameter; leaves opposite, the larger, petiolate, from 2 to 7cm long, ovate or oblong, rounded or ear-shaped at the base, pointed at the apex; pale gray-green, soft- hairy above, downy beneath, margin deeply crenate; floral leaves small, bract-like, flowers small, in dense, interrupted spikes; calyx hairy, tubular, curved obliquely and subequally 5-toothed; corolla whitish, dotted with purple, throat dilated, limb bilabiate, the upper lip erect and two-cleft, the lower spreading and three-cleft, the middle lobe largest, crenulate; stamens two pairs ascending under the upper lip, lower pair shorter. Odor faintly aromatic and mint-like; taste bitter, pungent, and aromatic. Properties Catnip has been used for reducing swelling, puffy swollen eyes in combination with gobonadorra (chaparral) and wintergreen. It is useful for dandruff and various scalp (irritations) disorders. Herbalists frequently recommend catnip in treating baby’s colic for its soothing and mildly sedative properties. It has also been shown to reduce fever and relieve headache. Cats love its intoxicating (pheramone-like) effect. Constituents Essential oil, nepetalactone, nepetalic acid, nepetari- aside, nepetol rosemarinic acid, (geraniol, citronellal, carvacol, camphor, methyl-nepetalactone, thymol). Catnip

CENTELLA...... SeeGOTU-KOLA

CENTIPEDA Centipeda cunninghami A. Br. Aschers *INCI Name Part Used: Centipeda cunninghami Flowering Family: Asteraceae tops Synonyms: Sneezeweed, Old Man’s Weed Part Used: Flowering tops Habitat and Range Indigenous to Australia and grows in the Far East.

Description It is a herbaceous plant. Stem 0.3 to 0.5 cm in diameter, green, cylindrical, longitudinally striated, internodes short. Leaves, sessile, alternate, simple, green, oblong, obovate 6 to 9 cm long and 0.6 to 1 cm broad, margin dentate, apex acute, venation pinate reticulate, midrib biconvex more prominent on the lower side and running from base to apex. Odor characteristic, aromatic, and sternutatory. Taste aromatic and slightly bitter. The herb is covered by characteristic abundant nonglandular trichomes with 6 to 8 curved cuboidal basal cells, the first one being distinctly larger and appearing inflated and almost spherical; then the cells gradually decrease in breadth, the apical cell being elongated filamentous. The basal cells measure together 400 to 500 µm in length, while the apical cell measures 1000 to 2000 µm. Compositous glandular hairs are also present. Properties Centipeda has been used by aborigines in Australia for burns, wounds, skin infections, diarrhea, and rheumatism.1 Centipeda cunninghammi In Chinese traditional medicine, the plant has been used to treat colds, nasal allergies, asthma, malaria, and amoebiasis.2 The plant also possesses antiallergic,3 antiprotozoal,2 and platelet-activating factor antagonistic activities.4 Antimutagenic5 and antiviral6 activities were also attributed to the plant. The plant was found to be highly effective as a topical antiinflammatory (antiallergic) and cell-regenerating (healing) agent with distinct sunscreen acticity.7,8 Constituents The predominant constituents are the sesquiterpenes, which comprise dihydroactinidiolide, arnicolides, brevilin A, caryophyllane-2,6-beta-oside, florilenalin-angelate, florilenslin derivatives, beta-gurjunene, helenalin, plenolin derivatives, and alpha-humulene. The plant also contains diterpenes, triterpenes, and flavonoids. The plant yields about 1% of volatile oil containing cis-dihydro-carveol (23.98%), trans-sabinyl acetate (22.97%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (13.50%), myrtenol (5.85%), thymol (1.5%), isoamyl caproate (1.23%), and isobutyl isopentanoic acid ester (1.18%). 1. A. Campbell, Aust. J. Pharm., 54, 894, 1973–1974. 2. H.W. Hu, C.W. Wright, Y. Cai, S.L. Yang, J.D. Phillipson, G.C. Kriby, and D.C. Warhurst, Phyto- therapy Res., 8(7), 436, 1994. 3. J.B. Wu, Y.T. Chun, Y. Ebizuka, and U. Sankawa, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 39(12), 3272, 1991. 4. S. Iwakami, J.B. Wu, Y. Ebizuka, and U. Sankawa, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 40(5), 1196, 1992. 5. H. Lee and J.Y. Lin, Mutat. Res., 204(2), 22 g, 1988. 6. Y.C. Lin, T.I. Yang, and C.S. Yang, Chin J. Microbiol., 6, 97, 1973. 7. D’Amelio, F. and Mirhom, Y.W., Abstr. of papers presented at the 38th ASP Meeting, UIO, July 26–30, 1997. 8. D’Amelio, F. and Mirhom, Y. W., U.S.A. Patent 5,804,206, Sept. 1998.

CHAMOMILE FLOWERS Matricaria chamomilla/recutita L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Asteraceae Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) Flowers Synonyms: German Cha- Extract momile, Wild Chamomile Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) Oil Flowers Part Used: Flower heads Matricaria (Chamomilla recutita) Extract Flower heads Matricaria (Chamomilla recutita) Oil Flowers Habitat and Range Europe and Western Asia; naturalized in the United States, New York southward. Description Flowerheads composed of a few white ray-florets and numerous yellow disk-florets on conical, hollow receptacles, the latter being from 3 to 10 mm in breadth; disk-florets tubular, perfect, and without a pappus; ray-florets from 10 to 20, pistillate, corolla white, three-toothed and four-veined, usually reflexed; involucre hemispherical, composed of from 20 to 30 imbricated, oblanceolate, and pubescent scales; peduncles light green to brownish-green, longitudinally furrowed, more or less twisted and attaining a length of 2.5 cm; achenes somewhat obovoid and faintly 3- to 5-ribbed; pappus none, or only a slight membraneous crown. Odor pleasant, aromatic; taste aromatic and bitter. Properties Chamomile is one of the most widely used herbs in the kingdom of botanicals. It is a carminative, healing tonic, anti-inflammatory. Chamomile contains azulene. Used in facial steams to reduce puffiness and cleanse the pores of impurities. Used in topical oils to relieve aches and pains. Chamomile will add highlights to light hair and is com- patible with neutral henna, calendula, and mullein in shampoo rinses, lotions, creams, etc. Constituents Essential oil, apigenins, bisabolene, alpha-bisabolol, borneol, farnesol, furfural, matricarin, chamazulene, chlorogenic acid, well over one hundred compounds. For further reading, see the bibliography at the end of the book.

Chamomile

CHAPARRAL Larrea divaricata Cov. (DC) Coville Larrea tridentata (DC) Cov. *INCI Name Chaparral (Larrea divaricata) Part Used: CAS#: 84603-70-3 Extract Leaves Family: Zygophyllacea Synonyms: Creosote bush, Go- bonadorra Greasewood, Hediondilla Part Used: Leaf Habitat and Range It prefers scrub deserts. It is native to the southwestern United States, and can be found growing wild from Texas to California and south to Mexico. Description A resinous, many-branched evergreen shrub growing 3 to 9 ft tall. Its branches are distinguished by black rings at the nodes. The leaves grow in opposite pairs; each consists of two 3 olive-green leaflets, /8 in. long. Yellow flowers have five petals, and are followed by showy globular fruits (seed balls) that are covered with fuzzy white hairs. The flowers normally occur in January through May, but can occur throughout the year in warmer climates. Properties Good for softening, restoring, and stimulating the skin. Also used on skin rashes and infections. The Mexicans refer to Chaparral as Gobonadorra. Chaparral is a source of N.D.G.A., a powerful antioxidant that was formerly used to preserve fats and oils from going rancid.

Chaparral is also reportedly used to reduce tumors. However, this has not been thoroughly investigated. Constituents Aspartic acid, camphor, gossypetin, and nordi- hydroguaiaretic acid (N.D.G.A.), a powerful antioxidant. 1. Merck Index, 8th ed., p. 747.

CHERRY BARK,WILD Prunus serotina EHRH *INCI Name Part Used: Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) Plant material CAS#: 8000-44-0/8460407-9 Bark Family: Rosaceae Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) N/S Synonyms: Black Cherry Bark, Bark Extract Wild Cherry Bark Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) Fruit Part Used: Bark Extract Habitat and Range Ontario to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. Description Wild Cherry occurs as a mixture of cut and broken pieces, which can be peeled, partially peeled, and unpeeled. These pieces measure up to 30 cm in length, 5 cm in width, and 4 mm in thickness. The bark is chip-like or partially quilled. The outer surface, if unpeeled, is brownish-black; it has numerous transversely elongated grayish-white lenticel scars. The inner surface varies from yellowish-brown to reddish-brown; it is finely striated and fissured. The fracture is weak, brittle, and uneven. The fractured surface is yellowish and reddish-brown, granular and slightly fibrous. The odor is aromatic, bitter- almond-like when moistened. The taste is astringent and pungent. Properties Soothing, astringent, sedating, used in hair conditioning as a rinse for ease of combing, will add body to hair. Has been formerly used in cough remedies and was once official in the USP and NF. Constituents Flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin), phenolic acids, tannins, and cyanogenetic glycoside prunasin. Wild Cherry (Bark)

CHICKWEED HERB Stellaria media L. Villars *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 901301-34-3 Chickweed (Stellaria media) Herb Family: Caryophyllaceae Extract Synonyms: Tongue grass, satin flower, white bird’s eye, Starweed Part Used: Dried aerial parts Habitat and Range Cultivated on waste ground. All Europe. Description A weak, creeping or ascending, much- branched herb 4 to 16 in. high, annual; stems slender, rooting at the nodes, with a line of hairs 1 along one side; leaves ovate, acute, ⁄6 to 1 in. long, entire, opposite, the lower petioled, the uppermost sessile; flowers white, small, with sepals longer than the two-parted petals, on slender, axillary stalks and in terminal, leafy cymes; fruit a many-seeded, small capsule. Properties Antipruritic, vulnerary, emollient. Has been used in an ointment to treat eczema, psoriasis, indolent ulcers; also as a poultice for carbuncles or abscesses. Stellaria combines well in ointments with Althea or Slippery Elm Bark and Comfrey. Can be used in creams, lotions, baths, and facial steams. For inflammed eyes, swelling, redness of face erysipelas. A wash has been used to help reduce freckles. Herbal- ists recommend a poultice be used to remove Stellaria media (Chickweed) splinters. Chickweek is also said to have cell- proliferating properties. Constituents Hentriacontanol,1 mucilage, rutin, tocopherols, gamma-linolenic acid, fatty acids and minerals, carboxylic acids, coumarins, saponins, triterpene gyycosides.

1. Duke, J., Handbook of Phyto Chemical Constitutents of Grass Herbs and Other Economic Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1992. 2. Leung, Y. A/B, Steven Foster, Encylopedia of Common Natural Ingredients, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996. CINCHONA...... See QUIN-QUINA CLEMATIS HERB Clematis vitalba L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84929-63-5 Clematis vitalba Extract Leaves Family: Ranunculaceae Synonyms: Old Man’s Beard, Travelers Joy Part Used: Dried aerial parts Habitat and Range Woods, hedges, thickets, June to August; most of Europe. Description A robust, woody, deciduous-leaved climbing plant to 30 m with clusters of white flowers toward the end of the present year’s branches, and conspicuous, grey, feather fruit clusters. Flowers 2 cm, fragrant, in lax terminal and axillary clusters; petals spreading, densely hairy on both sides. Leaves pinnate with 3 to 9 oval, stalked leaflets, each 3 to 10 cm. Fruit with numerous carpels, each with long styles with dense, spreading, white hairs. Properties As a bach flower remedy (aromatherapy), it is used for dementia, mental escape from reality, inattentativeness, indifference, said to have antibiotic properties, rubefacient, antiscrofulous properties. Homeopathic preparations are used to treat blisters, sores, and inflammation. Constituents Caffeic acid, behenic acid, chlorogenic acid, clematine, vitalbiosides, sterols, protein, melissic acid.

CLOVES Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr et Perry *INCI Name Syzygium aromaticum Part Used: CAS #: 84961-50-2 Family: Myrtaceae Synonyms: Eugenia caryophllus (Spreng.) Bull, et Herr., Carophyllus aromaticus L., Caryophyllum, Flores caryophylli Part Used: Flower buds Habitat and Range Native to the Molucca Islands. In 1770, it was introduced into Mauritius and Reunion, then brought to Zanzibar and Pemba. It is now extensively cultivated on these two islands and furnishes the bulk of the world’s supply.

Description From 10 to 17.5 mm in length; the solid inferior ovary more or less cylindrical, and somewhat four-angled; dark brown, terminated by an epigynous calyx with four incurved teeth about 3 mm in length, and surmounted by a light brown globular portion consisting of four imbricated, glandular-punctate petals, which alternate with the calyx teeth; stamens numerous, crowded, and incurved, style 1, ovary two- locular, with numerous ovules; odor strongly aromatic; taste pungent and aromatic, followed by a slight numbness. Properties They are due to the volatile oil. It has anodyne and mildly antiseptic properties, exhibiting broad antimicrobial activities as well as anthelmintic and larvicidal properties. It is an agreeable aromatic stimulant, antispasmodic, and has carminative properties. Constituents The buds yield 15 to 18% volatile oil containing 60 to 90% Eugenol, 2 to 27% eugenol acetate, and 5 to 12% E-caryophyllene. The buds also contain sterols, flavonoids, protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and others.

COLEUS ROOT Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Coleus Root Root, leaves Synonyms: Plectranthus barbatus Part Used: Root, leaves Habitat and Range The plant is distributed over the subtropical to temperate climate zones in the mountains of Africa, Burma, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. It is native to India, where it is widely cultivated. Description An aromatic perennial with tuberous roots and erect stem reaching 60 cm The taste of the leaf is at first pleasantly aromatic, afterwards very pungent; the odor is agreeable and refreshing. Properties It has an inhibitory activity on melanin formation, hence its use in cosmetic preparations intended to whiten the skin. It activates adenyl cyclase reaction, suggesting its value as a bronchodilator, anti-allergy and antiglaucoma agent. It lowers blood pressure; it is antispasmodic and heart tonic. Constituents Volatile oil and the labdane diterpene forskolin, which is responsible for most of the activities of the drug. 1. Robbers, J.E., Speedie, J.K., and Tyler, E., Pharmacognosy and Pharmacobiotechnology, Williams & Wilkins,

2. Chevallier, A., in The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants, Dorling Kindersley Ltd., London, 1996, 83. 3. Kronenthal, R.L., Personal communication, 1998. COLTSFOOT LEAVES Tussilago farfara L. *INCI Name Part Used: Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) Flowers and CAS#: 84625-50-3 Extract leaves Family: Asteraceae Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) N/S Synonyms: Coughwort Leaf Extract Part Used: Dried flowers and leaves Habitat and Range Waste places, banks, landslides, screens, river gravels. All Europe.

Description Petiole long, pubescent; blade very brittle, nearly orbicular or broadly ovate-reniform, from 8 to 15 cm long and nearly as wide, deeply cordate at the base, angular and dentate with red-brown teeth, palmately 5- to 9-nerved; glabrous above, slightly wrinkled, dark green to brownish-green or yellowish-green. The younger leaves densely white, floccose beneath, the older nearly or often quite glabrous below. Odor indistinct; taste mucilaginous, faintly herbaceous, bitter. Properties Emollient, has been used as a poultice for welts and swelling. Coltsfoot prepared as a wash for treating skin ulcers and sores. The flowers are said to reduce inflammation and stimulate the immune system. When the leaves are dried, ground, and smoked like tobacco, it is said to help relieve asthma. Constituents Tannins, mucilage, carotenoids, flavonoids, terpene alcohols, senkirkine, tussillagine, tussilagone and Colts foot essential oil, minerals.

COMFREY LEAF Symphytum officinale L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84696-05-9 Comfrey (Symphtum officinale) Leaf Family: Boraginaceae Extract Synonyms: Common Comfrey Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) Symphytum, Blackwort, Healing Leaf Extract Herb, Bruiswort, Knitbone Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) N/S Part Used: Root, rhizome and Leaf Powder leaf Habitat and Range Damp meadows, watersides, marshes. Most of Europe. Description The lower, radical leaves are very large, up to 10 in. long, ovate in shape and covered with rough hairs that promote itching when touched. The stalks are hol- lowed and cornered, very hairy. The powder is green in color. It is almost inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, feebly astringent taste. Properties Comfrey is one of the most useful botanicals that can be employed in cosmetics.1 (Allantoin has been used in suppurating wounds and resistant ulcers to stimulate growth of healthy tissue.) Comfrey is also an astringent, anti-inflammatory, antihemorrhagic, and demulcent. Comfrey’s anti-inflammatory activity has been demonstrated in vivo. It has been used in chronic varicose ulcers, on wounds, fractures, and even her- nias (12–15% extract in ointment base). Comfrey can be used in creams, lotions, ointments, salves, douches, hair rinses, shampoos, and massage and Comfrey leaf body oils. Comfrey combines well with Ulmus fulva, Fillipendula, althea, aloe, cone flower, plus other botanicals too numerous to mention. Com- frey has a wide and varied reputation. Constituents Comfrey contains allantoin (1.2–4.7%), a very powerful cell proliferent. The healing action of poultices of the roots and leaves might be related to the presence of allantoin an agent that promotes cell proliferation. Large amounts of mucilage (approximately 30%) are found in both the leaves and the roots. The mucilage is mainly composed of polysaccharides of glucose and fructose triterpenoids (isobauerenol), phenolics, caffeic, chlorogenic, and litho- spermic acids, B-sitosterol amino cids, asparagine (1–3%), alkaloids. 1. Mascolo N., Autoreg, Capassa F., Menghini A., and Fasulo M.P., Biological screening of Italian medicinal plants for anti-inflammatory activity, Phytotherapy Res., I, 944, 1987.

Typical Comfrey Analysis Report Amino analysis report Comfrey feed analysis report (% Total sample) (%, Unless noted) As is Dry matter

Arginine 0.93 Moisture 82.19 Histidine 0.47 Protein 5.40 30.30 Lysine 1.05 Crude fat 0.18 1.01 Phenylalanine 0.19 Crude fiber 2.51 14.11 Cystine 0.10 Ash 4.58 25.73 Methionine 0.26 Nitrogen-free extract 5.14 28.86 Threonine 0.72 Total Dig. Nutrients 8.78 49.29 Leucine 1.65 Calc. Net Energy therms cwt 7.84 44.01 Isoleucine 0.61 Calc. Dig. Protein 4.41 24.74

Valine 0.89 Nitrate as KNO3 0.14 0.79 Glycine 0.99 Beta-carotene mg/lb 49.10 275.50 Alanine 1.20 As Vit. A equiv. for cattle 19600 1101100.00 Proline 0.92 Maint. energy therms cwt 10 57 Glutamic acid 0.59 Prod. energy therms cwt 6 34 Aspartic acid (Asparagine) 2.93 Percent of standard feed 28 34 Serine 0.92 Calcium 0.285 1.600 Tyrosine 0.59 Phosphorus 0.142 0.795 Tryptophane 0.65 Magnesium 0.111 0.624 Potassium 1.456 8.176 Sodium 0.085 0.480 Sulfur 0.037 0.208 Manganese ppm 17.8 100.0 Copper pm 2.7 15.0 Cobalt ppm 0.7 3.8 Zinc ppm 7.8 44.0 Iron ppm 213.7 1200.0 Molybdenum ppm 0.1 0.3

Vitamin Group (mg/100 g) Thiamin (B-1) 1.0 Riboflavin (B-2) 7.0 Nicotinic acid 5.0 Equivalent to Vitamin A 28,000 IUs 100 g Pantothenic acid 4.2 Vitamin B-12 0.07 Vitamin C 100.0 Vitamin E 30.0 Allantoin 0.18

COMFREY ROOT Symphytum officinale L. *INCI Name Symphytum officinale L. Part Used: Family: Boraginaceae (Symphytum officinale) Synonyms: Common comfrey, Root (or) N/S Blackwort, Healing Comfrey Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) N/S Herb, Bruiswort, Knitbone Root Powder Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Damp grassland, riverbanks, woodland; Europe. Description Unground Comfrey Root: Spindle shaped, branched, often more than 2.5cm thick and 30cm long, externally wrinkled, firm, horny texture, and dark color; internally creamy white, occasionally dark brown in color. It is almost inodorous, and has a sweetish, mucilaginous, feebly astringent taste. Powdered Comfrey Root: A greyish brown color with many small dark brown specks that make up the outer bark. It contains a mucilage that is water extractable. Properties Provides moisture for dryness of the skin, promotes tissue repair, creates astringency, reduces inflammation and clotting. Good when used in burn creams. The secondary effects of its demulcent qualities include the drawing of boils and abscesses to the surface.

Comfrey root

Constituents See Comfrey Leaf. CONE FLOWER...... See ECHINACEA CORIANDER FRUIT Coriandrum sativum L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae (Coriandrum sativum) Extract Fruit Synonyms: Coriandrum, Coriander Part Used: Fruit Habitat and Range Asia, North Africa; cultivated extensively.

Description Mericarps usually coherent; cremocarp nearly globular, from 2 to 5 mm in diameter; externally light brown or yellowish-brown; apex with five calyx teeth and a short stylopod, each mericarp with five prominent, straight, longitudinal primary ribs and four indistinct, undulate secondary ribs; mericarps easily separated, deeply concave on the inner or commissural surface. Structure: An epidermis of small cells with thick walls; a layer of several rows of thin-walled, more to less collapsed parenchyma separated from a broad zone of strongly lignified fibers that extends as a continuous layer in the mesocarp of each of the mericarps; two or three layers of large, tangentially elongated, Coriander fruit (seed) at u10 thin-walled parenchyma cells, frequently with numerous large, intercellular spaces and bearing on each commissural side two large, eliptical oil ducts; endocarp of large tabular cells, the inner yellowish walls being considerably thickened and closely coherent to the brownish cells of the seed coat, except on the commissural side where the endocarp is separated from the seed coat forming a large elliptical cavity; endosperm distinctly reniform in outline and consisting of tabular or polygonal thick-walled cells containing fixed oil, and numerous large aleurone grains each with a rosette or prism of calcium oxalate. Properties Has been used in body lotions, toilet waters and after shaves. The Egyptians use it as an aphrodisiac. Herblists add to formulas to aid digestion and reduce flatulence. The essential oil is used in massage oils, toothpaste, deodorants, perfumes, and flavors. Constituents Volatile oil (about 1%) containing 60 to 70% D-(+)-linalool, 20% monoterpene hydrocarbons (D-pinene, limonene, D-terpinene, p-cymene, etc.), camphor, geraniol and geranyl acetate, trans-tridec-2-in-1-al is responsible for the “bedbug” smell of the unripe fruit and of the herb, fatty acids, phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, coumaric, ferulic), flavonoids (quertcetin, rutin), tannin.

CORN FLOWERS Centaurea cyanus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84012-18-0/68916-70-1 Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) Dried flowers Family: Asteraceae Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) N/S Synonyms: Bachelor’s Button Extract Part Used: Flowers Habitat and Range Waste places and around dwellings; Quebec, Virginia, California, British Columbia; native of Europe. Description Annual; stem 3 to 7 dm high, with slender, ascending branches, more or less floccose; leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, floccose, entire or the lowest dentate or somewhat pinnatifid; heads long-peduncled; involucres round-ureolate, about 15 mm high; bracts greenish-yellow, with dark brown fimbriate margins and tips; marginal corollas funnelform, blue, varying to rose or white. Properties Corn Flowers have been employed in face masks and packs. For aging skin, it is soothing and emollient. Anti-inflammatory and nourishing. A water distilled from the flowers is used as a beneficial wash for inflamed eyes, conjunctivitis, or as a compress for tired eyes, scrapes, and various skin complaints. It can be useful when employed in hair tonics.

Corn flower (Blue bottle)

Constituents Apigenin glucoside, cyanidin glucoside, tannin, protocyanin, cichorin, cnicin, polygalactur- onic acids. CORN SILK Zea mays L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Gramineae Corn (Zea mays) Silk Extract Stigmas Synonyms: Zea Part Used: Stigmas from the female flowers of maize (silk) Habitat and Range America; cultivated extensively. Description Slender filaments from 10 to 20 cm in length, and 0.4 mm in diameter; light green, purplish-red, yellow or light brown color; stigmas bifid, segments very slender, frequently unequal, and from 0.4 to 3 mm in length. Structure: Styles consisting of parenchyma and two parallel vascular bundles with narrow, spiral or annular tracheae; the epidermal cells rectangular, many of these being extended into multicellular hairs, the Corn silk (zea mays) L. Filamentous stigma with latter from 0.2 to 0.8 Pm in length, the basal trichomes u50, corn silk. portion consisting of 2 to 5 united cells, the upper portion being usually unicellular; the cells of the hairs are rich in cytoplasm and usually contain a small, spherical nucleus; the purplish-red styles contain a purplish-red cell sap. Properties Corn silk has been used in various urinary disorders, is said to be a diuretic and antilithic, and has been used for acute and chronic inflammation of the urinary system. Topically very soothing and softening. Constituents Acetanapthene, alanine, arginine, flavonoids (Maysin), saponins, palmitic acid, proline, stigmasterol, maizeric acid, fixed oil, minerals, potassium, protein, vitamin C, tocopherols. COWSLIP FLOWERS Primula officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Primulaceae Primula Extract Petals, roots Synonyms: Paigles, Peagles Primula veris N/S Part Used: Yellow petals and the root Habitat and Range Common in Britain, Europe, and temperate Asia.

Description A short, hairy perennial, with oval, wrinkled leaves. The flowers are tubular, yellow, about 1 cm in diameter, five-lobed, and spotted with orange at the throat. Taste, sweetish; odor, apricot-like. Properties Stimulate circulation. For blotchiness of skin. Cowslip Flowers are reportedly sedative having antihistamine properties, some say the flowers are antioxidant (free radical scavenging). Prim- ula has been used as a wash for wrinkles, sunburn, and acne and is said to be anti- inflammatory. Herbalists used it to treat bronchitis, colds, and coughs. According to the German Commission Monograph E, used for catarrh of the respiratory tract. Constituents Saponins, volatile oils, flavonoids (gossypetin, campferol dirhamnoside, and 3-gentiotrioside, quercetin), enzyme (primeverase). 1.H. Wagner, S. Blatt, and E.M. Zgalinski, Plant Drug Analysis, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984, p.176.

CRESS...... SeeWATERCRESS Cowslip CUCUMBER Cucumis sativus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 89998-01-6/70955-25-8 Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Fruit Family: Cucurbitaceae Extract Synonyms: Gherkin Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Juice Fruit Part Used: Whole fruit and seed Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Oil Expressed from fruit Habitat and Range Native of India; often cultivated as vegetable in southern Europe and North America. Description This trailing annual has rough stems, broad hairy leaves, tubular yellow flowers, and cylindrical, slightly curved, dark green fruits. Both the fruit and seeds are employed. Properties Fresh cucumber slices are used as a refreshing, cooling, soothing eye compress, in face creams, and for chapped skin or sunburn. Hydrating, astringent, and refreshing. Constituents Vitamins, minerals, amino acids, phytosterol, phenolic acids, fatty acids, cucurbitacins.

DANDELION LEAVES Taraxacum officinale Weber *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84775-55-3 Taraxacum Leaf Family: Asteraceae officinale Synonyms: Taraxacum, Foreign Dandelion, Lion’s ale Part Used: Leaf Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized in the United States, where it is a common weed. Description The plant carries basal rosettes of leaves that are deeply divided into uneven triangular lobes. The leaves are lanceolate to obovate and runcinate, about 10 to 20 cm long and 3 to 6 cm broad, but occasionally much larger (up to 40 cm long); the acute lobes are directed toward the base; the midrib is often violet colored and broad and the secondary veins leave it at a wide angle, approximating 90°; the leaves vary much in size and are nearly glabrous. The drug occurs as small leaf fragments 0.5 to 1.0 cm long and 0.5 cm wide, dark green or brown-green in color, with a pronounced midrib. Frequent pieces of cut, broken midrib and stems 2 cm long, 0.5 cm wide, yellow-brown and sometimes purple. Cut pieces of root and rhizome may occur. Dandelion leaf The vascular bundles of the meristele in the midrib are separate and often about ten in number, arranged in an ellipse as seen in T.S. Stomata are present in both epidermises, which are composed of cells with slightly sinuous anticlinal walls; the mesophyll has a rather indefinite palisade of two layers of cells that are short and wide. The few trichomes are uniseriate and may be simple, ending in spathulate cell or rarely glandular, ending in a spherical secreting cell; near the base are a very few pluricellular emergences. Properties The Dandelion is useful in facial steam packs, and for various skin complaints and eczema. Dandelion Dandelion tops

* Formerly CTFA.

contains the following nutrients per ounce: Vitamin A (7000 units), Vitamin B and C, and is especially high in potassium. Herbalists use it to stimulate the secretion of bile, as a diuretic, lack of appetite and dyspeptic complaints. It is also considered a blood purifier. There have been entire books written on Dandelions as it has many uses. The white sap has been used to treat warts; the root has been used to treat inflammation, probably due to the presence of sesquiterpenes.

Constituents Sesquiterpenes (taraxinic acid glucoside and 11,13-dihydrotaraxinic acid, glucoside, and the eudesmanolides, which have not been found anywhere else; tetrahydroridentin B and tarax- acolide B-D-glucopyranoside), triterpenes such as cycloartenol, p-hydroxyphenyl acetic acid, and its derivative taraxacoside, coumarins as scopoletin and esculetin, carotenoids, vitamins and minerals, flavonoids, and sterols.

DANDELION ROOT Taraxacum officinale Weber *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Asteraceae Dandelion (Traxacum officinale) Root and rhizome Synonyms: Lions Tooth Extract Dandelion (Traxacum officinale) Part Used: Root Root Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized in the United States, where it is a common weed. Description The root consists of a simple, straight root, which toward the upper part, passes imperceptibly into an erect rhizome; the latter sometimes remains simple, but often divides into several erect branches. It attains a length of about 30 cm, and a thickness of about 10 to 25 mm. When fresh it is yellowish-brown externally, whitish and fleshy within. From the freshly cut surface a bitter, milky latex exudes. In the center of the root is a small yellow wood. The dried root is dark brown, much shriveled, and wrinkled longitudinally; it tapers but little below, and often divides in the upper part (rhizome) into several erect branches. The rhizome and its branches are crowned with the short remains of the leaves which bear brownish hairs near the point of insertion. The drug breaks when dry with a short and horny fracture, the section exhibiting a yellow, porous, central wood occupying about 1/4 to 1/3 of the diameter, surrounded by a thick, whitish bark in which numerous, brownish concentric rings of sieve, tissue and laticiferous vessels are visible. The transversely cut surface of the rhizome shows a small central whitish pith, surrounded by a yellow wood outside that is a wide secondary phloem, with concentric rings as in the root, a narrow cortex, and a layer of cork externally. The drug, which is rather hygroscopic, becomes tough when slightly moist. It has no odor, but a bitter taste. Properties See Dandelion Leaves. Constituents See Dandelion leaves, also ca. 1.1% mucilage.

DEVIL’S CLAW Harpagophytum procumbens DC *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84900-65-8 Harpagophytum procumbens Roots Family: Pedaliaeae Extract Synonyms: Grapple plant Part Used: Roots

Devil’s claw (claw) Devil’s claw (cut section of root)

Habitat and Range Indigenous to southern and eastern Africa. Description It has a characteristic large, hooked, claw-like fruit. The plant produces bright red flowers. Macroscopical: Transversely cut disks of tuber, with some fan-shaped pieces, up to 6 cm in diameter and about 0.5 cm thick. Bark yellow to dark brown with longitudinal stria- tions. Xylem radiate, heavily concentric, light grey-brown, occasionally with cavities. Fracture short. Odor slight; taste astringent, bitter. Properties Anti-inflammatory (arthritis, rheumatism). Antiphlogistic, slightly analgesic. The aqueous fraction containing mostly harpagoside has shown significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in carrageenan-induced edema in rats and Devil’s claw (root) the writhing test in mice.1 Constituents Iridoidglycosides (harpagoside, procumbide), chlorogenic acid, polysaccharides, triterpenes, (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) phytosterols, polyphenols, flavonoids, quinones. 1. Lanhers, M.-C., et al., Planta Med., 58, 117, 1992.

ECHINACEA Echinacea angustifolia DC,, E. pallida, (Nutt.) Nutt. E. purpurea, L. Moench. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Asteraceae Coneflower (Echinacea angustifolia) Root, herb Synonyms: Pale Purple Cone Extract N/S Flower, Black Sampson, Scurvy Coneflower (Echinacea pallida) N/S Root, Indian head, Black Extract Susans, Hedgehog Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) N/S Part Used: Root, aerial parts Extract including flower or flower head Habitat and Range Central and southern United States.

Echinacea

* Formerly CTFA.

Author on his farm in field of echinacea

Description Nearly entire, cylindrical, very slightly tapering and sometimes spirally twisted, from 10 to 20 cm long and from 4 to 15 mm in diameter, externally grayish-brown, light brown, or purplish-brown; slightly annulate in the upper portion, with occasional stem scars somewhat longitudinally wrinkled, or furrowed; fracture short, fibrous; bark less than 1 mm thick, wood composed of alternate light yellowish and black wedges; the rhizome with a circular or angular pith. Odor faint, aromatic; taste sweetish, followed by a tingling sensation suggesting aconite, but lacking the persistent and benumbing effect produced by the drug. Structure: An outer cork composed of several layers of tabular cells with yellowish walls and containing oil globules or granular masses; about 8 rows of tangentially elongated, rather thick-walled parenchyma cells among which are oil or resin canals; characteristic carbon- like masses occur around the stone cells and fibers; sieve tissue in radial rows, the latter separated by parenchyma containing inulin and extending to the middle bark; a distinct cambium zone of several rows of thin-walled cells; central portion made up of radially arranged groups of tracheae, separated by broad wedges of parenchyma, the latter with secretion canals and characteristic stone cells. Properties Coneflower is noted to be antiseptic, healing for skin conditions or carbuncles, boils, wounds, ulcers, burns, bed sores, bites, stings, or poisonous insects. It has been taken internally to help build the immune system. The properties of this plant strongly indicate that the drug interacts through the human immune system. For example, blood purification, wound healing, use for snake bite, etc. are directly related to the immune mechanisms. Recent studies strongly support this phenomenon. This plant extract increases the serum immunoglobulin concentration and increases three classes of antibodies, when administered into normal leghorn chickens.1 It also increases the production of IgG (Immunoglobulin G) and antibody in immunodeficient chickens. When administered orally, this plant extract enhances phagocytosis significantly in experimental mice.2 A polysaccharide named “Echinacin B” isolated from this plant has shown to have antihyaluronidase activities in vitro. It was suggested that the wound-healing action of this compound was due to a hyaluronic acid–polysaccharide complex that resists hyaluronidase attack. The stabilization and the temporary increase of hyaluronic acid cause fibrosis and an increase of fibroblasts, to form the basis of the wound-healing process.

Echinacea purpurea root (whole)

Echinacea purpurea root (cut) — notice how it sheds

Echinacea angustifolia (root with cross cut)

The polysaccharides purified from the cell cultures of this plant have also shown significant immunomodulating activities. A highly purified acidic arabinogalactan has been shown to be effective in activating macrophages to cytotoxicity against tumor cells and a microorganism (Leishmania enriettii).3 Furthermore, this polysaccharide induced macrophages to produce tumor necrosis (TNF-X), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and Interferon-B2. It also increases T-cell proliferation. Three polysaccharides isolated4 from the cell culture of this plant have been shown to have stimulating effects on the activity of macrophages, indicating that these drugs can possibly be used in the treatment of opportunistic infections such as in AIDs patients. Macrophages from different organ origin could be activated to produce IL-1, TNF-X, and IL-6 to produce elevated amounts of reactive oxygen intermediates and to inhibit growth of

Echinacea tops Echinacea tops

Candida albicans in vitro.5 Furthermore, in vivo, the substances could induce increased proliferation of phagocytes in spleen and bone marrow and migration of granulocytes to the peripheral blood. These effects indeed resulted in excellent protection of mice against the consequenses of lethal infections with Listeria monolytogenes and C. albicans pathogens. Some major caffeoyl derivatives6 isolated from the Echinacea plant have been shown to have antiviral activity. Constituents A number of compounds have been isolated from Echinacea, including an essential oil, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and the following compounds: • Phenolic compounds derived from caffeic acid. These include the following: – Caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and dicaffeoylquinic acids (cynarin is specific to E. angustifolia). – The mono- and dicaffeate of tartaric acid, ferulates of tartaric. The dicaffeate (= cichoric acid) is abundant in E. purpurea (0.6–2.1%), but practically absent in E. angustifolia. – Sugar esters of caffeic acid [echinacoside: 0.3–1.7% (except in E. purpurea)]. • A large number of unsaturated aliphatic compounds. These include aliphatic amides, isobutylamides of polyenyne acids (e.g., isobutylamide of undeca (2E,4Z-diene- 8,10-diynoic acid) and polyene acids (e.g., isobutylamide of dodeca- (2E,4E,8Z,10E)-tetraenoic acid). Present in both E. purpurea and E. angustifolia, their respective structures and levels are slightly different, which is useful for species identification. In E. pallida, note especially the presence of ketoalkynes and ketoal- kenes. Long-chain fatty acids and alkanes are present in all species in the genus. • Polysaccharides. Their structure has been studied on cell cultures of E. purpurea (fucogalactoxyloglucans, arabinoga lactan); the roots of the same species contain a glucuronoarabinoxylan.

1. Schranner, I., M. Wuerdinger, N. Klumpp and U. Loesch, J. Vet. Med. Ser. B, 36(5), 353-364, 1989 2. Bauer, R., K. Jurcic, J. Puhlmann, and H. Wagner, Arzneim-Forsch, 38(2), 276-281, 1988. 3. Luettig, B., C. Steinmueller, G.E. Gifford, H. Wagner, and J.-L. Lohmann-Matthes, J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (Bethesda), 81(8), 669-675, 1989. 4. Wagner, J., M.H. Zenk, O. Holger, Ger Offen De 3,744,345, 1989. 5. Roesler, S. Christiane, K. Albrecht, E. Andreas, H. Wagner, and M.L. Lohmann- Matthes, Intn. J. Immuno Pharmacol., 13(1), 27-38, 1991. 6. Cheminat, A., R. Zawatzky, H. Becker, and R. Brouillard, Phytochemistry, 27(9), 2787-2794, 1988.

ELDER FLOWERS Sambucus nigra L. *INCI Name Sambucus Part Used:Family: Caprifoliaceae Sambacus canadensis Extract N/S Synonyms: American Elder, Sambucus nigra Flower and leaf Sweet Elder Sambucus nigra Berry Extract N/S Part Used: Flower and leaf Sambucus nigra Extract Flowers Sambucus nigra Oil Volatile oil N/S Sambucus nigra Water Flowers Habitat and Range New Brunswick to Manitoba, south to Florida and Texas. Description Small, from 2 to 3 mm in width, shriveled; calyx superior, five-lobed; corolla cream colored to brownish-yellow, rotate, flat or slightly campanulate, regularly five-lobed; stamens five, inserted at the base of the corolla and alternating with its lobes, filaments, slender anthers oblong, yellow; pollen ellipsoidal or tetrahedral and rounded, covered with finely punctate markings, having three pores and up to 0.023 mm in diameter. Odor faintly sweet and aromatic; taste slightly bitter. Properties Herbalists often call the Elder tree the cosmetic tree. Almost all parts will aid in complexion beauty such as softening the skin. It is said to reduce swellings, tumors, soreness, inflammation, joint stiffness etc. Elder is also claimed to lighten freckles. Constituents Flavonoids (isoquercitrin, rutin, astragalin, sambunigrin), phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid), triterpenes (alpha- and beta-amyrin), ursolic acid, sterols, volatile oils, minerals, mucilage, and tannins.

Elder berry

ELECAMPANE Inula helenium L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-20-4 Elecampane N/S Family: Asteraceae (Inula helenium) Extract Synonyms: Horseheal, Scabwort, Elfwort Part Used: Rhizome Habitat and Range Asia, central Europe; naturalized in northeast- ern North America, south to North Carolina, west to Missouri. Description Rhizome usually split into longitudinal or more or less oblique pieces to which can be attached one or more of the roots; up to 8 cm long and 4 cm in diameter; externally grayish- brown to dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled with occasional buds or stem scars and surmounted at the crown by a portion of the over- ground stem; inner or cut surface somewhat concave, the edges incurved with the overlapping bark, yellowish-brown to grayish-brown, longitudinally striate and more or less fibrous near the cambium zone; fracture short and horny; internally light brown and marked by numerous circular or elliptical oleoresin canals; roots cylindrical and tapering, frequently curved or irregularly curled, up to 13 cm in length and 1.5 cm in diameter. Odor aromatic; taste acrid, bitter, and pungent. Structure: A corky layer of from 4 to 7 rows of broad tabular cells; a cortex of numerous parenchyma cells containing inulin in irregular or fan-shaped masses and a number of large, intercellular secretion cavities containing oleoresin, arranged in nearly radial rows and forming interrupted circles; woody portion consisting chiefly of parenchyma, a number of tracheae with simple pores or reticulate thick- enings and associated occasionally with a few, Elecampane (Inula helenium L.) strongly lignified wood fibers, and secretion cavities containing oleoresin similar to those occurring in the bark; parenchyma cells in the pith of the rhizome large, containing less inulin than the cells of the wood and bark, and separated by large intercellular spaces. Properties Has been used as a wash for various skin disorders, as a bactericide, itching skin, wounds, and rashes. Internally it is one of the greatest herbs for lung ailments such as bronchitis, asthma, and catarrh.

Constituents Sesquiterpenes (eudesmanolides, isolantolactone, germacrene-D-lactose), triterpenes (dam- maradienol acetate, friedelin), sterols, polyacetylene, inulin.

Elecampane (Inula helenium)

EVERLASTING (LIFE EVERLASTING) Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90045-56-0 Everlasting (Helichryseum Flower heads Family: Asteraceae arenarium) Extract Everlasting (Helichryseum N/S Synonyms: Sweet & Fragrant italicum) Extract Life Everlasting, Eternal Flower Everlasting (Helichryseum N/S Part Used: Flowering heads stoechas) Extract Cudweed (Gnaphalium N/S polycephalum) Extract Habitat and Range North America. Description Stems white-woolly, corymbosely-branched at summit and leafy; leaves linear-lanceolate to lanceolate, sessile, woolly beneath, green above, revolute or undulate; heads numerous, each with white or pearly white involucre of ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, obtuse bracts which are white, but sometimes tinged with brown, and tubular flowers having a bristly pappus; odor characteristically aromatic; taste bitter and aromatic. Properties This beautiful yellow-flowered plant makes a good wash for bruises. Also has slight Anodyne properties. Has been used in mouthwashes and gargles for sores in the mouth and throat. Astringent tonic. Hemostatic, febrifuge, and discutient (reduces and distributes swelling). Constituents Tannins, essential oil, resin, and phytosterin.

EYEBRIGHT Euphrasia officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Scrophulariaceae Euphrasia officinalis Aerial parts N/S Synonyms: Euphrasia, Eyewort Euphrasia officinalis Extract N/S Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range Poor meadows, heaths, woodland; Europe. Description It is an elegant little annual plant, 2 to 8 in. high, with deeply cut leaves and numerous, small, white or lilac and purple-veined flowers variegated with yellow, in terminal spikes with leafy bracts interspersed. The leaves are sometimes almost round, and at other times pointed and 1 narrow, their margins, ⁄6 to in. long and about in. broad; however, always deeply cut-in teeth, opposite to one another on the lower portion of the stem. The corolla lip equals or exceeds the tube and the bracts of the flower-spike are broad at the base. The stem is erect and wiry, either unbranched in small specimens, or with many opposite branches. It is odorless, has a bitter and astringent taste.

Properties Eyebright is reportedly used as a wash for sore eyes and is an astringent and anti-inflammatory. Herbalists also use it locally for conjunctivitis along with Golden Seal Root and Witch Hazel. Euphrasia contains glycosides, including aucubin, and a volatile oil. The German Commission E Monograph states that preparations of eyebright can be used externally as, poultices, lotions or drops for eye complaints, inflamation of the blood vessels, conjunctivitis, inflammation of the eyelid, and various skin conditions. Constituents Aucubin, caffeic acid, catapol, ferulic acid, gallotannins, geniposide, luproside, minerals.

FENNEL FRUIT Foeniculum vulgare Mill *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84625-39-8/85085-33-2 Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Dried ripe fruit Family: Apiaceae Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Fruit Synonyms: Fennel fruit Extract Part Used: Fruit Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Oil Volatile oil N/S Habitat and Range Southern Europe and Asia; United States, New Jersey, south to Florida and Texas. Description Mericarps usually separate, each being broadly elliptical with the commissural surface flattened; more or less curved, from 4 to 15 mm in length and from 1 to 3.5 mm in breadth, some having a slender stalk from 2 to 10 mm in length; dorsal surface convex, yellowish-green to grayish-brown, with five prominent longitudinal primary ribs and at the summit a short, conical stylopod; commissural surface with three narrow, light Fennel fruit at 10u brown longitudinal areas separated by two dark brown or brownish-black areas containing oil ducts. Odor and taste aromatic and characteristic. Structure: A pentagonal mericarp, four of the sides being nearly equal and slightly concave, the other or commissural surface being much broader and more or less undulate; cells of the seed-coat closely united with those of the pericarp giving the transverse section two very distinct areas, the inner and larger portion (endosperm) more or less rounded-pentagonal and somewhat reniform, composed of polygonal cells, filled with aleurone grains and fixed oil; the outer or pericarp layer distinguished by four large elliptical schizogenous oil ducts with thick, brown walls, the latter occurring singly and alternating with the primary ribs, and two oil ducts on the ventral side, making usually six oil ducts in all. In the central portion of each of the ribs occurs a nearly circular, fibrovascular bundle with a few tracheae and numerous thin-walled, strongly lignified fibers. Properties Used in facial steams to soothe and clean skin. For use in eye washes. Fennel combines well with Eyebright and Golden Seal Root. Herbalists recommend Fennel to help increase breast milk and regulate menstruation. Fennel also helps to aid digestion and is carminative. It is

* Formerly CTFA.

105

also said to help liver damage caused by alcohol abuse. However, Milk Thistle is supposedly a more specific liver-protecting agent. Constituents 2 to 6% essential oil, comprising up to 50 to 70% of the sweetish trans-anethole and up to 20% of the bitter and camphoraceous (+)-fenchone. In addition, there are methylchavicol, anisaldehyde, and some terpenoid hydrocarbons, including D-pinene, D-phellandrene, and limonene. In addition, the fruits contain a fixed oil, protein, organic acids, and flavonoids.

FENUGREEK Trigonella foenum graecum L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 68990-15-8 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) Seeds Family: Fabaceae Extract Synonyms: Greek Hay Part Used: Seed Habitat and Range Native of Asia, cultivated in India, Pakistan, Israel, and Turkey. Description Fenugreek seeds are about 4 to 6 mm long, 2 to 3 mm wide, and 2 mm thick; they are hard, yellowish-brown, irregularly rhomboidal in outline, and flattened. Nearly in the center of one of the long, narrow sides is a small depression in which both hilum and micropyle are situated, the former appearing as a whitish point; this depression is continued in the form of a furrow running diagonally across part of each of the adjoining sides, thus dividing the radicle-pocket from the remainder of the seed, in which are the two large cotyledons placed face to face, the radicle being accumbent. The embryo is yellowish and the cotyledons are surrounded by a scanty, horny, dark, translucent endosperm. Soaked in water, the endosperm swells and yields mucilage to the surrounding liquid. The odor of Fenugreek, especially if Fenugreek seed (Indian) at u10 powdered, is strong and spicy; the taste is disagreeable and oily.

Properties Anti-inflammatory source of diosgenin. Fenugreek is one of the oldest plants to be used in medicines, dating back to the ancient Egyptians. A poultice has been employed for gout, neurosis, swollen glands, wounds, tumors, sores, and various skin irritations. Fenugreek contains mucilage. It is also used as a galactagogue. Constituents Dioscin, cystine, choline, aspartic acid, diosgenin, fenugreakin, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, mucin, mucilage, trigonelline, choline, yamogenin, trigofoenoside A-G.

FIGWORT Scrophularia nodosa L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90106-65-3 Figwort (Scrophularia nodosa) Herb Family: Scrophulariaceae Extract N/S Synonyms: Carpenter’s Square, Scrofula plant, Square stalk, Heal-all Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range Figwort is a native of Europe and found growing in different parts of the United States, in woods, hedges, damp copses, and banks; flowering from July to October.

Description Figwort has a perennial, whitish, tuberous, and knotty root, with a leafy, erect, quadrangular, smooth stem, 2 to 4 ft in height, with paniculate, opposite branches above. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, ovate-oblong, or the upper lanceolate, acute, sharply and unequally serrated, rounded, acutish or broadly cordate at base, veined, of a deep-green color, and 3 to 7 in. in length. The flowers are small, 3 to 4 in. long, ovoid, dark purple, slightly drooping, on axillary and terminal, forked, angular glandular peduncles in oblong, thyrsoid panicles. The calyx is in five segments, which are broadly ovate, obtuse, and slightly margined; the corolla of a dull green color, with a livid purple lip, and subglobose; the limb contracted, sublabiate, having a green scale or sterile filament, adnate to the upper side. Properties Used in the treatment of various skin conditions and ailments. Also used internally to reduce body temperature and blood pressure anti-inflammatory, anodyne, cleansing, and circulatory stimulant. A compress of the infusion can be applied to swellings and wounds. It has been used as a wash for skin inflammations and eczema. It has also been reportedly used successfully for tinea. Constituents Saponins, hesperetin, lecithin, cardio-active glycosides, alkaloids and flavonoids.

GALIUM APARINE Galium aparine L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84625-42-3 Galium aparine N/S Family: Rubiaceae Extract Herb Synonyms: Cleavers, Catch-weed, Bedstraw Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range This plant is common to Europe and the United States, growing in cultivated grounds, moist thickets, and along banks of rivers, and flowering from June to September. Description Galium aparine is an annual, succulent plant, with a weak, procumbent, quadrangular, ret- rorsely prickled stem, which grows from 2 to 6 ft long, and is hairy at the joints. The leaves are 1 or 2 in. in length, 2 or 3 lines in width, verticillate in sixes, sevens, or eights; linear- oblanceolate nearly sessile, mucronate, tapering to the base, and rough on the margins, and midrib; the peduncles are axillary and 1- or 2-flowered; the flowers white, small, numerous and scattered. Calyx 4-toothed; corolla rotate and 4-parted; stamens 4 and short; styles 2. The fruit is large and bristly, with hooked prickles. In a green state, these plants have an unpleasant odor, but are inodorous when dried, with an acidulous, astringent, and bitter taste. Properties Has been used in various skin diseases, including psoriasis. It was also used topically on burns and abrasions. Galium is said to increase the elasticity of the skin, cleansing, and astringent. Combines well with Figwort (Schrophularia Nodosa), Stinging Nettle, and Bur- dock. Herbalists extol its use as a lymphatic cleanser and blood purifier. It can be employed in hair rinses for scaling scald and dandruff. Constituents Iridoid glucosides, phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, tannins, sterols, fatty acids, and n-alkanes.

GARLIC Allium sativum L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 8008-99-9 Garlic (Allium sativum) Bulb Extract N/S Family: Alliaceae Synonyms: Allium Part Used: Bulb

* Formerly CTFA.

109

Habitat and Range Central Asia; cultivated extensively; Italy is a large producer. Description Bulb subglobular, 4 to 6 cm in diameter, compound, with 8 to 15 bulbils, surrounded by whitish, membranaceous scales, and attached to a flattened circular base, the latter with numerous yellowish-white roots; bulbils ovoid in transverse section 3 to 4 sided, the outer surface convex, apex acute, and narrowed into a thread-like fibrous portion, base truncate; each bulbil covered by whitish, membranaceous, scale-like leaves, beneath which is a light brown or pinkish, thin and coriaceous layer of epidermis, cohering but easily separable from the solid portion of the bulbil. Odor when broken or bruised powerfully alliaceous; taste intensely pungent and persistent. Structure: Bulbil with three distinct portions: (a) the large fleshy scale consisting chiefly of parenchyma enclosing scattered vascular bundles; epidermis in both ventral and dorsal surfaces of small tabular cells; (b) a middle layer nearly circular in outline, about 0.750 mm in diameter, the tissues resembling those of the outer fleshy scale, but the cells containing numerous yellowish brown plastids; (c) an innermost bright green layer consisting of a single leaf folded lengthwise along the midrib so that the ventral surfaces lie close together. The membranaceous scales, dry leaf, and root remains should be removed before Garlic is used for the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations. Properties Cosmetically, Garlic does not lend itself, for obvious reasons. However, Garlic is a source of organic sulfur. It has been applied successfully to swellings, sores, pimples, and acne. Herbalists recommend taking Garlic oil and applying it to sores, then wrapping or placing a bandage over the sore (infection) and changing the dressing daily. The Garlic oil is not the essential oil, but an oil made from crushed Garlic and extra virgin olive oil. You might like to try dipping bread in this mixture, in place of butter. Internally, Garlic is diaphoretic, expectorant, spasmolytic, antiseptic, bacteriostatic, antiviral, promotes leucocytosis, hypotensive and anthelmintic. It is said to decrease blood cholesterol and triglycerides and help prevent platelet aggregation. Constituents Sulfur compounds, (alliin, allicin — dialltrisulfide, scordinins, g-glutamyl), peptides, Vita- mins A, B, C, and E, trace minerals, and fructans.

GENTIAN Gentiana lutea L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 97676-22-7 Gentian (Gentiana lutea) Dried rhizomes and Family: Gentianaceae Gentian (Gentiana lutea) roots Synonyms: Yellow Gentian Root Extract Rhizomes and roots Part Used: Root and rhizome Habitat and Range Central and southern Europe. Description Gentian root occurs as broken pieces and rarely as entire roots. These roots measure up to 8.5 dm in length, but are usually shorter, and to 37 mm in diameter. The rhizomes are vertical and simple or branched. The crown terminates in a circular stem scar or in leafy scales surrounding the undeveloped stem. The texture is non-starchy and slightly waxy. The color is light or dark yellowish-brown. The surface of the rhizome is annulate and rough with fibers from leaf bases; that of the root, deeply wrinkled longitudinally. The fracture is short and brittle when the root is dry, but pliable when it is moist. The outline is very irregular on account of wrinkles. The cortex is of variable thickness and yellow-brown. The cambiam zone is dark brown. The wood is distinctly radiate near the cambium but less so near the large brownish-yellow pith. The odor is aromatic. The taste is first sweet, then strongly bitter. Properties Gentian is an astringent, cleansing, anti-inflammatory, bitter, gastric stimulant, sialagogue, and cholagogue. Gentian is considered one of the most useful herbs for digestive disorders and is employed in many bitter type formulations. It is recommended for loss of appetite, it increases the secretion of saliva and gastric juices. Constituents Secoiridoid glucosides (gentiopicroside, amarogen- tin, sweroside, swertiamarin), polysaccharide, xan- thones, phenolic acids, volatile oils, and alkaloids (gentiamine).

GERANIUM Geranium maculatum L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Geraniaceae Geranium maculatum Rhizome Synonyms: Wild Geranium, Cranesbill, Wild Alum Part Used: Rhizome Habitat and Range Eastern and central North America, and middle western United States.

Description Rhizome cylindraceous, somewhat branched, bent, flattened, and strongly tuberculated, from 2.5 to 10 cm and from 3 to 14 mm in diameter; surface marked with root scars and remnants of slender roots, longitudinally wrinkled; externally dark purple-brown; internally light purple-brown; fracture short, nonfibrous, the section shows a thin bark, a distinct cambium, irregular in outline, large central pith, wood indistinct, the fibrovascular bundles few and at unequal distances. Odorless; taste strongly astringent. Structure: A more or less irregular cork layer consisting of about 10 rows of tangentially elongated cells, the outer layers with brownish walls and a Wild alum (Geranium malvlatom) brownish amorphous content, the inner layers with colorless walls; a layer of about five rows of tangentially elongated oval cells; a wide layer of nearly isodiametric parenchyma containing either starch, rosettes of calcium oxalate, or tannin; distinct groups of sieve separated from the central cylinder by a broad, continuous zone of cambium; fibrovascular bundles few, radially arranged with tracheae and tracheids and narrow medullary rays; very large pith, the cells containing starch or, in a few instances, rosettes of calcium oxalate. Properties Astringent, tonic, styptic useful for sore mouth and indolent ulcers. Can be used in douches, as a deodorant wash, in bath, for oily skin in creams, lotions, hair rinses, shampoos, and conditioners. It is also good for swollen, aching feet and hemorrhoids. Constituents High in tannins, gum, and resin.

Wild alum

GINGER Zingiber officinale, Roscoe *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Zingiberaceae Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Extract Rhizome Synonyms: Jamaica Ginger Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Oil Dried rhizomes Part Used: Rhizome Habitat and Range Cultivated in The West Indies. Description Jamaica ginger occurs as a mixture of irregularly branched rhizomes and broken pieces. All surfaces are completely peeled. The rhizomes measure up to 12 cm in length, up to 3.5 cm in height, and up to 1 cm in width. The rhizome is horizontal, and the ends of the branches have circular or oval sunken stem or bud scars. The texture is starchy, resinous, and fibrous. The color all surfaces is yellowish-brown. The upper surface has several branches which terminate in sunken stem scars. All the surfaces are striated Ginger (Costa Rican) longitudinally, and have a few projecting thread-like strands of conducting tissue. The undersurface frequently has short, undeveloped branches, or longer branches that normally continue the growth of the rhizome. The fracture is brittle and uneven. The outline is oval. This is caused by lateral compression. The cortex is thin. The endodermis is yellowish and encloses the large stele; it has scattered masses of conducting tissue and oleoresin cells. The color is light yellow. The odor is strongly aromatic and agreeable; the taste is pleasantly pungent and aromatic. Properties A circulatory stimulant, and an additive used in food for its flavor and its aromatic characteristic. It is carminative, diaphoretic, spasmolytic, and antiemetic. Ginger oil is used in fragrances. Gin- ger has many medicinal properties too numerous to mention in this reference. However, it has been used in hair-stimulating tonics. It has anti-inflammatory properties. Ginger is also antiseptic and has been used for treating bacillary dysentary. The essential oil of Ginger has been used topically to relieve arthritic pain. It is usually diluted in olive oil at a level of 20 to 25% essential oil. Constituents Volatile oil (zingiberene, curcumene), oleoresin (gingerols and shogaols), fatty acids, and starch.

GINKGO Ginkgo biloba L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90045-36-6 Ginkgo biloba Extract N/S Family: Ginkgoaceae Leaf Synonyms: Flying Moth Leaf, Buddha’s Fingernails, Duck-foot Part Used: Leaf Habitat and Range United States and China. Description Large deciduous tree. Tree trunk erect, forming a dense crown when old. Bark gray, deeply cracked. Branches long and short. Leaves on long branches single; on short branches clustered. Leaves fan-shaped, bi-parted at apex, bases cuneate, upper margins undulate or irregularly shallow-parted, both surfaces yellowish-green, containing numerous parallel veins. Blooms in summer. Fruit seeds are drupes, obovate or ellipsoid.

Ginkgo

Properties Vasodilator, increases circulation, improves sebaceous secretions, decreases capillary hyper- permeability, improves tissue irrigation, and activates cell metabolism, particularly in the cortex (by increasing glucose and oxygen uptake). Ginkgolide B is inhibitor of platelet-activating factor, together with the activities of the flavonoids as radical scavengers, can explain the numerous properties of Ginkgo extract. Ginkgo is anti-inflammatory and anti-allergenic. Constituents Mainly two groups of compounds: flavonoids and diterpenes. The flavonoids are about 20 flavonol glycosides of kaempferol and quercetin and biflavones: amentoflavone, bilobetol 15-methoxybilobetol, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin, and sciadopitysin. Flavanols and proanthocyanidins are also present. The diterpenes are ginkgolides A, B, C, J, and M. They have a very specific hexacyclic structure.

GINSENG Panax quinquefolium L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 90045-38-8 Ginseng (Panax ginseng) Dried roots Family: Araliaceae Ginseng (Panax ginseng) Extract Roots Synonyms: American Ginseng, Sang, Redberry, Five Fingers Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Ginseng is found sparingly in the rich, moist soil in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota, southward to the mountains of northern Georgia and Arkansas. Ginseng has long been cultivated in small areas in the northern and central United States and on the North Pacific coast.

Ginseng root (american) cultivated

Description Excerpts from various old journals: Ginseng is a native of most of the middle and northern states, and extends on the mountains far south, growing in rich soil and in shaded situations, and flowering in July. C.S. Rafinesque1 states that the Jesuits, knowing the plant from their sojourns in Tartary found it afterward, toward 1718, in Canada and instituted the trade in this root with China. The root is somewhat fusiform, 2 or 3 in. in length, and about an inch in diameter, and sends off a few delicate fibers. When dried, it consists of a soft, yellowish- white corrugated bark, enclosing a central, woody substance. It has a faint smell; its taste is sweetish, somewhat bitter, mucilaginous, and feebly aromatic. Water or alcohol takes up its

properties. Large quantities of it are now gathered and sent to China, where it commands an enormous price, as the Chinese ascribe wonderful medicinal virtues to it. The American drug is cheapest (about $1.86 per pound); next ranks Korea ginseng at $16.50 per pound); and highest in price is the genuine Chinese Ginseng. The latter is seldom found in stores, and the finest qualities command the price of from $60 to $100 for a weight of about 580 grains. In Korea, the cultivation and trade in Ginseng is a government monopoly.2 Ginseng is also grown in Japan, but is considered inferior to Korea Ginseng. The genuine Chinese Ginseng is the root of Aralia Ginseng. A. Meyer (Panax Ginseng, Nees) an east Asia plant. Altogether, five commercial grades of Ginseng are distinguished in China. It is often adulterated by mixing it with the root of some species of Convolvulus and other roots. (For the cultivation of Ginseng in America, see Reference3). Ginseng is becoming very scarce and, unless a method of cultivation becomes practical, bids fair to be exterminated. The price now is from $4.00 to $7.50 per pound and advancing. Today 1998 prices for ginseng are from $100 to $450 per pound. Properties Present-day cosmetic uses of Ginseng: said to be an excellent skin conditioner in masks, packs, moisturizing lotions, night creams, etc. Ginseng is supposedly most efficacious when applied to the skin for its alleged rejuvenating effects. It has also been used internally in amnesia, dizziness, headache, tiredness, convulsions, impotence, and lack of appetite, among others.

Constituents At least 18 triterpenoidal saponins were isolated; these are called ginsenosides or panaxosides, and they are glycosides of oleanolic acid, 20-S-protopanaxadiol and 20-S-protopanaxatriol. Other constituents are a trace of volatile oil; 7 to 9% ginseng polysaccharides (panaxans); pectin; free sugars; vitamins B1, B2, B12, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, and biotin; choline; fats; minerals; polyacetylenes, among others. 1. C.S. Rafinesque, Med. Floa of the U.S., II, 53, 1880. 2. See Am. J. Pharm., 597, 1887; 51, 1897; 251, 1898. 3. Am. J. Pharm., 411, 1891.

GOLDEN ROD Solidago virgaurea L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Asteraceae Golden Rod Flowers and leaves Synonyms: Virgaurea, Herba solidaginis Part Used: Flowers and leaves Habitat and Range Native to the U.K., now naturalized in Europe as a garden plant and as an escape in lowland forests and woods along rivers. Description Golden Rod is a perennial herb up to 75 cm tall, upright, with oblong-lanceolate, sessile, finely toothed stem leaves, bearing a head of compositous flowers each with a yellow disk and 6 to 12 yellow ray florets. Stem, longitudinally striated, shining red-violet. Covering trichomes of the leaves are very long, uniseriate, 3 to 10 celled; those of the florets are multicellular biseriate; glandular trichomes of the compositous type are present. Taste is astringent. Flowers from July to October.

Golden rod (Solidago)

Properties The infusion is used as a face wash for oily skin with large open pores. It is also used in a bath to tone up flabby skin and muscle, probably due to its tannin content. However, it also contains flavonoids that could help to reduce inflammation, capillary fragility. It has been used as a diuretic. Externally, it helps to heal wounds and persistent sores. Internally, it is diaphoretic, antiseptic, carminative, and diuretic. It is principally used in low-grade inflammation of the nasopharynx with persistent catarrh. Constituents Volatile oil, flavonoids, saponins with polygalic acid aglycone and an astringent principle.

GOLDEN SEAL Hydrastis canadensis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Ranunculaceae Golden Seal (Hydrastis canadensis) Herb Synonyms: Orange Root, Eye Extract Balm, Ground Raspberry, Yellow Golden Seal (Hydrastis canadensis) N/S Root Root Extract Part Used: Root and rhizome Habitat and Range Connecticut to Vermont, to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Missouri. Description Hydrastis occurs as entire and as broken pieces of the rhizome and roots. The rhizome measures up to 6 cm in length and to 13 mm in diameter; the roots measure up to 30 cm in length and to 3 mm in diameter. The rhizome is horizontal and is simple or branched; the upper surface has many circular, slightly depressed stem scars, or short stem bases, or portions of stems. The stems are fibrous, longitudinally furrowed, and greenish-brown. They are surrounded at the base by numerous thin yellow scales. The texture is slightly fibrous. The color varies from yellowish to dark grayish- or to reddish-brown. The surface of the rhizome is annulate and longitudinally Golden seal (root) striated, that of the roots striated longitudinally. The fracture is very brittle and even. The outline of the rhizome and roots is cylindrical. The cortex of the rhizome is thick. The wood has several isolated masses of radial conducting cells and a greenish-yellow pith. The cortex of the roots is yellowish-green. The wood is minute and yellowish. The odor is slightly aromatic. The taste is bitter. Properties Golden Seal has a wide and varied reputation. It makes an excellent yellow hair dye. It was used by the Cherokee Indians and passed on to the early American settlers for use as a dye and medicinal Golden Seal Root has been employed in eczema, pruritus, otorrhea, and conjunctivitis. It can be used in cases of acne, dandruff, mouth washes, and as an astringent.

Herbalists use Golden Seal as a blood purifier and also for catarrh (mucosal inflammations) gastritis, and dispepsia. Golden Seal contains hydrastine, which is said to be vasoconstrictor, choloretic, spasmolytic sedative, and antibacterial. Berberine is also choloretic, spasmolytic, antibacterial, and sedative. Canadine is said to stimulate uterine muscle and hydrastine hydrochloride and hydrastinine hydrochloride have been used to control uterine hemmor- rhage. Golden Seal is a very expensive herb and if you want to use it for its yellow color, Berberis vulgaris is suggested, as this is very high in Berberine, which gives Golden Seal its yellow color. Constituents Isoquinoline alkaloides (hydrastine, berberine, canadine), chlorogenic acid, lipids, resin, starch, sugar, and small amount of volatile oil.

GOTU-KOLA Hydrocotyle asiatica Centella asiatica L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae (Centella asiatica) Extract Leaves and roots Synonyms: Thick-leaved Pennywort, Indian Pennywort, March Pennywort, Water Navelwort Part Used: Leaves and aerial part Habitat and Range Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., a weakly aromatic-smelling plant native to parts of India, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the western South Sea Islands, Australia, Madagascar, and southern and middle Africa. Description Has been utilized as a medicine in India since prehistoric times and is probably identical with the plant manduka parni. Fresh extracts of the plant seem to have been used for medicinal purposes by the peo- Gotu kola ple of Java and other islands near

the Malay Peninsula for many years as both topical and internal agents for the healing of wounds and relief from leprosy. A slender, creeping, perennial plant, Centella asiatica flourishes in and around water and damp swampy areas, but is often observed growing along stone walls or other rocky, sunny areas and at elevations of approximately 700 meters in India and Ceylon. Plants of Centella asiatica have constantly growing roots and long, often reddish string-shaped stolons that are characterized by long internodes and roots at each of the nodes. Smooth-surfaced leaves, borne on furrowed petioles, that can reach a length of 15 cm or more originate from the axils of scale-like leaves at the nodes. Each leaf blade is round to reniform and deeply cordate, reaching an average of about 1.5 to 3 cm in width. The leaf margin can be smooth, crenate, or slightly lobed. Usually 3 to 6 red flowers arise in a sessile manner or on very short pedicels in axillary umbels at the end of 2 to 8 mm long peduncles. Small bracts surround each flower. The fruit, formed throughout the growing season, is approximately 5 mm long, with 7 to 9 ribs and a curved, strongly thickened pericarp. Seeds are laterally compressed. Depending on environmental circumstances, the form and shape of Centella asiatica plant changes greatly. Frequently, in shallow water, the plant will form with only floating leaves. In dry locations, numerous roots are formed and the leaves are small and thin. Properties Originally found in India and Pakistan, (Centella asiatica or Hydrocotyle asiatica) or Indian Pennywort, proliferates in hot and humid climates. It is presently being used in numerous herbal energy stimulants1 for strengthening the body,2 significantly improving the learning abilities in mentally retarded children.3 Other clinically tested uses include improving circulation by thinning the blood,4,5 exerting limited sedation on the cholinergic mechanism in the central nervous system.6 Considering what Gotu kola has done from a medicinal perspective for skin problems in other countries, one is tempted to speculate whether these same therapeutic successes could be translated into similar cosmetic miracles. Centella is a small herbaceous plant growing at an altitude of 600 m above sea level in damp areas. Centella contains vallejin, a bitter principle, and a mixture of triterpenoid glycosides, the most abundant

of which is asiaticoside (C48H78O19), and madecassoside (C48H78O20) which on hydrolysis produces asiatic acid, glucose, and rhamnose. It also contains traces of an alkaloid, volatile oil, and pectin.7 The active principle in Gotu kola — asiasticoside and madecassoside act as detergents and dissolve the waxy covering of the bacillus that causes leprosy and skin

tuberculosis and penetrates the greasy film surrounding the herpes virus. Asiaticoside also helps heal ugly skin lesions common to lupus erythematosus and herpes simplex by promoting a rapid thickening of the skin and an increased blood supply to the connective tissue.8 This constituent is also responsible for accelerated growth of hair and nails as well.9 A special salve made of the leaf sap of the plant has been applied topically to wounds, minor cuts, and abrasions in the Philippines with some success.10 And certain Ayurvedic- based cosmetic preparations containing Gotu kola leaf and root have appeared in various parts of India; lip balm for chapped lips, hand lotion for rough, dry “dishpan” hands, an ointment for insect bites and stings, and finally a hair tonic for certain scalp problems.11 Constituents Essential oil, sterols, flavonol glycosides, polyalkynes, and saponins. These are not glycosides, but esters in the 28-position of a triasccharide (alpha-L-Rha 1- 4 Beta-D-Glc 1-6Beta- D-Glc 1-) and of acids derived from ursane: asiatic acid and madecassic acid. 1. R. Petras, Gotu kola (Centella asiatica), unpublished monograph, p. 6. 2. M.V.R. Appa Rao, et al., Study of mandookapami and punomovo for their rosayana effect on normal healthy adults, Nagariun, 120, 33-41 July 1969. 3. M.V.R. Appa Rao et al., The effect of mandookapomi (Centella asiatica) on the general mental ability (medhya) of mentally retarded children, J. Res. Indian Med., 8, 9-13, 1973. 4. C. Allegra et al., L’estralto di Centella asiatica nelle fiebopatie degli arti inferiori, Clinca Terapeutica, 99, 506-13, 1981. 5. M. Weiner, Weiner’s Herbal, Stein & Day, New York, 1980, 94. 6. B. A. Velazco Traditional herbal practices and motherhood” Philippine J. Nur. 50:96, 1980. 7. E. F. Reynolds, Martindale 28th ed., The Pharmaceutical Press, London, 1984. 8. P. Boiteau and A. R. Ratsimamanga, Asiaticoside. extracted from Centella asiatica. Its therapeutic uses in the healing of experimental or refractory wounds, leprosy, skin tuberculosis, and lupus, Therapie, 11, 125-149, 1956. 9. Weiner, cp, cit. 10.M. A. Weiner, Ethnomedicine in Tanga, Econ. Bot., 25, 446, 1971. 11.Dr. R. Labadie. Centella Asiatica in perspective: An evaluative account, Unpublished paper delivered at a joint workshop sponsored/organized by the European Ayurvedic Society and the Wellcome Trust, London, England, Sept. 4, 1985.

GRAPEFRUIT Citrus paradisi, Mac Fad. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90045-43-5 Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Extract Fruit Family: Rutaceae Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Juice Fruit Synonyms: Shaddock, Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Leaf Extract N/S Pomelos Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Oil Volatile oil Part Used: Fruit from peel Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Peel Extract N/S Grapefruit (Citrus grandis) Seed Extract N/S Habitat and Range The tree is indigenous to the Malay Archipelago and extensively cultivated in India, Florida, California, and elsewhere.

Descriptions The fruits are very similar to sweet and bitter orange but are usually larger in size, sometimes weighing more than 1 kg. The color is yellowish, and the epicarp appears smoother because the underlying shizo-lysigenous oil glands are not protruding upward. The odor is characteristic and aromatic, the taste is acrid, slightly bitter, and characteristic. Properties Tonic, refreshing exfoliating. Can be used in creams and lotions. Constituents Flavonoids, fruity-acids, essential oil that contains 96 to 97% monoterpenoid hydrocarbons (e.g., limonene, myrcene).

GREEN TEA Camellia sinensis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Theaceae Camellia sinensis Extract Leaves Synonyms: Tea Camellia sinensis Oil Leaves Part Used: Leaf

Green tea

Habitat and Range The tea shrub has been cultivated from time immemorial in China, Japan, and Indonesia. Description The full-grown tea leaf is from 5 to 10 cm long, dark green in color, glossy on the upper surface, lanceolate or elliptical in outline, and blunt or acuminate at the apex, tapering at the base into a short stalk; the margin is distantly and shortly serrate, the serrations terminating in characteristic, glandular teeth that readily break off and are often absent from mature leaves. When quite young, the leaves are covered with silky hairs, but as they mature these are lost, and the surface becomes almost glabrous. This difference is readily observed in commercial tea, the bud still bearing numerous hairs, while the larger leaves are glabrous or nearly so.

Properties Has been used as a poultice to reduce swellings. Green tea contains anti-oxidants, which can be used in various sun-care products, shampoos, hair rinses, conditioning, creams, lotions, etc., wherever anti-oxidants would benefit a product. Constituents Alkaloids (caffeine, theobromine, theophylline), tannins (catechins, gallo catechins), and phenolic acids (caffeic, ferulic).

HAWTHORN Crataegus oxyacantha L.C. Monogyna (jacq.) C. Laevigata (Poiret) *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rosaceae Crataegus monogina Berries, flowers or Synonyms: Crataegus Fruit May leaves Blossom Crataegus monogina Berries Part Used: Flowers, leaves, and berries Habitat and Range This shrub grows abundantly in woods and thickets throughout Europe, and central and northern Asia. Description The fruits are small berries, purple-brown to brown in color, and externally wrinkled. One end of the fruit is cup-shaped, with five parts. The taste of the fruit is similar to that of apple. Properties Flowers, berries are astringent and also aid in circulation. Medically, Hawthorn is presently being used by herbalists as a cardio-tonic, which has to date shown no signs of toxcicity. Hawthron contains no digitalis-type glycosides and has been of benefit in treating angina pectoris. It is said to increase coronary and myocardial circulation The oligomeric procyanidins are absorbed orally. Cosmetically, Hawthorn is used for its ability to stimulate blood circulation and for its flavonoid content. Externally, it has been used as a wash for itching, sores, and frost bite. Constituents Flavonoids (vitexins, vitexin glucosides, quercetin and glucosides), phenolic acids, fatty acids, catechin, and dimeric procyanidin.

Hawthorn (leaves and flowers)

* Formerly CTFA.

125

1. R. Della Loggia, et al., Sci. Pharm., 51, 319, 1983.

HENNA Lawsonia inermis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 83-72-7 Henna (Lawsonia inermis) Extract Flowers, fruit, Family: Lythraceae and leaves Synonyms: Mignonette Tree Part Used: Leaves and fruit Habitat and Range A shrub indigenous to Egypt, Arabia, Persia, India. Description Leaves greenish-brown, oblong or broadly lanceolate, opposite, simple, glabrous, entire, shortly petiolate, mucronate, tapering at the base; 2 to 3 cm long, 1 to 2 cm wide; with occasional stems and brown, spherical fruits with thin pericarps and numerous, small, brown, triangular pitted seeds; often imported in coarse powder; decoction orange-brown, fading on the addition of acid, deepening with alkalies. Properties Neutral Henna is an excellent conditioning agent. It will add body and highlights to hair. It will not impart any color to the hair. It can be used in shampoos, hair rinses, and conditioners. Neutral Henna is obtained from Lawsonia inermis L. and decolorized by a special extraction process. Henna is one of the world’s oldest dyes and has been used for tinting the hair red. When blended with Indigofera Tinctoria, it colors the hair in various shades from brown to black. However, various shades of red can be achieved by incorporating herbs such as Rhubarb, Calendula, Chamomile, etc. Henna owes its dying properties to the presence of lawsone, (2-hydroxy, l, 4-napthoquinone). Alkali intensifies the color of aqueous solutions of lawsone; however, acids destroy its properties, as henna, in an aqueous solution, is acid and in order to be efffective as a hair dye must be in an alkaline solution. Henna imparts a rich auburn tint to hair. Other botanicals can be mixed with Henna to achieve different color varations and highlights. Henna has also been employed as a deodorant. Herbalists use the leaves to soothe fevers and headaches. It is also said to be cooling, astringent, and useful to treat insect bites and skin irritations.

Henna

Constituents Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-napthoquinone), flavonoids, (glucosides of apigenin, luteolin), phenolic acid, fatty acids, and tannins.

HONEY Apis mellifera CAS#: 91052-92-5 Family: Apidae Synonyms: Mel Part Used: Saccharine fluid from the comb Habitat and Range West Indies, California, Chile, various parts of Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Description Honey is a viscid, translucent, nearly white to pale-yellowish or yellowish-brown fluid. It becomes partially crystalline, and semi-solid on keeping, owing to the separation of dextrose as crystals. It has an agreeable characteristic odor and a sweet taste, the odor and taste depending upon the nature of the flowers from which the nectar was collected. The specific rotation of honey is from +3° to –10°. Honey obtained from heather, orange blossom, and clover is considered to have the finest flavor, while that from species of Eucalyptus is the least agreeable.

Properties Honey is chiefly used in pharmacy as a component of cough mixtures, and as nutritive and demulcent and can be used in face packs, face creams, and hair conditioning. Constituents 70 to 80% of dextrose and levulose in about equal amounts and 14 to 20% water. It contains small quantities of sucrose, dextrin, formic acid, volatile oil, wax, and pollen grains.

HOPS Humulus lupulus L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Cannabinaceae Hops (Humulus lupulus) Strobiles Synonyms: Lupulus Hops (Humulus lupulus) Extract N/S Part Used: Strobiles Hops (Humulus lupulus) Oil Volatile oil-cones of female plants Habitat and Range Europe, Asia; extensively cultivated in eastern United States. Description Hops occur as a mixture of entire compressed and broken fruits. Hops is a strobulus. The outline varies from ovate to oblong-cylindrical. The strobiles measure 5.8 cm or less in length and 3 cm or less in width. The color varies from yellowish-green to yellowish- brown. The bracts are imbricated in the fruit. The individual bracts are thin and papery; the veins are elevated, one margin is flat, and the other is incurved and encloses an orange-colored achene. The outline of the bracts varies from nearly rotund to oblong-ovate. The rachis is flexuous and hairy. The odor is aromatic. The taste is pungent and bitter. Properties Hops fruits contain volatile oil, consisting mainly of humulene, bitter principles, and tannins. Hops is a sedative, hypnotic, bactericidal. It has been used on crural ulcers; will give body to the hair. Useful in treatment of dandruff, ringworm, sores, tetters, and discoloration. In combination with Chamomile, it will reduce swellings, and alleviates pain and itching. Constituents Resinous bitter compounds (humulone, lupulone, humulene, xanthahumol), volatile oil (2- methylbut-3-en-2-ol), flavonoids (glucosides of kaempferol and quercetin), tannins, and phenolic acids (ferulic and chlorogenic) HORSE CHESTNUT Aesculus hippocastanum L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90045-79-7 Horse Chestnut N/S Family: Hippocastanaceae (Aesculus hippocastanum) Extract Synonyms: Ippocastanum, Bark Horse Chestnut N/S Bongay, Konker-tree (Aesculus hippocastanum) Part Used: Bark and seeds Habitat and Range This tree is largely cultivated in this country as an ornamental shade tree and occasionally escapes from cultivation.

Description Horse Chestnut bark is of a gray color externally, showing leaf scars and wart-like excres- cences sparingly distributed. The internal surface is whitish and smooth. The bark is thin, and throughout its internal structure presents a brown or brownish color. The inner bark has a rough, bitter taste, is nearly odorless, and is tough and fibrous in fracture. It yields its properties to water and diluted alcohol. The aqueous infusion is bitter, fawn-colored, and non-astringent. Gelatin separates its tannic acid; iron gives a green precipitate; infusion of galls and tartar- Horse chestnut emetic produce no effect upon it. The nut, when dry, is subglobular, compressed, from 1 to 1 in. in diameter, with a shining, chestnut-brown testa, marked by a reddish or yellowish-gray hilum, nearly an inch in diameter. In the middle of the hilum is a smaller spot, in the center of which is a slightly roughened elevation. Passing from the hilum around to the opposite surface, one can observe an elevated ridge terminating in a bulbous extremity, and resting in a horseshoe-shaped depression. The surface of the nut is slightly corrugated. The internal portion is starchy, yellowish-white in color, and has an unpleasant, bitter taste. The nut has a slight, peculiar odor. Properties Astringent, vasoconstrictor, increases circulation. Anti-inflammatory, aescin has a sealing effect on the capillaries. Increases venous tone. The extract of Horse Chestnut (0.25–0.5%) has been incorporated into various cosmetic preparations, hand creams, lotions, and slimming products. It has been used in cellulitis, tendonitis, sprains and various sports injuries, and hemorrhoids. The leaf has been used to treat eczema, varicose veins, phlebitis, and swellings. The aesculin aglycone aesculetin is also used in suntanning preparations, as well as the glycoside (aesculin) due to its abiltiy to absorb UVB radiation. Aesin has anti-exudative and edema-inibiting properties. Constituents Saponins (aescin, aesculin), flavonoids (kaempferol glucosides, quercetin), phenolic acids, and tannin. HORSERADISH Amoracia rusticana, Gaertn et Schert. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Cruciferae Horseradish Root Synonyms: Red Cole, Cochlearia Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Horseradish is cultivated and is a native of southeastern Europe and western Asia. Description A perennial , The plant has long, fleshy roots, large rough leaves, and a panicle of small white four-petaled flowers. Properties Cosmetically, Horseradish extract has been used in hair tonics to stimulate hair growth. The root has antimicrobial properties, stimulates digestion and circulation. It is given for lung

and urinary infections and used in a poultice for rheumatism and bronchitis. Horseradish Extract has been used as a hair tonic to stimulate growth. Has a regenerative cleansing and disinfectant effect, which would validate its use on blemished, greasy skin. However, it should be used with caution and low concentrations, as the fresh juice can be irritating, causing the skin to blister. However, a poultice of the root has been used to soothe chilblains. Constituents It contains sinigrin and myrosin and, after crushing and moistening, yields 0.06% of a volatile oil containing allyl isothiocyanate.

HORSETAIL GRASS Equisetum arvense L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Equisetaceae Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) Extract Sterile caules Synonyms: Shavegrass Horsetail (Equisetum hiemale) Extract Sterile caules Part Used: Aerial

Horsetail grass

Habitat and Range Wet banks; Greenland, South Carolina, California, Alaska; and Eurasia. Description Spore-bearing stems 1 to 2.5 dm. high, 3 to 5 mm in diameter, with loose 8 to 12 toothed sheaths, rarely with a few branches; cones peduncled, 2 to 4 cm long, 5 to 10 mm. thick; sterile stems decumbent to erect, 1 to 3.5 dm. high, 2 to 3 mm. thick, 10 to 14 furrowed, branched; branches 3 to 4 angled, solid; teeth of the sheaths lanceolate, acuminate. In the fall the sterile stems sometimes bear small cones 4 to 10 mm long, mostly with sterile spores.

Properties Horsetail Grass is an excellent source of soluble vegetal silica. It is diuretic, astringent, healing, and combines well with Comfrey for skin disorders. Used for putrid wounds, gangrenous ulcers, and external bleeding. Will add strength and sheen to hair. Can be added to shampoos and conditioners. Horsetail Grass is used medically to treat various urinary disorders and poultices of Horsetail Grass have been used to help the healing of wounds. Constituents Flavonoids (quercetin luteolin and protogenkwanin glucosides, kaempferol, apigenin), phenolic acids, silicic acid, minerals, saponin (equisetonin), palustrine alkaloid, and equistetolic acid.

HYSSOP Hyssopus officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84603-66-7 Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) Extract Leaves Family: Lamiaceae Synonyms: Isop Part Used: Aerial Habitat and Range Well-drained, sunny sites; southern Europe. Description Hyssop is a perennial herb. Its stems are quadrangular, woody at the base, spreading, very much branched, and 1 to 2 ft in height; the branches are rod-like. The leaves are opposite, sessile, usually oblong-linear, or lanceolate, sometimes elliptical, sometimes narrower, acute, entire, punctate, green on each side, rather thick, and 1 ribbed underneath. The flowers are bluish-purple, seldom white, and borne in racemose, second whorls, consisting of 6 to 15 flowers. The floral leaves are like those of the stem, but smaller. Outer bracts lanceolate-linear, acute, scarcely shorter than the calyx. Upper lip of the corolla, erect, flat, emarginate; lower lip trifid, spreading, with the middle of the corolla erect, flat, emarginate, with the middle obe larger. Stamens 4, protruding, and diverging; anthers with linear divaricating cells.

Properties Hyssop can be employed in baths as a diaphoretic in facial steams for cleansing the pores. Has been used to aid healing of wounds and ulcers. Recent reports state that Hyssop extract shows antiviral activities against herpes simplex virus. Constituents Volatile oil, phenolic acids. Tannin, flavonoid glycosides, ursolic acid, oleanic acid, marrubin, gum, and resin.

IVY (GROUND) Glechoma hederacea L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84082-54-2 Ground Ivy (Glechoma hederacea) Herb Family: Lamiaceae Extract Synonym: Gill-over-the-ground Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Moist soil; Europe to Caucasus, North America. Description Glechoma hederacea is a perennial, gray, hairy herb, with a prostrate, creeping stem, radicating at base, square, and from a few inches to 1 or 2 ft long. The leaves are petiolate, opposite, roundish, cordate- reniform, crenate, hairy, and glaucous on both sides, though often purplish beneath. The floral leaves are of the same form. The flowers are bluish-purple, about three together in axillary whorls. The corolla is Hedera helix (ground ivy) about 3 times as long as the calyx, with a varegated throat. The calyx is long, curved, villous, the limb oblique, the teeth lanceolate-subulate, the upper being the largest. The bracts are scarcely as long as the pedicel. The two anthers of each pair of stamens meet with their two divaricate cells, forming the appearance of a cross. Properties Useful for control of cellulite when applied topically, decongesting tonic. Also useful in cough preparations. Constituents Flavonoids (glucosides of apigenin [cosmosiim], luteolin [cynaroside], quercetin [isoquercitrin]), triterpenoids (ursolic acid), phenolic acids, volatile oil, marubiin, amino acids, J-hydroxy-10-trans-12-cis-octadecadienoic acid.

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IVY (COMMON) Hedera helix L. *INCI Name Part Used: Proper name for IVY Ivy (Hedera helix) Dried leaves and stems Family: Araliaceae Ivy (Hedera helix) Extract Leaves and stems Synonyms: English Ivy Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Rich soil, sun or shade; Europe, Scandinavia, and introduced into North America. Description An evergreen climber, which clings to surfaces by its adventitious roots. This plant is common all over Europe, and is cultivated in many parts of the United States; its yellowish-green flowers bloom from August to October. The gum-resin (Gummiresina Hederae, or Ivy gum), exudes from the incised bark, and comes in yellowish or red-brown irregular pieces. The edges are translucent and of a garnet hue. It is acrid, faintly bitter, and when heated emits a pleasant, aromatic odor. The palmately lobed leaves are the parts used. The former possesses a peculiar, rather fragrant odor, with a nauseously bitter and astringent taste. Properties Anti-fungal, anthelmintic, molluscicidal, antimutagenic, control of cellulite, and has been used as a wash for sores and swellings. It can be incorporated into shampoo and hair conditioners for treating dandruff. Ivy has been used in face packs. However, it can cause dermatitis in certain individuals.

Constituents Triterpenoid saponins comprising the hederagenin glycosides, hederacoside C (5%), D- and E-hederin and the oleanolic acid glycosides, hederacoside, phenolic acids, flavonoids, malic acid, and fatty acids.

JABORANDI Pilocarpus jaborandi Holmes *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84696-42-4 Jaborandi (Pilocarpus Leaves Family: Rutaceae pennatifolius) Extract Synonyms: Large-leaved Jaborandi, Pernambuco Jaborandi Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Brazil and Paraguay. Description Large-leaved Pilocarpus occurs as a mixture of entire and broken pieces of the leaflets, stalks, and stems. The leaves are compound. The petiolules of the leaflets are stout and they measure up to 8 mm in length. The blades are asymmetric, tapering and rounded or acute at the base. The margin is entire and slightly revolute. The apex is slightly tapering and emarginate. The outline varies from oblong to oblong-oval. The blade has a maximum length of 15 cm and a width of 4.5 cm. The upper surface is yellowish-green, smooth, and the veins are elevated. The branches of the midrib meet to form a large inner and a small outer wavy vein that runs parallel to the margin. The under surface is yellowish-green, dull; the midrib is large and elevated and its branches are elevated. The odor is slight. The taste is salty and bitter.

Jaborandi leaf

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Properties Has a reputation as a stimulant for hair growth. It contains pilocarpine. It can be used in shampoos, hair rinses, conditioners, hair tonics, and lotions to stimulate the follicle. Combines well with Nettles, colocynth, tincture of Capsicum, and mullein as a hair tonic. Pilocarpine is a parasympathomimetic. It induces salivary, gastric, and sweat hypersecretion. It increases intestinal motility, and induces bronchoconstriction and bradycartia. It contracts the pupil of the eye and decreases intraoccular pressure; antiglaucoma agent. Constituents Alkaloids (pilocarpidine, isopilocarpine), jaborino, jaboric acid, pilocarpic acid, volatile oil. Pilocarpine is an atropine antidote. JASMINE FLOWERS Jasminum officinale L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90045-94-6/84776-64-7 Jasmine (Jasminum officinale) Flowers and Family: Oleaceae Extract leaves Synonyms: Common Jasmine Jasmine (Jasminum officinale) Oil N/S Part Used: Flowers Habitat and Range Native of Asia; widely grown for ornament and sometimes self-seeding in southern Europe. Description A climbing woody perennial 10 to 15 m with pinnate leaves and clusters of white, very sweet-scented flowers. Flowers about 2 cm across in clusters of 3 to 8; calyx linear, more than half as long as the corolla tube. Leaves opposite, with 3 to 7 lance-shaped entire leaflets, the terminal leaflet larger. Properties The extract of the flowers are soothing to the skin, and also have a pleasant fragrance used in perfumes, skin creams, gels, lotions, and soaps. Constituents Essential oil, containing benzylacetate, benzyl alcohol, Jasmin flowers isamone, eugenol, and farnesol.

KELP Macrocystis pyriferae Agarth *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Lessoniaceae Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) Extract Whole plant Synonyms: Pacific Kelp N/S Part Used: Whole plant Habitat and Range Grows along the entire Pacific coast. Description Vesicles large, each bearing an expanded blade. Properties Kelp is of the Phaeophyta brown algae family. Nourishing, restoring, softening, dissolving, skin conditioning (general) dissipates tumors, benefits the skin. Kelp can be used in bath formulae, hair products, skin care products, wherever an ingredient is needed for adding minerals and micronutrients to a formulation. Constituents Iodine, potassium, algin, and many trace minerals and micronutrients. (For additional information, see Chapter 7.)

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139

LEMON GRASS Andropogon citratus DC *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 89998-14-1 Lemongrass (Cymbopogon Herb Family: Gramineae schoenanthus) Extract N/S Synonyms: Madagascar lemongrass Lemongrass (Cymbopogon Volatile oil Part Used: Herb schoenanthus) Oil N/S

Habitat and Range Open, tropical habitats in dry soil; southern India and Sri Lanka. Description This aromatic grass has clumped, bulbous stems partially concealed by the leaf sheaths which together with their blades are from 3 to 4 ft long and i in. wide. The flowers are in branched panicles, becoming leaf blades and a branched panicle of flowers. Approximately 30 species have been identified. Properties Can be used in herbal bath blends and hair rinses. Said to normalize overactive oil glands, dandruff, and similar skin problems. Antimicrobial properties, analgesic, antipyretic, antioxidant, and antifungal. Lemon grass oil has a very pleasant lemon- like odor and can be used to fragrance soaps, shampoos, creams, and lotions. Constituents Essential oil (citral) saponin, triterpenoids, and alkaloid. Lemon grass

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LEMON PEEL Citrus limonia (L.) Burman F. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rutaceae Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum) Fruit peel Synonyms: Limionis cortex Extract N/S Part Used: Peel Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum) Juice Fruit Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum ) Juice Fruit Extract Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum) Juice Fruit Powder Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum) Oil Peel and volatile oil Lemon (Citrus medica Limonum) Peel N/S Extract Habitat and Range Widely cultivated in Florida and United States. Description The outer lemon-yellow or dark yellow layer separated from the fresh fruit by grating or paring and consisting of the epidermis, numerous parenchyma cells containing yellow chro- moplastides, and large oil glands with globules of the volatile oil; odor fragrant, distinctive; taste aromatic. Properties Healing antiseptic, bacteriastatic, skin bleach. It is aromatic and astringent. Lemon juice has been applied to sunburn, giving relief. Herbalists use it internally to alkalize the system. When taken on an empty stomach, dilute it with water. Lemon juice has also been applied to the skin to remove freckles, cleanse the skin, and close the pores. Use full strength in hair rinses to lighten hair (blond), skin creams, and cleansers. Constituents Essential oil, flavonoids, phenolic acids. (The essential oil contains over 150 compounds.)

LICORICE ROOT Glycyrrhiza glabra L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Fabaceae Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Dried rhizomes Synonyms: Glycyrrhiza, Liquorice and roots Root, Sweet Wood, Glycyrrhizae Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) N/S Radix, Liquiritral Radix Extract Part Used: Root and stolon Glycyrrhiza Glabra Habitat and Range Central and western Asia, southern Europe, Russia, and Hungary.

Description Spanish Licorice Root: More or less cylindrical pieces variable in length and from 5 to 20 mm thick. The upper portion is more or less knotty. Externally, it is yellowish-brown or dark brown in color, longitudinally wrinkled, the thinner rhizomes often having prominent alternate buds, the thicker rhizomes having distinct corky patches; its fracture is coarsely fibrous. Internally, it is yellow and radiate; its odor is distinctive and its taste is sweetish and slightly acrid. Russian Licorice Root: Nearly cylindrical, somewhat tapering, sometimes split longitudinally, variable in length and from 1 to 5 cm in diameter; when deprived of the outer corky layer, it is externally pale yellow, its fracture is coarsely fibrous. Internally, pale yellow and shows a radially cleft wood. Its odor is distinctive; its taste is sweetish. Properties Good for skin eruptions, including dermatitis, eczema, pruritus, and cysts. Anti-inflammatory, anti-infectant, antiseptic, antibacterial, antihepatotoxic, antiviral, antiphlogistic. It is used as expectorant and for masking the taste of nauseous medicines. Also used for gastric and duodenal ulcers.

Constituents The major active constituents is the sweet triterpene glycoside glycyrrhizin (also known as glycyrrhizic or glychrrhizinic acid) in concentrations from 2 to 20%. On hydrolysis, glycyrrhizin yields glycyrrhetinic (or glycyrrhetic) acid and three molecules of glucuronic acid. Other constituents are flavonoids and isoflavonoids (licoflavonol, kumatakenin, licoricone, glabrol, glabrone, glyzarin, licoisoflavones A and B, licoisoflavanone, glycyrol, formononetin, liquir- itigenin, liquiritin, neoliquiritin, 4’,7-dihydoxyflavone, glabronin etc.), chalcones (isoliquir- itigenin, isoliquiritin, neoisoliquiritin, licuraside, rhamnoisoliquiritin, echinatin, licochalcones A and B, 4-hydroxychalcone, etc.), coumarins, triterpenoids (liquiritic acid, glycyrrhetol, glabrolide, isoglabrolide, licoric acid, B-amyrin, 18-B-glycyrrhetinic acid, etc.), sterols, 2 to 20% starch, 3 to 14% sugars (glucose and sucrose), lignin, amino acids, amines, gum wax, and an aroma-rich volatile oil.

LINDEN FLOWERS Tilia officinalis/Tilia cordata Mill. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84929-52-2/ 68916-81-4 Linden (Tilia americana) Extract Flowers, bracts Family: Tiliaceae Linden (Tilia cordata) Extract Flowers, bracts Synonyms: Linden, Basswood, Linden (Tilia cordata) Oil N/S Linn Tree, White Wood, Lime Linden (Tilia platyphyllos) Extract Flowers, bracts Tree Linden (Tilia tomantosa) Extract N/S Part Used: Inflorescences and Linden (Tilia vulgaris) Extract Flowers, bracts bracts Habitat and Range Rich temperate woodland, limestone; Europe.

Tilia (flower and leaf)

Tilia americana (Basswood) year and older

Description Linden flowers are borne in cymes, which are axillary, and the peduncles are partly united to a greenish-yellow, linear, leaf-like bract. The petals are five and whitish, or approach yellow, are oblong or lanceolate, generally somewhat united at their bases so as to form five clusters. When fresh, odor is agreeable; when dry, faint. The taste is mucilanginous and sweetish. Properties Used as a sedative and for eye care. Emollient. For bruises and to reduce swelling. Internally, Linden is used as an arterial relaxant and to help alleviate catarrh of the respiratory tract. It is also a diaphoretic (produces sweating).

Constituents Flavonoids (glycosides of quercetin and tiliroside, kaempferol), phenolic acid (chlorogenic, caffeic), mucilage, high amount of uronic acid, tannins, volatile oil.

LOVAGE Levisticum officinale, W. D. J. Koch *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae Lovage Rhizome and roots Synonyms: Smellage, Smallage, Maggi Herb, Angelica levisticum Part Used: Rhizome and roots of 2- to 3-year old plants Habitat and Range Native to the mountains of southern Europe; naturalized in North America; cultivated in central and southern Europe. Description Lovage has large, dark green, celery-scented leaves and hollow stems. Umbels of greenish- yellow flowers appear from mid to late summer. The fruit is a cremocarp. The rhizome and root are aromatic. Properties Lovage oil is used as a fragrance component in soaps, creams, lotions, and perfumes. The oil possesses sedative and diuretic properties. Constituents The rhizome and root contain 0.5 to 1.0% volatile oil, composed of 70% phthalides with lesser amounts of terpenoid compounds. Coumarins, sterols, gum, and resin are also present.

MAIDEN HAIR FERN Adiantun capillusveneris L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84649-72-9 Maiden Hair Fern (Adiantum Fronds Family: Polypodiaceae Capillus-Veneris) Extract Synonyms: Venus Hair Part Used: Fern Habitat and Range Eastern and central United States. Description They are among the most graceful and delicate of the North American ferns. The rhizomes are horizontal, slender, and with blackish roots. The fronds are few but well developed in the early part of the summer. They consist of long, blackish, and shining frond bases, pedately branching at the summit, first into two recurving, primary forks, and then into several spreading pinnae, each of which bears numerous regularly alternating pinnules. The latter are obliquely triangular-oblong, the upper margin being incisely lobed and serrate; the surface is glaucous and very smooth. The odor is slight, the taste being slightly bitter and somewhat astringent. Properties In rinses, it is known to give body and sheen to hair. Constituents Adiantone, adiantoxide, astragalin, phenolic acids and their sulfates, tannin, quinic acid, mucilage.

MALVA FLOWERS Malva sylvestris L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Malvaceae Mallow (Malva sylvestris) Extract Flowers and leaves Synonyms: High Mallow Part Used: Flowers

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Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized in North America, British Columbia to Mexico. Description High Mallow occurs as a mixture of entire and broken leaves, flowers, and fruits. The petioles of the leaves measure 3 cm or less in length. The blade is cordate at the base. The margin is three to seven lobed and crenate-dentate. The apex of each lobe ends in a large tooth. The outline varies from reniform to orbicular. The blade measures 11 cm or less in length and 12 cm or less in width. The upper surface is slightly hairy and varies in color from dark green to yellowish-green; the veins are palmate, distinct, and slightly elevated. The under-surface is pubescent and yellowish or brownish-green in color; the veins are elevated. The texture is herbaceous. The odor is not distinct. The taste is mucilaginous. Properties Soothing and softening. Emollient for sensitive skin, blotchiness. Relieves itching, protective. Medicinally used in cough preparations, spasmodic colitis, and insect bites. Useful in eye preparations. Constituents Anthocyanidins (glycosides of malvidin, malvin) (polysaccharides) mucilage, niacin, and phenolic acids.

MARIGOLD Calendula officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Asteraceae Calendula officinalis Flowers Synonyms: Calendula, Holligold, Calendula officinalis Extract Flowers Mary-bud, Goldbloom Calendula officinalis Oil Flowers Part Used: Petals and flower head Habitat and Range Southern Europe and parts of Asia. Description Marigold occurs as entire ligulate florets mixed with a few flower heads. The flower heads have a short, thick, curved peduncle. The involucre consists of oblong-lanceolate, hairy, greenish-gray bracts. The individual flowers are yellow, mostly ligulate, and have a maximum length of 26 mm. These flowers are oblanceolate, two to three-toothed and two to six-veined.

The basal part of the flower is incurved and encloses a bifid stigma. The tubular flowers are small and five-lobed. The receptacle is rough. The seeds are angled and dark brown. The odor is slight. The taste is slightly salty and bitter. Properties Calendula contains a volatile oil Saponin, a yellow resin calendulin, and a bitter principle. Calendula has been employed as an aromatic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antihemorrhagic, styptic, spasmolytic, vulnerary, emmenagogue, mild diaphoretic; topically it has been used for crural ulcers, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, anal eczema, and proctitis, lymphade- noma, inflamed cutaneous lesions, conjunctivitis, and as an eye lotion. Constituents Volatile oil, saponins, flavonoids, calendulin, sterols, fatty acids, calendic acid Marigold and oleanic acid, triterpenoids, tocopherols, flavonol glycosides of isorhamnetin and the corresponding quercetin derivatives. The sesquiterpene lactone calendin is the xanthophyll degradation product loliolide.

MARSHMALLOW ROOT Althaea officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Malvaceae Althea officinalis Dried roots Synonyms: March Mallow Root, White Mallow Root Althea officinalis Extract Roots Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Europe, Asia; cultivated. Description Althaea occurs as peeled, entire, or as small cut pieces of the peeled root. The roots are simple or branched and straight or twisted. The branches are usually separated when the root is peeled. Entire roots measure up to 35 cm in length and up to 22 mm in diameter. Stems have never been observed. The texture is fibrous and starchy. The color varies from gray to

yellowish-white. The surface has numerous long, projecting bast fibers, deep, longitudinal furrows, and many slightly elevated dark brown root scars. The fracture is very tough and uneven. The outline of sections of entire roots is irregular and wavy. The cortex is thick, and when magnified shows fine concentric dark-colored zones of sieve and mucilage tissue. The cambium zone is dark colored. The wood is indistinctly radiate near the cambium. The central portion appears structureless and starchy. The odor is very slight. The taste is starchy, mucilaginous, and sweet. Properties Mucilaginous, soothing, emollient, used for irritated skin, cough preparations. Constituents Mucilage including an acidic polysaccharite with MW of ca. 30,000 and other polysaccharides, althein, asparagine, flavonoids, starch, tannins.

MELISSA Melissa officinalis L. Balm *INCI Name Part Used: Balm Lemon Leaves, flowering tops Family: Lamiaceae Synonyns: Sweet Balm, Lemon Balm, Bee Balm, Common Balm Part Used: Leaves and flowering tops Habitat and Range A native of southern Europe, especially in mountainous regions, but is naturalized in the south of England, and was introduced into the United States very early.

Melissa

Description The root stock is short, the stem square and branching, grows 1 to 2 ft high, and has at each joint pairs of broadly ovate or heart-shaped, crenate or toothed leaves that emit a fragrant lemon odor when bruised. They also have a distinct lemon taste. The flowers, white or yellowish, are in loose, small bunches from the axils of the leaves and bloom from June to October. The plant dies down in winter, but the root is perennial. History: In Greek, Melissa means “honey.” In the past, the oil has been adulterated with citrus oils and lemon grass oil. The famous Mel- issa water was made in medieval times in Italy by the Carmelite monks. The water was called Carmelite. Properties Melissa oil is soothing and has toning properties. It has been used as a flavoring for various beverages and liquors. It was also used to treat insect bites, stings, cold sores, and wounds. Melissa can be incorporated into lotions, bath oils, and massage oils. The oil has recently been shown to be active against the herpes simplex virus proven in clinical trials.1 Constituents Volatile oil 0.2% Citral, Caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, Linalool, Citronellal, Limonene, polyphenols, flavonoids, and triterpenoids. 1.Wobling R. H. and Leonhardt, K; Local therapy of Herpes Simplex with dried extract from Mellissa officinalis, Phyto Medicine, 1 (1), 25-31, 1994.

MILLFOIL ...... SeeYARROW

MILK THISTLE ...... SeeTHISTLE

MIMOSA Acacia floribunda Willd. *INCI Name Acacia floribunda Part Used:Family: Fabaceae Synonyms: Sweet Acacia, Huisache, Popinac Absolute, Part Used: Flower, sometimes the root Habitat and Range Believed to be a native of the Old World, now widespread and cultivated in subtropical and tropical regions of the world, including Florida. Description Thorny shrub to small tree, 3 gm high with green compound leaves having gray-white hairs. Inflorescences are yellow and very fragrant, 4 to 8 cm in diameter, tan pods 8 to 15 cm long.

Properties In cosmetics, the absolute is used as a fragrance component in some high-cost perfumes. It has been used as an antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent, antidiarrheal, febrifuge, antirheumatic, and stimulant. The root has been used in China to treat rheumatoid arthritis and pulmonary tuberculosis. Constituents The absolute contains approximately 25% of volatile constituents, composed mainly of benzyl alcohol, ethyl salicylate, farnesol, and geraniol. The nonfragrant material present accounts for about 75% of the absolute and consists mostly of high molecular weight lipids, hydrocarbons, and waxes.

MISTLETOE Viscum album L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Loranthaceae Mistletoe Herb Synonyms: Viscum, Folia Visci, Stipites Visci, Birdlime mistletoe Part Used: Herb Habitat and Range Parasitic on woody angiosperms and gymnosperms native to Britain, but now widespread in most of Europe and has been naturalized in one California county. Description Parasitic shrub, stem yellow-green, up to 100 cm long; leaves opposite, obovate-oblong, 2 to 8 cm long; flowers in cymes, unisexual, four-merous; berry white; odor distinctive. Mistletoe (viscum album) Properties Hypotensive, cardiac depressant, sedative. It has been used for supportive therapy of nonspe- cific irritation in malignant tumors and degenerative inflammatory joint diseases. It has been indicated in arterial hypertension, nervous tachycardia, hypertensive headache, chorea, hys- teria, as well as sores and abscesses. Constituents E-Phenylethylamine, tyramine, and related compounds; polypeptides, including viscotoxins I, II, III, IVb (II, III, IVb identical to viscotoxins B, A-2 A-3, respectively); glycoprotein lectins, including viscumin and lectins I, II and III; phenyl propanoids, including syringin, syringenin-apiosyl glycoside and 4,4”-diglucoside (eleutheroside E); caffeic and gentisic acids, polysaccharides, etc.

MULLEIN Verbascum thapsus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90064-13-4, 84012-25-9; 84650-17-9 Mullein (Verbascum N/S Family: Scrophulariaceae thapsus) Extract Synonyms: Common Mullein, Great Mullein, Mullein Dock, Velvet Dock, Aaron’s-rod, Adam’s-flannel, Old-man’s-flannel, Blanket Leaf, Bullock’s Lungwort, Cow’s Lungwort, Clown’s Lungwort, Candlewick, Feltwort, Flannel-leaf, Hare’s- beard, Velvet Plant Part Used: Leaves and flowers

Habitat and Range Mullein is a weed found in fields, pastures, along roadsides, and in waste places, its range extending from Maine to Minnesota and southward. It is also spreading in the western states. Description This plant is easily recognized by its tall, straight stem, its large flety or flannel-like leaves, and its long, dense spike of yellow flowers. During the first year, it produces only a rosette of downy leaves followed from June to August of the second year by the long flowering stalk. The densely hairy, erect stem sometimes reaches a height of 7 feet. The thick, felty leaves are from 4 to 6 in. long. Properties Mullein has been used as a demulcent, diuretic, astringent, anodyne, antispasmodic pectoral. Herbalists have used it both internally and externally. In the form of a fomentation, applied

Mullein (plant)

to inflamed piles, tumors, ulcers, and various swellings as a discutient (reduces swellings). Recently, several companies have employed it in smoking to relieve symptoms of asthma. The broken leaf rubbed onto the skin to help alleviate the irritation caused by the stinging nettle. Constituents Fatty acids, verbascoside, hesperidin, minerals, mucilage, vitamins, saponins, aucubin, catapol.

MYRRH Commiphora molmol, Engler *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 85085-50-3 Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) Resin Family: Burseraceae Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) Extract N/S Synonyms: Gum Myrrh Part Used: Oleo-gum-resin Habitat and Range Eastern Africa. Description Myrrh occurs as irregular masses of agglutinated tears. Myrrh is an oleo gum-resin. The outline of the pieces is irregular. The pieces have a maximum length or width of 12 cm and a thickness of 8 cm The texture is waxy. The color varies from light yellow to dark brown.

Myrrh (Commiphora molmol, engler)

The surface is dull, powdery, and rough because of numerous projecting tears. The fracture is conchoidal. The odor is aromatic. The taste is pungent, bitter, and acrid. History: Myrrh was highly valued for thousands of years and was one of the gifts brought to the infant Jesus. It was also used in the embalming process of the ancient Egyptians. Myrrh is used in incense; for example, Frankinsense and Myrrh are burnt during ceremonial mass. It is said to bring forth the gods. Properties Myrrh has been used as an antiseptic, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory. Used for halitosis, sore throats, carminative, mildly expectorant, diuretic, diaphoretic. Also used as an astringent to mucous membranes. As a gargle or mouthwash for inflammations of the mouth and pharynx, and used in veterinary medicine for open wound treatment. It is said to promote granulation. Constituents 30 to 60% water soluble gum, 25 to 40% alcohol-soluble resin, 3 to 8% volatile oil containing sesquiterpenes.

MYRTLE Myrtus communis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Myrtaceae Myrtle Leaves and flowers Synonyms: Sweet Myrtle Part Used: Leaves and flowers Habitat and Range Mediterranean region in well-drained soil. Description Dense evergreen shrub with aromatic leaves and flower buds, creamy white flowers, and blue-black berries. Properties Flowers are made into a toilet water called “eau d’ange,” added with the leaves to acne ointment and dried for pot- pourri. The leaves are antiseptic and astringent and are used in decoction, on bruises and hemorrhoids. Constituents Yields 0.2 to 0.5% volatile oil composed of D-pinene, camphene, cineole, and myrtenol (mainly as acetate, geraniol, and nerol).

NASTURTIUM ...... SeeWATER CRESS

NETTLES Urtica dioica L. Urtica urens L. (smaller plant with same constituents) *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-40-8 Nettle (Urtica dioica) Dried plant Family: Urticaceae Nettle (Urtica dioica) N/S Synonyms: Stinging nettle, Great stinging Extract nettle Part Used: Aerial parts of young plants Habitat and Range This is a well-known plant, common to Europe and the United States, growing in waste places, by woodsides, in hedges, and in gardens, flowering from June to September. Description This plant is a perennial, herbaceous, dull-green plant, armed with minute rigid hairs or prickles, which transmit a venomous fluid when pressed. Properties Nettles extract is prepared from the dried aerial parts of the plant. Nettles has been used as an astringent, and for cutaneous eruptions, nervous eczema, and epistaxis malaena. Stimulates hair growth. As a hair tonic it prevents hair from falling out and renders it soft and glossy. Nettles are an Stinging nettle at u30 excellent source of chlorophyll. Constituents Flavonoids (glucosides of quercetic, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin), amines (histamine, choline, acetyl choline, serotonin), minerals (high amount), beta-carotene, sterols, formic and citric acids.

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OATS Avena sativa L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-26-0 Oat (Avena Sativa) Bran Kernels Family: Gramineae Oat (Avena Sativa) Bran Extract Kernels Synonyms: Groats Oat (Avena sativa) Extract Grains Part Used: Grains Oat (Avena sativa) Flour Kernels Oat (Avena sativa) Kernel Extract N/S Oat (Avena sativa) Kernel Oil N/S Oat (Avena sativa) Meal Kernels Oat (Avena sativa) Meal Extract Kernels Oat (Avena sativa) Protein Kernels Oat (Avena sativa) Starch N/S Habitat and Range Maine, Florida, Texas, and the Yukon. Description Pale yellow or pale yellowish-green; up to 1.5 cm in length and about 3 mm in diameter, tapering toward each end; the base somewhat contracted, slightly protruding and with an elliptical scar; the apex pointed, showing the more or less broken upper part of the lemma and palet, the former surrounding the grain except on the ventral side where there is a distinct longitudinal groove, the latter usually exhibiting a minute stalk at the base; outer surface of the lemma glabrous with five or more longitudinal veins on the dorsal surface; above the center, a scar or, rarely, remains of a straight or slightly twisted awn Oats (Avena sativa) T cut #1 at u20 (presence of strongly twisted awn indicates Wild Oat); within the groove a narrow, thinly membranous, two-veined palet or scale; fruit or naked grain tapering toward either end, a distinct longitudinal groove on the ventral side, at the micropylar end of that occurs a wart-like excrescence or caruncle, at the opposite end a dense mass of long slender hairs which also occur less abundantly over the surface of Oats (Avena sativa) L. cut #2 at u12 the fruit. Odor slight; taste starchy.

* Formerly CTFA.

159

Structure: Lemma: outer epidermis chiefly of elongated cells with beaded and heavily silicified and lignified walls and rounded ends, between the elongated cells a few crescent- shaped or circular cells, the latter fitting into the concave side of the former and each with heavily silicified walls, a few elliptical stomata and near the margin straight or slightly curved unicellular nonglandular hairs with thick lignified walls; hypodermis composed of about five layers of fibers with thick, partially beaded, lignified walls, the cells with taper-pointed ends and up to about 1 mm in length and spongy parenchyma composed of irregularly shaped cells with large intercellular spaces. Palea: margins with numerous sharp-pointed, straight or slightly curved, unicellular hairs with lignified walls; elliptical stomata up to about 0.040 mm in length and in rows parallel to the keel; hypodermis of about three layers of cells otherwise resembling the glume but with thinner, less heavily developed tissue. Fruit: epicarp of longitudinally elongated cells, some of which give rise to unicellular, lignified, pointed hairs; other layers of tissue of pericarp and seed-coat of more or less collapsed cells; outer layer of endosperm usually one cell thick, the cells filled with protein, remaining tissue of endosperm composed of parenchyma chiefly filled with starch grains; broad spindle-shaped embryo about 2 mm in length embedded in the endosperm near the micropylar end. Properties Benefits the skin, including treatment of chronic skin conditions: dermatosis, shingles, eczema, and herpes. Extract of oat contains several interesting compounds Beta-glucan showing promise in helping to reduce cholesterol and is said to be the active ingredient in oat bran. There is another fraction of oat that is being tested as an anti-oxidant and preser- vative. The mucilage of oat can be employed in suntan lotions as a UV absorber. Medically, oat extract has been used to treat nervous exhaustion, sleeplessness; a tea brewed from the green tops of oats is reported to lower uric acid levels in blood. Constituents Saponins (avenacosides A and B, avenacin), polyphenols; leaves contain triterpenoid saponins (furostanol type).

OLIVE LEAF Olea europoea L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84012-27-1 Olive Leaf Fruit, leaves Family: Oleaceae Synonymns: Oliva Part Used: Fruit, leaves Habitat and Range Mediterranean region. Description The tree is small, rarely over 25 ft in height, with grayish bark and small white tetramerous flowers grouped in racemes. The fruit is a drupe with a mesocarp rich in oil. The leaves are opposite, subsessile, entire and coriaceous, have a grayish-green upper side and a whitish underside with a sheen as a result of the presence of a fine down that can easily be scraped off. The drug tastes bitter. It can be identified microscopically by the presence of many shield- shaped covering trichomes and of scerides clearly visible in the powder; these are elongated thick-walled, bent here and there, highly refringent and truncate.

Olive leaves and flowers

Properties Olive leaves have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties externally. Tradition attributes numerous properties (febrifuge, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, diuretic and more) to the olive leaf; few of them have been studied experimentally. Constituents It contains several secoiridoids; oleuropein which is the chief constituent (60-90 mg/g), ll-demethyl oleuropein, 7,11-dimethyl ester of oleoside, ligustroside, oleuroside and unconjugated secoiridoid — type aldehydes. The leaves also contain triterpenes and flavonoids as rutin and apigenin and luteolin glycosides. 1. Zarzuelo, A. et al., Planta Med., 57, 417, 1991. 2. Gonzalez, M. et al., Planta Med., 58, 513, 1992.

ONION Allium cepa L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Alliaceae Onion Fleshy bulb Synonyms: Onion Habitat and Range Native of western Asia, has long been cultivated worldwide and much varied the most common varieties being white globe, yellow globe, and red globe onions. Description A perennial or biennial herb with hollow leaves and a taller and thicker scape (flowering stem), also hollow; up to about 1.2 m high. Properties The juice of onion is said to stimulate hair growth. Onion has been shown to be antihyper- cholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, diuretic, antifungal, and antimicrobial. It has been widely

used as a vegetable and condiment. Raw onion applied to bee stings or insect bites is an old remedy to help alleviate the symptoms. Constituents Fresh onion bulb contains flavonoids, fructans, and sulfur-containing compounds that are cysteine derivatives: trans-(+)-S-(1-propenyl)-L-cysteine sulfoxide, alkyl and alkenylcys- teines, and the corresponding sulfoxide derivatives). Upon bruising or crushing the bulb, these are acted upon by the enzyme alliinase, releasing pyruvic acid and alkyl thiosulfinates, the latter are quite unstable and rapidly turn into disulfides; trans-(+)-S-(1-propenyl)-L-cysteine sulfoxide turns into the S-oxide of Z-propenethial viz. 1-propenesulfenic acid. The latter then leads to a series of 1-(methylsulfinyl)-propyl alkyl-(or alkenyl-)disulfides, by addition on the alkyl and alkenylsulfonic acids.

ORANGE BLOSSOM Citrus aurantium Flores *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rutaceae Orange (Citrus aurantium Dulcis) Flower N/S Synonyms: Seville Extract Orange Orange (Citrus aurantium Dulcis) Flower Oil N/S Part Used: Flowers Orange (Citrus autantium dulcis) Flower Volatile oil Water Habitat and Range Native of Asia, introduced to Europe. Description Leaves, oblong-oval, acute, 5 to 8 cm with shallowly indented margin and broadly winged leaf stalk. Flowers, 2 to 2 cm long, white, very sweet-scented. Fruit, 7 to 8 cm globular, reddish-orange, with bitter rind and sour flesh.

Properties Astringent, aromatic wash, more astringent than rose water, used for oily skin and acne. The oil and distillate are used in aroma therapy formulations. Constituents Essential oil (ca. 0.2 to 0.5%), with limonene as main constituent, flavonoids, and bitter substances.

ORANGE PEEL (BITTER) Citrus aurantium L. var. amara *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rutaceae Citrus aurantium amara Rind Synonyms: Seville Orange Peel, Aurantii Amari Cortex Part Used: Peel Habitat and Range Northern India. Cultivated widely in the subtropics. Description In irregular bands (ribbons) or elliptical, somewhat curved, acutely pointed pieces (quarters), from 3 to 6 cm in length and with recurved edges; outer surface yellowish or reddish or greenish-brown, roughened from fine reticulate ridges and numerous, minute pits, inner surface whitish, with many slight, conical projections and linear, anastomosing fibrovascular bundles; fracture hard, short; odor fragrant and aromatic; taste aromatic and bitter. Properties Can be used in hair rinses to add sheen and luster, skin creams to prevent capillary fragility. It is also given internally. It is used as a bitter aromatic to stimulate secretion of gastric juice and stimulate the appetite. It is often used as a flavor enhancer. Constituents Bitter-tasting flavonoid glycosides such as neohesperidin and naringin, the sugar component of which, neohesperidose (2-0- -l-rhamnopyranosyl-B-d-glucopyranose, isomeric with ruti- nose = 6-rhamnosylglucose) is responsible for the bitter taste; non-bitter flavonoids, such as hesperidin, rutoside, and more highly methoxylated lipophilic flavonoids like sinensetin, nobiletin, tangeretin; 1% up to more than 2% essential oil with limonene as the main component; considerable amounts of pectin; furanocoumarins.

ORANGE PEEL (SWEET) Citrus aurantium var. sinensis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 61788-55-4 Ctirus sinensis Osbeck Rinds Family: Rutaceae Synonyms: C. sinensis Osbeck, Aurantii Dulcis cortex Part Used: Fruit peel Habitat and Range Northern India. Cultivated in Florida and California.

Sweet orange peel

Description The outer, orange-yellow layer recently separated by grating or paring and consisting of epidermal cells, parenchyma cells of the sarocarp with chromoplastids, schizo-lyzigenous oil glands, globules of volatile oil, and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; odor fragrant; taste pungently aromatic. Properties The oil is used in aroma therapy for treatment of anxiety and nervous depression. Can be used in hair rinses to add sheen and luster, skin creams for its flavonoids. It prevents capillary fragility both internally and externally. It is also an aromatic, bitter and carminative. Constituents Volatile oil containing d-limonene, citral, citronellal, and methyl ester of anthranilic acid. Flavonoids, quercetin, naringin, and hesperidin.

PANSY Viola tricolor L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-42-0 Pansy (Viola tricolor) Aerial parts Family: Violaceae Extract N/S Synonyms: Heartsease, Johnny jump-up Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range Cultivated grounds, meadows. Description Flowers mostly tricolored, usually predominantly violet with varying amounts of yellow and white, very variable in size, 1 to 3 cm across vertically. Petals usually longer than the sepals; spur short, usually little longer than the calyx appendages, but sometimes up to twice as long; style enlarged at the apex with a rounded head with a hollow at one side. Leaves variable, heart-shaped to lance-shaped; stipules variable, but often palmately lobed with a larger, leafy, lance-shaped entire middle lobe. Properties Used as a healing tonic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, rheumatism, and also induces perspiration (diaphoretic) Used for various skin conditions, eczema, impetigo, acne, pruritus; used as a gargle for inflammation of the throat. Exerpt from German Commission E. Monograph 6.1 cites use for mild seborrhoec skin complaints, e.g., seborrhoea of the scalp in nursing infants. Constituents Essential oil, p-coumaric acid, arabinose, flavonoids, mucilage, scoparine, gaultherin, rutin, salicylic acid and its derivatives (methyl ester) gentisic acid, violutoside, saponins, tocopherol, galacturonic acid, tannin, magnesium tartrate, anthocyanidin glycosides, and carotenoids.

PAPAYA Carica papaya L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-30-6 Papaya (Carica papaya) N/S Family: Caricaceae Papain Enzyme from fruit Synonyms: Pawpaw Papaya (Carica papaya) Extract Fruit Part Used: Fruits and Papaya (Carica papaya) Leaf Extract N/S leaves

* Formerly CTFA.

165

Habitat and Range Tropical America. Naturalized in southern Florida. Description A tree attaining the height of about 20 ft. with large, long petioled, palmately 7-lobed leaves whose lobes are in turn divided into secondary lateral lobes. The inflorescences consist of racemose cymes of yellow, staminate and pistillate flowers. The fruit is a large melon-like, edible berry up to about 15 lb. in weight and with a salmon-pink or yellow flesh and a central cavity in which are found numerous blackish spheroidal seeds. Properties Derived from the leaves of the Melloon Papaw tree. Con- tains proteolytic enzymes used in face masks, shampoos, Papaya carica seed at u10 skin care, etc. Carpaine, C14H2502N. The leaves have been used from time immemorial by the Indians to wrap meat and foul wounds. The seeds contain a glycoside (caricin), which resembles sinigrin. Constituents Proteolytic enzymes (papain and chymopapain), carpinine (an alkaloid), vitamins, and minerals.

Papaya carica

PAPER MULBERRY Broussonetia kazinoki Siebold. and B. papyrifora, Vent. Tabl. Regn. Veget. or hydrids of both *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Moraceae Paper Mulberry Bark Root and root Synonyms: Paper Mulberry bark Part Used: Root and root bark Habitat and Range Commonly found in many parts of the world. Description It is a highly branching tree with a longitudinally wrinkled stem showing transverse lenticels. Leaves are ovate to ovate-lanceolate, margin dentate to crenate, upper surface dark green and rough due to abundant unicellular prickly hairs carried on small multicellular dome-shaped protruberances, lower surface is wooly due to uniseriate multicellular (2 to 3 celled) trichomes abundant over the veins. Young apical leaves are 2 to 5 palmately lobed. The roots are brown longitudinally striated. Odor faint; taste woody and characteristic. Properties Extracts of root bark are potent inhibitors of tyrosinase enzyme, the key enzyme responsible for melanin formation. It seems to be more promising than kojic acid, ascorbic acid or hydroquinone. Constituents The main inhibitor of tyrosinase has been isolated and found to be 5-(3-[2,4-dihydroxyphenyl] propyl)-3,4-bis(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-1,2-benzenediol.

Paper Mulberry fiber cross-section. Kr´ = crystal rosettes; ms = latex tubes; q = group of large fibers; m = outer lamella; kr = individual crystals; p = parenchyma. (After T.F. Hanausek)

PARSLEY Petroselinum crispum, (Mill.) Nym. ex A. W. Hill *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae Parsley Root, fruit, above-ground Synonyms: P. sativum, P. hortense, Apium herb, leaves petroselinum, Carum petroselinums Part Used: Root, fruit, above-ground herb, leaves Habitat and Range Native to the Mediterranean region, extensively cultivated in California, Germany, France, Belgium, and Hungary. Description A non-hairy biennial or short-lived perennial with much branched, green, cylindrical and striated stem about 0.7 m high and 1 mm wide with alternate, trifoliate stalked leaves and terminal, compound umbels. The fruit is an ovate cremocarp, the isolated mericarps are curved and tapering. The color varies from yellow to greenish-brown. The outer surface has five yellow narrow ribs. The commissural surface is slightly channeled. The odor is aromatic and the taste is pungent. The tap root is fusiform, stout, yellow- white externally up to 10 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide. Odor characteristic, aromatic; taste faintly sweet. Properties The plant and its essential oil are used as carminative, spasmolytic, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, antirheumatic, and antimicrobial. Parsley herb Constituents The root contains small amounts of volatile oil, apiin, and starch. Other parts of the plant contain 0.05 to 0.3% volatile oil containing myristicin (20%), apiole (18%), B-phellandrene (12%), p-mentha-1,3,8-triene (9%), and others. Flavonoids are mainly apiin and luteolin. Furo- coumarins including bergapten, 8-methoxypsoralen, isopimpenillin, psoralen, and imperatorin. The fruit contains 2 to 7% volatile oil and 13 to 22% fixed oil.

PEPPERMINT LEAVES Mentha piperita L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Lamiaceae Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Leaves Aerial parts Synonyms: Brandy Mint, Lamb Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Leaves N/S Extract Mint Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Oil Volatile oil Part Used: Aerial parts N/S

Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized in North America, Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Alabama; cultivated in Japan and the United States. Description Peppermint occurs as a mixture of entire and broken pieces of the flowering tops with detached and entire and broken leaves. The stems are simple or branched. They measure up to 9.5 cm in length and to 3.3 cm in width. The nodes are enlarged; the leaves are opposite decussate; the internodes are of variable length; the texture is fibrous; and the color varies from green to purple. The surface is striated longitudinally and channeled on its four sides. The fracture is tough and incomplete. The outline is quadrangular. The cortex and wood are thin. The pith is white, large, and solid or hollow. The petiole of the leaves measures up to 15 mm The blade is rounded at the base and tapers slightly into the petiole. The margin is sharply serrate. The apex is acute. The outline varies from ovate to ovate-lanceolate. The blade measures up to 7.5 cm in length and to 32 mm in width. The upper surface varies in color from yellowish- green to purple, and the veins are slightly depressed. The under surface is light green, and the veins are slightly depressed. The under surface is light green, and the veins are more prominent. The flowers are arranged in dense, broad, interrupted spikes. The bracts are lanceolate. The calyx is campanulate; its five teeth are subulate. The corolla is united and tubular below, four-lobed above; its color varies from light to dark purple. The andraecium consists of four stamens of equal length. The gynaecium consists of one pistil with a four- celled ovary and a two-parted style. The fruit consists of four nutlets enclosed in the persistent calyx. The odor is aromatic. The taste is pungent and finally cooling. Properties Stimulant, antiseptic, tonic, spasmolytic, carminative, cholagogue, mildly sedative. Pepper- mint extract can be incorporated into stimulating shampoos and conditioners, hair tonics, as its action is not solely based on its essential oil content, as it contains flavonoids. Constituents Volatile oil (1 to 3%), flavonoids (luteolin, rutin, hesperidin), phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, rosemarinic), triterpenes, ursolic acid, sitosterols, and minerals. The principal components of the volatile oil are (–)-menthol (35 to 55%), menthyl acetate (1 to 10%), menthone (10 to 40%), menthofuran, cineole, and small amounts of sesquiterpenes, notably viridoflorol.

PERIWINKLE Vinca minor L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84012-41-9 Periwinkle (Vinca minor) Extract Aerial parts Family: Apocynaceae N/S Synonyms: Myrtle Great Periwinkle (Vinca major) Extract N/S Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range Roadsides and around dwellings; in Connecti- cut, Minnesota, and Georgia; native of Europe. Description Stem spreading, trailing, 1 to 6 dm long; leaves ovate to oblong, entire, firm, shining, dark green; corolla blue, 1.5 to 3 cm broad, the lobes obovate, truncate. Properties Used as a hemostatic, hypotensive, vasodilator, hypoglycemic, astringent, vulnerary sedative. Has also been used to stop external bleeding. Vinca contains vincamine, a drug used in Europe to improve cerebrovascular circulation Periwinkle vinca minor in the elderly. Vinca minor should not be confused with Vinca rosea; they are different. Vinca rosea has been used to treat cancer. Studies show that the vincamine in Periwinkle increases cerebral blood flow. This botanical can be used in formulations where increased circulation is desired; however, a standardized extract should be used. Constituents Alkaloid (vincamine), tannins, flavonoids, and ursolic acid.

PINE BARK Pinus silvestris L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Pinaceae Pine (Pinus toeda) Bark N/S Extract N/S Synonyms: Scot’s Pine, Pine (Pinus palustais) Needle Extract N/S Red or Yellow Deal Pine (Pinus palustris) Oil Volatile oil-N/S Part Used: Bark Pine (Pinus palustris) Tar Wood Pine (Pinus palustris) Tar Oil Wood Pine (Pinus pumilio) Needle Extract N/S Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Bud Extract N/S Habitat and Range Canada and the United States, as well as Europe.

Description The wood is rather soft and buff in color; it has a density varying from about 0.35 to 0.8 and its odor is somewhat resinous. It has a straight grain and splits readily longitudinally, leaving smooth surfaces; the annual rings are well marked and each is bound externally by a narrow, dark band of autumn wood. Vessels are absent, but resin ducts occur in the central and outer parts of each annual ring, but are not more numerous than 15 per centimeter of arc in any annual ring. The medullary rays, which number about four or five per mimetre of arc, appear as very fine whitish lines and are biseriate, an occasional ray appearing wider than the others. Parenchyma is present in very small amounts surrounding the resin ducts and is only visible with a microscope. In a radial surface, numerous medullary rays cross the grain and appear as narrow light-colored horizontal bands; resin ducts run parallel to the grain in small numbers, appearing as brownish vertical streaks; the autumn wood of the annual rings appears as dark vertical lines. The tangential surface shows resin ducts as on the radial surface and also very minute inconspicuous paler dashes, which are the medullary rays. Properties Astringent, the tar was used for burns and itchiness, as a poultice to bring boils to a head, and applied to sores, cuts, swellings, and insect bites. Certain extracts of Pine Bark (Pinus maritinus) are employed as very powerful anti-oxidants, proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins). Pine bark extract can be incorporated into formulations for its anti-oxidant activity. Constituents Contains oils, tannins, aromatics, balsamic, campesterol, dihydroconiferyl alcohol, abietic acid, dihydroquercetin, dihydro-beta-sitosterol, ferulic acid, malonic acid, n-nonacosane, parahydroxybenzoic acid, pinnicorretin, pinitol, quercetin, quinic acid, raffinose sequoyitol, shikimic acid, beta-sitosterol tetracosanol-(1) vanillic acid.

PLANTAIN Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 85085-64-9/ 84929-43-1 Plantain (Plantago lanceolate) Leaves Family: Plantaginaceae Extract Synonyms: Rib Grass, Ripple-grass, Plantain (Plantago major) Leaves Ribwort Extract Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Plantain is a well-known herb, growing in rich, moist places, in fields, by the roadsides, and in grass plats, and is common in Europe and America. It flowers from May to October. Description This is a perennial acaulescent plant with a round scape 1 to 3 feet in height, arising from a fibrous root. The leaves are ovate, smoothish, somewhat toothed, five- to seven-nerved, each of which contains a strong fiber that can be pulled out, and abruptly narrowed into a long, channeled petiole. The flowers are white, very small, imbricated, numerous, and borne on a cylindrical spike 5 to 20 in. long. Small plants are frequently found with the spikes only to 2 in. long and the leaves and stalks proportionately small. The stamens and styles are long; the seeds numerous.

Plantain

Properties Has been used to soothe and take away the sting of insect bites, for healing, and for cell proliferation. Herbalists use the leaf for the relief of bee stings by chewing the leaf and then applying it to the sting or insect bite as a poultice. There are two types of plantain: broadleaf (major) narrow leaf (lanceolata); apparently, they both have the same virtues. Constituents Mucilage, polysaccharides, fixed oil (linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids), allantoin, apigenin, asperuloside, aucubin, catapol, balcalin, tannins, sterols, essential oils, and phenolic acids.

PROPOLIS Apis millifera L. *INCI Name Part Used: Propolis Wax Resinous substance Family: Apidae beehives Part Used: Resinous parts of plants collected by bees Properties The sticky resin collected by bees from plants, which the bees use to line their hives and seals up the holes and cracks. The bees collect the resins from the buds of conifers. Propolis

is said to be a natural antibacterial, antiviral, fungicidal, and anti-inflammatory. One study shows promise in stimulating the immune system.1 Propolis has shown in clinical trials to aid in wound healing, and to treat fungal and bacterial infections.2 The antimicrobial activity is apparently due to the presence of flavonoids, pinocembrin, galangin, and pinobanksin. It also contains p-coumaric acid benzyl ester and caffeic acid mixture.1 The extract has been shown to enhance epithelial growth upon application to dental sockets.3 Diethyl ether extracts have been shown to possess cytostatic activity against human cultured KB (nasopharynx carcinoma) and HeLa (carcinoma cervicls uteri) cells in vitro.2 Constituents Resin, balsam, wax, essential oils, pollen, minerals flavonoids (pinocembrin, galagin, and pinobanksin), p-coumeric acid benzyl ester, and caffeic acid. 1. Tyler, V.E., The New Honest Herbal, G.F. Stickley Co., Philadelphia, 1987. 2. Hiadon B., et al., In vitro studies on the cytostatic activity of Propolis extracts, Arnzneimittle- Forschung, 30(1), 1847, 1980. 3. Magro Filboo, de Carvalho Ac, Application of Propolis to dental sockets and skin wounds, J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent., 32(1), 4, 1990.

QUILLAIA Quillaja Saponaria Molina *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 68990-67-0 Quillaja saponaria Dried bark Family: Rosaceae Quillaja saponaria Extract Inner Bark Synonyms: Soap Bark, Panama Wood Part Used: Dried inner bark EU NAME: Quillaia saponaria N/S Habitat and Range The plant is a large tree indiginous to Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. It is about 18 meters high and has been introduced into India and Califor- nia. Some of the Quillaia bark of commerce is derived from Q. Paeppigii Walp and Q. Smegmandermos deC. Upon microscopic examination, these species appear to resemble that of Q. Saponaria so well that they may well be regarded as varieties of this species. Description In flat pieces of variable size, 3 to 8 mm in thickness or in small chips; outer surface nearly white, longitudinally striate, with numerous crystals of calcium oxalate and occasional patches of the dark brown periderm; inner surface yellowish-brown, finely wrinkled, with numerous crystals of calcium oxalate, and occasional circular depressions, conical projections or transverse, channels; fracture uneven, coarsely fibrous; odor slight sternutatory; taste very acrid and unpleasant. Quillaja bark (inner) soap bark Chile and Peru Properties The name Quillaja is derived from the Chilean vernacular quillean, meaning soap because the bark forms a lather with water. Quillaia is used as an emulsifying agent for tars and volatile oils. Historically, it was used to make a dandruff shampoo and can be used where a lather would be useful. The powder was formerly known as sneezing powder. Used internally in bronchitis and in homeopathic preparations for sore throat. Quillaia is also used to form a froth in beverages.

* Formerly CTFA.

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Constituents

A mixture of saponins, quillaic acid (C19H30O10), a neutral saponin. Quillaia-sapotoxin (C17H26O10), gypsogenin, calcium oxalate sugars, uronic acids, Quillaia saponin is a mixture of acylated triterpenoid oligoglycosides (acylated saponins).

QUIN QUINA Cinchona succirubra Pavon *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rubiaceae Cinchona pubescens Extract Bark Synonyms: Red Peruvian Bark Cinchona succirubra Extract Bark Part Used: Bark of stem Habitat and Range South America, Ecuador. Description Red cinchona occurs as a mixture of cut and broken pieces. The pieces of stem bark measure up to 10.8 dm in length, to 7 cm in width, and to 6 mm in diameter. The root, which is nearly always chip-like, frequently measures up to 8 mm thick. The bark is flat or chip-like, partially quilled, quilled, overlapping quilled, or compound quilled. The outer surface of the stem bark is longitudinally furrowed, shallowly fissured transversely, or in the older barks deeply fissured transversely; and the color varies in color from a yellowish-brown to brownish-black. The inner surface of both the stem and root bark is finely striated and frequently fissured. The fracture is tough and uneven. The fractured surface is granular in the outer portion and fibrous in the inner portion. The color varies from yellowish to reddish-brown. The odor is not distinct. The taste is strongly bitter and astringent. Properties For mineralizing face packs and hair care ointments. Remineralizing protein. Used in hair tonics to stimulate growth. Internally, its important alkaloids; quinine and quinidine, are used; the former is antimalarial and the latter is an antifibrillant. Constituents Alkaloids (quinine, quinidine, cinchonidine, cinchonine, quinamine), tannins, triterpene glycoside (quinovin 3-quinovoside), free acids (quinic acid), and volatile oils.

QUINCE Cydonia oblonga, Mill *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rosaceae Quince Seed Synonyms: Pyrus cydonia, Golden Apple Part Used: Seed Habitat and Range Indigenous to Persia, but cultivated in the warm regions of the United States and Europe. Description The seeds are separated from the pear-shaped fruit adhering more or less firmly together, being coated with mucilage. The seeds are up to 10 mm long and 6 mm broad, ovoid or oblong, triangularly compressed; outer surface reddish-brown and covered partially or completely with a whitish hardened mucilage; internally showing a whitish embryo of two fleshy cotyledons and a hypocotyl; with water, the seed coat swells up and forms a mucilaginous mass; taste mucilaginous and characteristic. Properties The mucilage is used as a soothing vehicle in skin lotions and other cosmetics. It is also used as a suspending agent. It is used to reduce inflammations and swellings. Quince has been used to soothe the sores of herpes and various forms of ulcers. Constituents The seeds contain about 20% mucilage, present in the epidermis of the testa. The cotyledons contain fixed oil aleurone grains and a small amount of amygdalin and Quince seed emulsin.

RED CLOVER Trifolium pratense L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Fabaceae Clover (Trifolium Pratense) Flowers Synonyms: Red Clover Blossoms, Extract Honeysuckle Clover Blossoms Part Used: Flowers Habitat and Range Southern British America and the United States. Description Inflorescence ovoid with rounded summit, mostly from 12 to 25 mm in length and width, shriveled, purplish and more or less brown from drying, consisting of many small papilionaceous flowers, crowded together and clothed at the base with broad, pointed ciliate stipules of a pale green color with darker veins, which may or may not be accompanied by diminutive Red clover trifoliate leaves. Flowers from 12 to 15 mm in length, longer than the four nearly equal calyx teeth and shorter than the narrower fifth calyx tooth; calyx teeth subulate, tapering; petals united into a tube below, the standard longer than the wings but when recurved appearing shorter; stamens diadelphous (nine and one); style slender. Odor faintly aromatic and somewhat tea-like; taste sweetish, then slightly bitter. Properties Historically, Red Clover flowers have been used as a blood purifier for chronic skin diseases. It has been used to wash eczema and psoriasis sores. Mildly anti-spasmodic. Medicinally, Red Clover was one of the ingredients in the Hoxsey formula (formerly used as an alternative cancer treatment). Its extracts are used to alleviate symptoms of menopause. Constituents

Flavonoids, phenolic acids, volatile oil, sitosterol, starch, fatty acids, and C23–C31 hydrocarbons and alcohols. Flavonoids: isoflavones formononetin, daidzein, biochanin A, genistein; isorhamnetin and quercetin glucosides, phenolic acids, salicylic and p-coumaric acids, volatile oil, contains over 40 compounds, including methyl salicylate, benzyl alcohol, and esters, 2-phenylethanol and anthranilate, eugenol, and furfural.

* Formerly CTFA.

179

RED POPPY Papaver rhoeas L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Papaveraceae Corn Poppy (Papaver rhoeas) Extract Flowers Synonyms: Ahiphenalm Part Used: Flower Habitat and Range The red poppy is a common herb, doubtfully indigenous to England, but abundant in cornfields and waste places throughout Europe. Description The two hairy sepals of the bud fall off as the four delicate crumpled petals expand. The latter are of a bright scarlet color, with a short, dark violet claw; they are smooth and shining above, about 5 cm wide and broadly elliptical, with an entire margin. They have, when fresh, an unpleasant heavy odor and slightly bitter taste. By drying, the bright scarlet color changes to a dingy violet. The petals are mostly used for the coloring matter they contain, and are then employed in the fresh state. The numerous veins run from the base toward, the margin and anastomose freely by very fine branches; the fine ends of the veins unite by arches, leaving a space about 0.15 to 0.25 mm wide destitute of veins just within the margin of the petal. Properties Soothing, emollient. Can be used in any formulation requiring emolliency, such as hand creams, lotions, hair rinse, etc. Constituents Anthocyan glycosides, especially mecocyanin (= cyanidin 3-sophorside). Quinoline alkaloids, mainly rhoeadine.

RED RASPBERRY LEAVES Rubus idaeus L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84929-76-0 Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Extract Fruit Family: Rosaceae Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Juice Fruit Synonyms: Framboise Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Leaf Extract N/S Part Used: Leaves Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Seed N/S Habitat and Range Around dwellings; Maine, Rhode Island, and Minnesota. Description Stem biennial, erect, light-colored, finely tomentose when young, armed with bristles or weak prickles; leaves of the turions pinnately five-foliolate, those of the floral branches three- foliolate; terminal leaflet broadly ovate, rounded or cordate at the base, double-serrate, short- acuminate, ovate, somewhat smaller; inflorescence short-racemose, terminal and often with branches from the upper axils; peduncle and pedicels finely tomentulose and with small recurved prickles; fruit red, thimble-shaped.

Properties Used as an astringent, a cold infusion makes an effective gargle or mouthwash for bleeding gums, mouth ulcers, and inflammations. Herbalists recommend an infusion of Red Raspberry Leaf tea be taken during pregnancy to aid in childbirth and for morning sickness in the early stages of pregnancy due to hormonal changes. Red Raspberry is also recommended by herbalists to be taken throughout the pregnancy to help strengthen and tone the uterus. Note: However, consult a qualified physician before using. Constituents Ascorbic acid, minerals, ellagic acid, gallic acid, malic acid, lactic acid, fragarine, protein, riboflavin, succinic acid, thiamine, and beta-carotene.

REISHI MUSHROOM Ganoderma lucidum *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Ganodermataceae Ganoderma lucidum Fruit body, Synonyms: Herb of Spiritual Potency, Happy mycelium Herb, Ling-Zhi (Chin.), Auspicious Herb, Miraculous chi, Mushroom of Immortality Part Used: Whole mushroom (mycelium and fruit body) Habitat and Range Far East, China, Japan, and North American coastal rainforests. Description The Ancient Reishi has a brown cap and white underside. Dried and whole, it comes in various sizes and shapes. The Red Reishi is a traditional form with reddish cap and off-white to yellowish underside. It is a high-potency strain cultivated in China and has a more even size and shape. Properties Reishi extracts possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. Internally, it is used as an adaptogen and has been used as immunostimulant in neurasthe- nia, nervousness, insomnia, hepatitis, and chest and heart diseases. Reishi can be employed topically in creams and lotions for its anti-inflammatory properties. Constituents Polysaccharides, granoderan A, B, and C. A series of tritepenoids, termed ganoderic acids from A to Z, have been isolated. Ergosterol derivatives.

RHATANY Krameria triandra R. and P. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Fabaceae Krameria triandra Extract N/S Synonyms: Peruvian Rhatany Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Peru and Bolivia. Description Peruvian krameria occurs as whole and broken roots mixed. These are branched and measure up to 30 cm in length and up to 9.5 cm in diameter at the crown. The crown bears numerous short stem bases, and it tapers into the main root, which has numerous branches. The texture of the cortex is granular; of the wood, fibrous. The color of the smaller roots is light reddish- Rhatany root (krameria triandra) brown; of the larger roots, dark reddish-brown. The surface of the smaller roots is nearly smooth; of the larger roots, rough and scaly. The fracture of the cortex is very brittle and hackly; that of the wood, very tough and hackly. The outline of sections of small roots is cylindrical. The cortex is not so thick as that of the Savanilla Krameria. The color is dull reddish-brown. The wood has a yellowish- brown outer zone and a nearly black central zone. The entire surface can be of a uniform brown color. The odor is not characteristic. The taste is astringent.

Properties Very astringent, contains tannins and is said to be hemostatic. Can be used in hemorrhoid creams, mouth wash, after-shave lotions, face creams, etc. Constituents Gum, tannins (proanthocyanidines), benzofurans (ratanhiaphenols I, II, III, ratanine), and N-methyltyrosine.

RHUBARB Rheum palmatum L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Polygonaceae Rhubarb Peeled rhizome Synonyms: R. officinale, Chinese Rhubarb Part Used: Peeled rhizome and big roots Habitat and Range China and Tibet. Description Rhubarb rhizome occurs in pieces that are described as “flats” and “rounds.” The “flats” are formed from large rhizomes, which have been divided longitudinally and are plano-convex, tapering slightly toward each end and are about 7 to 10 cm long and 3 to 6 cm thick at the middle point. “Rounds” are formed from rather smaller rhizomes, which are not divided longitudinally and consequently are cylindrical, barrel-shaped or conical, being about 8 to 10 cm long and 4 cm thick. The outer surface is commonly dusted over with powdered rhubarb, in the form of a fine yellow powder, to give a good appearance. After removing the powder, the surface shows flattish longitudinal areas, resulting from the use of a knife for cutting away the bark, and may also show marks produced by filing or scraping, which is done after drying so as to remove discolored patches. Dark areas may still be found here and there. On many pieces of Shensi rhubarb, there is visible a delicate network of white lines, the rhomboid meshes of which are about 1 to 1.5 mm wide by 2 to 2.5 mm long, each being filled by a number of fine vertical, reddish-orange lines embedded in a whige matrix. The reddish-orange lines are the medullary rays seen in a tangential section of the rhizome, and the white tissue is phloem or xylem parenchyma filled with starch and calcium oxalate. This pattern is therefore evidence that in paring the rhizome, the cortex has been removed, but not the whole of the normally developed radiate secondary phloem and xylem. The outer surface can also exhibit occasional small dark points or projections, which when carefully shaved off, appear as radiating white and reddish-orange lines, showing that they are leaf traces. If the trimming has been very severe, there may be seen upon the surface numerous groups, each about 3 to 8 mm in diameter, of radiating dark reddish-orange lines known as star-spots, which result from the sectioning of abnormal vascular strands occurring in the pith. The smoothed, transversely cut surface may show just within the outer margin a fairly continuous cambium line with portions of phloem external to it, except where this has been cut away during the preparation of the drug. Within the cambium is a ring, about 5 mm wide, of radiate secondary xylem with reddish-orange medullary rays; the remainder of the surface is occupied by the large pith. In the periphery of the pith, immediately within the secondary xylem, is an almost continuous ring of star-spots, and scattered throughout the remainder of the pith are star-spots and irregular markings composed of more or less parallel straight or undulating reddish-orange lines embedded in a starchy, parenchymatous matrix. The inner surface of a “flat” shows numerous transverse placed parallel reddish-orange lines.

The drug is firm, heavy, and compact, the outer surface showing little sign of shrinkage during the drying; it breaks with an uneven short fracture, the fractured surface, which varies from bright pink to dull grey in color, exhibiting numerous small dark reddish-orange lines alternating with white ones. The complex structure of this drug is due to the fact that it is a very fleshy rhizome, the internodes of which are so closely approximated as to be almost suppressed and having an abnormal development of bundles in the pith. The drug possesses a characteristic empyreumatic odor and bitter, astringent taste; when chewed, it is very gritty between the teeth, a characteristic due to the calcium oxalate, which occurs in considerable quantity in large cluster crystals. Properties Blond tint for hair can be combined with Henna. Usually 5 g of ground root are boiled in white wine (1 liter) until half is evaporated. This is applied to the hair and left to dry. It is then rinsed out. Rhubarb has a laxative effect similar to other drugs containing hydroxyanthracene derivatives; the mechanism is described under Aloes, Barbados. With its high tannin content, Rhubarb exerts an astringent action and has been used in low doses as an antidiarrheal. In small amounts, due to the bitter taste, it is used as a stomachic. Rhubarb also has anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity. Constituents Hydroxyanthracene derivatives, usually 3 to 5% (Ph.Eur. min. 2.5% calculated as rhein), but up to 12% depending on source and method of assay/calculation. A very complex mixture is present, mainly of glycosides based on five 1,8-dihydroxy-anthraquinones; rhein, aloe- emodin, chrysophanol, emodin (= rheumemodin = frangula-emodin), and physcion. These occur to a small extent as free anthraquinones but predominantly as anthraquinone mono- and diglycosides (60 to 80%) and through dimerization as homo- or heterodianthrone glycosides (10 to 25%), of which many aglycones have been identified. In most cases, the sugar residue is glucose on C-8 (and C-8c in diathrones). The predominant aglycone varies; it is often rhein, but in one investigation, physcion 8-0-B-D-gentiobioside was found to be the main constituent (ca. 40%) of the hydroxyanthracene complex. Sennosides A–F (E and F being oxalates of A and B, respectively) and rheinosides A–D have been isolated. Mono-anthrones are generally absent in dried Chinese material although in the living plant, there is a seasonal variation from anthraquinone to anthrone forms. Flavonoids, especially flavanols such as (+)-catechin, (+)-afzelechin, and (+)-gallocatechin; also (+)-catechin 5- and 7-0-glucosides.

Phenolic carboxylic acids; gallic acid, free and in combined forms with glucose, glycerol, catechins, and procyanidins; also dihydrocinnamic acid derivatives, including galloylgluco- sides known as lindleyin and isolindleyin. Tannins, 5 to 10%, of both the condensed (procyanidin) type and the gallotannin type. Other constituents include starch and calcium oxalate.

ROSE (PALE) Rosa centifolia, L. Cosmetic Nomenclature Part Used: Family: Rosaceae Rosa centifolia Synonyms: Cabbage Rose, French Rose, Moss Rose Part Used: Dried petals, nearly mature flower buds Habitat and Range Western Asia. Description The plant usually occurs as a mixture of unexpanded cone-shaped flower buds and some petals. Petals obovate or obcordate retuse, pink; odor fragrant and rose-like; taste sweetish, slightly bitter, and astringent. Properties The volatile oil of Rose is widely used in cosmetics and perfumery. One example would be rose water, a by-product in the distillation of the rose oil; however, it can be prepared by using rose oil, approx. 3 or 4 drops to 1 liter of warm distilled water, shaking well and allow to stand until cold, filter. Constituents The volatile oil of Rose is characterized by high free alcohol content, mainly l-citronellal and geraniol; the ratio of l-citronellol to geraniol should not exceed 3.0. Other constituents of the oil are: nerol, l-linalool, phenylethyl alcohol, acetate esters of previously mentioned alcohols. Minor constituents are citral, eugenol and eugenol methyl ether, and traces of carvone.

Pale rose petals

ROSE HIPS Rosa canina L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84696-47-9 Dog Rose (Rosa canina) Extract Fruit Family: Rosaceae Dog Rose (Rosa canina) Hips Extract N/S Synonyms: Hip Tree, Wild Dog Rose (Rosa canina) Hips Oil N/S Brier, Dog Rose Dog Rose (Rosa canina) Leaf Extract N/S Part Used: Fruit Dog Rose (Rosa canina) Seed Extract N/S Habitat and Range The fruits are collected from plants growing wild in Great Britain. Description The fruit of R. canina is ovoid or urn shaped and about 2 cm long, bright red and glossy externally and bears at its summit the scars left by the fall of five sepals. The bulk of the fruit consists of the succulent hollow thalamus, which bears numerous achenes on its inner surface. The achenes themselves are hairy, as is the inner epidermis of the thalamus. The styles attached to the achenes just project through the opening at the apex of the fruit so that the stigmas appear as a bunch at the summit. Rose hips Properties Rose Hips are widely used for their high Vitamin C content. When combined with various other hair preparations, it will add highlights to light hair. Rose hips also act as a fixative for various herb preparations; they are refrigerant, mildly astringent, and slightly diuretic. Constituents Ascorbic acid, boron, capric acid, tannins, catechin-tannins, citric acid, essential oil, epicatechin, flavonoids, gallocatechin, invert sugars, isoquercitrin, kaempferol-3-glucoside, leucoanthocya- nins, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, lycopene, magnesium, malic acid, pectin, protein, rubidium, rubixanthin, succinic acid, sucrose, alpha-tocopherol, vanillin, xanthophyll, and zeaxanthin.

ROSEMARY Rosmarinus officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84604-14-8 Rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) Leaves Family: Lamiaceae Extract Synonyms: Garden Rosemary Rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) Volatile oil Part Used: Leaves and Oil from flowers flowers Habitat and Range Mediterranean regions. Description A bushy, low, much branched, perennial shrub attaining a height of about 1 m and bearing aromatic, evergreen, opposite, sessile, linear leaves and verticillasters of pale blue flowers. Leaves linear to linear-lanceolate from 1.5 to 3.5 cm in length and up to 2.2 cm wide, coriaceous;

upper surface dark green, lower surface wooly, glandular-punctate, and showing a prominent midrib; margin revolute; odor aromatic, characteristic; taste pungently aromatic, camphoraceous, and bitter. Properties Tonic, astringent, diaphoretic, stimulant. Its basic external use is in hair lotions, for its effect in stimulating the hair follicle to renewed activity and preventing premature baldness. An extract of the plant combined with sodium borate and applied cold is said to be one of the finest hair washes known. It is a surprisingly effective remedy for the control of scurf and dandruff. Rosemary can be used in mouth rinses and gargles. Rosemary also contains anti-oxidants. Topically, it is used to increase circulation. The oil is used in fragrances. The extract can be used in shampoos, creams, lotions, hair conditioners, etc. Constituents Essential oil, rosmarinic acid, protein, tannin, Rosemary borneol, boron, diosmin, camphor, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and triterpenic acids.

SAGE Salvia officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84082-79-1 Sage (Salvia officinalis) Dried leaves Family: Lamiaceae Sage (Salvia officinalis) Extract Leaves Synonyms: True Sage, Sage Garden (Salvia officinalis) Oil N/S Sage, Meadow Sage Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Mediterranean regions. Description A perennial low shrub or subshrub from 6 in. to 1 ft high. From an underground fibrous root system, there arises a grayish, much branched, pubescent stem with branches opposite. In early summer, the upper branches bear blue, rarely pink or white bilabiate flowers followed by blackish nutlets borne in open cups. Leaves opposite, long petiolate, petiole up to 4.5 cm in length, lamina elliptical, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, 2 to 10 cm in length, 1 to 2.6 cm in breadth; apex acute or obtuse; base rounded or subcordate, uneven or lobed; margin crenulate; upper Sage surface grayish-green (gray and densely pubsecent in young leaves) with depressed midrib; lower surface grayish or pale grayish-green, densely pubescent; venation pinnate-reticulate, the reticulations being very small; midrib and veins prominent; texture velvet-like; odor strongly aromatic on crushing; taste aromatic and bitter. Properties Cosmetically, an extract of sage is used to cleanse old ulcers and wounds. It is said that if massaged into the scalp, it will control dandruff and loss of hair (if the papilla is dormant and not destroyed). Russian folk medicine claim it to be aromatic, astringent, antiseptic, carminative, and disinfectant (against inflammations). Sage is also reported to bring dark hair back to its normal color. It is antibacterial, fungistatic, stimulating, can be used in mouth rinses and gargles, for inflammed tissue of the oral cavity and throat. It can be applied to insect bites and also has anti-oxidant properties. Constituents Volatile oil, thujone, cineole, borneol, linalool, camphors, pinene, estrogenic compounds, salvin, carnosolic acid, caryophyllene, ursolic acid, protein, beta-sitosterol, saponins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins.

* Formerly CTFA.

189

SANDALWOOD Santalum album, L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Santalaceae Sandalwood Heartwood Synonyms: Yellow Sandal Wood, White Sandal Wood, White Saunders Part Used: Heartwood Habitat and Range It is distributed throughtout India and the Malay Archipelago. Description Sandalwood logs are about a meter in length and up to 15 to 20 cm in diameter, consisting of the heartwood only of the tree. This is yellowish or pale reddish in color, hard, heavy, and dense, but easily split. The transverse surface shows alternating lighter and darker zones; the medullary rays are very fine and close together; the vessels are mostly solitary, being only occasionally arranged in small radial groups. The taste is slightly bitter; the odor strong and fragrant. In Yellow Sandal Wood, a volatile oil is deposited in the heartwood and is found in all the elements of the wood; it is not secreted by or contained in any particular cells or glands. Properties The wood is used as a source of volatile oil that has a very pleasant note and is used to fragrance creams, and lotions, or as a perfume, and for the manufacture of boxes, carvings, and similar articles. It is also used in perfumery. Sandalwood Oil is a stimulant and disinfectant to the whole genitourinary tract. Constituents The important constituent is volatile oil (sp. gr. 0.973 to 0.985; o.r. –13° to –21°), of which

the wood yields from 2 to 5%. The chief constituent of the oil is the alcohol santalol, C15H24O (probably a mixture of D- and E-santalols), of which it contains over 90%.

SANICLE Sanicula europaea L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Apiaceae Sanicle Whole herb Synonyms: Wood Sanicle, Black Snakeroot, Self heal Part Used: Whole herb Habitat and Range Central and northern Europe, mountainous regions of tropical Africa, Asia Minor, North and South America. Description Sanicle has a creeping rhizome; palmately lobed leaves; and erect, slender stems with white or pale pink summer flowers followed by fruits with hooked bristles. Properties Sanicle has been used for healing wounds and bruises and as a gargle for sore throats. It has also been used for gastrointestinal disorders. It is said to be anti-inflammatory, astringent, hemostatic, alterative, pectoral, vulnerary, depurative, and a stomachic. It has been used to treat internal bleeding, hemorrhoids, burns, wounds, and inflammed skin.

Constituents Tannins, resin, saponin, essential oil, and a bitter principle. Mucilage, chlorogenic and rosmarinic acids.

Sanicle

SAW PALMETTO BERRIES Serenoa serrulata Serenoa repens (Bartram) *INCI Name. Part Used: CAS#: 84604-15-9 Saw Palmetto Fruit Family: Palmae (Serenoa serralata) Synonyms: Palmetto, Dark Palmetto, Fan Palm Extract Part Used: Fruit

Saw palmetto

Saw palmetto berries

Habitat and Range This palm is found in sandy soil from North Carolina and Arkansas to Florida and Texas Description Ellipsoidal or ovoid, occasionally compressed, from 1.5 to 3 cm in length and from 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter; externally brownish-black to bluish-black, smooth and somewhat oily, with a few

large, more or less angular depressions due to the contraction of the sarcocarp, apex marked by the scar of the style, and the base either with a short stalk or stem scar; epicarp and sarcocarp together forming a thin coriaceous shell enclosing a hard but thin endocarp, which is externally reddish-brown and somewhat fibrous, as is also the inner layer of the sarcocarp; inner layer of endocarp smooth, enclosing a hard, ellipsoidal or ovoid, somewhat flattened, reddish-brown seed. Odor pronounced, aromatic; taste sweetish, aromatic, and slightly acrid. Properties Sabal berries, a native of the southern United States, were eaten by the Indians. They are said to be very nutritious. Herbalists have used them in wasting diseases, such as anorexia nervosa. They are said to promote the growth of new flesh. Saw Palmetto contains fatty acids, sito sterols; beta-sitosterol isolated from the berries has shown estrogenic activity. It has been shown to possess anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory activity.1 Saw Palmetto extract (lipidic) can be employed in hair conditions, skin creams, and lotions. Constituents Anthranilic acid, arabinose, capric acid, caproic acid, ferulic acid, lauric acid, lipase, mannitol, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol-d-glucoside, and stearic acid. 1.Tarayre, J.P., et al., Ann. Pharm. Franc., 41, 559, 1983.

SEAWEED...... SeeCHAPTER 7 SLIPPERY ELM BARK Ulmus fulva Mich.. Ulmus rubra Muhl. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Ulmaceae Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva) Bark Dried bark Synonyms: Red Elm Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva) Extract Bark Part Used: Dried inner bark Habitat and Range Quebec to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. Description Elm Bark occurs as a mixture of cut and broken pieces, or as cut and sawed pieces. These pieces measure up to 3 dm in length, to 17 cm in width, and to 3 mm in thickness. The sawed pieces are usually arranged in bundles, which measure up to 3 dm in length, to 1.7 dm in width, and to 1.6 dm in thickness. The bark is flat or slab-like and partially quilled. The outer surface varies in color from pinkish-yellow to reddish-brown, when cork patches are present; it has Sllippery elm (bark) numerous partially detached bast fibers. The inner surface varies from brownish-yellow to yellowish-brown; it is coarsely striated longitudinally. The fracture is very strong, tough, and incomplete. The fractured surface is very fibrous and of light pinkish-gray color. The odor is distinct. The taste is sweet and mucilaginous.

Properties Emollient, soothing, healing. Contains mucilage (a blend of polyuronosides), starch, and tannins. Has been employed as a healing agent for abscesses, boils, ulcers, and wounds. Can be used in creams, lotions, hair conditioners, etc. Constituents Mucilage in abundance, polysaccharides, d-galacturonic acid, L-rhamnose, hexosan, pen- tosans, protein, starch, tannin (minute), minerals, and beta-carotene.

SOAP WORT Saponaria officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84775-97-3 Saponaria oficinalis Extract Leaves and roots Family: Caryophyllaceae Synonyms: Bouncing Bet Part Used: Aerial and root Habitat and Range Roadsides and waste places; Nova Scotia, Florida, New Mexico, Colorado, native from Europe. Description Glabrous perennial; stem 3 to 6 dm high; leaves oval or ovate, 5 to 8 cm long, 3 to 5 ribbed; flowers in dense corymbiform cymes; calyx tubular, 1 to 5.2 cm long; petals pink or white; blades obcordate; capsule oblong. Properties Soap Wort can be used in hair shampoos as it is very high in saponins, chemicals that foam when added to water. Soap Wort produces a gentle, cleansing lather that does not sting the eyes or make the hair brittle. It can be used to emulsify oil. It is used medicinally to treat skin diseases. The beverage industry uses it to put a head on beer; and other beverages. Its surfactant properties give it favor in the film industry during the manufacture of film to keep it clean. Constituents Approximately 5% saponin, and tannin.

SOUTHERNWOOD Artemisia abrotanum L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 89957-58-4 Southernwood (Artemisia abrotanum) N/S Family: Asteraceae Extract Synonyms: Lad’s Love Part Used: Aerial part Habitat and Range Around dwellings; New Brunswick, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Colorado, and Saskatchewan.

Description A much branched shrub, 5 to 10 dm high; lower leaves petioled, 4 to 6 cm long, twice pinnately dis- sected into linear-filiform divisions, with revolute margins, slightly tomentose beneath; heads numerous, about 3 mm high and 5 mm broad; bracts canes- cent, the outer linear-lanceolate, the rest broadly oval, scarious; ray florets about 10; disk-florets 15 to 20. Properties Southernwood is known as a stimulant, emmenagogue, antiseptic, and anthelmintic. Used in aromatic baths, poultices, and for skin conditions. Its stimulating properties are useful in shampoos, conditioners, tonics, etc. Constituents Essential oil, tannin, umbelliferone, uric acid, caffeic Southernwood acid, chlorogenic acid, choline, guanine, isofraxidin, quebrachitol, rutin, scopoletin, and scopolin.

ST. JOHN’S WORT Hypericum perforatum L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 68917-49-7/84082-80-4 Hypericum perforatum Extract Flowers, leaves, Family: Guttiferae and stems (Hypericaceae or Clusiaceae) Synonyms: Hypericum Part Used: Flowering part Habitat and Range Waste places and fields; Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Colorado, Virginia, British Columbia, California, native to Europe. Description Stem much branched 3 to 7 dm high; leaves linear to oblong, obtuse, 1 to 3 cm long, 2 to 10 mm wide; flowers cymose; sepals 3 to 4 mm long, glandular-punctate, acute or acuminate; corolla 2 to 2.5 cm broad; petals obovate, 10 to 12 mm long, toothed above the middle on one side; capsule ovoid. Properties Used as a nervine, astringent, stimulant, uterine tonic, disinfectant, and anodyne. St. John’s Wort is said to be heal- St. John’s Wort ing, having antibacterial properties. It is used locally for its emollient properties in relieving aches for treatment of sunburn, frostbite, bruises, and superficial burns. Medically, it is presently being employed as an antidepressant. New studies are being conducted utilizing St. John’s Wort for HIV virus and hypericin is showing sub- stantial activity against the HIV-1 virus.

St. John’s Wort St. John’s Wort (flower) at u10

Constituents Volatile oil, flavonoids, hyperoside, phenolic acids, saponin, tannins, resin sitosterol, mannitol, protein, hypericin, hypericin-like substances, and an antibiotic substance hyperforin.

STRAWBERRY LEAVES Fragaria vesca americana Porter (G.) *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84929-78-2 Strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis) Extract Fruit Family: Rosaceae Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Dried fruit Synonyms: Woodland Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Extract Fruit Strawberry Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Juice Fruit Part Used: Leaves Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Leaf Extract N/S Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Seed N/S Habitat and Range Woods; Newfoundland, Manitoba, New Mexico, and Virginia.

Description Leaflets 3 to 8 cm long, rhombic-obovate, mostly acute, sharply and deeply serrate, very thin, very soon glabrate on both sides; scape slender, seldom over 1.5 dm high, seldom much exceeding the leaves, very rarely leafy-bracteate; fruit elongate-ovoid, 5 to 7.5 mm in diameter and 1 to 1.5 cm long. Properties Frageria has been used in face packs and to whiten the teeth. It is said that the pulp rubbed on the face will leave the skin smooth and tight. It would also be useful in facial scrubs and skin cleansing creams. Constituents Tannins (ellagic acid, ellagitannins, condensed tannins), flavonoids (glucosides of kaempferol, quercetin), fatty acids, and phenolic acids.

TANSY Tanacetum vulgare L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84961-64-8 Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) Aerial parts Family: Asteraceae N/S Synonyms: Tanacetum, Bitter buttons, Ginger plant, Parsley Fern, Scented Fern, English Cost, Hindheal Part Used: Aerial Habitat and Range This is a garden plant introduced from Europe and now escaped from cultivation, occurring as a weed along waysides and fences from New England to Minne- sota and southward to North Carolina and Missouri. The leaves and flowering tops, for which there is a reasonably constant demand, are collected at the time of flowering. The volatile oil is distilled from the plant on a commercial scale in Michigan and Indiana. Description Tansy Tansy is a strong-scented herb with finely divided, fern-like leaves and yellow, button-like flowers. It has a stout, somewhat reddish, erect stem, usually smooth, 1 to 3 ft high, and branching near the top. The entire leaf is about 6 in. long and is divided almost to the center into about seven pairs of segments or lobes, which are again divided into smaller lobes having saw-toothed edges, thus giving the leaf a somewhat fern-like appearance. The roundish, flat-topped, button-like, yellow flower heads are produced in terminal clusters from about July to September. The plant contains a volatile oil that is poisonous. Properties Tansy is a vermifuge, anthelminitic, carminative, and spasmolytic. Also said to be an insect repellant; has been used as a wash to treat scabies, and as a compress for rheumatic pains. The oil of Tansy has also been used as a blister on race horses. Constituents Essential oil containing about 70% thujone, tanacetin, sesquiterpenes, tannin, resin, phenolic acid, and quercetin.

* Formerly CTFA.

199

TEA TREE OIL Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Myrtaceae Tea Tree Oil Leaves and young twigs Synonyms: Australian Tea Tree Part Used: Leaves and young twigs (volatile oil) Habitat and Range It is indigenous to Northern, New South Wales, and Australia. The trees are now commercially grown in stands. Description Tea tree is a fast growing, constantly renewable tree, attaining approximately 20 ft in height. Bark, spongy; leaves oblong lanceolate with acute apex, punctate due to the presence of abundant underlying schizogenous oil glands; fruit, capsule. Properties The volatile oil has been used by Australian Aborigines for the treatment of cuts, abrasions, burns, insect bites, athlete’s foot, and the like. It was also used as an antiseptic by Australian soldiers during World War II. It is found in numerous product forms, either singly or with other ingredients, with a broad range of health claims, including treatments for sunburn, pimples, boils, stings, ringworm, sore throat, oral infections, bronchial congestion, lice, scabies, cuts, abrasions, and vaginal infections. Constituents The leaves yield by steam distillation approximately 2% of a pale yellow volatile oil with a pleasant terpenic odor. About one third of the oil is composed of terpene hydrocarbons (pinene, terpinene, cymene), while the rest consists mainly of oxygenated terpenes, particularly 1-terpinen-4-ol, which is present from 40 to 47% in higher qualities, while cineole is low (about 2.5%).

TEASEL Dipsacus fullonum L. *INCI Name Dipsacus fullonum Part Used: Family: Dipsaceae Synonyms: Brushes and Combs Part Used: Root and root stock Habitat and Range Waysides, streamsides, thickets. Description A stiff, erect, sparingly branched biennial, 0.5 to 2.0 ml high, with prickly stems and midveins of leaves, and dense, conical, spiny heads of rose-purple or whitish-violet flowers. Flower heads 3 to 8 cm long; flowers maturing in a narrow zone from below upward; involucral bracts spiny-tipped, upcurved. Over-wintering leaves, lanceolate, in a flattened rosette; stem

leaves lanceolate, entire or toothed, their bases fused around the stem to form a “cup” often containing water. The root and root stock are short and erect. Properties The dried root and root stock were formerly used as expectorants in bronchitis and diuretics. A decoction can be used externally to relieve itching of the skin in pruritis or to aid wound healing or ulcers. Also used in homeopathy. The fruiting heads were once used to tease or scratch up the nap on cloth. Constituents Little is known about the constituents of the plant. It is said to contain saponins, glucosides, and tannins. THISTLE Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn *INCI Name Part Used: Lady’s Thistle (Silybum N/S Family: Asteraceae marianum) Extract Synonyms: Prickly Thistle, St. Mary Thistle, Blessed Milk Thistle, Milk Thistle Part Used: Fruit and seed Habitat and Range Throughout Europe, rare in Britain. Description Leaves spiny, dark green, with a crenate margin and conspicuous white veins. Flowerheads rayless, purple, solitary with sepal-like bracts ending in sharp, yellow spines. Taste and odor, slight Properties Thistle has been used as a treatment for infections. The seed holds the active principle and is used to treat liver disorders. It has been very effective for mushroom poisoning (amanita phalloids), both orally and also by intravenous injection. The injection gives better results, especially if given within 48 hours of diagnosing the poison in order to prevent liver damage and coma.1 It is said that Milk Thistle Extract has the unique ability to regenerate liver cells. Constituents Flavolignans mixture (termed silymarin), which is composed mainly of silybin together with silydianin and silychristin, fatty acids, flavonoids (keampferol, quercetin, taxifolin), and magnesium. 1. S. Foster, Ed., Milk Thistle Bibliography and Abstracts, American Botanical Councin, Austin, TX, 1955. TOMATO Solanum lycopersicum L. Lycopersion lycopersicum (L.) karsten *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90131-63-8 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Extract Leaves, Family: Solanaceae stems, fruit Synonym: Love Apple Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) oil Seeds Part Used: Fruit

Habitat and Range Waste places and around dwellings; New York, Florida, Texas, Colorado, and California. Description Viscid-pubescent, much branched; stem 3 to 10 dm high; leaves two-pinnatifid, lobed, and dentate; corolla yellow, 10 to 15 mm broad; fruit through cultivation very variable, subglobose, ellipsoid, or pear-shaped, red or yellow. Properties Fruit: astringent, acne, sensitive skin. Tomato has astringent properties and can be used on sensitive skin. An extract of tomato has been used topically to treat acne. It can be incorporated into shampoos, conditioners, rinses, etc. to add sheen. Constituents Proteins, abscisic acid, ascorbic acid, aspartic acid, D-hydroxy acids, cyclohexanol, cystine, glucose, glutamic acid, glycine, vitamins, minerals, lycopene, flavonoids, and phytosterols.

TORMENTIL Potentilla tormentilla Stokes Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 90083-09-3/ 85085-66-1 Rhizome Tormentil Roots Family: Rosaceae (Potentilla erecta) Extract Synonyms: Potentilla, Erect Cimquefoil Part Used: Rhizome Habitat and Range Europe and Asia. Description The rhizome of tormentil is cylindrical, somewhat fusiform, branching and more or less curved, from 2.5 to 8 cm long, and from 0.5 to 1.5 cm thick, brown or blackish externally, and reddish within. It has a slight aromatic odor and a very astringent taste. It contains a red coloring principle that appears to be identical with rhatany-red, and considerable quantities of a peculiar tannin. Properties Tormentil is a powerful astringent, antihemorrhagic, styptic, that can be used for hemorrhoids, diarrhea, menstrual disorder, sore gums, and sore throats. It can be employed in creams, lotions, hair tonics, facial muds, gargles, mouth rinse, or any formulation that needs astringency at low levels, 0.5 to 10%.

Tormentil root at F-11

Constituents 20% catechol and hydrolysable tannins (agrimonin), a red pigment, tormentillin, quinovic, caffeic, p-coumaric and sinapic acids.

TURMERIC Curuma longa L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Zingiberaceae Turmeric Prepared rhizome Synonyms: Curcuma domestica Val., Curcuma, Indian Saffron, Curcuma longa Part Used: Prepared rhizome Habitat and Range Native of southern Asia and is cultivated in India, China, Java, and other tropical countries. Description Finger or long turmeric occurs in curved or nearly straight cylindrical pieces, bluntly tapering at each end. The outer surface is of deep yellowish-brown color, longitudinally wrinkled, and marked with transverse rings (leaf scars). Occasionally, they bear short knob-like branches, or show large circular scars where these have been broken off. They are hard and heavy, and break with a short fracture; internally, they have a uniform dull brownish-yellow, waxy appearance and tough horny consistency. The smoothed transverse surface exhibits a paler (or sometimes darker) ring separating the stele from the cortex. This appearance of the interior of the rhizomes is due to the prolonged boiling they undergo, by which not only is the starch

gelatinized, but the coloring matter, previously restricted to certain scattered cells, becomes uniformly diffused throughout the rhizome. The drug has a characteristic aromatic odor and taste; when chewed, it colors the saliva yellow. Properties Curcumin is reportedly a potent antioxidant. Turmeric has shown to be anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, and anti-edemic. It is also choleretic, hypotensive, antibacterial, antifungal, and antimutagenic. It is widely used as a spice and is an essential component of curry powder and other condiments. Constituents 3 to 5% yellow pigments that are not volatile in steam (curcuminoids), consisting of curcumin (diferuloyl- methane), monodesmethoxycurcumin, and bisdes- methoxycurcumin. 2-7% essential oil, comprising mainly bisabolane, guaiane, and germacrane sesquiterpenes: turmerone, ar-turmerone, zingiberene, cur- lone, etc.; the high content of bisabolane derivatives distinguishes turmeric from other Curcuma species. The earlier described p-tolyl methyl carbinol is no Tumeric doubt an artifact formed during distillation of the essential oil. The abundant starch is largely gelatinized. A complex acidic arabinogalactan, ukonan A, is also present.

VALERIAN Valeriana officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 8008-88-6 Valerian (Valeriana Officinalis) Dried rhizomes Family: Valerianaceae and roots Synonyms: Valerian root, (Valeriana Officinalis) Rhizomes and Garden valerian Extract roots Part Used: Rhizome and root Habitat and Range Europe and Asia; cultivated in Germany, Belgium and England; naturalized in New York and New Jersey. Description Occurs as a mixture of the entire rhizome and roots and of cut sections of the rhizome with roots. Rhi- zomes of German Valerian are usually entire. Roots are folded and held together with a blade of dried grass passed twice around the roots and tied. Rhi- zomes measure up to 4 cm in length, and to 2 cm in diameter. Roots measure up to 18 cm in length, and to 3 mm in diameter. The rhizome is vertical, simple or branched, and has one or more stem bases and numerous leaf scales. Roots are branched or simple. Texture is nonfibrous and waxy. Color varies from gray to yellowish-brown. The surface of the rhizome is rough from root scars and is annulate. Roots are wrinkled longitudinally. The fracture of the roots is very weak and brittle. The outline of entire rhizomes and roots is cylindrical. Cortex is thick. The cambium Valeriana (Young root) zone is distinct. The wood has a yellow ring of con- (Photo courtesy of Bio-Botanica®) ducting tissue. Pith is white or grayish-white. Cortex of the root is thick and yellowish-brown. Wood is small, central and cylindrical. The odor is strongly and persistently unpleasant aromatic. The taste is sweet, pungent, and disagreeable. Properties Valerian has been employed as a wash for sores and pimples. It is sedative, relaxant, and spasmolytic. However, Valerian has a very unpleasant odor that would have to be masked. Constituents Essential oil, bicyclic monoterpenes (valerenal, valerenic acid acetyl valerenic acid), and valepotriates (valtrate, isovaltrate, acevaltrate, valerosidatum), alkaloids (valerianine, actini- dine), phenolic acids, fatty acids, and baldrinal.

* Formerly CTFA.

205

Valeriana (Young leaf)

Valeriana officinalis

VERVAIN Verbena hastata L. Verbena officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84961-67-1 Verbena officinalis Extract Aerial parts Family: Verbenaceae Synonyms: Verbain, False Verbain, Wild Hyssop, Simpler’s Joy, Ironweed Part Used: Aerial parts Habitat and Range Verbain is found in moist fields, meadows, and waste places from Nova Scotia to British Columbia and Florida, Nebraska, and Arizona. Description This rather rough, finely haired herb has an erect, straight, four-sided stem, 4 to 7 feet high, usually branched above with broadly lance-shaped, numerous slender panicled spikes 2 to 6 in. long. Properties The plant is known to be used as an antispasmodic, contraceptive, diuretic, gout remedy, anorexic (appetite suppressant). Has also been used for skin infections and as adjunctive emollient and itch-relieving treatment of skin disorders, and against sunburns, and superficial and limited burns. Constituents Iridoids, verbenalin, hastatoside, in addition to verbenin, verbenelol, ursolic acid, tannin, volatile oil, caffeic acid, aucubin, artemitin, and verbascoside (caffeic acid glycoside).

WALNUT Juglans regia L. Juglans nigra L. *INCI Name . Part Used: CAS#: 84012-43-1 Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) Extract Leaves Family: Juglandaceae Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) Shell Ex- N/S Synonyms: Persian Walnut tract Part Used: Leaves and bark Walnut (Juglans regia) Extract Husks and shells Walnut (Juglans regia) Leaf Extract N/S Walnut (Juglans regia) Leaves Dried leaves Walnut (Juglans regia) Oil Nut meats Walnut (Juglans regia) Seed N/S Walnut (Juglans regia) Shell Powder N/S Habitat and Range Eastern United States in rich woods from New Brunswick and Quebec to Georgia, west to Minnesota and Kansas. Description A forest tree with short trunk and broad, deep, round-topped, open crown. The bark varies from nearly smooth, light gray on the branches and on older trunks. The wood is light brown, soft and coarse grained. The leaves are alternate, imparipinnate, with 11 to 17 ovate-lanceolate, serrate leaflets that are glabrous above and pubsecent beneath. The fruit consists of an elongated-ovate drupe containing a four-ribbed nut pointed at one end. The kernel is sweet, oily, and edible. Properties Tonic restorative, depurative, disinfectant, vermifuge, astringent. Used for skin complaints, eczema, scabbing pruritus, glandular dis- turbances, scrofula, rheumatism, gout, irritation of the eyelid, ophthalmia, styes, blisters, and varicose ulcers. Walnut Extract is an old-fashioned hair dye, used alone or in combination with Henna Extract.

* Formerly CTFA.

209

Note: When the hair is first dyed with Walnut Extract, it looks rather yellowish, but in the course of a few days the full rich warm brown color develops. Juglone has antiseptic and antifungal properties. It is taken internally to rid the body of various parasites, which some authors claim to be the cause of cancer and AIDS.1 Constituents Juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthagulone) Alphahydrojuglone (1, 4, 5,-Trihydroxynaphtha- lene), and its glycoside E-hydrojuglone, ellagic acid, protein, tannin, many trace minerals, caffeic acid, hyperin, and kaempferol. 1. Clark, A Cure For All Cancers.

WATERCRESS Nasturtium officinale R. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84775-70-2 Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) Flowers and Family: Cruciferae Extract leaves Synonyms: Water Pepper Part Used: Aerial part Habitat and Range Nova Scotia, Virginia, California, British Columbia, Mexico, West Indies, South America, and Europe. Description Aquatic perennial; leaves pinnate, with 1 to 11 orbicular to oblong-lanceolate sinuate leaflets; sepals oblong, about 2 mm long; petals white, spatulate, about 4 mm long; fruiting pedicels divaricate; sili- qua 1 to 2 cm long, 3 mm thick, somewhat curved; beak about 1 mm long. Properties Antiscorbutic (high Vitamin C content). Rheuma- tism and nervousness. Rubbing on scalp, it will strengthen and thicken hair. Also used for treating freckles and clearing the complexion in combination with honey. Externally, Watercress was used as a poultice on atonic ulcers, tumors, lymphatic or edematous swellings, its action being both detergent and healing. Note: Watercress is also heat sensitive, destroying most of its active principles. Constituents Watercress (Nasturtium efficinale) at u10 Glucosinolates (mustard oil glycosides) e.g., gluco-

nasturtiin, 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate (C9H9NS), and nitriles (3-phenylpropionitrile and 8- methyl-thiooctanone nitrile), amino acids, ascorbic acid, aspartic acid, biotin, E-carotene, cystine, folacin, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, leucine, alanine, arginine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, high in protein, thiamine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine, and diastase.

Watercress

WHEAT GRASS Triticum vulgare (Vill.)Hackel *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Gramineae Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Bran N/S Synonyms: Dog Grass, Couch Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Bran Extract N/S Grass, Quitch Grass, Quake Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Extract Grains Grass, Scutch Grass, Twitch Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Flour Kernels Grass, Creeping Wheatgrass, Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Germ Embryo of Devil’s Grass, Durfa Grass, kernel Durfee Grass, Dutch Grass, Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Germ Extract Embryo of Fin’s Grass, Chandler’s Grass Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Germ Oil kernel Part Used: 2 to 4 in. of young Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Germ Oil Un- Embryo of grass, sprouts, and new growth saponifiables kernel Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Gluten Endosperm Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Protein N/S Wheat (Triticum vulgare) Starch N/S Habitat and Range Like many weeds, Wheat Grass was introduced from Europe and is now one of the worst pests with which the farmer must contend, taking possession of cultivated ground and crowding out valuable crops. It occurs most abundantly from Maine to Maryland, westward to Minnesota and Missouri, and is spreading on farms on the Pacific slope, but is rather sparingly distributed in the South.

Description Wheat Grass is rather coarse,1 to 3 ft high, and when in flower resembles rye or breadless wheat. Its smooth hollow stems, which are thickened at the joints, are produced from a long, creeping root stock. The flowering heads are produced from July to September. The root stocks, collected in the spring, are carefully cleaned, cut into small pieces about in. long, and dried. Properties Reduces inflammation and benefits the skin in treating boils, eczema, and dermatitis. Contains diosgenin and plant sterols. Can be used in various dermatological preparations and in shampoos, creams, lotions, and hair conditioners. Constituents Vitamins, amino acids, E-carotene, fatty acids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. Over 240 compounds have been identified.

WHITE NETTLES...... SeeNETTLES

WILD ROSE BERRIES...... SeeROSE HIPS

WILD YAM Dioscorea villosa L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Dioscoreaceae Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa) Extract Rhizomes Synonyms: Rheumatism Root, Colic Root, China Root Part Used: Root and rhizome Habitat and Range Wild Yam grows in moist, thickets, trailing over adja- cent shrubs and bushes, its range extending from Rhode Island to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. It is most common in the central and southern portions of the United States. Description Knotted and woody, elongated, 6 to 20 mm thick, often compressed, bent and branched, bearing scattered nodular projections, slender tough roots or thorn-like root remains in circular depressions on the sides and underneath, and stem scars on the upper surface; externally pale brown, surface more or less scaly from the partly detached, thin outer layer; frac- Wild yam ture short but tough, the fractured surface whitish or pale yellowish, with numerous small, scattered, yellowish wood bundles. Odorless; taste starchy, insipid, afterwards acrid. Structure: Rhizome: epidermis thin-walled, more or less detached; an outer layer composed of several rows of parenchyma cells with yellowish walls occasionally developing as a thin cork layer; a few rows of tangentially elongated thin-walled parenchyma; remaining tissue consisting chiefly of longitudinally elongated thick-walled porous, partially lignified parenchyma containing starch, with numerous collateral fibrovascular bundles scattered throughout;

raphides of calcium oxalate occasionally present in the parenchyma cells. Root: epidermal cells with yellowish thin walls; cortex composed of thin-walled, porous slightly lignified parenchyma; endodermis distinct, the inner and radial walls being heavily thickened and slightly lignified; stele with a continuous zone of heavily lignified fibers, alternating small groups of tracheids and sieve tissue and a pith composed of thick-walled, slightly lignified parenchyma. Sections of the root made close to the rhizome do not exhibit an endodermis. Properties Wild Yam has been used as an anti-inflammatory. Contains steroid-like substances. It was formerly taken internally to relieve rheumatism and other inflammations, spasmolytic and mild diaphoretic. Wild Yam extract can be used in various creams and lotions for its steroidal saponins. Constituents Steroidal saponins, diosgenin, dioscin, dioscorin, ascorbic acid, and trace minerals.

WILLOW BARK Salix alba L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84082-82-6 Willow (Salix alba) Bark Extract Bark Family: Salicacae Willow (Salix alba) Flower Extract N/S Synonyms: Cortex Salicis, Willow (Salix alba)N/SWhite Willow, European Willow Leaf Extract N/S Part Used: Bark Habitat and Range Europe; naturalized sparsely in North America. Description It occurs in flat pieces or quills 1 to 2 cm in width and of varying length; outer surface in young bark smooth, greenish-brown, in older bark dull, yellowish-brown to dark brown, irregularly wrinkled; inner surface, cinnamon brown to pale reddish, longitudinally striated; fracture short fibrous, odor slightly aromatic; taste astringent and slightly bitter. Black willow Properties Willow Bark is an astringent used for cuts and sores, analgesic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, and antipyretic. Willow Bark was originally used by the American Indian for headache, as it contains salicin. It has been used in hair tonics to increase circulation and stimulate the follicle. It can be used in hair conditioners, shampoos, rinses, etc. However, it should be standardized for its salicin content, as this could vary among different manufacturers. Constituents Phenolic glucosides (salicin, salicortin, fragilin, populin, triandrin, vimalin), flavonoids, tannins (gallotannins and catechin-type tannin), minerals.

WITCH HAZEL Hamamelis virginiana L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 68916-39-2 Hamamelis virginiana Water Flowers Family: Hamamelidaceae Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) Plant material Synonyms: Snapping Witch Hazel, Hazel (Hamamalis virginiana) Twigs, bark, Winterbloom, Wych-hazel, Striped Distillate and leaves Alder, Spotted Witch Alder, Witch Hazel (Hamamelis Bark, leaves, Tobacco Wood virginiana) Extract and twigs Part Used: Bark and leaf Habitat and Range Temperate zones; eastern Canada, eastern United States. Description Witch Hazel, while it may grow to 25 ft in height, more frequently reaches a height of only 8 to 15 ft. It has a crooked stem and long, forking branches with smooth, brown bark. The leaves are from 3 to 5 in. long, thick, and borne on short stalks. A peculiar feature of the plant is the lateness of the thread-like, yellow flowers, which do not appear until late in autumn or in early winter after the leaves have fallen. The seed capsule does not mature until the following season, when it bursts open, scattering the shining black, hard seeds with great force and to a considerable distance. Properties The bark and leaf extract of Witch Hazel is very astringent and should not be confused with the dis- Witch hazel bark tillate, which is mainly a weak solution consisting of essential oil, esters, and alcohols. The extract is indicated for colitis and hemorrhoids, due to its high tannin content. Constituents Essential oil, tannin, flavonoids, saponins, and polyphenols.

WOOD BETONY Betonica officinalis L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Lamiaceae Stachys officinalis Aerial parts Synonyms: Buglewort, Sweet Bugleweed, Amer- Extract ican Water Hoarhound, Carpenter’s Herb, Green Archangel, Gypsyweed, Paul’s Betony, Wolf Foot, Purple Archangel, Water Bugle, Gypsywort, Gypsy Herb, Virginia Hoarhound Part Used: The entire herb, gathered during the flowering period Habitat and Range Wood Betony is a native herb frequenting wet, shady places from Canada to Florida, Missouri, and Nebraska. Description This herb has long, thread-like runners and a bluntly four-angled, smooth, slender, erect stem from 6 in. to 2 ft in height. The leaves are about 2 in. in length, pointed, rather narrow, and dark green or of a purplish tinge. The whitish flowers, which appear from about July to September, are small, tublar, and bell-shaped, and are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. They are followed by four nutlets. The plant has a rather pleasant, mint-like odor, but a disagreeable bitter taste. Properties Wood Betony is sedative, bitter. Externally, the leaves were applied to purulent wounds and ulcers. It is said to be vulnerary (healing wounds) and decongestant. Therefore, it can be used in various skin preparations where healing is wanted. Constituents Alkaloids, including betonicine, and stachyerine.

Wood betony

WOODRUFF Asperula odorata L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rubiaceae Woodruff (Asperula odorata) Flowers and leaves Synonyms: Sweet Woodruff Extract Part Used: Herb Habitat and Range Grows in woods of Britain and Europe. Description A short perennial, unbranched, with slender, quadrangular, brittle stems and whorls of six to nine elliptical, pointed leaves edged with tiny, forward- pointing bristles. Flowers small, with four petal lobes, white, in loose clusters. Odor, when dry, of new-mown hay. Properties Woodruff is anesthetic, astringent, antiseptic, antineuralgic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic. Used in aromatherapy, calming, soothing to the nerves. Leaves applied to the forehead are said to relieve throbbing pains from a bang on the head. Woodruff has been used topically to increase venous circulation, and has been employed in hemorrhoid preparations with other botanicals. It is used in the food Woodruff flavor industry and in alcoholic beverages, wines, vermouths, bitters, etc. Constituents Fixed oil, coumarin, citric acid, tannin, and the iridoids asperuloside, monotropein.

WORMWOOD Artemisia absinthium L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS #: 84775-45-1 Mugwort (Artemisia Flowering Family: Asteraceae absinthium) Extract herb Synonyms: Absinthium, Absinth, Madderwort, Mingwort, Old Woman, Warmot Part Used: Aerial part Habitat and Range Wormwood, naturalized from Europe and mostly escaped from gardens in this country, is found in waste places and along roadsides from Newfoundland to New York and westward. It is cultivated in some localities, especially in Michigan and Indiana, for the production of the volatile oil it contains. Description This shrubby, aromatic, much-branched plant grows from 2 to 4 ft in height. The growing shoots are silvery white with fine silky hairs; and the grayish-green leaves, which are from 2 to 5 in. long, are divided into small leaflets. The flower clusters appearing from July to October, consist of numerous small, insignificant, drooping, yellow heads. The plant has an aromatic odor and an exceedingly bitter taste. Description Part Used Leaves 5 to 12 cm long, two to three pinnately divided, the lobes ovobate or lanceolate entire or toothed; the lower lobe is petiolate. Flower heads greenish-yellow, 2 to 3 mm long, 1 to 2 mm in diameter, ovoid or hemispherical and arranged in panicles, the involucral bracts occurring in two whorls, the inner linear with membranous margins, the florets tubular. Odor aromatic; taste bitter. Properties Formerly employed as an eyewash for diseases of the eye, used as an external antiseptic, anthelmintic, and antipyretic. Also used to clean atonic wounds. Bitter stomachic, choleretic, and anthelmintic, Wormwood is an ingredient in vermouth. Many herbal preparations for expelling worms contains Wormwood. Constituents Essential oil, absinthin, thujone, artabsin, thujyl alcohol, isovaleric acid, camphene, chamazulene, p-coumaric acid, protein, rutin, E-carotene, tannins; approximately 100 identified constituents.

YAM...... SeeWILD YAM

YARROW Achillea millefolium L. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 84082-83-7 Yarrow (Achillea N/S Family: Asteraceae millefolium) Extract Synonyms: Millefolium, Yarrow Milfoil, (Achillea millefolium) Flowering Thousand-leaf, Thousand-Leaf Clover, Oil herb Gordoloba, Green Arrow, Soldiers’ Wound- wort, Nosebleed, Dog Daisy, Bloodwort, Sanguinary, Carpenter Grass, Old-Man’s- Pepper, Cammock, Achillia Part Used: Dried flowering aerial parts Habitat and Range Yarrow is very common along roadsides and in old fields, pastures, and meadows in the eastern and central United States and Canada. Closely related forms occur in the western states. Description This weed is from 10 to 20 in. high and has many finely divided, feathery, dark green leaves. From June to September, the plant produces flat-topped panicles consisting of numerous small, white flower heads. It has a strong odor. Properties Yarrow is diaphoretic, antipyretic, hypotensive, astringent, diuretic, and is urinary antiseptic. Frequent applications locally as a skin lotion are said to improve the complexion by Yarrow removing pimples or scabbing. It

* Formerly CTFA.

219

is said to promote healing and is also cleansing. It has been used for cuts, injuries, and varicose ulcers. Yarrow has a firming effect on the connective tissue; it is also used in hair care preparations. Internally, it is stomachic, spasmolytic, carminative, and cholagogue. Constituent Volatile oil (including linalool, camphor, blue colored chamazulene), sesquiterpenes (achil- licin, achillin), flavonoids, alkaloids (achilleine), phenolic acids, and tannin.

YELLOW DOCK Rumex crispus L. *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Polygonaceae Curled Dock (Rumex Roots Synonyms: Narrow Dock Root, Broad-leaved crispus) Extract Rumex, Broad-leaved Dock Root, Curled Dock Root, Yellow Dock Root Part Used: Root Habitat and Range This troublesome weed is now found throughout the United States, in cultivated as well as in waste ground, among rubbish heaps, and along roadsides. Description Narrow Dock has a deep spindle-shaped root from which arises an erect, angular, and furrowed stem, attaining a height of from 2 to 4 ft. The stem is branched near the top and is leafy, bearing numerous, long, dense clusters formed by drooping groups of inconspicuous, green flowers

Yarrow dock (Rumex crispus)

arranged in circles around the stem. These are followed by the fruits, which are in the form of small triangular nuts like buckwheat grains, surrounded by three very small veiny leaves. As the clusters ripen, they become rusty brown. The lower leaves of the yellow dock are blunt, from 6 to 8 in. in length, with long stalks, while the upper leaves are narrower, only 3 to 6 in. in length, short stemmed or stemless. The root is large and fleshy, usually from 8 to 12 in. long, tapering or spindle shaped, with few or no rootlets.The root, collected late in the summer or autumn after the fruiting tops have turned brown. They are washed, either left entire or split lengthwise into halves or quarters, and carefully dried. The drug occurs as lightweight cut and split fragments of cylindrical outline with grey-brown cork, yellowish cortex, and pale radially split wood. Treatment with aqueous alkali rapidly turns the fragments an intense dark red color. Properties Astringent for itchy skin, sores, swellings, psoriasis, and eruptive diseases. Constituents Anthraquinone glycosides, nepodin, chrysophanic acid, emodin, lapathinic acid, protein, and tannin.

YERBA SANTA Eriodictyon californicum (H and A) Bent. et Tor. *INCI Name Part Used: CAS#: 85085-31-0/68990-14-7 Yerba Santa (Eriodictyon Leaves Family: Hydrophyllaceae crassifolium) Extract Common Names: Mountain Balm, Con- sumptive’s Weed, Bear’s Weed, Gum Plant, Tarweed Part Used: Leaves Habitat and Range Yerba santa is common on the Pacific coast, along the coastal ranges from central California north to Oregon.

Yerba santa leaf

Description This evergreen shrub, which reaches a height of from 3 to 4 ft, has a smooth stem that exudes a gummy substance. The narrow, dark green, leathery leaves are from 3 to 4 in. in length and are covered with a resinous substance that makes them appear as if varnished. The rather showy, whitish or pale blue flowers are borne in clusters at the top of the plant. Properties Yerba Santa is an aromatic used in steam inhalations to relieve the symptoms of asthma and bronchitis. It is also used to make the bitter flavor of quinine and has been used to treat insect bites. Constituents Resin, essential oil, eriodictyol, eriodictyonic acid, cerotic acid, butyric acid, acetic acid, chrysoeriodictyl, tannin, and eriodyctyonine.

YOHIMBE BARK Pausinystalia yohimbe (K. Schum.) Perre *INCI Name Part Used: Family: Rubiaceae Yohimbe Bark Trunk bark Synonymns: Yohimbe, Corynanthe yohimbi Part Used: Trunk bark Habitat and Range Widespread in the forests of Cameroon, Gabon, and the Congo.

Description Evergreen tree attaining 30 m height. The drug occurs as flattened or quilled pieces 75 cm long and 4 to 8 mm thick. The outer surface is reddish-brown and covered with grayish lichen patches. The inner surface is finely striated and golden brown. Properties Yohimbe extract is said to inhibit melanin biosynthesis and is sometimes used in cosmetic preparations as a bleaching agent.1 Yohimbine, the major alkaloid, is sympatholytic; at low doses, however, it is hypertensive and at higher doses, it is hypotensive and peripheral vasodilator, hence its aphrodisiac effect. Constituents It contains from 1 to 6% isomeric alkaloids, the most important of which is yohimbine. It also contains corynanthine, allo-, pseudo-, and epiallo-yohimbine. 1. Kronenthal, R. L., Personal communication, 1998.

YUCCA Yucca baccata, Torr Yucca brevifolia, Engelm *INCI Name Part Used: Yucca schidigera, Roezl. Yucca Yucca aloifolia Extract Leaves and roots CAS#: 90147-57-2 Yucca brevifolia glauca Extract N/S Family: Agavaceae Roots Synonyms: Spanish Yucca (Manihot ultilissima) Extract Leaves Bayonet, Soap Weed, Soap Yucca Yucca schidigera Extract Leaves and roots Root, Grass Cactus Yucca vera Extract Leaves and roots Part Used: Root Habitat and Range Dry plains; Texas, Kansas, Colorado, Arizona, and Nevada. Description Low, usually with stout prostrate branched caudex; leaves rigid, spreading, about 6 dm long and 5 cm wide, concave, shagreen roughened, with narrow brown margins, coarsely filiferous; sepals and petals lanceolate, about 7.5 cm long; style slender, elongate; fruit large, sometimes 2 dm long, oblong or conical-ovoid, pendent, fleshy. Properties Yucca contains saponins. Has been used in dandruff shampoos as a foaming agent. It is also being used for arthritis internally. Yucca has been used to treat inflammation and various skin diseases. Constituents Sarsapogenin, smilagenin, saponin, tigogenin, samogenin, tannin, minerals, and protein.

Yucca

6.2 HAIR CARE BOTANICALS

Arnica Arnica helps stimulate the hair follicles. However, it should not Arnica montana be applied to open wounds or cuts. Black Walnut The extract of the green hulls has been used to dye the hair. Juglans nigra Dark brown contains juglone. Boxwood The wood chips are boiled and applied to dye the hair a rich Boxus sempervirens auburn color.The extract supposedly makes an excellent hair restorer. The leaves contain buxine, which is known to stimulate the hair nerves around the follicle and is said to promote hair growth. Cassia The botanical extract, not essential oil, when massaged into the Cinnamomum cassia scalp is said to keep the hair dark and keep it from falling out. Catnip, Catmint Effective for removing dandruff from the scalp. It will also impart a glossy coat to the hair. Chamomile See “Folklore” section. Matricaria recutita Cinnamon See Cassia. Coconut Palm The oil is good for thickening thin hair and giving it luster. Cocus nucifera Crabapple In combination with malt vinegar, makes an excellent hair rinse. Malus sylvestris Contains phosphorus. Oak, Galls Used to dye the hair black. Oak galls contains gallotannic acid. Quercus robus Ginger Stimulating to the hair follicle. Hemp, Indian The extract of Indian Hemp has been used to prevent the hair Canabis sativa cultivated in from falling out and also as a hair conditioner. Should not be cold regions confused with Canabis sativa cultivated in temperate regions. Henna Used to dye hair red. It coats the hair shaft without penetrating it. Lawsonia inermis Hound Tongue It is said that when the oil is rubbed into the scalp, it prevents Cynoglossum officinale the falling of the hair. Horse Tail A natural source of vegetal silica will help with split ends. Helps Equisetum arvense to add sheen and elasticity. Horse tail is also taken internally for the same purpose. Hops See “Folklore” section. Humulus lupulus Indigo An extract is used to intensify the color of black hair. Indigofera tinctoria Jacob’s Ladder The plant (when boiled in olive oil for an hour or so) will color Polemonium coeruleum the oil black. This oil is used to dye gray hair jet black. It also makes a valuable hair dressing. Lavender See “Folklore” section. Lavender officinalis Leopard’s BaneSee Arnica.

Lichwort An oil of pellitory and rosemary is said to promote hair growth Parietaria officinalis when rubbed into the scalp. It is also said to help relieve the inflammation caused by shingles and to be good for sore mus- cles when the oil is rubbed on. Maiden Hair Combined with chamomile and rosemary to make a lotion said Asplenium rutamuraria to rid the head of scurf and prevent the falling of hair. Marigold Flower An extract of the yellow or orange flowers is used to color and Calendula officinalis add golden highlights to the hair. It also makes a soothing cream or lotion. Marjoram The extract is used to give luster to dry hair and prevent the Origanum marjorana falling of hair. The oil can be combined with rosemary and sage for the same purpose. Mullein The fluid extract of the leaf has the reputation as a hair restorer Verbascum thapsus and toner. An extract of the yellow flowers is used to tint the hair a rich golden yellow. NettlesSee Stinging Nettle. Pellitory of the wall See Lichwort. Purple Loosestrife Complexion lotion: to tighten skin and help smooth wrinkles. Lythrum salicaria Hair rinse: accentuates the color of blonde hair, leaving it silky and glossy. Rosemary The aqueous solution of the extract is used to darken the hair Rosmarinus officinalis and also as a hair rinse to prevent the hair from falling out and to add sheen. The tincture is used as a hair restorer. The essential oil is used to add sheen. Saffron Contains a yellow dye, which the extract is said to color the hair Crocus sativus a rich gold. Sage An aqueous solution of the extract is used as a rinse to darken and Salvia officinalis condition the hair. Combines well with rosemary to darken hair. Sandalwood The oil-soluble extract is blended Santalum album with coconut oil and rubbed into the hair as a restorer. Sea Kelp A source of potassium and iodine, Fucus vesiculosis Vitamins A and D, and some protein. Blended with yogurt and a beaten egg, it imparts a healthy glow to the hair. It also helps to remineralize. Southernwood Lemony fragrance. Said to prevent the falling of hair when Arthemisia abrotanum rubbed into the scalp. Stinging Nettles An extract of Nettles has been used to stimulate hair growth and Urtica dioica condition hair. Thyme The extract contains thymol, borneol, and linalol. It is antiseptic. Thymus vulgaris Can be used in deodorants, and mouthwashes. Combined with rosemary, it will darken the hair, make it soft and shiny, and help keep it free of dandruff. Vervain Louis Pasteur suggested combining it with rosemary as a hair Verbena officinalis restorer and tonic. It supposedly makes an excellent rinse after (sacred herb) shampooing.

Walnut The husks yield dark hair dye. Juglans regia Wormwood Contains the bitter glucoside absinthin. It is said that when Artemisia absinthium blended with rosemary, it will prevent the falling of hair if regularly rubbed into the scalp.

BOTANICAL QUICK REFERENCE TABLE 229

6.3 BOTANICAL QUICK REFERENCE TABLE

The following table is for quick folkloric reference. The herbs listed (common names) have been employed for a particular use, either when applied topically or taken internally. This list is in no way intended to be comprehensive, but only a brief review of uses (for further information, refer to the index). Botanical preparations can be supplied in different forms; that is, powders or extracts, in various vehicles as water, oil, 1,3-butylene glycol, glycerin, ethanol, propylene glycol, etc. The amount of extract in a formulation should be determined through information provided by the extract manufacturer or through experimentation.

Use Botanical Acne Red Clover, Myrrh, Juniper Berries, Calendula, Nasturtium, To- mato, Burdock, Hops, Lavender, Arnica Lemon, Golden Seal, Lady’s Mantle, White Willow, Papaya, Asparagus, Blackberry Leaf Aftershave Aloe Vera, Chamomile, Calendula, Comfrey, Althea, Slippery Elm, Fenugreek, Cucumber, Oats, Milk Thistle, Bay Laurel Antibacterial Grapefruit, Echinacea, Lavender, Rosemary, Lemon, Benzoin, Bal- sam Peru, Sage, Quassia, Bayberry, Sandalwood, Uva Ursi Anti-dandruff Quassia, Artichoke, Birch, Chamomile, Lemon Grass, Nettles, Witch Hazel, Orange Peel, Rosemary, White Willow, Soap Root, Chaparral, Thyme, Artichoke, Catnip Anti-oxidants Camellia Sinensis, Proanthocyanidins, Ginkgo, Tumeric, Biofla- vonoids Antiseptics Echinacea, Wild Indigo, Lavender, Lemon, Sage, Thyme, South- ernwood, Bay Laurel, Tilia, White Lily, Grapefruit, Hops, Birch, Yarrow, Chamomile, Rosemary, Calendula, Onion, Garlic, Black Walnut, Eucalyptus, Myrrh, Cinnamon Astringents Agrimony, Arnica, Oak Bark, Bistort, Bayberry, Witch Hazel, Wild Alum, Myrrh, Vinca Minor, Plantain, Rhatany, Tormentil, Myr- tle, Lemon, Raspberry, Rose, Rosemary, Sandal Wood, Comfrey, Yarrow, Nettles, Horsechestnut, Corn Flower, Bilberry, Haw- thorn Breath sweeteners Angelica, Anise, Cardamom Seed, Rosemary, Thyme, Peppermint, Orris, Parsley Cellulite Broom Flowers, Bladderwrack, Horsechestnut Cleansers Papaya, Burdock, Soap Bark, Lemon, Pineapple, Pansy, Violet, Bio-Saponins™

Bio-Botanica, Inc.

The following botanicals could be used in various hair preparations, conditioners, rinses, shampoos for tinting and adding highlights, etc.

Use Botanical Red hair Beet, Chamomile, Red Henna; to add highlights Hibiscus, Marigold Blonde hair Golden Seal, Chamomile; to add highlights Marigold, Southern- wood, Oregon Grape, Grapefruit, Broom, Cowslip, Mullein Flowers, Elder, Lemon Peel, Blonde Henna (Neutral) Brunette Sage, Chamomile, Rosemary; to add highlights Black Walnut, Nettles, Southernwood, Raspberry, Jaborandi, Brown Henna Deodorants Rosemary, Cardamon, Coriander, Orange Peel, Citrus Biofla- vonoid, Orris Root, Patchouli, Rose, Witch Hazel, Chaparral, Parsley, Wild Alum, White Willow Eczema Balm of Gilead, Cleavers, Comfrey, Figwort, Burdock, Red Clo- ver, Golden Seal, Nettles, Yellow Dock, Sarsaparilla, Pansy, Pine Tar, Thyme, White Willow Emollients Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Althea, Slippery Elm, Fenugreek, Malva Flowers, Oats, Flax, Orange Flowers, Quince Seed, various seaweeds, Red Poppy, Elder, Tilia, Cucumber Eye Chamomile, Cucumber, Fennel, Purple Loosestrife, Eyebright, Tea, Corn Flower Water, Catnip Gingivitis Bayberry, Echinacea, Golden Seal, Witch Hazel Bark, Myrrh, Oak Bark, Rhatany, Capsicum Hemorrhoids Bistort, Witch Hazel, Comfrey, Capsicum, Pilewort, Horseches- nut, Bayberry Bark, Butchers Broom Hair, dark Chaparral, Black or Neutral Henna, Jaborandi, Nettles, Rosemary, Sage, Southernwood, Raspberry, Black Walnut hulls Hair, dry Chamomile, Red Clover, Quince Seed, Horsetail Grass, Comfrey Root, Primula Flowers, Elder Flowers, Melilote, Orange Flow- ers, Peach Leaf, Rosemary, Sage, Basil, Southernwood, Capsi- cum, Seaweed, Fenugreek, Dandelion, Hops Hair, to add sheen Chamomile, Yarrow, Thyme, Rosemary, Sage, Raspberry, Quas- sia, Lemon Peel, Flax Hair, split ends Horsetail Grass, Comfrey, Fenugreek, Quince, Rosemary, Echinacea various oils, Lavender, Olive, Basil, Rosemary, Sage Scalp, to stimulate Jaborandi, Quinine, Camphor, Cantharides, Capsicum, Birch, White Willow Bark, Arnica, Horseradish, Alfalfa, Anise Rose- mary, Sage, Peppermint Healing Aloe, Comfrey, Horsetail Grass, Chamomile, Phytoplenolin®,* Centella, Yarrow, Pansy, Roseberries, Plantain, Myrrh Insect repellant Pennyroyal, Lavender, Citronella, Chamomile, Neem, Eucalyp- tus, Feverfew, Cade, Cedar, Thyme, Pansy, Garlic, Onion, Cap- sicum, Wormwood Itching, to relieve Chamomile, Chickweed, Calendula, Golden Seal, Cucumber, Echinacea, Centella, Plantain Nails, to strengthen Horsetail Grass, Comfrey, Calendula Oil, Aloe

Use Botanical Rubefacients Cantharides, Capsicum, Cinchona, Croton, Wormwood, Pine, Birch, Jaborandi, White Willow Bark Shingles Mistletoe, Passion Flowers, St. John’s Wort, Valerian, Jamaican Dogwood Skin, dry Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Apples, Chamomile, Red Clover, Primula Flowers, Dandelion, Elder Flowers, Fennel, Quince, Althea Root, Slippery Elm bark, Seaweeds, Licorice, Meillot, Oats, Orange Flowers, Orange Peel, Citrus bioflavonoids, Pansy, Peach, Evening Primrose, Yarrow, Parsley, Violets, Cleavers, Capsicum, Arnica, Ginseng Skin, oily Caraway, Cucumber, Dandelion, Dulse, Fennel, Lavender, Lem- on, Grapefruit, Lemon Grass, Rose, Witch Hazel, Wild Alum Soothing Althea, Echinacea, Corn Flower, Apple, Colts Foot, Comfrey, Calendula, Slippery Elm, Chamomile, St. John’s Wort, Cucum- ber, Red Poppy, Sage, Tilia, Hawthorn Berries, White Pond Lily, Licorice Spots Cleavers, Echinacea,Vinegar, Lemons, Poke Root, Garlic, Blue Flag, Thuja, Uva ursi Styptics Wild Alum, Bayberry, Bistort (There are many herbs that have astringent properties; however, this would depend on the strength of the extract and the menstruum used to extract.) Sunburn Aloe Vera, Calendula, Lemon, Lavender, Capsicum, Nettles, Slippery Elm, Comfrey, Oils, Seaweed, Witch Hazel, Plantain, Phytoplenolin®* Varicose Golden Seal, Capsicum, Mullein, Horsechestnut, Comfrey, Cal- endula, Althea Root, Hawthorn, Tilia, St. John’s Wort, Witch Hazel, Bayberry, Bistort, Wild Alum Wounds, to heal Milk Thistle, Chamomile, Plantain, Comfrey, Chickweed, Golden Seal, St. John’s Wort, Arnica, (not to be applied to open wounds) Calendula, Aloe Vera,Yarrow, Horsetail grass, Yarrow flowers, Centella, Elecampane

* Bio-Botanica’s patent # 5,804,206 for Centipeda, Sept. 1998.

LONGAN FRUIT — LONG-YA-ROU 233

6.4 ORIENTAL BOTANICALS USED IN COSMETICS

The following is a brief overview of selected botanicals used by the Orientals in cosmetics. Common botanicals such as Lotus, Ginger, Licorice root, etc. can be found in the main section.

HAN LIAN CAO Eclipta prostrata Family: Asteraceae Description The plant is an annual herb that grows 20 to 60 cm high. Its stem is erect or prostrate and covered with closely appressed, short stiff hairs. The opposite leaves are elliptically lanceolate, 3 to 10 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide. The flower heads are axillary or terminal and the involucre is campanulate with 5 to 6 bracts. The flowers are polygamous. The female flowers are white and ligulate. The hermaphroditic flowers are tublar with four lobes. The achene of the tubular flower is Han lian cao (Eclipta prostrata) trigonous and that of the ligulate flower flat and tetragonous. It grows in fields and ditches. Folkloric Use Applied to the scalp to help promote hair growth, internally used to blacken hair, beard, and eyebrows. The Chinese use it for premature graying of hair. It is said to be hemostatic and has antibacterial properties. Constituents Saponin, nicotine, tannin, Vitamin A, ecliptine dimethylwedelolactone, wedeloclactone.

LONGAN FRUIT — LONG-YA-ROU Euphoria longana (Lour.) STEUD. Family: Sapindaceae Description The plant is an evergreen tree which grows up to 10 m high. The alternate leaves are paripinnately divided with 2 to 6 leaflets, which are coriaceous, elongated, elliptical shaped, 6 to 20 cm long and 2.5 to 5 cm wide. The panicles are terminal or axillary and the flowers are small, yellowish-white, and 4 to 5 mm in diameter. They are covered with rust-colored stellate hairs. The calyx has 5 lobes and there are 5 petals, 8 stamens, and an ovary which are 2 to 3 celled. The nuts are spherical, 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, yellowish brown, rough, aril white, and fleshy. The seeds are also spherical. Folkloric Use The powdered herb is styptic. The powder is used on abscess, sores, wounds, etc. Internally, it strengthens the spleen, nourishes the blood, and tonifies the heart.

Longan fruit (long yan rou)

Constituents Glucose, sucrose, adenine, tartaric acid, choline, fats, protein, Vitamins A and B. Flower contains fucosterol (C29 H48 08) MW = 412.70.

SHE CHUANG ZI Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson Family: Apiaceae Part Used: Fruit Folkloric Use The Chinese say this herb is an effective antiseptic wash for eczema, pruritus, vaginal itches, yeast infections, ringworm, antiparasitic, etc.

She Chuangzi Cnidium

She chuangzi cnidium u11

Constituents

Essential oil (L-pinene, L-camphene, bornyl isovalerate, isoborneol), ostol (C15H16O3), cnid- iadin, edultin, isopimpinellin, dihydrooroseiol, columbianetin (C14H14O4), columbianadin (C19H20O5), cnidiankin, alloimperatorin, xanthotoxol, imperatorin.

HUANG QI Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. Family: Fabaceae Folkloric Use The Chinese reportedly use this herb for prolapsed womb. It is an astringent. It is reported to be a cardio tonic, dilates the blood vessels, improves circulation in the skin, and can be used in hair tonics for its vasodilating properties. It is said to accelerate the healing of wounds and reduce edema. Constituents Saponins, sugars, choline, folic acid, amino acids, B-sitosterol, Betaine, Astragalin, a glucoside C20 H20 011, astragalin-glucose, and arabinose.

GINSENG — REN SHEN Panax Ginseng Family: Araliaceae Description The true ginseng plant has five parted, palmate leaves, bears minute flowers in an umbellate form, and has red, berry-like fruits. It is usually found growing in the shade of trees. The root is dug up both in the spring and the autumn. Folkloric Use Ginseng has been used by the Chinese as an energizing tonic to the lungs and spleen. It is said to nourish the vital fluids, used as an aphrodisiac, deficiency of energy, weak pulse, asthma, dyspepsia, lack of appetite, hypertension, insomnia, heart palpitations, diabetes, etc. When using Ginseng internally, avoid black tea, any citrus and turnips. Ginseng is said to help promote the secretion of sexual hormones in both men and women. It is also said to promote blood production. The Chinese believe that because Ginseng is so rich in nutrients, ginsenosides, amino acids, and various trace elements that when it is incorporated into cosmetic formulations, it could nourish, moisturize, and help to prevent the skin from wrinkles, possibly by having a positive effect on the skin metabolism.

Chinese panax (ren-shen)

Constituents Panaxosides, saponins (ginsenosides), essential oil. These are a few of the constituents. To list all would take several pages.

SNAKE GOURD — GUA LOU ZI Trichosanthes kirilowii maxim. Family: Cucurbitaceae Folkloric Use The kernels of the seeds are used. The root has antipyretic, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. Constituents Triterpenes, resin, sugar fatty oil, trichosanic acid,

(C18H30O2), tricosanthin, protein, trichokaurin. Gua-lou-ren Trichosanthes

Chinese Ginseng (Panax shinseng)

NOTOGINSENG — SAN QI Panax notoginseng (Burkill) Hoo & Tseng Panax pseudoginseng Wall. Family: Araliaceae Folkloric Use This herb is said to be hemostatic, helps to promote circulation, dissolves clots, reduces swelling, and is analgesic. Internally, it has been used in coughing of blood, blood in the stool, nosebleeds, traumatic injuries, etc. It is a highly effective styptic when applied to traumatic wounds. It is said to heal without leaving scars, both internally and externally. The Chinese say it is the best drug for any type of serious bleeding. According to Chinese tradition, this herb can be used safely in large doses. Constituents

Saponins, ginsenosides, Rb1 Rg1 Rg2 Ra, Rb2-Rb, and Re.

San qui (Noto ginseng)

Oriental Materia Medica a Concise Guide Oriental Healing Arts Institute pp 53.

COMMON CATTAIL — PU HUANG Typha latifolia L. Family: Typhaceae Part Used: Dried pollen of the mature flower Folkloric Use The pollen from this plant is used as a hemostatic and astringent. Constituents Flavonoids, essential oil, palmitic acid, stearic acid, sitosterol, L-typhasterol, glucose, fructose, rhamnose, xylose, and arabinose.

GARDEN BURNET — “DI YU” Sanguisorba officinalis L. Family: Rosaceae Part Used: Rhizome Description This herb has a height of about 50 to 150 cm and belongs to the Rosaceae family. There are a few tuber roots at the end of a woody stem that are used as medicine (Radix sanguisorbae). The cross-section is pinkish or light yellowish-brown in color with fibrous bundles arranged in ray-like white spots. It has almost no odor, and a slightly bitter taste. Folkloric Use This herb is hemostatic and astringent and has been used internally for blood in the stool and urine. It is also used to arrest bleeding in dysentery. An oil is extracted from the root and applied to burns. It is also said to be effective for pruritus, eczema and has been used for snakebite and insect bites. It is also said to be anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, U.V. absorbtion and anti-tyrosinase activity. Di-yu sanguisorba Constituents

Saponin (sanguisorbin) C38H60O7, which separates into sanguisorbigenin and valeric acid upon hydrolysis, glucose, tannin, ziyuglycoside I, II, Vitamin A.

ARBOR-VITAE — CE BAI YE Thuja orientalis L. Arbor vitae Thuja occidentalis L. White Cedar Family: Cupressaceae Description Evergreen tree with the leaves in four (4) rows on the two-edged branchlets, having a strong aromatic odor when bruised. Cones oblong, 1/3 in. long, with few (6 to 10) pointless scales.

Ce bai ye biota (leaf and bark)

The tree is approximately 20 to 50 ft. in height, having pale, shoddy bark and light, soft durable wood. Extensively cultivated as an ornamental bush. Folkloric Use The leaves and the stems contain the actives in this herb. It is a hemostatic, astringent, and antipyretic. The Chinese use it for all forms of hemorrhage, and is said to have antibacterial, anthelmintic, and antiviral properties. Constituents Thujone, L.-fenchone, fenchone, pinene, caryophyllene, flavonoids, tannin, resin, Vitamin C.

TIGER THISTLE — DA JI Cirsium japonicum DC Family: Asteraceae Description The plant is a perennial herb that grows 0.5 to 1 m high. Its stem is erect and white cottonly. The basal leaves are clustered, obovate-lanceolate shaped, 15 to 30 cm long, 5 to 8 cm wide, and pinnatipartite. The apex is acute and its margin is spinescent; the base tapers into a winged petiole, which has hairs on both surfaces. The cauline leaves alternate with an amplexicaul base, becoming smaller on top. The terminal flower head has a round hair involucre. The flowers are tubular, reddish-purple, and hermaphroditic.

Cirsium japonica

Folkloric Use This herb is said to be very effective when applied externally to scaly types of skin diseases. It is said to be antiviral hemostatic, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial. Constituents Taraxasterol acetate, stigmasterol, D-amyrin, B-amyrin, B-sitosterol

BLETILLA — BAI JI Bletilla striata (Thunb) Reich B.F. Family: Orchidaceae Description The plant is a perennial herb that grows 30 to 70 cm high. The tuber is thick and fleshy. The stem is thick and sturdy and the 3 to 5 leaves are lanceolate shaped, 15 to 30 cm long, and 2 to 6 cm wide. Their base runs into a long sheath. The racemes are terminal with 3 to 8 flowers. The bracts oblong-lanceolate shaped, 2 to 3 cm long, and the flowers are rose-violet in color. The perianth is in 6 segments, its apex acute and the labellum abovate, with 5 longitu- Bletilla bai-ji dinal ridges on the inner surface. Folkloric Use This herb is astringent, antibacterial, antifungal, hemostatic, reduces swelling, and promotes the healing of the flesh. It is used in traumatic injuries, skin infections, and in abscesses. It is also emollient when mixed with oil and is applied to burns and abscess and other skin irritations. Constituents Glucose, starch, essential oil, mucilage (bletilla glucomannan).

BORNEO CAMPHOR TREE — BING PIAN Dryobalanops aromati Description The tree is straight, with a tall stem sometimes 20 ft thick, overtopping with its high crown other large trees to the extent of some scores of feet. The dark green, oval, pointed leaves are tough and camphoraceous. The acorn-like fruit is compared by the Chinese to that of cardamom. The trees are cut down in April or May while fruiting, and the whole of the immense trunk is split up and sacrificed to find the grains or flat pieces of crystallized camphor, the largest of which rarely exceeds half an inch across. They are met within crevices or cells in the body of the tree, and more frequently in the swellings of the branches as they issue from the trunk. One tree can yield as much as pound. Folkloric Use This herb is said to be analgesic, having antipyretic properties. It has been successfully applied to abscesses, boils, sores, etc. It has been used in ringworm, cold sores, conjunctivitis, and nasal mucositis. Constituents D-borneol, humulene, asiatic acid, caryophyllene, ipterocopal, hydroxydammarone II, dry- obalanone, erythrodiol.

CLOVE TREE — DING XIANG Syzygium aromaticum Family: Myrtaceae Description From 10 to 17.5 mm in length; the solid inferior ovary more or less cylindrical, and somewhat 4-angled; dark brown, terminated by an epigynous calyx with 4 incurved teeth about 3 mm in length, and surmounted by a light brown globular portion consisting of 4 imbricated, glandular-punctate petals, which alternate with the calyx teeth; stamens numerous, crowded, and incurved, style 1, ovary 2-locular, with numerous ovules; odor strongly aromatic; taste pungent and aromatic, followed by a slight numbness. Folkloric Use This oil is a stimulant and local anesthetic. Antibacterial, antiparasitic, analgesic. Constituents Clove oil (eugenol, B-caryophyllene, acetyl eugenol), tannin, fat, wax. See “Botanical” section for further description. CHINESE MOXA WEED — YIN CHEN HAO Artemisia capillaris Thunb Folkloric Use this herb is antipyretic, antibacterial, and antiviral. Constituents Scoparone, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, essential oil, esculetin, capillarisin, stearic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidic acid, montanic acid.

Yin chen hao atemesia

KUSHEN Sophora flavescens Family: Fabaceae Description The plant is a deciduous subshrub that grows up to 3 m high. The stem is erect with many branches, and the branchlets are sparsely pubescent. The leaves are alternate, imparipinnately divided, with leaflets that are elongated elliptical shaped, 3 to 4 cm long, and 1 to 2 cm wide. The raceme is terminal, 10 to 20 cm long, and the calyx is companulate and slightly oblique. The corolla is papilionaceous, yellowish-white. The stamens are 10 and free. The pods are cylindrical, constricted between the seeds, which are globose and black. Folkloric Use It is antipyretic. It is used for vaginal infections, sores, itchy skin, and allergic reactions. Excellent remedy for sores, pruritus, and other skin ailments. Constituents Alkaloids, flavonoids.

Ku shen sophora

Ash bark (Qin Pi)

NORTHERN ASH — QIN PI Fraxinus bungeana Folkloric Use This herb is also antipyretic and said to help promote vision. It is applied externally to swollen, aching, and red eyes. It is supposedly an antiphlogistic eyewash. Constituents Aesculin, aesculetin, tannin, fraxin, fraxetin.

MISHMI BITTER — HUANG LIAN Coptis shinensis Franch Folkloric Use Antipyretic, used as an eye wash for sore, red, and swollen eyes. It is said to be a natural antibiotic. Anti- inflammatory, it has been used for inflammation of the mouth and tongue. Has been reportedly used as an adulterant in Golden Seal Root powder (Hydrastis canadensis), probably for its high berberine content and relatively low price. Constituents Berberine, coptisine, columbamine, obakunone, obakulactone, jatrorrhizine, palmatine, magnoflorine, ferulic acid.

Coptis teeta (False Golden Seal)

Coptis

BAN ZHI LIAN Scutellaria barbata D. Don Family: Lamiaceae Description The plant is a perennial herb. Its stem is erect, tetragonous and grows 15 to 40 cm high. The leaves are opposite, ovate shaped, 1 to 3 cm long, and 0.5 to 1.5 cm wide; their margins sparsely serrate. The floral whorl consists of 2 flowers, congregating in terminal and axillary laterial racemes. The pedicel is 1 to 2 mn long and pubsecent. The calyx is bilabiate. The

Ban zhilian (scutellaria barbata)

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC PURSLANE — MA CHI XIAN 245 corolla is pale bluish-purple in color, 1 to 1.3 cm long. There are 4 stamens of didynamous type and a 4-lobed ovary. The nutlets are spheroidal and tubeculate. Folkloric Use This herb is antipyretic and hemostatic. It is used to reduce swelling, abscesses, boils, snake bites. Some experimentation is being done for its use in cancer of the lungs, stomach, and intestines. Constituents Portulal, beta-cyanin, betanin, betanidini.

PURSLANE — MA CHI XIAN Portulaca oleracea Family: Portulacaceae Description The plant is an annual herb, fleshy, and grows 20 to 30 cm high. Its stem is cylindrical, decumbent or slanting upward, and often purplish in color. The leaves are cuneate-oblong or obovate shaped, 1 to 3 cm long and 0..5 to 1.5 cm wide, with their upper surface dark green and under surface dark red in color. There are 3 to 5 flowers terminally, with 4 to 5 involucral bracts that are membranous. The flower has 2 sepals, 5 yellow petals, 8 to 12 stamens, and 1 pistil with 4 to 6 lobed stigma. The capsule is conical with its lid dehiscent containing numerous black seeds. Folkloric Use Antipyretic, antiphlogistic. The Chinese, Italians, French, and English consume this plant in salads. It is also a good source for GLA, gamma-linolenic acid. Can be used in cosmetics as a source of GLA. Constituents GLA, gamma-linolenic acid.

Purslane Purslane (whole plant)

Portulacca purslane

Ma chi xian (Purslane) root

6.4.1 Japanese Botanicals Cross-Reference Table

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Acacia 9000-01-5 Acacia Algae Extract 68917-51-1 Algae Extract Algae Extract (2) 84696-13-9 Bladderwrack Extract Aloe Extract 8001-97-6 Aloe Aloe Extract (1) 8001-97-6 Aloe Aloe Leaf Powder 8001-97-6 Aloe Aloe Powder 8001-97-6 Aloe Althea Extract 97676-24-9 Althea Extract Annatto 1393-63-1 Annatto Apple Extract Not identified Apple extract Apricot Extract 68650-44-2 Apricot Extract Avocado Extract 84695-98-7 Avocado Extract Balm Mint Extract 84-82-61-1 Balm Mint Extract Barley Extract 94349-67-4 Barley Extract Benzoin* 9000-05-9 Gum Benzoin Birch Bark Extract Not identified Birch Bark Extract Birch Extract 84012-15-7 Birch Extract Birch Sap Not identified Birch Sap Bitter Orange Peel Extract 8028-8-6 Bitter Orange Peel Extract Bitter Orange Peel Oil 68916-04-1 Bitter Orange Oil Buckbean (Bogbean) Extract 84082-63-3 Buckbean Extract Burdock Root Extract 84649-88-7 Burdock Root Extract Burdock Seed Oil Not identified Lappa Seed Oil Burnet Extract Not Identified ** Burnet Extracted Powder Not identified ** Butcherbroom Extract 84012-38-4 Butcherbroom Extract Calamus Root Extract 84775-39-3 Calamus Root Extract Calendula Extract 84776-23-8 Calendula Extract Calendula Powder Not identified ** Camelia Oil* 68916-73-4 Camelia Oil Capsicum Tincture 465-42-9 Capsicum B-Carotene 7235-40-7 Beta Carotene Carrageenan 9000-07-1 Carrageenan Carrot Extract 84929-61-3 Carrot Extract Carrot Oil 8015-88-1 Carrot Oil Cattail Extract Not identified ** Chamomile Anthemis nobilis Extract 84649-86-5 Chamomile Extract Chamomile Distillate Not identified ** Chamomile Extract Not identified Matricaria Extract Chamomile Oil 8015-92-7 Chamomile Oil Chamomile Powder Not identified ** Chlorella Extract Not identified ** Cinchona Extract 84776-28-3, Cinchona Extract 84929-25-9 Citrus Unshiu Peel Extract Not identified ** Citrus Unshiu Peel Powder Not identified ** Clematis Extract 84929-63-5 Clematis Extract Clove Extract 8015-97-2 Cloveleaf Oil Clove Oil 8000-34-8 Clove Oil Cnidium Rhizome Extract Not identified ** Comfrey Extract 84696-05-9 Comfrey Extract

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Comfrey Leaf Powder Not identified ** Concentrated Glycerin 56-81-5 Glycerin Corn Cob Meal Not identified Corn Cob Meal Cornflower Distillate Not identified ** Cornflower Extract 68916-70-1; Cornflower Extract 84012-18-0 Corn Oil 8001-30-7 Corn Oil Corn Starch 9005-25-8 Corn Starch Cottonseed Oil 8001-29-4 Cottonseed oil Crataegus Extract 8057-51-0; Crataegus Extract 84603-61-2 Cucumber Extract 70955-25-8 Cucumber Extract 89998-01-6 Cucumber Oil Not identified Cucumber Oil Defatted Rice Bran Not identified ** Dried Chlorella Not identified ** Echinacea Leaf Extract 84696-11-7; Coneflower Extract 90028-20-9 Eucalyptol 470-82-6 Eucalyptol Eucalyptus Extract 84625-32-1 Eucalyptus Extract Eucalyptus Oil 8000-48-4 Eucalyptus Oil Eugenol 97-53-0 Eugenol Evening Primrose Oil Not identified Evening Primrose Oil Fennel Extract 84625-39-8; Fennel Extract 85085-33-2 Fermented Tea Extract Not identified ** Gardenia Blue Not identified ** Gardenia Extract Not identified Gardenia Extract Garlic Extract 8008-99-9 Garlic Extract Gentian Extract 97676-22-7 Gentian Extract Geraniol 106-24-1 Geraniol Geranium Herb Not identified Geranium Extract Ginger Extract 84696-15-1 Ginger Root Extract Ginger Tincture 84696-15-1 Ginger Root Extract Ginseng Extract 90045-38-8 Ginseng Extract Ginseng Extracted Powder 90045-38-8 Ginseng Extract Ginseng Powder 90045-38-8 Ginseng Glycerin 56-81-5 Glycerin B-Glycyrrhetinic Acid 471-53-4 Glycyrryetinic Acid Glycyrrhiza Extract 84775-66-6; Licorice 97676-23-8 Extract Glycyrrhiza Extracted Powder 84775-66-6; Licorice Extract 97676-23-8 Glycyrrhizinic Acid 1405-86-3 Glycyrrhizic Acid Grape Extract Not identified Grape Extract Grapefruit Extract 90045-43-5 Grapefruit Extract Grape Leaf Extract 84929-27-1 Grape Leaf Extract Grape Seed Oil 8024-22-4 Grape Seed Oil Guar Gum 9000-30-0 Guar Gum Honeysuckle Extract 84603-62-3; Honeysuckle Extract 90045-78-6 Hops Extract Not identified Hops Extract Horse Chestnut Extract 90045-79-7 Horse Chestnut Extract

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Horse Chestnut Extracted Powder Not identified ** Horsetail Extract Not identified Horsetail Extract Hydrangea Extract Not identified Hydrangea Extract Hypericum Extract 68917-49-7; Hypericum Extract 84082-80-4 Hypericum Oil* Not identified ** Ivy (Hedera helix) Extract 84082-54-2 Ivy Extract Japanese Angelica Extract Not identified Japanese Angel Extract Japanese Coptis Extract Not identified ** Japanese Valerian Extract Not identified ** Job’s Tears Extract Not identified ** Job’s Tears Oil Not identified ** Jojoba Alcohol Not identified Jojoba Alcohol Jojoba Oil 61789-91-1 Jojoba Oil Jujube Extract Not identified Jujube Extract Juniper Extract 84603-69-0 Juniper Extract Karaya Gum 9000-36-6 Karaya Gum Kiwi Extract 92456-63-8 Kiwi Extract Lavender Oil 8000-28-0 Lavender Oil Lavender Powder Not identified ** Lemon Extract 8008-56-8; Lemon Extract 84929-31-7 Lemon Juice Powder Not identified Lemon Juice Powder Lentinus Extract Not identified ** Lettuce Extract 84776-66-9 Lettuce Extract Lily Extract 84776-67-0 White Lily Extract Linden Extract 68916-81-4; Basswood Extract 84929-52-2 Locust Bean Gum 9000-40-2 Locust Bean Gum Loquat Leaf Extract Not identified Loquat Leaf Extract Macademia Nuts Not identified Macadamia Nut Oil Mallow Extract 84082-57-5 Mallow Extract Mallow Powder Not identified ** Matricaria Oil 8002-66-2 Matricaria Oil Meadowfoam Oil Not identified ** Mentha Herb 90063-97-1 Wild Mint Extract Mentha Oil Not identified Wild Mint Oil Mistletoe Extract 8031-76-3; Mistletoe Extract 84929-55-5 Mugwort Extract Not identified Mugwort Extract Mulberry Root Extract Not identified Mulberry Root Extract Nettle Extract 84012-40-8 Nettle Extract Oat Extract 84012-26-0 Oat Extract Oatmeal Not identified Oatmeal Oat Powder Not identified Oat Flower Oil-soluble Arnica Extract 8057-65-6 Arnica Extract Oil-soluble Birch Extract 84012-15-7 Birch Extract Oil-soluble Burdock Root Extract 84649-88-7 Burdock Root Extract Oil-soluble Calendula Extract 84776-23-8 Calendula Extract Oil-soluble Coix Seed Extract Not identified ** Oil-soluble Ginseng 90045-38-8 Ginseng Extract Oil-soluble Glycyrrhiza Extract* 84775-66-6; Licorice Extract 97676-23-8

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Oil-soluble Hop Extract Not identified Hops Extract Oil-soluble Horse Chestnut Extract 90045-79-7 Horse Chestnut Extract Oil-soluble Horsetail Extract Not identified ** Oil-soluble Hypericum Extract 68917-49-7; Hypericum Extract 84082-80-4 Oil-soluble Hypericum Extract (2) 68917-49-7; Hypericum Extract 84082-80-4 Oil-soluble Japanese Angelica Extract Not identified ** Oil-soluble Linden Extract 68916-81-4; Basswood Extract 84929-52-2; Oil-soluble Loquat Leaf Extract Not identified Loquat Extract Oil-soluble Matricaria Extract Not identified Matricaria Extract Oil-soluble Mixed Plants Extract Not identified ** Oil-soluble Mulberry Root Extract Not identified Mulberry Root Extract Oil-soluble Peach Leaf Extract Not identified Peach Leaf Extract Oil-soluble Placental Extract Not identified Placental Lipids Oil-soluble Rosemary Extract 84604-14-8 Rosemary Extract Oil-soluble Sage Extract 84082-79-1 Sage Extract Oil-soluble Sage Extract (2) 84082-79-1 Sage Extract Oil-soluble Walnut Extract Not identified ** Oil-soluble White Nettle Extract 84012-23-7 White Nettle Extract Oil-soluble Wild Rose Extract 84696-47-9 Rose Extract Oil-soluble Yarrow Extract 84082-83-7 Yarrow Extract Olive Oil 8001-25-0 Olive Oil Ononis Extract* 84775-89-3 Restharrow Extract Orange Extract 84012-28-2 Orange Extract Orange Extract Not identified Bitter Orange Extract Orris Root Extract 90045-89-9 Orris Root Extract Palm Kernel Oil 8023-79-8 Palm Kernel Oil Palm Oil 8002-75-3 Palm Oil Papaya Powder Not identified Papaya Paprica Color Not identified ** Parsley Extract 84012-33-9 Parsley Extract Peach Extract 84012-34-0 Peach Extract Peach Kernel Extract 84012-34-0 Peach Extract Peach Leaf Extract Not identified Peach Leaf Extract Peanut Oil 8002-03-7 Peanut Oil Peony Root Extract 84929-40-8 Peony Room Extract Peppermint Distillate Not identified ** Peppermint Extract 84082-70-2 Peppermint Extract Not identified Perilla Extract Not identified ** Perilla Extract* Not identified ** Phellodendron Bark Extract Not identified Philodendron Extract Pine Cone Extract Not identified Pine Cone Extract Prune Extract 90082-87-4 Plum Extract Quince Seed Not identified Quince Seed Quince Seed Extract Not identified Quince Extract Quince Seed Extract Powder Not identified ** Raspberry Extract Not identified ** Raspberry Extract (2) Not identified Red Raspberry Extract Red Grape Extract Not identified Grape Extract Refined Rape Seed Oil 8002-13-9 Rapeseed Oil

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Rehmannia Root Extract Not identified ** Rice Bran Not identified Rice Bran Rice Bran Oil 68553-81-1; Rice Bran Oil 84696-37-7 Rice Germ Oil Not identified ** Rice Starch 9005-25-8 Rice Starch Rice Wax 8016-60-2 Rice Bran Wax Rose Extract 84606-12-6 Cabbage Rose Extract Rose Fruit Extract Not identified ** Rose Hips Oil 84603-93-0 Rose Hips Oil Rosemary Extract 84604-14-8 Rosemary Extract Rosemary Oil 8000-25-7 Rosemary Oil Rosemary Powder Not identified ** Rose Water Not identified Rose Water Safflower Extract Not identified Safflower Extract Safflower Oil 8001-23-8 Safflower Oil Safflower Red Not identified ** Safflower Yellow Not identified ** Saffron Crocus Extract * Not identified Saffron Crocus Extract Sage Extract 84082-79-1 Sage Extract Sage Extracted Powder 84082-79-1 ** Sage Powder Not identified ** Sambucus Extract 84603-58-7 Sambucus Extract Saponaria Extract Not identified ** Saxifrage Extract Not identified ** Scutellaria Root Extract Not identified Scutellaria Root Extract Seaweed Extract 68917-51-1 Algae Extract Seaweed Powder Not identified Algae Sesame Oil 8008-74-0 Sesame Oil Shiitake Mushroom Extracted Powder Not identified ** Shikon Extract Not identified ** B-Sitosterol Not identified Sitosterol Soapberry Extract Not identifed Soapberry Extract Soapwort Extract 84775-97-3 Saponaria Extract Soy Extract 84776-91-0 Soy Germ Spearmint Oil 8008-79-5 Spearmint Oil Spermaceti Not identified ** Spirea Extract Not identified Spirea Extract Sponge Cucumber Gourd (Loofah) Extract Not identified ** Squalene 111-01-3 Squalane Stevia Extract Not identified ** Strawberry Extract 90131-36-5 Strawberry Extract Sunflower Seedcake Not identified ** Sunflower Seed Oil 8001-21-6 Sunflower Seed Oil Sweet Clover Extract 84082-81-5 Sweet Clover Extract 90147-36-7 Swertia Herb Extract 97766-44-4 Swertia Extract Tea Extract 84650-60-2 Chinese Tea Extract Tea Extract (2) 84650-60-2 Chinese Tea Extract Thyme Extract 84929-51-1 Thyme Extract Thyme Oil 8007-46-3 Thyme Oil Thymol 89-83-9 Thymol Tiliaceae Extract 90063-53-9 Basswood Extract

INCI Japanese name CAS Number adopted name

Tomato Extract 90131-63-8 Tomato Extract Tormentilla Root Extract 85085-66-1; ** 90083-09-3 Tragacanth 9000-65-1 Tragacanth Gum Tumeric Extract Not identified Tumeric Extract Turpentine Oil 8052-14-0 Turpentine Walnut Shell Powder (1) Not identified Walnut Shell Powder Watercress Extract 84775-70-2 Watercress Extract Water-soluble Arnica Extract 8057-65-6 Arnica Extract Water-soluble Coix Seed Extract Not identified ** Water-soluble Coltsfoot Extract 84625-50-3 Coltsfoot Extract Wheat Bran Powder Not identified ** Wheat Flour Not identified Wheat Flour Wheat Germ Extract 84012-44-2 Wheat Germ Extract Wheat Germ Oil 8006-95-9 Wheat Germ Oil Wheat Germ Powder Not identified ** Wheat Starch 9005-25-8 Wheat Starch White Nettle Extract 84012-23-7 White Nettle Extract White Nettle Extract 84012-23-7 White Nettle Extract Wild Rose Extract 84696-47-9 Rose Extract Wild Rose Oil Not identified ** Wild Thyme Extract 84776-98-7 Wild Thyme Extract Witch Hazel Distillate Not identified Witch Hazel Distillate Witch Hazel Extract 68916-39-2; Witch Hazel Extract 84696-19-5 Witch Hazel Granular Powder Not identified ** Xanthan Gum 11138-66-2 Xanthan Gum Yarrow Extract 84082-83-7 Yarrow Extract

* No official English name ** INCI adopted name to be assigned

6.5 INDIAN BOTANICALS

BABCHI Psoralea corylifolia Linn Family: Pepilionaceae Synonyms: Babchi seeds Part Used: Seed Habitat and Range Grows throughout India. Several species grow in the United States. Description It is an erect herb. Leaves petiolate, simple, circular, firm, covered with numerous black dots, hairs few. Flowers are dense, corolla yellow or bluish-purple. Fruit small subglobular, glabrous slightly compressed, pitted black, seed one smooth and uniform with straw-colored hard testa. The testa and tegmen are separable and the embryo consists of two elongated uniform cotyledons. Microchemical tests revealed the presence of ligin, alkaloids, tannin, and saponin in the seed coat; oil, starch, and protein in kernel; and amygdalin in the palisade cells of the seed coat. Properties Seeds are applied in the form of paste or ointment externally. The essential oil has a powerful effect against skin streptococci. Local applications of oleoresinous extract made from the seeds are beneficial in the treatment of cases of leucoderma of non-syphillic origin. Constituents Furanocoumarins, campesterol group, chalcones, and flavones. Essential, nonvolatile terpenoid oil, two coumarin compounds (psoralen and isopsoralen), sporalidin, corylifolean, isopsoralidin, etc.

BENDUC NUT Caeselpinia bonducella Family: Caesalpiniaceae Synonyms: Bonducella Nut, Kal-karanj Parts Used: Nuts, roots, bark and leaves Habitat and Range Found throughout parts of India, Burma, and Sri Lanka. Description Main leaf axis has stout, sharp recurved spines. Leaflets about 10 pairs, elliptic- oblong, hairy tip acute. Flowers yellow, perianth covered withspines, ovate or oblong and inflated. Seeds are hard, globular, shiny, and gray with thick testa. The root and its

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC 254 BHRINGARAJ powder do not show any fluorescence in UV light. However, an alkaline ethanolic extract gives green fluorescence in UV light. Properties Valuable for dispersing swellings, arresting hemorrhage, and for infectious diseases. The oil expressed from the seeds is used in cosmetic formulations; it is said to soften the skin and help remove pimples. Constituents Oil, starch, phytosterol; glycoside bonducin neutral saponin. Seeds also contain protein, aspartic acid, arginine, and citrulline. A diterpene (J-caeselpin) is also isolated from seed kernels and benducellin.

BHRINGARAJ Eclipta alba Hassk. Family: Asteraceae Synonyms: Bhringaraj, Maka Part Used: Roots and leaves Habitat and Range India. This plant is a common weed in rainy season and moist situations throughout India. Description An erect or prostate annual herb. Leaves opposite, sessile, oblong, lanceolate; flower head white, with flat receptacle cyprella narrowly oblong with ribbed pappus. The leaf has characteristic non-glandular trichomes on both surfaces. The stem is circular in outline with a ring of collateral endarch vascular bundles and central parenchymatous pith. The root has diarch primary xylen with normal and secondary growth. The endodermis is indistinct. Few layers of cork cells are present. Properties The herb is used as a tonic and deobstruent in hepatic and spleen enlargements and in skin diseases. A paste of herbs mixed with sesame oil is used for elephantiasis, and skin diseases. Constituents Contains large amount of resin and alkaloid ecliptine, reducing sugar, sterols, and sulfur- containing peptides.

COSTUS Saussurea Lappa Family: Asteraceae Synonyms: Kust, Kustha Parts Used: Roots Habitat and Range Northern India (Himalyas and Kashmir). Description It is a perennial herb 3 to 6 ft high. Leaves membranaceous, margin toothed, basal are large, with winged petiole, upper leaves smaller. Flowers about 2 cm long, bluish-purple, borne on convex flower heads, four flower heads clustered together at the top of stems. The hairs on

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC EMBLIC MYROBALAN 255 fruits about 1 to 7 cm long. Feathery, forming fluffy fruiting flower heads. The color of root is dirty gray to light yellow,but white internally. In old samples, the external surface is yellowish-brown and the internal surface is light brown. It has a pleasant characteristic aromatic odor. Properties The dried root powder is useful as a hair wash and an astringent stimulant. Its ointment is applied to wounds and severe ulcerations and is used for reducing tumors. Constituents Roots of Sanssurea Lappa contain an odorous principle composed of two liquid resins — an alkaloidal solid resin and a salt of valeric acid. The oil and root contains camphene, terpene alcohols, isodehydrocostus-lactone and isozaluzanin C.

EMBLIC MYROBALAN Emblica officinalis Gaertn Phyllanthus emblica L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Synonyms: Amla, phyllanthe emblic, gooseberries Part Used: Dried fruit or fresh ripe fruit Habitat and Range Found both in the wild and cultivated state in India. Description A medium tree. Leaves simple, stipulate, arranged densely on the branchlets, linear oblong or elliptic, slightly recurved, entire, apex subacute, mucronate. Flowers are small, unisexual, greenish-yellow. Stem bark is light brownish-gray. The fruit is subglobular, slightly broader than long, with small shallow conical depressions at either end. The surface of the fruit is smooth and marked with six-spaced divisions. Mature fruits have yellow mesocarp and yellowish-brown endocarp. The mesocarp is acidulous in fresh fruits and acidulous and astringent in dried fruits. Properties A fixed oil extracted from fruit is reported to have the property of promoting hair growth. Emblic myrobalan is used in many ayurvedic and cosmetic preparations.

Constituents Nicotinic acid and Vitamin C. Amla fruit is a rich natural source of Vitamin C.

HOLY BASIL Ocimum sanctum linn. Family: Lamiaceae Synonyms: Basilic, odorant, tulsi, krishna tulsi, sacred basil Part Used: Leaves, seeds, flowers, and root Habitat and Range Small herb found throughout India; also in Sri Lanka and Thailand. Description Ocimum sanctum is an annual herb. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic-oblong, margin serrate, hairy along the veins. Flowers small, in terminal raceme-like panicle. Each flower consists of, pubescent calyx, corolla 2-lipped, stamens 4 in 2-pairs, filament slender, exserted, the upper pair with a small appendage at base, style 2-lobed. Fruit contains 4 dry 1 seeded nutlets. Properties Holy Basil has been reported to have a very broad spectrum of activity, such as antistress, antiulcer, antihepatotoxic, antifungal, insecticidal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, antispasmodic, antihistaminic, antipyretic, CNS-depressant, antispermatogenic. Fresh leaves reportedly cure hemorrhage. Constituents The leaves contain highest percentage of essential oil, of which 70% is eugenol and its methyl ester. Other components of the oil are caryophyllene terpinene-4-ol, decyladehyde, A- & B- pinene, camphor, and carvarol. The leaves yield ursolic acid, apigenin, and luteolin.

INDIAN BEECH Pongamia glabra P. Pinnata Family: Fabaceae Synonyms: Karanja Parts Used: Seeds Habitat and Range India, Sri Lanka. Description Small flowering tree with shiny green leaves laden heavily with racemes of rose-colored flowers. Leaves pinnate, smooth and shining, subcoriaceous, 2 to 4 inches long, taste bitter, pod woody, ovate compressed, apex thick and blunt, point decurved, very short; it generally contains one perfect and one abor- tive seed of the shape and size of a broad bean, testa light-red, cotyledons very oily, bitter. Bark is tough

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC INDIAN FILBERT 257 with white granular fracture, taste bitter and somewhat aromatic, with a peculiar pungency. Starch and rhomboid crystals are observed under the microscope. The root bark is rusty- brown externally, yellow within. All parts of the plant when crushed yield yellow juice. Properties The seeds, leaves, and oil derived from seeds are used as remedies for skin diseases, rheumatism, and as an anthelmintic. A bath prepared from the leaves is used for relieving rheumatic pain, and the juice of root is used for cleansing of ulcers and sores. The oil is used to treat scabies, herpes, and other cutaneous diseases. Constituents The seed contains 27 to 36% of bitter fatty oil, called Pangamol or Hongay oil. The other active principles of oil have been identified as karanjin, pongamol, pongamin, kaemferol, sitosterol, pengaglabrone, 6-methoxyfuroflavone, neoglabrin and glabrosaponin. The bark contains alkaloids. Karanjin is the principle responsible for the curative properties of the oil.

INDIAN FILBERT Sapindus trifoliatus L. (S. Emarginatus, S. Mokarossi) Family: Sapindaceae Synonyms: Soapnut, Ritha Part Used: Fruit Habitat and Range South India and cultivated in Bengal. Description The fruit grows in clusters on large tree. Berries are soft and yellowish- green in color when ripe; singly, each berry is the size of a cherry. When dry, the berries are the color of a raisin, the skin is shriveled, the pulp translucent. The inner shell enclosing the seed is thin, tough, and translucent, except at the scar, where it is woody. The seed is black, smooth, the size of large a pea; the testa is double, the outer very thick and hard, the inner membranaceous, the kernel yellowish- Sapindus soap nuts green oily; cotyledons unequal, thick, firm and fleshy, spirally incurvate. Radicle at the base of the seed, pointing to lower and inner angle. The pulp of the fruit has a fruity smell and its taste is sweet at first, then bitter. Properties Used by the Indians from earliest ages as a detergent, the leaves are used in a bath for painful joints; the roots are used for relieving gout and rheumatism. Constituents Saponins, glucose, pectin, and butyric acid. .

Sapindus (with berries) soap nuts

INDIAN MADDER Rubia cordifolia Family: Rubiaceae Synonyms: Manjista, Garance Parts Used: Roots Habitat and Range India. Description A climbing plant. Leaves heart shaped, flowers small yellow in color, scaly, fruit long, round violet colored and seeds light black. Root consists of short stock, from which numerous cylindrical roots diverge. These are covered by thin brownish fiber that peels off showing a red-brown bark marked by longitudinal furrows. The taste is sweetish at first, then acrid and bitter. Properties The roots are astringent, alterative, deobstruent, and tonic. A paste made of the roots with honey is applied over swellings, inflammations, skin diseases such as ulcers, leucoderma, freckles, and discoloration of skin. It also has anodyne properties. Constituents Roots contain resins, coloring matter, gum, and sugar. Coloring matter consists of a red crystalline principle purpurin and yellow principle glucoside manjistin, garancin, alizarin, and xanthine.

INDIAN NARD Nardostachy jatamansi DC Family: Valerianaceae Synonyms: Muskroot, Spikenard Part Used: Rhizomes and roots

Habitat and Range The plant is found in Alpine, Himalaya (11,000 to 15,000 ft) extending eastward from Kumaon to Sikkim, Bhutan, and Nepal. Description The plant bears a stem more or less pubsecent upward and often glabrous below. Rhizomes long, woody covered with fibers from the petioles of withered leaves. Leaves usually in pairs sessile, oblong or ovate. Flower heads usually with pubsecent bract. Corolla 5-lobed, internal color is reddish-brown and odor is highly aromatic. A transverse section of rhizome shows a brown bark and porous wood. The bark consists of two to eight layers of cork cells. These layers occurs in the outer cortex. The secondary cortex is characterized by the presence of oleoresin cells. The wood is characterized by the presence of numerous vessels scattered uniformly. Tracheids and few fibers. Vessels with scalariform and spiral thickening. Properties Roots are used in the preparation of a medicinal oil and in perfumery. It is a good substitute for valerian. Its infusion is employed in the treatment of spasmodic hysterical affections, mainly in palpitation of heart, nervous headache, and flatulence. Constituents The rhizomes and roots contain up to 0.5% essential oil, resin, sugar, starch, and bitter extractive matter. A ketonic principle called jatamansone has been isolated from rhizome, which also contains sesquiterpenes. Roots contain valeranone, valeranal, nardol, calarenol, nardostechone, n-hexacosanyl arachidate, n-hexaconsanol, n-hexacosanyl isovalerate, B-sitosterol.

INDIAN SENNA Cassia Angustifolia vahl Family: Caesalpiniaceae Synonyms: Tinnevelly Senna, Senna Parts Used: Leaves and pods Habitat and Range India. Description An herbaceous plant. Leaves are paripinnate and leaflets glabrous and yellowish-green. Flowers in racemes. Pods broadly oblong, slightly curved, valves papery smooth, greenish-brown to dark brown in color, and contain obvate, dark brown, seeds. Epider- mal hairs are few. Stomata are paracytic (Rubiaceous type). Properties A plaster made by mixing powdered leaves with vinegar is recommended in skin affections, and combined with Henna, is used to dye the hair black. The paste is also useful Senna pods (Tinn) for removing pimples. Senna is also a safe purgative.

Constituents Senna contains about 1.3 to 1.5% anthraquinone derivates, which are present in both the free and combined state. These glucosides have been termed Sennoside A, Sennoside B, Sennoside C, and Sennoside D. There are also other more pharmacologically active glucosides, such as aloe-emodin dianthrone-digly- coside. Two naphthalene glycosides isolated from Senna leaves and pods are 6-hydroxy musizin glucoside and tinnevellin glucoside; the former is found in Alexandrian Senna and later in Indian Senna. Besides these glycosides, Senna also contains yellow flavanol coloring matter kaempferol, its glucoside kaempferin, isorhamnetin, sterol, muscilage, calcium oxolate, and resin.

K AVAC H Mucuna pruriens (stickm) DC Family: Papilionaceae Synonyms: Cow-itch plant, Cowhage Parts Used: Seed, roots, and legume Habitat and Range India, Sri lanka, and Burma. Description A climbing green shrub, leaves trifoliolate, flowers axillary, pendulous racemose, purple, pods curved, ribbed, turgid, densely covered with persistent pale brown or gray bristles, seeds black. A transverse section of root shows central porous wood that forms a major part of the root and an outer thin bark. The cork is narrow and light black in color with patches of rhitidoma. The seed coat is hard, thick, and glossy. The embryo fills the seed and consists of two large fleshy cotyledons. The cotyledons contain oval-shaped starch grains. Tannin, resin, anthraquinone, fat, oil, and saponins are present. Properties An ointment prepared from the root is applied for elephantiasis. The seeds are astringent and tonic; they possess slight insecticidal activity. Leaves of the plant are applied to ulcers. The hairs were formerly used as vermifuge to expel ascarides. An infusion can be applied externally as a local stimulant and mild vesicant. It is useful in Parkinson’s disease. Constituents Mucuna Pruriens is reported to be good natural source of 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylalanine (L-DOPA). It also contains a few amino acids. Seed contains alkaloids such as mucunine, mucunadine, prurienine, prurieninine, and choline. The seed oil contains stearic, palmitic, myristic, arachidic, oleic, and linoleic acids, and a sterol.

NEEM Azadirachta indica (Melia azadirachta) Family: Meliaceae Synonyms: Persian Lilac Part Used: Bark, seeds, and leaves Habitat and Range A large evergreen glabrous tree found all over India and tropical Africa. Description Leaves alternate, exstipulate, imparipim- nate, leaflets 9 to 15 in. long, subopposite lanceolate serrate with acute acuminate apex. The trunk and older branches are covered with moderately thick, brown rough bark. The tender parts are glabrous with a thick cuticle. The official part consists almost exclusively of secondary phloem Neem (leaves) showing alternating zones of soft and hard bast. Properties Useful in eye diseases, intermittent fevers, as well as persistent low fever. Oil is useful in leprosy, scrofulas, skin diseases, ulcers, and wounds. The bark has a reputation for being tonic, and the leaves and oil from the seeds are recommended as anthelmintic, antiseptic, and antiparasitic. Dried leaves and oil from seeds have long been used as an insecticidal due to azadirachtin. Constituents Terpenoids, diterpenes and more than 50 highly oxidized tetraner-triterpenoids like Neem (whole plant) azadirachtin, nimbolide, nimbidinic acid, azadirone, and nimbin.

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE Lythrum salicaria L. Family: Lythraceae Synonyms: Spiked Loosestrife, Sage Willow, Purple Willow-herb, Milk Willow-herb Part Used: Aerial portions like flowers, leaves, and stems Habitat and Range Europe, Asia, Africa, and any water-retentive land. Description The Purple Loosestrife is a herbaceous perennial plant found in damp locations. It has a creeping root stock. The quandrangular stem bears opposite decussate lanceolate leaves. The purplish-red or pink flowers (6 sepals, 6 petals, 2 u 6 stamens, and 2 carpels) are grouped in elongated terminal or lateral spikes. It has a somewhat astringent taste and no odor. Properties Astringent leaves tighten skin, counter wrinkles, and add sheen to blond hairs. It is used as an eyewash for ophthalmia, sore eyes, and brightens eyes and reduces puffiness. It shrinks blood capillaries, reducing over-reddened skin and curbing nosebleeds. The flowering plant is intestinal disinfectant for treating diarrhea and food poisoning. It acts as an antibiotic, sore throat gargle, and is given for fever and liver problems, to cleanse sores, and to stop bleeding wounds. It is used for sores, ulcers, and various skin diseases. It is effective as a local wash or douche for leucorrhea. The Purple Loosestrife flowering top can be used to treat the subjective symptoms and venous insufficiency and symptoms of piles.

Constituents Anthocyanins, flavone-c-glucosides such as orientin, vitexin. It also contains polyphenolic tannins, pectin, essential oils.

RED SANDAL Pterocarpus Santalinus Family: Fabaceae Synonyms: Santal rouge, Santalinus, Raktachandan Part Used: Wood Habitat and Range Southern India.

Description The wood sinks in water. Bark is blackish-brown. When injured, it exudes red juice; wood is dark red, externally hard, when rubbed against a hard surface it gives red-colored aromatic pasty exudate. Leaves alternate leaflets 5 to 10 cm long, flowers yellowish, on a recemose inflorescence. Properties The wood of the tree is astringent and tonic. Its decoction is given in chronic dysentery, its powder is given with milk for bleeding piles, the wood is administered in bilious disorders, skin diseases, and as a diaphoretic. Constituents Two red pigments have been isolated: Santalin A and Santalin B. It also contains sesquiterpenes (isopterocarpolone, ptercarptriol, pterocarpol, cryptomeridiol) and triterpenes, (acetyl oleanolic aldehyde, pterostilbine), and pterocarpin.

SIKEKAI Acacia Concinna, DC Family: Fabaceae Synonyms: Rassaul, Sige Part Used: Pods Habitat and Range India, Burma. Description The Sikekai is a large tree. Sikakai is the name given by Tamils to a large flat pod or legume containing separate, small, oval, dark-colored seeds. Pods are strap-shaped, straight, with broad sutures, narrowed to a short stalk, depressed between the seeds. Properties The leaves are used as an acid ingredient in food instead of tamarind, and the bark is used in tanning. Traditionally, Indians boil pod powder in water and decoction is used for washing hair. The pods, ground up and formed into an ointment, make a good application in skin disease. Constituents Saponins, alkaloids, malic acid, gum coloring matter, tannin, resins. Saponins isolated from seeds are mixtures of acacinin A, acacinin B, and concinnin. Acacinin A comprises acacie acid and carbohydrate moeities of glucose, arabinose, xylose, fructose and rhamnose.

TEAK TREE Tectona grandis Family: Verbenaceae Synonyms: Sagwan, Sag Parts Used: Wood, fruit, tar oil, and seed

Habitat and Range India, Burma. Description It is a huge tree, bark ash colored, and scaly branches numerous, spreading, young shoots are 4-sided, sides channelled. The wood has a characteristic aromatic odor. The tar obtained from it is black and opaque when properly made, but when prepared from partly dried wood, it is mixed with sap and forms a grayish-brown emulsion. The seeds are small and oily, giving a bland, fatty oil, free from any peculiar odor. Properties Externally, a plaster of the powdered wood is recommended in bilious headache and for inflammatory swellings. Internally, it is beneficial for dyspepsia. The charred wood in the form of a paste with poppy juice is applied to swellings of the eyelids and is thought to strengthen the sight. The bark is astringent. The oil is used for hair growth. Constituents Resins and an essential oil. Nut contains fixed oils. Heartwood contains anthraquinone-2- carboxylic acid and anthraquinone-2-carboxaldehyde, tectol, and dehydrotectol.

WHITE LEADWORT Plumbago zeylanica Family: Plumbaginaceae Synonyms: Chitraka, chitra Part Used: The roots Habitat and Range India. Description A perennial shrub with rambling branches. Leaves ovate with short amplexicaule petiole with a dilated base. Spikes branched, the rachis gladular. Flowers bisexual, calyx persistent, tubular; 5 ribbed, corolla tube, slender. Base and style glabrous. Capsule included in persistent calyx, opening transversely near the base. The root is light yellow when fresh and reddish-brown when dry. Internal color is brown. Fracture short, taste acrid and biting.

Properties Alterative, gastric stimulant, and appetite stimulant. It has specific action on the uterus and is an abortifacient. The powder and root heated with some bland oil is used as a rubefacient application in rheumatism. It has also been employed in para- lytic affections, as in enlarged glands. It is also effective in some cases of leucodermia and other skin diseases. A tincture of the root is employed as an antiperiodic. Constituents Roots of Plumbago zeylenica contain an acrid crystalline principle called plumbagin. Roots also contain color pigments like 3-chloroplumbagin, 3,3-biplumbagin, binaphthoquinone and some other pigments, Iso-zeylinone, zeylinone, elliptinone, and droserone.

WINTER CHERRY Withania Samuifera Family: Solanaceae Synonyms: Ashwagandha Part Used: Roots and leaves Habitat and Range The plant is distributed throughout the drier regions of India, especially in wastelands ascending to an altitude of 5500 ft in the Himalayas. It is also cultivated. Description A small or middle-sized shrub, erect, grayish or hoary, branching perennial. Stem and branches covered with minute stellate hairs. One or more fairly long tuberous roots and short stem. It is in flower all year long. Leaves simple, ovate hair-like branches, petiolate and alternate. It bears small, greenish or yellow flowers, borne to gather in short exillary clusters. Fruits 6 mm in diameter, globose, smooth, and enclosed in the inflated calyx. The dried root is of uniform appearance, plump, smooth, tapering, and of a light yellowish-brown color externally, white internally, brittle, fracture short, and starchy. The root is seldom branched. Properties Roots and leaves of Withania Somnifera are used as a hypnotic in alcoholism and emphyse- matous dyspnea. Leaves are used as an anthelmintic and as an application to carbuncles. Roots are used as an application in distinate ulcers and rheumatic swelling. It is given in doses of 2 g in emaciation of children, senile debility, rheumatism, in all cases of general debility nervous exhaustion, brain lag, loss of memory, loss of muscular energy, and sper- matorrhoea. It infuses fresh energy and vigor in a system worn out by giving to any consti- tutional disease like syphilis or rheumatic fever. Powdered root is very useful for impotence or seminal debility. As a nutrient and health restorative to the pregnant and old people, a decoction of the root is recommended for scrofulous and other glandular swelling. Fresh green root in the form of paste is applied to the affected parts. For improving sight, a mixture of W. Somnifera, Licorice powder, and juice of embellic mycobalan is recommended. It has also been reported to be a one of proven adaptogenic drug used in many Ayurvedic preparations. Constituents It contains alkaloids, and extraction with 45% alcohol yields highest percentage of alkaloids. Isolation of nicotine, somniferine, somniferinine, withanine, withananine, and pseudowith-

anine has been reported. In addition to alkaloids, the plant also contains steroidal lactones such as withaferin A and withanolide. Roots also contain tropine, pseudotropine, choline, and cuscohygrine. Leaf contains withanone and berries have amino acids.

BOTANICAL CROSS-REFERENCE TABLE 269

6.6 BOTANICAL CROSS-REFERENCE TABLE

The following list of botanicals is to be used as a cross-reference. These botanical names are useful when researching older books on botanicals as these names were commonly used prior to 1938. Botanical origin Synonym

Abies balsamea Balsam fir Abies canadensis Hemlock bark Absinthium Wormwood Acacia Catechu Catechu Acer negundo Ash Maple Achillea millefolium Yarrow Aconitum Napellus Aconite Acorus Calamus Calamus Aceta alba White Cohosh Acetea racemosa Black Cohosh Acetea rubra Red Cohosh Adiantum pedatum Maiden-hair Aegle Marmelos Bael fruit Aesculus glabra Buckeye Aesculus Hippocastanum Horse-chestnut Agaricus albus White Agaric Agathotes Chirayta Chirata Agrimonia Eupatoria Agrimony Ailantus glandulosa Ailantus Aletris farinosa Unicorn root Alkanna tinctoria Alkanet Allium sativum Garlic Allspice Pimento Alnus rubra Tag Alder Aloe Socotrina Aloes Alpina galanga Galangal Alstonia scholaris Dita Bark Althea officinalis Marshmallow Althea rosea Hollyhock Ambrosia artemisiaefolia Ragweed American Aspen White Poplar Bark American Blue Vervain Vervain American Centaury Centaury American Dandelion Chicory American Gentian Blue Gentian American Greek Valerian Abscess Root American Valerian Ladies Slipper Ampelopsis Quinquefolia American Ivy Amygdalus persica Peach Leaves Anacyclus Pyrethrum Pellitory

Botanical origin Synonym

Anamirta cocculus Cocculus Indicus Anemone Pratensis Pulsatilla Anemone Pulsatilla Pulsatilla Anethum graveolens Dill Anthemis cotula May-weed Anthemis nobilis Chamomile (Roman) Apium graveolens Celery Seed Aplectrum hyemale Adam and Eve Apocynum, U.S. Black Indian Hemp Apocynum androsaemifolium Bitter-root Apocynum cannabinum Black Indian Hemp Aralia hispida Dwarf Elder Aralia nudicaulis American Sarsaparilla Aralia racemosa Spikenard Archangelica atropurpurea Angelica Arctium Lappa Burdock Arctostaphylos glauca Manzanita Arctostaphylos Uva ursi Uva ursi Areca Caechu Areca nut Arisaema triphyllum Indian Turnip Aristolochia Serpentaria Serpentaria Armoracia Horse-radish Arnica montana Arnica Artanthe elongata Matico Artemisia abrotanum Southernwood Artemisia absinthium Wormwood Artemisia maritima Levant Wormseed Artemisia vulgaris Mugwort Arum triphyllum Indian Turnip Asarum canadense Canada Snake Root Asclepias Cornuti Silkweed Asclepias incarnata White Indian Hemp Asclepias Syriaca Silkweed Asclepias tuberosa Pleurisy Root Ash, Black Black Ash Ash, White American White Ash Asimina triloba Papaw Seed Asparagus officinalis Asparagus Root Aspidosperma Quebracho Quebracho Aspidium Filix-mas Male Fern Atropa Belladonna Belladonna Aurantii Amari Cortex Orange Peel, Bitter Aurantii Dulcis Cortex Orange Peel, Sweet Ava Kava Kava-kava Avens Water Avens

Botanical origin Synonym

Balm Lemon Balm Balsamodendron Myrrha Myrrh Baptisia tinctoria Wild Indigo Barosma betulina Buchu Benzoin odoriferum Fever-bush Berberis vulgaris Barberry Betel nut Areca nut Betonica officinalis Wood Betony Betula Lenta Black Birch Black root Culver’s Root Black Snake-root Black Cohosh Boldoa fragrans Boldo Boletus laricis White Agaric Borago officinalis Borage Botrychium lunaroides Consumption Brake Boxwood Dogwood Brayera anthelmintica Kousso Bryonia alba White Bryony Butterfly weed Pleurisy Root Calamintha officinalis Calamint Calendula officinalis Calendula Calumba, U.S. Columbo Calycanthus floridus Florida Allspice Canada Fleabane Fleabane Canadian Hemp Black Indian Hemp Cancer root Beech Drops Canella alba Canella Capsella Bursa-pastoris Shepherd’s Purse Capsicum fastigiatum Capsicum Carduus benedictus Blessed thistle Carolina Allspice Florida allspice Carthamus tinctoria American Saffron Carum carvi Caraway Carya alba Shell-bark Hickory Caryophyllus aromaticus Cloves Cassia acutifolia Senna Castanea vesca Chestnut Leaves Cataria Catnep Caulophyllum thalictroides Blue Cohosh Ceyenne pepper Capsicum Ceanothus americanus Jersey Tea Celastrus scandens False Bittersweet Centaurea benedicta Blessed Thistle Cephaelis Ipecacuanha Ipeca Cephalanthus occidentalis Button-bush

Botanical origin Synonym

Cerasus serotina Cherry Bark Cercis canadensis Judas-tree Cereus Grandiflora Cactus Grandiflorus Chamaelarium lutea False Unicorn Chelidonium majus Garden Celandine Chelone glabra Balmony Chenopodium anthelminticum American Wormseed Chenopodium Botrys Jerusalem Oak Chicorium Intybus Chicory Chimaphilla umbellata Pipsissewa Chionanthus virginica Fringe-tree Bark Chittem bark Cascara Sagrada Chondodendron tomentosum Pareira Brava Clcuta maculata Water Hemlock Cimicifuga racemosa Black Cohosh Cinnamomum cassia Cassia Cinchona, yellow Cinchona, calisaya Cinchona, Ioxa Cinchona, pale Cinchona officinalis Cinchona, pale Cinchona succirubra Cinchona, red Cirsium arvense Canada Thistle Citrullus Colocynthis Colocynth Citrus Aurantium Orange peel, sweet Citrus Limonum Lemon Peel Citrus vulgaris Orange peel, bitter Claviceps purpurea Ergot Cocculus palmatus Columbo Cochlearia armoracia Horse-radish Cochlearia officinalis Scruvy Grass Coffea Arbica Coffee Cohosh, black Black Cohosh Cohosh, blue Blue Cohosh Cohosh, red Red Cohosh Colchicum autumnale Colchicum Collinsonia canadensis Stone Root Comptonia asplenifolia Sweet Fern Conium maculatum Conium Convallaria majalis Lily of the Valley Coptis triloba Gold-thread Corallorhiza odontorrhiza Crawley Root Coriandrum sativum Coriander seed Corn smut Ustilago Maydis Cornus circinata Green Osier Bark Cornus florida Dogwood Cornus sericea Swamp Dogwood

Botanical origin Synonym

Corydalis formosa Turkey-corn Cotyledon Umbilicus Navelwort Croton Eluteria Cascarilla Cubeba officinalis Cubeb Cucurbita Pepo Watermelon Seed Cumila mariana Dittany Cuminum Cyminum Cumin Curcuma longa Turmeric Curcuma Zedoara Zedoary Cynoglossum officinale Hounds-tongue Cypripedium pubescens Ladies-slipper Cysticus Scoparius Broom-tops Dandelion, American Chicory Daphne mezereum Mezereum Bark Datura Stramonium Stramonium Daucus Carota Wild Carrot Deadly nightshade Belladonna Delphinium consolida Larkspur Seed Delphinium staphisagria Stavesacre Seed Dicentra canadensis Turkey Corn Digitalis purpurea Disitalis Dioscorea villosa Wild Yam Diospyros virginiana Persimmon bark Dipteryx odorata Tonka Bean Dog grass Couch grass Dogsbane Bitter Root Dracontium foetidum Skunk cabbage Drimys Winteri Winter’s bark Drosera rotundifolia Sundew Dulcamara, U.S. Bittersweet Elephantopus tomentosus Elephant’s foot Electeria cardamomum Cardamom Epigea repens Gravel Plant Epilobium angustifolium Willow herb Epiphegas virginiana Beech Drops Erecthites hieracifolia Fireweed Erigeron canadensis Fleabane Eriodyction californicum Yerba santa Eriodyction glutinosum Yerba santa Erynglum aquaticum Water Eryngo Erthyrophleum judicale Sassy Bark Euryangium sumbul Musk Root Erythreae Centaurium European Centaury Erythronium americanum Adder’s-tongue Erythroxylon coca Coca Leaves

Botanical origin Synonym

Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus Eugenia caryophyllata Cloves Eugenia pimenta Pimento Euonymus atropurpureus Wahoo Eupatorium perfoliatum Boneset Eupatorium purpureum Queen of the Meadow Euphorbia carroliata Large Flowering Spurge Euphrasia officinale Eyebright Fagus ferruginea Beech Bark Fever tree Eucalyptus Foreign Indian Hemp Cannabia Indica Foxglove Digitalis Fragaria vesca Strawberry Franciscea uniflora Manaca Frangula, U.S. Buckthorn Bark Frankenia grandifolia Yerba reuma Frasera Walteri American Columbo Fraxinus americanus American White Ash Bark Fraxinus sambucifolia Black Ash Bark Fucus vesiculosus Bladder Wrack Fumaria officinalis Fumitory Galipea officinalis Angustura Galium aparine Cleavers Galium verum Ladies Bed-Straw Garcinia mangostana Mango fruit Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen Gelsemium sempervirens Gelsemium Genista tinctoria Dryers’ Broom Gentiana Catesbei Blue Gentian Gentiana lutea Gentian Gentiana ochroleuca Sampson Snakeroot Gentiana puberula Blue Gentian Gentiana quinqueflora Five-flowered Gentian Geranium maculatum Cranesbill Genum rivale Water Avens Gillenia trifoliata Indian Physic Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice Gnaphalium polycephalum Life Everlasting Gonolobus condurango Condurango Goodyera pubescens Net Leaf Plantain Gossypium herbaceum Cotton Root Bark Gossypii radicis cortex Cotton Root Bark Gouania domingensis Chewstick Grantum, U. S. Pomgranate Greek Valerian Abscess Root

Botanical origin Synonym

Grindelia, U. S. Grindelia Robusta Guaicum officinale Guaiac Wood Guaici ligni Guaiac Wood Haematoxylon Campechianum Logwood Hamamelis virginica Witch Hazel Heaven tree Allantus glandulosa Hedeoma pulegoides Pennyroyal Helenium autumnale Sneezeweed Helianthus annuus Sunflower Seed Helianthemum canadense Frostwort Helebore, American Veratrum Viride Hellebore, Black Black Hellebore Hellebore, False Adonis vernalis Helleborus niger Black Hellebore Helonias dioica False Unicorn Hemp, White Indian White Indian hemp Hemp, Black Indian Black Indian hemp Hemp, Canadian Black Indian hemp Hemp, Foreign Indian Cannabis Indica Hepatica triloba Liverwort Heracleum lanatum Masterwort Heuchera americana Alum root Hieracium vanosum Blood wort High cranberry Cramp Bark Hippocastanum Horse Chestnut Humulus lupulus Hop Hydrangea aborescens Hydrangea Hydrastis canadensis Golden Seal Hyoscyamus niger Henbane Hypericum perforatum Johnswort Hyssopus officinalis Hyssop Ilex paraguaensis Paraguy Tea Impatiens pallida Jewel Weed Indian Hemp, Foreign Cannabis Indica Inula helenium Elecampane Ipomea purga Jalap Ipomea pandurata Man Root Irdis, U. S. Blue Flag Iris florentina Orris Root Iris veriscolor Blue Flag Jacaranda procera Caroba leaves Jamestown weed Stramonium Jateorrhiza calumba Columbo Jeffersonia diphylla Twin Leaf Jimson weed Stramonium

Botanical origin Synonym

Juglans cinerea Butternut Juglans nigra Black Walnut Juniperus communis Juniper Berries Juniperus Sabina Savin Juniperus virginiana Red Cedar Kalmia angustifolium Sheep Laurel Krameria tomentosum Rhatany Krameria triandra Rhatany Lactuca virosa Lettuce Lappa officinalis Burdock Larix americana Tamarac Bark Laurus benzoin Fever Bush Leaf Cup Bearsfoot Ledum latifolia Labrador Tea Leonurus cardiaca Motherwort Leucanthemum vulgare Ox-eye Daisy Leptandra virginica Culver’s Root Liatris odoratissima Deer Tongue Liatris spicata Button Snake Root Liatris squarrosa Blazing Star Lignum vitae Guaiac Wood Ligusticum levisticum Lovage Ligustrum vulgare Privet Liquidamber styraciflua Sweet Gum Bark Lirodendron tulipifera Tulip Tree Bark Lobelia Cardinalis Cardinal Flower Lobelia inflata Lobelia Lobelia syphilitica Blue Cardinal Loxa bark Cinchona Pale Lycopersicum esculentum Tomato Lycopodium complanatum Ground Pine Lycopus europaeus Bitter Bugleweed Lycopus virginicus Bugleweed Magnolia acuminata Cucumber Tree Magnolia glauca Magnolia Bark Malva rotundifolia Low Mallow Marigold Calendula Marrubium vulgare Horehound Matricaria chamomilla German Chamomile May apple Mandrake Melia Azedarach Pride of China Melissa officinalis Lemon Balm Menispermum canadense Yellow Parilla Mentha piperita Peppermint Mentha virdis Spearmint

Botanical origin Synonym

Menyanthes trifoliata Buckbean Mercurialis annua Mercury Weed Micromeria Douglassii Yerba buena Milfoil Yarrow Milkweed Silkweed Mitchella Repens Squaw Vine Mitella cordifolia Coolwort Monarda fistulosa Wild Bergamot Monarda didyma Oswego tea Monarda punctata Horsemint Monk’s Hood Aconite Monotropa uniflora Indian Pipe Mountain rush Ephedra antisyphilitica Myrcia acris Bay Laurel Myrica cerifera Bayberry Myrica gale Sweet Gale Myristica fragrans Nutmeg Nabalus albus Lion’s Foot Nepeta cataria Catnep Nepeta Glechoma Ground Ivy Nicotiana Tabacum Tobacco Night blooming cereus Cactus grandiflora Nuphar advena Yellow Pond Lily Nymphoea odorata White Pond Lily Oats Avena sativa Ocymum Basilicum Sweet Basil Oenanthe phellandrium Water Fennel Oenothera biennis Evening Primrose Onosmodium virginianum False Gromwell Ophelia chirata Chirata Origanum Marjorana Sweet Marjoram Osier, Green Green Osier Osier, Red Swamp Dogwood Osmorrhiza longistylis Sweet Cicely Osmunda regalis Buckhorn Oxydendron arboreum Sourwood Paeonia officinalis Peony Pale Bark Cinchona, pale Papaver Rhoeas Red Poppy Papaver somniferum Poppy Heads Patridgeberry Squaw Vine Paullinia sorbilis Guarana Penthorum sedoides Virginia Stonecrop Pepper, U. S. Black Pepper Peruvian bark Cinchona

Botanical origin Synonym

Petroselinum sativum Parsley Peumus boldus Boldo Leaves Phellandrium Water Fennel Seed Phorandendron flavescens Mistletoe Physostigma venenosum Calabar Bean Phytollacca decandra Poke Root Picraena excelsa Quassia Pilocarpus pennatifolia Jaborandi Pimpinella anisum Anise Seed Pimpinella saxifraga Saxifrage Pinus canadensis Hemlock Bark Pinus strobus White Pine Piper cubeba Cubeb Piper methysticum Kava-kava Piper nigrum Black Pepper Piscidia erythrina Jamaica Dogwood Plantago major Plantain Leaves Podophyllum peltatum Mandrake Poison Hemlock Conium Poison Ivy Poison Oak Polemonium reptans Abscess Root Polygala senega Senega Polygonum Bistorta Bistort Polygonum punctatum Water Pepper Polymnia uvedalia Bearsfoot Polypodium vulgare Polypody Polyporus fomentarius Spunk Polyporus officinalis White Agaric Polytrichum Juniperinum Hair Cap Moss Poppy capsules Poppy Heads Populus candicans Balm Gilead Buds Populus tremuloides White Poplar Bark Portulaca oleracea Purslane Potentilla canadensis Cinquefoil Potentilla tormentilla Tormentilla Princes pine Pipsissewa Prinos verticellatus Black Alder Prunella vulgaris Heal-all Prunus serotina Cherry Bark Prunus virginiana Cherry Bark Pterocarpus marsupium Kino Pterocaulon pycnostachium Indian Black Root Ptelea trifoliata Wafer-ash Pulmonaria officinalis Lungwort Punica granatum Pomegranate

Botanical origin Synonym

Purging agaric White Agaric Pycnanthemum montanum Mountain Mint Pyrethrum Parthenium Feverfew Pyrus malus Apple Tree Bark Queen’s Delight Stillingia Queen’s root Stillingia Quercus alba White Oak Bark Quercus infectoria Galls Quercus rubra Red Oak Bark Quercus tinctoria Black Oak Bark Quillaia bark Soap Tree Bark Quillaia saponaria Soap Tree Bark Red Bud Judas Tree Red clover blossoms Clover Tops Red Osier Swamp Dogwood Red Pepper Capsicum Rhamnus catharticus Buckthorn Berries Rhamnus Frangula Buckthorn Rhamnus Purshianus Cascara Sagrada Rheum officinale Rhubarb Rhododendron maximum Great Laurel Rhus glabrum Sumach Rhus toxicodendron Poison oak Ricinus communis Castor Oil Plant Robinia Pseudo-acacia Locust Rosa centifolia Pale Rose Rosa gallica Red Rose Rottlera tinctoria Kamala Rubus strigosus Raspberry Leaves Rubus villosus Blackberry Root Rumex acetosella Sheep Sorrel Rumex crispus Yellow Dock Ruta graveolens Rue Sabadilla Cevadilla Sabbatia angularis Centaury Sabbatia Elliotti Quinine Flower Sabina Savin Safflower American Saffron Saint Ignatius bean Ignatia Bean Salix alba White Willow Bark Salix nigra Black Willow Salvia officinalis Sage Salvia Sciarea Clarry Herb Sambucus canadensis Elder Flower Sambucus nigra European Elder

Botanical origin Synonym

Sanicula Europeae European Sanicle Sanicula marilandica Black Sanicle Sanguinaria canadensis Blood Root Santalum album Sandalwood Santonica, U.S. Levant Wormseed Saponaria officinalis Soapwort Sarothamnus scoparius Broom Tops Sarracenia flava Trumpet Plant Sarracenia purpurea Pitcher Plant Root Sassafras officinalis Sassafras Satureja hortensis Summer Savory Scilla maritima Squill Scoparius Broom Tops Scouring rush Equisetum Hyemale Scrophularia modosa Figwort Scutellaria lateriflora Scullcap Sea-wrack Bladder-wrack Senecio aureus Life Root Senecio gracilis Senecio Silphium laciniatum Rosinweed Simaba cedron Cedron Seed Simaruba excelsa Quassia Simaruba officinalis Simaruba Bark Solanum dulcamara Bittersweet Solidago odora Golden-rod Sorbus americana Mountain Ash Spicewood berries Fever-bush Berries Spigelia marilandica Pink root Spikenard comp Horehound Comp Spirea tomentosa Hardhack Stafftree bark False Bittersweet Staphisagria Stavesacre Statice caroliniana Marsh Rosemary Stigmata maidis Corn Silk Stellaria media Chickweed Sterculia acuminata Kola Nut Sticta pulmonaca Lung-moss Stillingia sylvatica Stillingia Strychnos ignatia Ignatia Bean Strychnos nux vomica Nux vomica Stylosanthes elatior Stylosanthes Sumbul Musk-root Sweet flag Calamus Symphytum officinale Comfrey Symplocarpus foetidus Skunk Cabbage

Botanical origin Synonym

Tanacetum valgare Tansy Taraxacum Dens-leonis Dandelion Teucrium scordium Water Germander Thea Chinensis Tea Thuja occidentialis Arbor Vitae Thymus vulgaris Thyme Tilia americana Basswood bark Tilia parviflora European Linden Tree of Heaven Ailantus glandulosa Trifolium pratense Clover tops Trifolium repens White clover Triosteum perfoliatum Fever-root Trillium erectum Beth-root Triticum repens Couch-grass Turnera aphrodisiaca Damiana Tussilago farfara Coltsfoot Urginea maritima Squill Urtica dioica Nettle-root Uvularia perfoliata Bellwort Valeriana officinalis Valerian Veratrum sabadilla Cedadilla Verbascum thapsus Mullein Verbena hastata Vervain Verbena urticifolia White Vervain Veronica officinalis Speedwell Viburnum, U. S. Black Haw Viburnumdentatum Arrow-wood Viburnum opulus Cramp-bark Viburnum prunifolium Black-Haw Viola tricolor Pansy Virginia creeper American Ivy Virginia snake root Serpentaria Viscum flavescens Mistletoe Wild Cherry Cherry Bark Wild Ginger Canadian Snake Root Xanthoxylum Fraxineum Prickly ash Yellow Jessamine Gelsemium Zea Mays Corn (Silk) Zingiber, U.S. Ginger Zingiberis officinalis Ginger

INDEX OF BOTANICALS283

6.7INDEX OF BOTANICALS by Scientific and Common Names

Common nameScientific name

Adders TongueErythronium americanumL. AgrimonyAgrimonia eupatoriaL. AlderAlnus glutinosaL. Gaertn AlfalfaMedicago sativaL. AloeAloe veraL. Althea RootSeeMarshmallow ApplePyrus malusL. Arbor Vitae (Oriental uses)Thuja orientalis Arbor VitaeThuja Occidentalis ArnicaArnica montanaL. ArtichokeCynara scolymusL. AsragalusSee Huang-Qi AvenaSee Oats BabchiPsoralea corylifolia Linn BalmMelissa officinalis Balm Of GileadPopulus candicans BarberryBerberis vulgarisL. BasilSee Holy Basil Ban Zhi LianScutellaria barbata D. Don Bay LaurelLaurus nobilis BearberryArtostaphylos uva-ursi Sprengel Bee PollenApis mellifera Benduc NutCaeselpinia bonducella BhringarajEclipta ala Hassk BilberryVaccinum myrtillusL. BirchBetula albaL. Black CohoshCimicifuga racemosa (L.) Black WalnutJuglans nigraL. BladderwrackFucus vesiculosusL. BletillaBletilla striata (Thunb)Reich B.F. Blueberry LeafSee Bilberry BorageBorago officinalis Borneo Camphor TreeDryobalanops aromatica BoxwoodBuxus sempervirens BurdockArctium lappaL. Butcher’s BroomRuscus aculeatusL. Cactus FlowersOptuntia,Ficus-indica L CalendulaCalendula officinalis L. CapsicumCapsicum annum/frutescens L. Carageenan, Irish MossChondrus crispus CarrotSeeDaucus carotaL. Cascara Bark Rhamnus purshiana DeCandolle

Common name Scientific name

CatnipNepeta catariaL. CentellaSee Gotu-Kola CentipedaCentipeda cunninghami A. Br. & Aschers. Chamomile FlowersMatricaria chamomilla/recutitaL. ChaparralLarrea divaricata Cav. (DC) CovilleLarrea tridentata Cherry Bark, WildPrunus Serotina EHRH Chickweed HerbStellaria mediaL. Villars Chinese Moxa WeedArtemisia capillaris Thunb ChlorellaChlorella vulgaris CinchonaSee Quin-Quina Clematis HerbClematis vitallaL. CloveSyzgium aromaticum Coleus RootColeus forskohlii (Willd.)Briq Coltsfoot LeavesTussilago farfaraL. Comfrey LeafSymphytum officinaleL. Comfrey RootSymphytum officinaleL. Cone FlowerSee Echinacea Common CattailTypha latifolia Coriander FruitCoriandrum sativumL. Corn FlowersCentaurea cyanusL. Corn SilkZea mays L. CostusSaussurea lappa CressSee Watercress Cowslip FlowersPrimula officinalisL. CucumberCucumis sativusL. Dandelion LeavesTaraxacum officinale Weber Dandelion RootTaraxacum officinale Weber Devil’s ClawHarpagophytum procumbens DC EchinaceaEchinacea angustifolia E. purpurea, spp. Elder FlowersSambucus nigraL. ElecampaneInula heleniumL. Emblic MyrobalanEmblica officinalis Gaertn Everlasting (Life Everlasting)Gnaphalium polycephalum EyebrightEuphrasia officinalisL. Fennel SeedFoeniculum vulgare Mill FenugreekTrigonella foenum graecum L. FigwortScrophularia nodosa L. ForskohliiSee Coleus Galium Aparine Galium aparine L. Garden Burnet Sanguisorba officinalis L. Garlic Allium sativum L. Gentian Gentiana lutea L. Geranium Geranium maculatum L. Ginger Zingiber officinale

Common name Scientific name

GinkgoGinkgo biloba L. Ginseng (oriental uses)Panax Ginseng GinsengPanax quinquefoliumL. Golden RodSolidago VirgaureaL. Golden SealHydrastis canadensisL. Gotu-KolaHydrocotyle asiatica. Centella asiaticaL. GrapefruitCitrus paradis, Mac Fad. Green TeaCamellia sinensisL. Han Lian CaoEclipta prostrata HawthornCrataegus oxyacanthaL. Henna (Indian)Lawsonia alba Henna (Neutral)Lawsonia inermis L. Holy BasilOcimum sanctum linn. HoneyApis mellifera HopsHumulus lupulusL. Horse ChestnutAesculus hippocastanumL. HorseradishAmoracia rusticana, Gaertn, et. Schert Horsetail GrassEquisetum arvenseL. Huang QiAstragalus membranceus (Fisch) Bge HyssopHyssopus officinalisL. Indian BeechPongamia glabra P. Pinnata Indian FilbertSapindus trifoliatusL. Indian MadderRubia cordifolia Indian NardNardostachy jatamansi DC Indian SennaCassia angustifolia vhl Ivy (Ground)Glechoma hederaceaL. Ivy(Common)Hedera helixL. JaborandiPilocarpus jaborandi Holmes Jasmine FlowersJasminum officinaleL. KavachMucuna pruriens (stickm) DC KelpMacrocystus pyriferae Ku ShenSophora flavescens Longan FruitEuphoria longan Lemon BalmSee Melissa Lemon GrassAndropogon citratum Lemon PeelCitrus limon (L.) Burman F. Licorice RootGlycyrrhiza glabraL. Linden FlowersTilia officinalis/Tilia cordata Mill. LovageLevisticum officinale Maiden Hair FernAdiantun capillusvenerisL. Malabar NutJusticia Adhatoda, Limm Malva FlowersMalva sylvestrisL. MarigoldCalendula officinalis L. Marshmallow RootAlthaea officinalisL. MelissaMelissa officinalisL.

Common name Scientific name

MillfoilSee Yarrow Milk ThistleSee Thistle Mimosa Acacia farnesiana Willd. Mistletoe Viscum album Mishmi Bitter Coptis shinensis Franch Mullein Verbascum thapsus L. Myrrh Commiphora molmol, Engler Myrtle Myrtus communis L. Nasturtium Nasturtium officinale R. Neem Azadirachta indica (Melia aradirachta) Nettles Urtica dioica L. Northern Ash Fraxinus bungeana Notoginseng Panax notoginseng Oats Avena sativa L. Olive Leaf Olea europoea L. Onion Allium cepa L. Orange Blossom Citrus aurantium Flores Orange Peel (Bitter) Citrus aurantium Orange Peel (Sweet) Citrus sinensis Pansy Viola tricolor L. Papaya Carica papaya L. Paper Mulberry Broussonetia kazinoki Siebold. and B. papyrifora, Vent. Tabl. Regn. Veget. or hydrids of both Parsley Petroselinum crispum, ssp. Peppermint Leaves Mentha piperita L. Periwinkle Vinca minor L. Pine Bark Pinus silvestris L. Plantain Plantago lanceolata Plantago major L. Propolis Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L. Purslane Portulaca oleracea Quillaia Quillaja Saponaria Molina Quince Cydonia oblonga Quin Quina Cinchona succirubra pavon Radish Raphanus sativus L. Red Clover Trifolium pratense L. Red Poppy Papaver rhoeas L. Red Raspberry Leaves Rubus idaeus L. Red Sandal Pterocarpus Santalinus Reishi Mushroom Ganoderma lucidum Rhatany Krameria triandra R. & P. Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum L. Rose Rosa centifolia

Rose Hips Rosa canina.L.

Common name Scientific name

RosemaryRosmarinus officinalisL. SageSalvia officinalis L. SanicleSanicula europaea SandalwoodSantalum album Saw Palmetto BerriesSerenoa serrulata Serenoa repens (Bartram) SeaweedSee Chapter 7 She Chuang ZiCnidium monnieri (L.) SikekaiAcacia Concinna, DC Slippery Elm BarkUlmus fulva Michaux Ulmus rubra Muhl. Snake GourdTrichosanthes kirilowii Soap WortSaponaria officinalis L. SouthernwoodArtemisia abrotanum L. Spirulina St. John’s WortHypericum perforatum L Strawberry LeavesFragaria vescaamericana Porter (G.) TansyTanacetum vulgareL. TeaSee Green Tea Tea Tree OilMelaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel Teak TreeTecona grandis TeaselDipsacus fullonum Thistle MilkSilybum marianum (L.) Gaertn Tiger ThistleCirsium japonicum DC TomatoLycopersion esculentum Lycopersion lycopersicum (L.) karsten TormentilPotentilla tormentillaPotentilla erectaL. Turmeric (Indian uses)Curcuma longa TurmericCucuma longa ValerianValeriana officinalis VervainVerbena hastata Verbena officinalisL. WalnutJuglans regiaL. Juglans nigraL. WatercressNasturtium officinale Wheat GrassTriticum vulgare White LeadwortPlumbago zeylanica White NettlesSee Nettles Wild Rose BerriesSee Rose Hips Wild Yam Doscorea villosa L. Willow Bark Salix alba L. Winter Cherry Withania Samnifera Witch Hazel Hamamelis virginiana L. Wood Betony Betonica officinalis L.

Common name Scientific name

WoodruffAsperula odorataL. WormwoodArtemisia absinthiumL. YamSee Wild Yam Yarrow Achillea millefolium L. Yellow Dock Rumex crispus L. Yellow Gentian Gentiana lutea L. Yerba Santa Eriodictyon californicum Yohimbe Pausinystalia yohimbe (K. Schum.) Perre Yucca Yucca baccata, Torr, Yucca brevifolia, Engelm

7.1 MARINE ALGAE Approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The sea holds an endless source of life. Approximately 85% of water is seawater, which contains sodium chloride and trace minerals. Seawater, mud baths, and various saltwater preparations have been used by the people all over the world. Many medical practitioners and folk healers recommend seawater for its various healing benefits. It is used for its moisturizing and remineralizing benefits to the skin. Some people have been known to drink small quantities of it to add trace minerals to their diet. There are companies marketing sea salt to the natural food stores to be added to food, bath, body rubs, etc. Some folk healers recommend bathing in seawater to help relieve the pain of arthritis and rheumatism. It is said that life started in the seas, and many researchers feel that the sea holds the secret to life itself. Seawater holds an abundant supply of vegetation and marine life. However, this Desk Reference will focus on marine plants (algae, phytoplanktons, sea grasses, weeds, etc). There are several phyla of marine flora (algae) to be discussed, including: 1. Phaeophyta (Benthic Brown Algae): Xanthophyll fucoxanthin. 2. Rhodophyta (Red Algae): Color comes from red pigments, Xanthophylls. 3. Chlorophyta (Green Algae): Predominantly found in fresh water and also in salt water. 4. Cyanophyta (Blue Green Algae): These contain chlorophyll and other pigments and are microscopic. 5. Chrysophyta (Golden Brown Algae): Predominantly found in fresh water, and sometimes in seawater. 6. Dinophyta (Pyrrophyta): These are usually found in the phytoplankton and are microscopic. 7. Xanthophyta, (ellowY Green ): Fresh water, high in carotenoids. 8. Cryptophyta — Contain green, blue, and red pigments. 9. Haptophyta — A relatively new division of what was formerly thought as chrysophyta. 10. Bacillariophyta (Diatoms): Contain silica cell walls. These cell walls are resistant to decay and form deep deposits of diatomaceous Earth in lake and sea beds. Sea plants are essential to the ecosystem. The collection of large quantities of some marine algae could upset this delicate balance of the ecosystem, as these plants are a breeding and nursery ground for invertebrates and fish, which in turn serve as food for other marine animals. Seaweeds can be used in hair preparations for their protein, mineral, and vitamin content. They are also used as thickeners in jams, ice cream, sauces, and have even been used to put a head on beer. Seaweeds contain an abundant supply of trace minerals, as well as vitamins, and sterols, and are a source of new natural phytochemicals. Research is going on to find new chemicals in seaweed for use in medicine, cosmetics, and also for the production of methane gas from kelp as a substitute for natural gas. The harvested kelp is placed in large vats, and certain types of bacteria are added to the vat. The bacteria consume the kelp and produce methane gas as a byproduct. A new antibiotic was isolated from Sargassum-type

289

Phytoplankton, u600 brown seaweed that appears to kill certain strains of bacteria that are resistant to penicillin. Kelp is also the main source for algin. Each ton of freshly harvested kelp will yield approximately 50 to 60 pounds of finished algin. Algin is used as a stabilizer in fruit drinks, marshmallows, and ice cream as a thickening agent. Why the interest in marine plants? They offer a whole new armamentorium for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic fields. They contain a vast source of natural phytochemicals, for example, terpenoids (sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, furanoterpenes, carotenoids, steroids), lipids, sulfur compounds, acetylenes, proteins, polyphenols, prostaglandins, and vitamins. These types of chemicals have been used as antibiotics, anthelmintics, anticoagulants, cardiac substances, growth substances, and herbicides. For example, Agar is an extract of certain marine algae, mainly from some gelidium species. Agar is a very mucilaginous carbohydrate. One of its oldest uses is as a medium in bacteriological work. For plating microorganisms, nutrients must be added to Agar as it is quite unique. First, it is resistant to microorganisms and, second, it does not melt until it reaches 100°C. This allows incubation at higher temperatures. Agar is also used as a suspending agent in bulk-type laxatives, emulsions, and incorporation into creams and lotions where it acts as a thickener, emulsion stabilizer, and imparts slip. Seaweeds are also much higher in protein than land vegetables. They are good sources of iodine and Vitamins A, B2, B12, and C. Seaweeds are rich in compounds pertinent to the cosmetic industry, such as ursolic acid derivates, fucose polymers, and polysaccharides. • Polygalactosides react with the proteins in the outer surface of the skin and hair. Ion–ion interactions form a protective moisturizing complex. • Fucose polymers are very hygroscopic and act as hydrating agents. • Ursolic acid and its derivates can form oil-resistent barriers on skin and hair, the same as they do in the waxy coating on apples, pears, cranberry, prunes, and other fruits. Sea algae are rich in non-essential and essential amino acids (e.g., proline, glycine, and lycine). Elastic fibers in skin are also rich in these amino acids. Therefore, seaweed can play

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC MARINE NATURAL PRODUCTS 291 an important role in cosmetics as a moisturizing agent, helping to maintain the skin’s elasticity by increasing its hydration. Ascophyllum nodosum A good source of minerals, including iodine, it contains alginic acid (a polysaccharide). Algin, which is a polysaccharide, is used as a suspending agent and a protective colloid. It is used for its lubricating and emollient properties in cosmetics, shampoos, creams, lotions, and ointments. Alaria esculenta

Alaria contains the following nutrients: Vitamins (E, C, B12, B6, B3, B, A), minerals (Zn, F, Cr, Co, Mn, I, Na, Fe, P, Mg, K, Ca), fat, protein, and carbohydrates. It is consumed by many natural food enthusiasts. It can be added to various cosmetic and hair care products for its nutritative value. Laminaria longicruris (L. digitata) This plant is rich in calcium, potassium, iodine, mannitol, and glutamic acid, and contains the same vitamin and mineral group as Alaria. It is often referred to as Atlantic Kelp and has a higher iodine content than Pacific Kelp. It also contains substituted phenols and polyphenols known for their antioxidative activity. L. digitata tested vs BHT using sunflower seed oil or methyl linoleate showed 2u the activity of BHT to induce oxidation but was not effective in reducing oxygen uptake. However, in combination with Vitamin E, a synergestic effect was exhibited. Palmaria palmata This sea plant is high in minerals, particularly fluoride, phosphorus, potassium, plus all minerals and vitamins in Alaria. Palmaria is also very tasty and is used in chowders, salads, etc. Porphyra umbilicalis

Porphyra is high in vitamins A, B, B2, B3, B6, B12, C (more than triple all the above seaweeds), plus it has almost double the protein of all the above algae, which suggests its use both in hair and skin treatment products. Sargassum fluitans (Gulf Weed) Sargassum weed is used in the treatment of goiters and lithiasis. It also has shown anticoagulant properties. It is a brown weed containing C12–C20 saturated fatty acids (arachidonic, oleic, palmitic, myristic, and lauric acids). It contains fucosterol as the major sterol and cholesterol as the minor sterol. It is said to contain a low-toxicity, broad- spectrum, antimicrobial agent. Sargassum contains fructose, galactose, and mannitol. Recent literature suggests that mannitol is useful as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiglaucomic. In addition, it has a high content of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc. There are traces of chloride, bromide, and iodide ions. Solimabi1 states that Sargassum species appear to have anti-tumor activity, both in vivo and in vitro. Eisenia bicyclis (Kjellman) Setchell Contains an anti-inflammatory, and was found to stabilize Sargassum lysosomal membranes in vitro, as determined by measure- ment of inhibition of a marker enzyme B-glucuronidase and is also a slight counter-irritant. This would suggest its use in sun products and after sun care for skin and scalp treatment

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC 292 BOTANICALS: A PHYTOCOSMETIC DESK REFERENCE cosmetics. Eisenia contains a complex polymer; in tests on lyosomal membrane stability in vitro, Eisenia compared favorably with that of phenylbutazone butazolidin, a well-known anti-inflammatory.2 The following algae were tested for the reduction of Herpes virus (HSV-1) plaque formation and reduction of influenza virus (WSN strain). Shown to have positive effects were: Laminaria digitata (Hudson) Lamouroux Fucus serratus L. Halidrys siliquosa L. Lyngbye Laminaria saccharina Lamouroux Chondrus crispus. Lyngb. Echinus esculentus L. (Edible Sea Urchin) Ascidia obliqua alder Ascidia mentula O. F. Muller Ceamium rubrum (Hudson) C. AgardH Fucus vesiculosus L. ( Bladderwrack) Bladderwrack has been used internally for obesity, rheumatism, and as a massage for cellulite. It is often called the anti-fat herb and is also used in sun and after-sun products. Recently anti-HIV-active polysaccharides and polyphenols were isolated from Fucus vesiculosus, a brown seaweed found growing off the coast of the Northern Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Baltic Sea. This was done during studies to isolate antiviral compounds from marine organisms. It was noted that the extract inhibited the activity of the human immuno- deficiency virus (HIV) reverse transcriptase (RT) enzyme, as well as HIV-induced syncytium formation.6 Fucus contains trace minerals, mainly iodine (0.02 to 0.1%), which is partially as the iodide and partially bound to protein or amino acids; diiodoty- Bladderwrack rosine plus iodine derivatives of thyronine; polysaccharides, alginic acid, plus a linear polymer with various sequences of: B-(1 o 4)-D- mannuronic and a-(1 o 4)-L-guluronic acid residues; fucans, (a-(1 o 2)-L-fucose-4-sulfate residues); polyphenols (phloroglucinols of high molecular weight >10,000); phlorotannins; sterols as free fucosterol; polar lipids, sulfated, sulfonate, or phosphate esters of glycosyl 3,4 diglycerides and sulfated C18–C30 aliphatic alcohols. Chlorella vulgaris (Chlorella) Chlorella is a green micro-alga. It is a single-cell protein, which means it is a self-sufficient, single-cell, and all life functions can take place within this one single cell. The Japanese consumption of Chlorella products is over $100 million per year. Chlorella grows in fresh water throughout the world. Chlorella contains over 60% protein, containing all the essential amino acids. It is very high in: Vitamin A activity 55,500 IU/100 g Beta-carotene 180.8 mg/100 g Chlorophyll a 1.469 mg/100 g Chlorophyll b 613 mg/100 g

Vitamin B12 125.9 mcg/100 g

Typical Analysis of Chlorella Vitamins and General analysis minerals

Moisture 3.6% Vitamin A activity 55,500 IU/100g Crude protein 60.5% E-carotene 180.8 mg Crude fat 11.0% Chlorophyll a 1.469 mg Carbohydrate 20.1% Chlorophyll b 613 mg Crude fiber 0.2% Thiamine 1.5 mg Crude ash 4.6% Riboflavin 4.8 mg Calorie 421 cal Vitamin B6 1.7 mg Vitamin B12 125.9 mcg Amino Acids Vitamin C 15.6 mg Lysine 3.46 w/w% Vitamin E less than 1 IU Histidine 1.29 w/w% Niacin 23.8 mg Arginine 3.64 w/w/% Pantothenic acid 1.3 mg Aspartic acid 5.20 w/w% Folic acid 26.9 mcg Threonine 2.70 w/w/% Biotin 191.6 mcg Serine 2.78 w/w% Para-aminobenzoic 0.6 mg acid Glutamic acid 6.29 w/w% Inositol 165 mg Proline 2.93 w/w% Calcium 205 mg Glycine 3.40 w/w% Phosphorus 959 mg Alanine 4.80 w/w% Iodine 0.6 mg Cystine 0.38 w/w% Magnesium 315 mg Valine 3.64 w/w% Iron 167 mg Methionine 1.45 w/w% Zinc 71 mg Isoleucine 2.63 w/w% Copper 0.08 mg Leucine 5.26 w/w% Tryosine 2.09 w/w% Fatty Acids Phenylalanine 3.08 w/w% Unsaturated 81.8% Ornithine 0.06 w/w% Saturated 18.2% Tryptophan 0.59 w/w%

Potter, B.A., et al., Chlorella, The Emerald Food, pp. 14-15.

Chlorella is a good source of chlorophyll. It contains 10 times more chlorophyll than spirulina and almost 30 times more than alfalfa. Chlorophyll has been used as a blood builder, as the chlorophyll molecule resembles that of hemin. The only difference is that the chlorophyll structure contains magnesium while the hemin structure contains iron. Chlorella can also help reduce the harmful effects of radiation. Tests performed by the U.S. Army showed that chlorophyll-rich foods may be effective in decreasing the effects of radiation. In a controlled study, it was found that a chlorophyll-rich diet doubled the life span of animals exposed to fatal doses of radiation. Chlorella also contains a growth factor. Dr. Fujimaki of the Peoples Scientific Research Center at Koganei in Tokyo discovered a physiologically activating substance that accelerates the growth and development of new cells in organisms in Chlorella, called the Chlorella Growth Factor. Spirulina Spirulina, a blue green algae (cyanophyta), is a trichome composed of a single spiral-shaped cell. Moreover, the cells actively move in a corkscrew fashion. It is found in both brackish and fresh water.

Spirulina is an excellent source of protein (approximately 55 to 70%), carbohydrates (15 to 25%), lipids (4 to 7%), and minerals (5 to 10%). Analysis of 10 grams dehydrated Spirulina gave: E-carotene 14 mg (Provitamin A)

Vitamin E (D-tocopherol 0.40) B1, B2, B3, B6, B12 2300 IU Folacin, Biotin, Pantothenic acid Chlorophyll 1100 mg Phycocyanin 1500 mg Carotenoids 37 mg G.L.A. 100 mg Linoleic acid 80 mg Enzyme activity (superoxide desmutase 22500 units) and minerals Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Na, K, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ge, Cr, Se In August of 1989, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) reported that the naturally occurring sulfolipid portions of the glycolipids found in blue green algae were active against the AIDS virus in test tube experiments. Spirulina contains approximately 200 mg of glycolipids and approximately 10 mg sulfolipids per 10 grams. Spirulina would work well in hair care and skin care products, as it is high in plant protein, minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, G.L.A., etc.

Spirulina, at u600

Chondrus crispus (Carageenan, Irish moss) This is another seaweed that is collected along the shores of New England and eastern Canada. This seaweed can also be used as a thickener and stabilizer. It has been used to treat and soothe sore throats. It was used during World War I on the throats of soldiers who had been gassed, as a soothing demulcent. An area where interesting research is going on is that of antimicrobial activity. The cosmetic industry continues to search for a natural or naturally derived antibacterial, bactericidal, bacteristatic, fungicidal or activity against yeast and mold. Many of the classes of algae discussed show antimicrobial activity, including phaeophyta, cyanophyta, and chlorophyta. Unfortunately, activity seems to be different for the same algae collected in different geographical areas. Thus, the search is only beginning.

7.2 BIOMEDICAL POTENTIALS OF MARINE NATURAL PRODUCTS With the current trend aimed at discovering newer antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti- cancer, or hopefully anti-HIV agents, scientists are now working hard on re-isolation of known compounds from marine macroorganisms such as algae, sponges, soft corals, and ascidians. It is even more noteworthy that over the past 10 years, considerable interest has developed in exploring the natural products chemistry and biomedical potential of marine microorganisms. Included in this category are all major forms of microbial life the Archea, the Bacteria, and the Eucarya (fungi and related organisms), which although poorly known, are common in marine environments. Bacteria represent a major resource in the world’s oceans, with large numbers (106 cells per ml) found in common seawater. The Archae are also common in “extreme” marine environments, such as those of elevated salinity, pressure, or temperature. Marine fungi represent a massive resource that remains largely unexplored. Related unicellular microorganisms, once considered “lower fungi” and now classified as distinct from the fungi, are major organisms in the world’s oceans. These microorganisms are quite abundant and culturable, but no chemical study has been reported. The growing interest in marine natural products is such that one out of every four original publications in the field of medicinal natural products deals with marine natural products.8 The results obtained are quite promising, the following being some examples: 1. From ascidians collected in the Northern Mariana and Marshal Islands, two new classes of heteroaromatic alkaloids — the didemnolines and the arnoamines — were discovered; and from a Gram-negative bacterium cultured from a piece of wood collected at Kailua Beach Park, Oahu, a series of new cyclic acyldepsipep- tides have been isolated.9 2. Identification and structure of new anti-HIV and anti-tumor secondary metabolites from a variety of microbial, plant, and marine organisms.10 3. Accelerating flow of structurally new cytotoxic and/or antineoplastic substances have been isolated from certain exceptionally promising marine animals. Illustrative of such anti-cancer drug candidates are the dolastatins, where dolastatin 102 is now in clinical trial.11 4. Significant compounds, having distinct anti-cancer properties, such as the curacins, melemeleones, penazetidines, and imidazole disulfides, were isolated from marine organisms.12 5. Isolation and structure elucidation of a number of very potent antibiotics and cytotoxins as bioactive metabolites produced by microorganisms from the oceans.13 6. Diverse and bioactive molecules as curacins A–D, antillatoxin, barbamide, kalki- toxin, microcolin C, and malyngamides J–L were isolated from cultured and field- collected marine blue green algae Lyngbya majuscula .14

Gorgonian

7. Cyanovirin-N, a unique anti-viral protein, has been isolated and identified from cultures of the cyanobacterium Nostoc ellipsosporum.15 8. Successful culture of marine microalgae such as dinoflagellate Amphidium sp., which produce anti-tumor compounds.16 9. Isolation of a number of novel secosteroids from marine invertebrates, including corals and sponges. One such group of steroids are the 9(11)-secosteroids from gorgonians of the genus Pseudopterogorgia.17 10. An extract of Lamellamorpha sp. (described as “Dream” sponge) was one of the most potent ever detected and yielded new representatives of the calyculins, the swinholides, and the theonellapeptolides.18 11. A series of B-carboline derivatives, the eudistomins, which display a variety of pharmacological activities, including potent antiviral, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities, have been isolated from the Floridan Tunicate Eudistoma olivaceum.19 12. Isolation and culture of over 3000 marine bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and true symbionts from sponges, tunicates, and gorgonians. The procedures are currently used for cost-effective and environmentally friendly manufacturing of Taxol from needles of the ornamental yew taxus media, and the marine anticancer agent bryostatin 1 from Bugula neritina.20

13. Isolation and characterization of adociavirin, a novel, potent HIV-1 inhibitory protein from the Sponge Adocia spp.21 14. Several new classes of compounds, including halichondramide swingolide and other marine compounds, were identified as potential prototypes for the development of new antimalarial agents.22 15. Many novel, cytotoxic natural products, including makaluvamines A, B, C, D, E, and F, makaluvone, Diamirone B, discorhabdin A, and veiutamine have been isolated from the Fijan sponge Zyzzya fulginosa.23 16. A novel bicyclic sesquiterpene has been isolated from the marine sponge Haliclona sp.24 17. Two new bis-oxazole macrolides, phorboxazole A and B, were isolated from the marine sponge, Phorbas sp. Both compounds exhibit exceedingly potent cytostatic activity against a variety of human solid tumor cell lines.25 18. Cyclomarin A, a cyclic peptide with anti-inflammatory activity, was isolated from a marine streptomyces sp.26 19. Production of the anti-cancer algal natural product Halomon in vitro.27 20. Biosynthetic investigation of the Bryostatins, which are macrocyclic lactones from the marine bryozoan Bugula neritina. They have shown remarkable antineoplastic, immunopotentiating, and anti-tumor promoting properties.28 21. A new class of Discorhabdin derivatives have been isolated from three New Zealand Latrunculia sponge sp. Extracts from these sponges were strongly cytotoxic against the P388 murine leukemia cell line.29 22. New antimycotics, latrunculin B and swinholide A, have been isolated from the Red Sea sponge Latrunculia magnifica.30 23. Okoadene and Mailidene, bioactive against several types of human tumor cell lines halogenated monoterpenes have been isolated from the red alga Portieria horne- marnii.31 24. Cytotoxic cembranoids have been isolated from the soft corals Sinularia giberosa and Sarcophyton trocheliophorum.32 25. Asperizine and Asperic acid are novel marine fungal natural products isolated from a culture of Aspergillus niger obtained from the sponge Hyrtios proteus.33 26. Isolation of Microcolin C, a new lipopeptide from the marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula . Microcolins were found to possess extremely potent immun- osuppressive activity.34 27. Isolation of Dysidiolide, a biologically active novel sester terpene-hydroxybuteno- lide from the Caribbean sponge Dysidea etheria. The compound was found to be a protein phosphatase inhibitor.35 28. Macrocyclic bromotyrosine tetramers (bastadins) have been isolated from the marine sponge Lanthella basta and found to be agonists of Ry1 R — the S R Ca2+ channel of skeletal muscle.36 29. Isolation of a novel imidazole compound that inhibits HIV protease effectively from a marine Verongia sp.37 30. Isolation of antifungal cyclic peptides microsclerodermins A and B from the marine sponge Microscleroderma herdmani.38 31. HIV-1 inhibitory proteinaceous substances have been isolated from Verongida Sponges.39 32. A variety of bioactive (11)-secosteroids have recently been isolated from marine corals (gorgonians and sponges). Some of these are defensive agents of the host organisms and others exhibit anti-inflammatory activity.40

REFERENCES

1. Solimabi, D., Ind. J. Mar. Sci., 6, 180, 1977. 2. J. Pharmaceut. Sci., 64, 1258, 1975. 3. Andersson, L., Lidgren, G., Bohlin, L., Magni, L., Ogren, S., and Afzelius, L., Studies of Swedish marine organisms. I. Screening of biological activity, Acta Pharm. Suecica, 20(6), 401-414, 1983. 4. Mabeau, S., Kloareg, B., and Joseleau, J.-P., Fractionation and analysis of fucans from brown algae, Phytochemistry, 29, 2441-2446, 1990. 5. McInnes, G.A., Ragan, M.A., Smith, D.G., and Walter, J.A., The high molecular weight phloroglucinols of the marine brown algae, Fucus Vesiculosus L. 1H and 13C Nuclear Magneti Resonance spectoscopy, Can. J. Chem., 63, 304-313, 1985. 6. J. Natural Prod., 56(4), 478-488, 1993. 7. Chlorella, The Emerald Food, Bewicke, Dhyana; Potter, Beverly A., Ph.D., et al., pp. 14-15. 8. Abstracts of papers presented at 37th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Pharmacog- nosy (ASP) University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), July 27-31, 1996. 9. Davidson, B.S., Schumacher, R., Plubrukarn, A., Harrigan, G., and Harrigan, B., Abstr. Papers presented at the 37th Annu. Meeting, A.S.P., UCSC, July 27-31, 1996, S 8. 10. McKee, T. C., ibid S 9. 11. Pettit, G. R., ibid S 14. 12. Crews, P., Gerwick, W. H., Schmitz, F. J., Slate, D. L., and Bair, K. W., ibid S 15. 13. Andersen, R.J., Gerard, J., Lloyd, R., Haden, P., de Silva, D., Coleman, J., Allen, T., and Kelly, M., ibid S 22. 14. Gerwick, W.H., ibid S 23. 15. Boyd, M., Gustafson, K., McMahon, J., Shoemaker, R., O’Keefe, B., Gulakowski, R., and Cardellina, J., ibid O 7. 16. Maranda, L., Hargraves, P.E., Zheng, N., Zhang, J., and Bauer, I., ibid O 10. 17. Kerr, R.G. and Rodriguez, L., ibid O 11. 18. Dumdei, E., Shangxiao, L., Blunt, J., and Munro, M., ibid O 25. 19. Xie, K. and Baker, B. J., ibid O 26. 20. Castor, T.P., Chikarmane, H., Fernandes, P., Ferrante, Al, Forenza, S.A., Hamel, J.F., Haygood, M., Hong, G.T., Hook, D., Janda, K., Javor, B., Lam, S., Mendola, D., O’Sullivan, J., Pomponi, S.A., and Thompson, J.E., ibid O 36. 21. O’Keefe, B.R., Erim, T., Beutler, J.A., Cardellina, J.H., Gulakowski, R.J., McMahon, J.B., and Boyd, M.R., ibid O 38. 22. Dunbar, D.C., El Sayed, K.A., Goins, D.K., Janus, S.A., and Hamann, M.T., ibid O 49. 23. Venables, D.A., Heath, J.E., Haughey, H.M., Barrows, L.R., Lassota, P., and Ireland, C.M., O 50. 24. Harrison, B. and Crews, P., ibid P 9. 25. Searle, P.A., Mokinski, T.F., Brzezinski, L.J., and Leahy, J.W., ibid P 19. 26. Carney, J.R. and Gould, S.J., ibid P 25. 27. Mendola, D., Sheehan, C.J., and Yavor, B.J., ibid P 26. 28. Lawry, J., Gush, K.A., and Kerr, R.G., ibid P 27. 29. Perry, N., McCombs, J., Copp, B., Rea, J., Lill, R., Major, D., Andrew, C., Fulton, K., Linton, M., Bringano, S., Blunt, J., and Munro, M., ibid P 28. 30. Wilkins, S.P., El-Sayed, R.A., Wright, M., Clark, A.M., and Hamann, M.T., ibid P 30. 31. Brielmann, H. and Scheuer, P.J., ibid P 31. 32. Duh, C.-Y. and Wang, S.-R., ibid P 36. 33. Varoglu, M. and Crews, P. ibid P 141. 34. Yoo, H.-D. and Gerwick, W.H., ibid P 145. 35. Gunasekera, S.P., McCarthy, P.J., and Kelly-Borges, M., ibid P 149. 36. Franklin, M.A. and Molinski, T.F., ibid P 150. 37. Chan, G.W., Freyer, A.J., Hemling, M.E., Carte’, B.K. Westley, J.W., and Francis, T.A., ibid P 151. 38. Nakao, Y., Yoshida, W.Y., and Scheuer, P.J., ibid P 154. 39. Jayatilake, G.S., Baker, B.J., Green, S., and Hung, M., ibid P 155. 40. Rodriguez, L.C. and Russel G.K., ibid P 156.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC 8 Formulations The following formulations were supplied at the courtesy of LIPO CHEMICALS INC., 207 19th Avenue, Patterson, NJ 07504. The formulations are presented here solely for their educa- tional value as the author or publisher cannot anticipate all conditions under which this information or the products of manufacturers in combination with botanicals may be used. Therefore, the author or publisher accepts no responsibility for the results obtained by the application of this information for the safety and suitability of these products, either alone or in combination with other products. Formulators are advised to make their own tests to determine safety and suitability of each such product or product combination for their own purposes. The author or publisher assumes no liability resulting from infringement of any patent.

8.1 NATURAL SAPONINS BASE SHAMPOO

Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material INCI name

47.60 1 Deionized Water Water 21.00 1 Bio Saponins™ a,d Saponins 10.00 1 Cocamidopropyl Betaine Cocamidopropyl Betaine 6.00 1 Cocamide DEA 1:1 Cocamide DEA 0.10 1 Horsetail Extract Horsetail Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Comfrey Leaf Extract Comfrey Leaf Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Rosemary Extract Rosemary Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Chamomile Extract Matricaria Extract 5:1 PGa q.s. 2 Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hydroxide (50% aq sol’n) 5.00 3 Aculyn 22 Thickenerb Acrylates/Steareth-20 Methacrylate Copolymer 10.00 4 Plantaren 2000c Decyl Polyglucose q.s. 5 Citric Acid Citric Acid (25% aq. sol’n) a Bio-Botanica Inc./Lipo Chemicals, Inc. b Rohm & Haas. c Henkel. d Bio Saponins™ Trademark of Bio-Botanica Inc.

PROCEDURE: 1. In main kettle, combine Sequence 1 ingredients at room temperature, under slow to moderate sweep mixing to prevent aeration and until homogenous. 2. Adjust pH to 9.2 (±0.2) with Sequence 2 ingredient. 3. Slowly add Sequence 3 ingredient and continue mixing, being sure polymer is completely dispersed. 4. Add Sequence 4 ingredient slowly and mix until batch is homogenous. 5. Adjust pH to 5.5 (±0.2) with Sequence 5.

299

8.2 NATURAL SHAMPOO

Description: A natural, high-foaming, gentle shampoo for everyday use Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material INCI name

31.00 1 Deionized Water Water 10.00 1 Bio Saponins™ a,f Saponins 20.00 1 Cocamidopropyl Betaine Cocamidopropyl Betaine 6.00 1 Cocamide DEA 1:1 Cocamide DEA 0.10 1 Horsetail Extract Horsetail Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Comfrey Leaf Extract Comfrey Leaf Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Rosemary Extract Rosemary Extract 5:1 PGa 0.10 1 Chamomile Extract Matricaria Extract 5:1 PGa q.s. 2 Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hydroxide (50% aq. sol’n) 6.50 3 Aculyn 22 Thickenerb Acrylates/Steareth-20 Methacrylate Copolymer 15.00 4 Plantaren 2000c Decyl Polyglucose 0.10 4 Lipovol Ad Avocado Oil q.s. 5 Citric Acid Citric Acid (25% aq. sol’n) 10.00 6 UCARE Polymer LR 30M Polyquaternium-10 (1.3% sol)e 1.00 7 Lipamide MEAAd Acetamide MEA a Bio-Botanica/Lipo Chemicals, Inc. b Rohm & Haas. c Henkel. d Lipo Chemicals, Inc. e Amerchol. f Bio Saponins™ Trademark of Bio-Botanica Inc.

Procedure: 1. In main kettle, combine Sequence 1 ingredients, at room temperature, under slow to moderate sweep mixing to prevent aeration and until homogenous. 2. Adjust pH to 9.2 (±0.2) with Sequence 2 ingredient. 3. Slowly add Sequence 3 ingredient and continue mixing, being sure polymer is completely dispersed. 4. Add Sequence 4 ingredient slowly and mix until batch is homogenous. 5. Adjust pH to 5.5 (±0.2) with Sequence 5 ingredient. 6. Add Sequence 6 ingredient slowly and mix until batch is homogeneous. 7. Add Sequence 7 ingredient slowly and mix until batch is homogeneous.

8.3 CELLULITE GEL BASE

Description: An elegant gel base similar to “Clarin Concentrated ‘Cellulite’ Control Gel” Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material INCI name

65.95 1 Deionized Water Water 0.30 1 Uniphen P-23a Phenoxyethanol (and) Methylparaben (and) Ethylparaben (and) Propylparaben (and) Butylparaben 22.50 1 Carbopol 940b (2% aq. disp’n) 3.50 2 CMC-7MFc Cellulose Gum (2% disp’n) 1.00 3 Deionized Water Water 0.45 3 Triethanolamine, 99% Triethanolamine 0.10 4 Ground Ivyd Ground Ivy Extract 5:1 PG 0.10 4 Bladderwrackd Bladderwrack Extract 5:1 PG 0.10 4 Caffeine Caffeine 5.00 5 SD Alcohol 40-A SD Alcohol 40-A (200 pf) 1.00 6 Microencapsulated Mineral Oil (and) Mineral Oil Gelatin

a Lipo Chemicals, Inc.(Induchem). b B.F. Goodrich Co. c Aqualon. d Bio-Botanica/Lipo Chemicals, Inc.

Procedure: 1. In main kettle at room temperature, combine Sequence 1 ingredients under moderate Lightnin’ mixing until the Carbomer is completely dispersed. 2. Add Sequence 2 to Sequence 1 under moderate Lightnin’ mixing and mix until batch is uniform. 3. Add premixed Sequence 3 ingredients, switching to keep mixing as the batch thickens. 4. Add premixed Sequence 4 to batch. 5. Add Sequence 5 to batch and mix until uniform. 6. Add Sequence 6 to batch and mix until beads are uniformly dispersed.

8.4 ALL NATURAL BLOOMING BATH OIL

Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw Material INCI Name

15.96 1 Lipovol ALMa Sweet Almond Oil 63.54 1 Lipovol SESa Sesame Oil 5.00 1 Lipolan Ra Lanolin Oil 5.00 1 Lipopeg 2-DL PEG-4 Dilaurate 10.00 1 Lipocol 0-2a Oleth-2 0.10 1 Propylparaben Propylparaben 0.10 1 Vitamin E USP-FCCb Vitamin E 0.10 2 Arnica 5:1 PGc Arnica Extract 0.10 2 Chamomile 5:1 PGc Chamomile Extract 0.10 2 Comfrey 5:1 PGc Comfrey Extract q.s. 3 D & C Green #6 D & C Green #6 (0.5% Sol’n in PG)

a Lipo Chemicals, Inc. b Roche Vitamins and Fine Chemicals. c Bio-Botanica/Lipo Chemicals, Inc.

Procedure: 1. In main kettle, combine Sequence 1 ingredients under Lightnin’ mixing and heat to 557°C until propylparaben is completely dissolved. Cool to 30°C. 2. At 30°C, add Sequence 2 ingredients to batch and cool to 25°C. 3. At 25°C, add Sequence 3 to correct shade.

8.5 NATURAL SUNSCREEN OIL SPF 8+

Description: A blend of natural oils and sunscreens providing UV protection in an emollient natural base. Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material INCI name

86.28 1 Lipovol SOa Hybrid Safflower Oil 0.50 1 Lipolan Ra Lanolin Oil 0.10 1 Lipovol Ja Jojoba Oil 0.10 1 Lipovol ALMa Sweet Almond Oil 0.10 1 Lipovol Oa Olive Oil 0.10 1 Lipovol C-76a Coconut Oil 0.10 1 Fancol CB Extrab Coca Butter USP 0.10 1 Aloe Vera Oilc Aloe Extract 0.05 1 Vitamin E Acetate Tocopheryl Acetate No. 60526d 6.00 1 Parsol MCSe Octyl Methoxycinnamate 4.00 1 Neo Heliopan OSf Octyl Salicylate 2.50 1 Uvinul M-40g Benzophenone-3 0.02 1 BHA BHA 0.05 1 Benzoic Acid Benzoic Acid

a Lipo Chemicals, Inc. b Fanning Corp. c Bio-Botanica/Lipo Chemicals, Inc. d Roche Vitamins and Fine Chemicals. e Givaudan Corp. f Haarmann & Reimer Corp. g BASF.

Procedure: 1. In main kettle, combine ingredients under moderate Lightnin’ mixing and heat to 75–78°C . 2. Maintain temperature until batch is uniform and all powders are dissolved. Begin cooling. 3. Cool to 25°C. Package

8.6 SPRAY MOISTURIZER

Description: A high humectant, aqueous spray-on moisturizer which leaves the skin with a soft feel. Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw Material INCI Name

92.70 1 Deionized Water Water 2.00 1 Lipocare HA/ECa Echinacin 5.00 1 Liponic EG-1a Glycereth — 26 0.10 1 Slippery Elm Bark Slippery Elm Extract 5:1 PGb 0.10 1 Chamomile Extract Matricaria Extract 5:1 PGb 0.10 1 Wild Alum Extract Cranesbill Extract 5:1 PGE

a Lipo Chemicals, Inc. b Bio-Botanica/Lipo Chemicals, Inc.

Procedure: In main kettle, combine ingredients under Lightnin’ mixing at room temperature until batch is clear and uniform.

8.7 AFTER-SUN MOISTURIZING GEL WITH ALOE

Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material Supplier

31.88 1 Water 45.00 1 Carbopol 940, (2% disp’n) B. F. Goodrich 0.75 1 Liponic EG-1 Lipo Chemicals 0.30 1 Methylparaben 0.05 1 Propylparaben 0.25 1 Unicide U-13 Lipo (Induchem) 0.05 1 Trisodium EDTA 20.00 2 Aloe Vera Gel Bio-Botanica/Lipo 0.82 3 Triethanolamine, 99% 0.80 3 Water 0.10 4 Slippery Elm Bark Bio-Botanica/Lipo Ext. Spl g.s. 5 Phosphoric acid, 10% sol’n

Manufacturing Procedure: 1. Heat Sequence 1 ingredients to 75°C under Lightnin’ mixing until all materials are dispersed and solubilized. 2. Cool to 60°C. Add Sequence 2 and mix until homogeneous. 3. Switch to paddle stirrer and add premixed Sequence 3 ingredients. 4. Cool to 30°C and add Sequence 4.

8.8 SUPER MOISTURIZING CLEAR GEL WITH LIPOCARE HA/EC

Description: A clear nontacky moisturizing gel containing enhanced active Lipocare HA/EC — Hyaluronic Acid and Echinacin. Formulation: Percent Sequence Raw material INCI name

25.20 1 Deionized Water Water 0.30 1 Unicide U-13a Imidazolidinyl Urea 0.65 1 Uniphen P-23a Phenoxyethanol (and) Methylparaben (and) Ethylparaben (and) Propylparaben (and) Butylparaben 0.10 1 Triethanolamine, 99% Triethanolamine 0.05 2 Hypan SA100H Acrylic Acid/Acrylonitrogens Copolymer 25.00 3 Lubragel MSb Polyglycerylmethacrylate (and) Propylene Glycol 35.00 3 Carbopol 940 Carbomer 940 (2% aq/ disp.)c 5.00 3 Liponic EG-1d Glycereth-26 2.00 3 Unimoist U-125a Glycerin (and) Urea (and) Saccharide Hydrolysate (and) Magnesium Aspartate (and) Glycine (and) Alanine (and) Creatine 5.00 4 Lipocare HA/ECd Hyaluronic Acid/Echinacin 0.70 5 Triethanolamine, 99% Triethanolamine 1.00 5 Deionized Water Water

a Lipo (Induchem). b Guardian Chemicals. c B.F. Goodrich. d Lipo Chemicals, Inc. Lipo (Kingston).

Procedure: 1. Combine Sequence 1 ingredients under vigorous Lightnin’ mixing until homogenous. 2. Slowly sprinkle Sequence 2 ingredient into batch under homomixer and homogenize until swollen Hypan particles are no longer visible. 3. Heat combined Sequences 1 and 2 to 80°C to remove air and to obtain clarity. Switch to slow sweep mixing and cool to 60°C.

9 Glossary This Glossary includes the most important general terms used in botany and therapeutics. It is useful when researching older books on botanicals, as these terms were commonly used prior to 1938. Abortifacient: A drug producing premature childbirth. Abruptly-pinnate: Pinnate leaf terminating in a pair of leaflets. Absorbent: A medicine used to produce absorption of diseased tissues. Acaulescent: With very short (apparently no) stem. Accrescent: Increasing in size with age, as often occurs with the calyx after flowering. Acerose: Needle-shaped, like the leaves of pines. Achaenium, or Akene: A dry, indehiscent, one-celled, one-seeded fruit, with firm pericarp. Achlamydeous: With no calyx or corolla. Acicular: Needle-shaped. Acotyledonous: Without cotyledons. Acrogen: A plant increasing by terminal growth only, as ferns. Acuminate: When the leaf-apex forms a prolonged angle. Adnate: Adhering to another structure. Adventitious: Out of the natural or usual place. Ala: Lateral wing of papilonaceous flower. Alburnum: Sap-wood of tree. Alliaceous: Resembling the onion family. Alterative: A medicine used to modify nutrition so as to overcome morbid processes. Alveolate: Honey-combed. Amenorrhoea: Failure of menstruation. Amentum or Catkin: A deciduous spike. Amplexicaul: Embracing the stem. Analgesic: A medicine that allays pain. Anaphrodisiac: A medicine that allays sexual excitement. Andraecium: Male or staminate parts of a flower. Anesthetic: A drug that produces insensibility to pain. Angiosperms: Plants with seeds enclosed in an ovary. Anodyne: A medicine used to allay pain (externally). Antacid: A medicine used to neutralize acids in the stomach and intestines. Anthataxis: Inflorescence, or flower-arrangement. Anthelmintics: Drugs that destroy (vermicides) or expel (vermifuges) worms inhabiting the intestinal canal. Anther: The essential part of a stamen, containing the pollen. Antheridia: Male organs of cryptograms. Antherozoid: (Spermatozoid), the fecundating material from an antheridium, answering to the pollen of phaenogams. Anticatarrh: Used to relieve or prevent exudation irritation of a membrane. Antiemetic: A medicine that allays or checks vomiting. Antilithic: Dissolves kidney and bladder calculi. Antihysteric: A medicine that relieves hysterical conditions. Antineoplastic: Tumor reducing.

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Antiperiodic: A medicine that relieves periodic diseases. Antiphlogistic: A medicine that allays or checks inflammation. Antipyretic: A medicine that reduces the temperature of the body. Antiscrofulous: Used in preventing or curing scrofulous diseases (e.g., tuberculosis of the lymph glands of the neck, rare in present times). Antiscorbutic: A remedy for scurvy. Antiseptic: Any agent that checks the growth or action of microorganisms on living tissue. Antispasmodic: A medicine that prevents or allays spasms. Antivenereal: A medicine used to cure venereal diseases. Aperient: A medicine that purges mildly. Apetalous: Without petals. Aphrodisiac: Excites the sexual organs. Appendages: Superadded parts. Aril: A fleshy growth from hilum of (and often covering) seed (e.g., Nutmeg). Arillode: Similar to Aril but arising from the microphylar edge (e.g., Cardamon). Ascidium: A pitcher-shaped modified leaf. Astringent: An herb that causes contraction or constriction of tissues. Atropous: With erect ovule. Attenuate: Tapering to a point. Auriculate: Possessing two lobes or ears. Axil: The angle between the axis and any offshoot from it. Axillary: Growing in an axil. Axis of a plant: The main stem or root. Bacca: A berry, a pulpy, indehiscent fruit from an inferior ovary. Balsamic: A resinous substance containing balsamic acids (benzoic, cinnamic). Bi-: Signifying double, as bi-foliate, with two leaves. Bitter: Applied to bitter tasting botanicals that are used to stimulate the appetite. Blisters:See Vesicants. Bracteate: Possessing bracts. Bracteoles: Secondary bracts between the primary bracts and the leaves. Bristles: Sharp, stiff hairs. Bulb: An underground discoid stem, carrying buds and scaly leaves above and wiry roots below. Bulblets: Little bulbs in the axils of the stems. Calcarate: Spurred. Calceolate: Resembling a slipper in form. Calyx: The outside whorl of floral leaves. Cambium: The zone of formative tissue, meristematic cells. Campanulate: Bell-shaped. Campylotropous: Having the ovule and its integuments so bent that the apex is brought near the hilum, the hilum and the chalaza being together. Capitate: With globose head. Capitulum: The inflorescence of composite family. Capsule: A dry, dehiscent syncarpous fruit. Carcerule: A dry fruit composed of concentric akenes separating at maturity. Cardiac: A medicine that acts on the heart. Carina: The keel; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower. Carminative: A medicine that expels gas from the stomach or alimentary canal. Carpel: A leaf modified into a pistil. Carpophore: A beak-like prolongation of the receptacle, carrying the ovary. Caruncle: A localized fleshy growth arising from the microphyl (e.g., Castor seed).

Caryopsis or Grain: A superior, one-celled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with the dry pericarp united with the testa. Catarrh: Irritation of a membrane usually of the respiratory tract, accompanied by an excessive secretion of mucus. Cathartic: A purgative. Catkin: A deciduous spike of unisexual flowers. Caudale: Having a hairy style. Caudex: The axis. Also a name given to a short, thick, upright rhizome. Caulescent: Possessing a visible stem. Caulis: The stem. Caustics: Medicines that destroy the skin by burning or by corrosive oxidation. Cell: The unit of plant tissue consisting of a cell wall enclosing certain contents. Centrifugal: Flowering commencing at the summit. Centripetal: Flowering commencing at the base. Cespitose: Tufted. Chalaza: The point of union between the coats of a seed and the nucleus. Chlorophyll: The green pigment of plants. Cholagogue: A medicine causing a flow of bile. Cilia: Marginal hairs. Circinate: Curved like young fern fronds. Clavate: Club-shaped. Claw: Lengthened and narrowed base of some petals. Cohesion: Attachment. Collenchyma: Parenchyma thickened in angles of cells. Coma: Hair-tufts confined to parts of testa. Comose: Having hairs at the summit. Condiment: A substance used to season food. Conduplicate: Folded face to face in vernation. Cone: Scaly fruit of Coniferae formed by fertilization of female flowers. Conidia: Spores produced asexually. Connate: where two parts, usually distinct, become joined. Connestral: Part intervening between anther cells. Connivent: Having parts turned inward. Contorted: Twisted. Convolute: Rolled up. Cordate: Heart-shaped. Coriaceous: Leathery. Corm: A solid, tuber-like, underground stem found in monocotyledons with usually distinct nodes. Corolla: Inner whorl of floral envelope. Corona: A cup-like or rayed process between stamens and corolla. Corrective: Aids in restoring to a healthy state. Cortex: The bark; outer layer. Corymb: A raceme with flowers elevated to one level. Costa: The midrib. Cotyledons: Rudimentary leaves of embryo. Counter-irritant: A medicine used to produce irritation in one part in order to relieve pain in another. Cremocarp: A schizocarpic fruit of two carpels face to face upon a common axis, from which they hang when ripe. It is derived from an inferior ovary (e.g., Umbelliferous fruits).

Crenate: With rounded teeth. Crispate: Curled. Cruciform: Cross-shaped. Cryptogamia: Plants having no true flowers. Culm: The hollow stem of grasses. Cuneate: Wedge-shaped. Cupule: An acorn-cup. Cuspidate: Tapering to a stiff point. Cuticle: The outer layer of epidermis. Cyme: A determinate flower cluster. Deciduous: Falling off, or tending to fall. Decompound: Many times compound. Decumbent: Lying on the ground but rising at extremities. Decurrent: Prolonged down the stem. Decussate: In pairs crossing alternately. Definite: Constant, not exceeding 20 (stamens). Deflexed: Bent, downward throughout the length. Defoliation: Falling of leaves. Dehiscence: Splitting into regular parts. Deliquescent: Dissolving; dividing into irregular branches. Deliriants: Those narcotics that cause the mental faculties to become disordered, producing intellectual confusion. Deltoid: Triangular. Demulcents: Medicines applied externally to soothe and protect tissues. Dentate: With sharp teeth. Dentifrice: A substance used in cleansing teeth. Deobstruent: Removes obstructions in bloodstream, lymphatic, etc. Deodorant: Any substance that destroys or hides foul odors. Deodorizer: Same as Deodorant. Depilatory: A substance used to remove hair. Depletive: A drug that reduces the vital functions. Depressant: A drug that lessens the vital powers. Depurative: A medicine that purifies the system by acting on (and causing) excretion. Detergent: A medicine used to cleanse wounds or ulcers. Determinate: Definite. Diadelphous: Having stamens in two sets. Diandrous: Having two stamens. Diaphoretic: A medicine that produces sweating. Diatrorse: Turning to the light. Dichlamydeous: Having both calyx and corolla. Dichotomous: Forked. Diclinous: Having stamens and pistils in separate flowers. Dicotyledonous: With two cotyledons. Didymous: In pairs. Didynamous: With four stamens, two long and two short. Diecious or Dioecious: With male and female flowers on separate plants. Dietetic: Any nutritious substance. Digestive: An herb that aids digestion. Digitate: Having five palmated leaflets arranged from a common point. Disc or Disk: A cushion-like appendage to ovary. Discoid: With convex face.

Discutient:Any medicine that disperses tumors. Disinfectant:A substance that has the property of destroying disease germs. Dissipiments:Partitions within a fruit. Distichous:In two opposite rows. Diuretics:Medicines that increase the secretion of urine. Dorsal:Fixed upon the back. Drastic:A medicine that causes violent reaction (e.g., purgation). Drupe:Succulent or fleshy fruit with a hard and woody endocarp. Duct:A tubular vessel in the plant. Duramen:Heart-wood of tree. Dysmenorrhea:Painful or difficult menstruation. E:Signifies deprived of, without. Ecbolics:See Oxytocics. Echinate:Prickly. Embryo:The rudimentary plant within the seed. Emetics:Agents that cause vomiting. Emmenagogue:A medicine that stimulates or regulates menstruation. Emollients:Medicines applied externally to protect tissues to which they are applied. Endocarp:Lining of carpel. Endogenous:Having no distinction of pith, wood, and bark, as in the palm and the corn- stalk or inner parts. Endopleura:Innermost seed-coat. Entire:Without marginal divisions. Epicalyx:An imbricated involucre over the calyx. Epidermis:The true skin, the outermost layer. Epigynous:Adnate to, or borne on, the ovary. Epipetalous:Inserted on the petals. Epispastics:See Vesicants. Episperm:The coat of seed. Epispore:Outer integument of spore. Erect:Growing from the base of ovary. Errhine:A medicine that increases the nasal secretions. Escharotics:See Caustics. Estivation: Mode of folding of flower bud. Etiolated: Blanched. Evacuant: Medicines that expel substances from the body (purgative). Ex-: A prefix signifying without. Excitant: Any substance that produces increased action in any living part. Excurrent: Central with regular lateral branches. Exogenous: Having bark, wood, and pith distinct, as the maple and the elm or outer parts. Expectorant: A medicine that acts on the pulmonic mucous membrane by altering its secretion. Exserted: Projected from an orifice. Extrorse: Turned outward. Falcate: Sickle-shaped. Farinaceous: Resembling flour. Fascicle: Tufts inserted at a common point. Fastigate: Pointing upward; nearly parallel. Febrifuge: A medicine that dissipates fever. Fertile: Capable of seed-bearing. Fibrils: Root-hairs.

Fibrovascular: Containing fibers and conducting elements. Fid: Cleft, as bifid. Filament: The stalk bearing the anther. Filiform: Thread-like. Fimbriated: Fringed. Flabelliform: Fan-shaped. Flagelliform: Whip-shaped. Flexuose: Wavy. Flocculose: Woolly. Florets: The small flowers in a head of Compositae. Foliaceous: Leaf-like. Follicle: Fruit of one carpel dehiscing by ventral suture. Foramen: The aperture in apex of ovules. Fovilla: The contents of pollen grains. Frond: The leaf-like expansion of ferns, algae, etc. Funiculus: The stalk of an ovule. Furcate: Forked. Fusiform: Spindle-shaped. Galactagogues: Drugs that increase the lacteal secretion. Galactophyga: Medicines that arrest the lacteal secretion. Galbulus: A rounded and modified cone, as in the cypress and juniper. Galeate: Helmet-shaped. Gamopetalous: Having petals united. Gamosepalous: Having sepals united. Genus: A group of closely allied species. Germicide: Any substance that kills parasites. Germination: The first act of growth of embryos. Gibbous: Having sacs or pouches, more swollen on one side than on the other. Glabrous: Smooth; devoid of hairs. Globose: Roundish. Glomerule: A cymose inflorescence of globose form. Glume: Scales at the base of flowers of grasses. Gymnospermous: Having naked ovules. Gynandrous: Having stamens and pistils united. Gynecium: The female portion of a flower. Gynephore: The stalk of an ovary. Habitat: The situation or country in which a plant grows in a wild state. Hairs: Thread-like appendages of the epidermis. Haustoria: Little roundish projections or suckers of fungi. Helicoid: Twisted like a snail shell. Hemostatics: Medicines that arrest bleeding. Hepatic: Referring to the liver. Heptandrous: Having seven stamens. Herbs: Plants having annual stems. Hermaphrodite: Perfect; having both stamens and pistil (flower). Hesperidium: A berry with a leathery rind (e.g., orange). Hetaerio: Fruit formed by fleshy receptacle. Hilum: Scar left by separation of seed from placenta; the point of attachment. Homologous: Of the same fundamental nature, as petals and leaves. Hybrid: A mixture of two species.

Hydragogue:Herbs having the property of removing accumulations of water or serum. Causing watery evacuations. Hydrophobia:Rabies caused by the bites of infected animals, i.e., dogs, cats, squirrels, rabbits, etc. Hydrophytes:Plants living entirely in water. Hygrometric:Sensitive to moisture. Hypanthodium:A fleshy receptacle enclosing flowers. Hypnotics:Medicines producing sleep without causing any cerebral excitement. Hypocrateriform:Salver-shaped; having a long narrow tube with limb at right angles. Hypogaeous:Subterranean. Hypogynous:Growing from beneath the ovary, i.e., on the receptacle. Hypophyllous:Growing from inside of leaf. Imbricated:Overlapped, like shingles. Imparipinnate:Odd-pinnate. Inarticulate:Not jointed. Incanescent:Hoary. Included:Shorter than the corolla tube (stamens). Indefinite:More than 20 (stamens). Indehiscent:Not opening when ripe (fruits). Induplicate:Having margins folded inward. Indusium:The covering of the wori or fruit-dots of ferns. Inferior:Growing below another. Inflexed:Bent inward. Inflorescence:The arrangement of flowers on the stem. Infra-axillary:Arising from the axil. Infundibuliform:Funnel-form. Innate:Adhering to apex, as innate anther. Insecticide:Any substance that kills insects. Internode:Interval between nodes. Intine:Inner lining of pollen grains. Intoxicant:A drug that excites or stupefies. Introrse:Turning toward the axis. Inverted:Attached to top of ovary (ovules). Involucel:Involucre at the base of partial umbels. Involute:Rolled inward. Irritant:Any substance causing pain, inflammation, and irritation, either by mechanical or chemical action. Jointed:Having, or appearing to have, joints or nodes. Keel:See Carina. Knots: Broken ends of branches enveloped in woody growth. Labellum: (Lip), the lower petal of an orchid. Labiate: A monopetalous corolla with two irregular divisions. Labium: Lower lip of labiate flower. Lacinate: Fringed. Lacuna: A space between cells. Lamina: A leaf-blade; layer. Lanceolate: Lance-shaped; two or three times longer than broad. Lateral: Attached to the side. Latex: The milk-like fluid in laticiferous vessels. Laxative: A mild purgative. Leaflets: The divisions of compound leaves.

Legume: A two-valved pod dehiscing by both sutures. Lenitive: A medicine that allays pain. Leukorrhea: Whitish discharge from the vagina, often caused by fungus infection. Liber: Inner layer of bark of exogens. Ligulate: Strap-like. Ligule: A strap-shaped corolla (of Compositae). Limb: The free upper part of a petal. Linear: Narrow, with parallel sides. Lithontriptic: A medicine that dissolves stone in the bladder. Lobate: Divided into lobes. Lobe: A rounded portion or division. Loculi: Cavities in lobes of anthers. Loculicidal: Dehiscence through the back of cells, the dissipiments remaining undivided (capsular fruits). Locusta: The spike of grasses. Lomentum: The moniliform legume. Lunate: Crescent-shaped. Lyrate: Lyre-shaped; with upper lobes largest. Marcescent: Persistent and of a withered appearance (calyx). Masked: Labiate, but with lipclosed (flower). Masticatory: A substance that when chewed increases the flow of saliva or which can be masticated. Medulla: The pith of exogens. Medullary rays: Plates of tissue passing from pith to bark. Mericarp: The component carpels of fruits of Umbelliferae. Meristem: A kind of actively dividing cell-tissue, found at the ends of young stems, leaves, and roots. Mesocarp: Middle layer of pericarp. Mesophloem: Middle layer of bark. Mesophyll: The parenchyma within the epidermis of leaves. Metamorphosis: Change of one organ into another. Micropyle: The aperture in seeds corresponding to the foramen in ovules. Midrib: The large central vein in leaves. Monadelphous: Having filaments united into a tube. Monandrous: Having one stamen. Monecious or Monaecious: Having male and female flowers on the same plant. Moniliform: Necklace-shaped. Monocotyledonous: Having one cotyledon. Monogynous: Having one carpel, style, or stigma. Monopetalous: Having petals united. Monosepalous: Having sepals united. Monospermous: One-seeded. Monstrosity: Deviation from ordinary structure. Mucronate: With a short spine at apex. Multifid: Many-cleft. Multifoliate: Having more than seven leaflets. Multilocular: Having many cells (ovary). Muricate: Rough, with hard tubercles. Mydriatic: A medicine that causes dilation of the pupil. Myotic: The contracting of the pupil. Napiform: Turnip-shaped.

Narcotics: Powerful drugs producing stupor and, in large doses, death. Nauseant: An agent that causes sickness at the stomach. Nectar: Fluid secreted by nectariferous glands. Nephritic: Botanicals having an action upon the kidneys. Nervation: Arrangement of leaf-veins. Nervine: A medicine that calms the nervous system. Node: Point where the leaf develops. Nodulose: Necklace-shaped. Nut: A hard, indehiscent, one-celled fruit. Nutrient: A medicine that replaces waste material-affording nourishment. Obcordate: Inversely cordate, apex broad (leaf). Oblique: Unequal sided. Obovate: Inversely egg-shaped. Obsolete: Suppressed. Obtuse: Blunt, rounded. Obvolute: With opposite margins alternately overlapping. Ocrea: A membranous stipule sheathing the stem. Octandrous: Having eight stamens. Offset: A short, thick runner, having tufts of leaves at extremity. Opercular: Dehiscence where faces (valves) of anther open like a trap-door Opposite: Arrangement in pairs against each other. Orbicular: Circular. Ovary: The part of pistil that contains ovules. Ovule: The unfertilized seed. Oxytocics: Medicines that produce abortion by causing the contraction of the uterus upon its contents. Palate: Projection of lower lip of personate corolla closing throat. Paleae or pales: Chaffy inner scales of flowers of grasses. Palliative: A medicine that relieves but does not cure. Palmate: Having usually five lobes, the veins proceeding from a common carrier. Palmatifid: Palmately five-cleft. Panduriform: Fiddle-shaped. Panicle: A branched (compound) raceme. Papilionaceous: The corolla consisting of five petals called the standard, the wings, and the keel, as in the pea-flower. Papillae: One-celled secreting glands on the epidermis. Pappus: The coronate calyx of Compositae. Parasitic: Growing upon, and nourished by, another plant. Parasiticide: A substance that destroys parasites. Parenchyma: Soft tissue consisting of thin-celled walls. Parietal: Attached to walls of ovaries (placentae). Paripinnate: Equally pinnate. Partite: Divided nearly to base. Parturient (oxytocic): A medicine that aids in childbirth, as ergot. Pectinate: Resembling a comb (leaves). Pectoral: A medicine having a healing influence on the chest or lungs. Pedate: Palmate, with lateral divisions again subdivided. Pedatifid: Pedate, but lobe extending only half way to midrib. Pedatipartite: Pedate, with lobes nearly free. Pedatisected: Pedate lobes extending nearly to midrib.

Pedicel: A secondary peduncle. Peduncle: A flower-stalk. Peltate: Shield-shaped, with petiole attached at or near the center. Pendulous: Hanging down. Pentandrous: Having five stamens. Pepo: A gourd-fruit, melon, squash, and the like. Perennial: Lasting several years and flowering annually. Perfect: Containing both stamens and pistil (flower). Perfoliate: Pairs united at base (leaves). Perianth: The calyx and corolla combined (or both petaloid). Pericarp: The covering or intenguments of fruits. Periderm: The corky layer of bark. Perigynous: Having the ovary free, but the petals and stamens borne on the calyx. Perisperm: The albumen of a seed. Personate: Masked, resembling a mouth. Petaloid: Resembling petals. Petals: The corolla leaves. Petiole: Stalk of a leaf. Phaenogamous or phanerogamous: Producing flowers. Phelloderm or mesophioeum: The green layer of bark. Phycocyan: The blue pigment of sea weeds. Phyllodia: Leaf-like petioles. Phyllon: Greek word meaning leaf. Phyllotaxis: Leaf-arrangement on stem. Pilose: Hairy. Pinnae: Leaflets of compound leaves. Pinnate: Resembling a feather; lateral divisions from margin to midrib (leaves). Pinnatifid: Pinnate only half way to midrib. Pinnatipartite: Pinnate lobes almost free. Pinnatisect: Pinnately divided almost to midrib. Pistil: The female organ of flowering plants. Placenta: Internal projection of ovary bearing ovules. Plicate: Plaited in fan-like folds. Plumule: Rudimentary bud of embryo. Pod: A general name given to dry, dehiscent fruits, usually of family Leguminosae. Poison: An agent that destroys life when introduced into the system. Pollen: The fertilizing powder of anthers. Poly-: A prefix signifying several or many. Polycotyledonous: With more than two cotyledons. Polygamous: With male, female, and perfect flowers on the same plant. Pome: An inferior, indehiscent, two or more celled, few-seeded, fleshy fruit. Preventive: A medicine that prevents or hinders a disease. Primine: Outer coat of ovules. Procumbent: Lying flat on ground (stem). Proliferous: Bearing progeny in the way of offshoots. Prosenchyma: Tissue consisting of elongated, pointed cells. Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland. Protectives: Medicines used to cover inflamed or injured parts. Pubsecent: Downy. Pulvinus: Cushion at base of some leaves. Purgative: A medicine that produces increased discharges from the bowels.

Pustulants: Medicines affecting isolated portions of the skin, such as glands, etc., and producing pustules. Putamen: Hard stone in certain fruits (drupes). Pyxis: A capsule dehiscing transversely (by lid). Quadrifoliate: With four leaflets diverging from a point. Raceme: A spike with flowers borne on pedicels. Rachis: The axis of inflorescence. Radical: Springing from roots. Radicle: The embryo root (small root). Raphe’ (rhaphe): Nutritive cord, a continuation of seed-stalk (when the funicle is fused with the seed-coat). Receptacle: The summit of the peduncle, its function being to support the flower organs. Reclinate: Bent downward. Recurved: Bent backward. Reduplicate: Valvate, with reflexed margins (estivation). Refrigerants: That which relieves thirst and gives a feeling of coolness. Reniform: Kidney-shaped. Resolvent: A medicine that removes hard tumors. Restorative: A remedy to restore vigor or health. Retrorse: Directed backward. Retuse: Obtuse, with deep notch in middle (leaves). Revolute: Rolled backward. Rhaphides: Inorganic crystals in the plant cells (bundle of needles). Rhizome: A prostrate subterranean stem, bearing leaves and rootlets. Ringent: Labiate, with wide lips (corolla). Root: The descending axis of the plant (to fix and absorb nutrients). Rostrate: Terminating in a beak. Rotate: With tube short and hub spreading (corolla). Rubefacient: A medicine that causes redness when applied to the skin. Runcinate: Jagged margin, with backward pointing teeth (leaves). Runner: A slender, creeping, prostrate stem, rooting and budding at nodes. Rupturing: Dehiscing irregularly. Saccate: Sac-like. Sagittate: Shaped like an arrowhead. Samara or Key Fruit: A superior, indehiscent, winged, one- or two-celled fruit. Sarcocarp: A fleshy mesocarp. Scales: Metamorphosed or rudimentary leaves. Scape: A slender radical peduncle. Scarious: Thin, dry, and shriveled. Schizocarp: A fruit splitting into one-seeded indehiscent pieces. Sclariform: Barred or striated. Sclerenchyma: Parenchyma or prosenchyma with thickened and hardened walls. Scorpioid: Rolled in a circinate manner. Sedative: A medicine that lowers functional activity. Serrate: Toothed like a saw. Serrulate: Very finely saw-toothed. Setaceous: Bristle-shaped. Setae: Stiff, bristly hairs. Sheath:See Ocrea. Sialagogue: A medicine that increases the secretion of the salivary glands.

Silique: A long, falsely two-celled pod, dehiscing from below upward, and leaving a replum (Cruciferous fruits). Sinuate: Having a wavy margin. Soboles: Slender rhizomes. Solvent: A medicine that dissolves solids in the system. Spadix: A succulent spike (within a spathe). Spathe: A large bract including an inflorescence. Spathulate: Spoon-shaped. Spike: An inflorescence of sessile flowers on an elongated axis. Spine: A pointed modified branch. Sporangium: A spore-case. Spores: Reproductive bodies of Cryptogams. Squamose: Scaly. Stamens: Male organs of flowers. Standard: The upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Sternutatory: A medicine that causes sneezing. Stigma: Portion of carpel to which pollen adheres. Stimulant: A medicine that increases functional activity. Stipe: Petiole of Fern. Stipitate: Stalked. Stipule: Appendages at base of petiole. Stolon: A trailing and rooting branch (type of runner). Stoma: Breathing apertures in epidermis. Stomachic: A stimulant to the stomach. Strobilus: A spike of membranous imbricated scales bearing pistillate flowers at their bases. Style: The prolongation of ovary, bearing the stigma. Stylopodium: Fleshy disc carrying styles (Umbelliferae). Styptics: A botanical causing capillaries (tiny blood vessels) to contract and thus stop supervicial hemorrhage bleeding. Subulate: Awl-shaped. Sudorific: A medicine that produces violent sweating. Superior: Placed above and free from some other organ. Supervolute: Rolled in on itself (vernation). Suppurant: An agent that causes the formation of pus. Suspended: Attached between apex and base of ovary (ovule). Suture: A line of junction. Synandrous: See Syngenesious. Syncarpous: Having carpels cohering. Syngenesious: Having anthers united into a tube. Taproot: A simple conical root with branches. Tegumen: The inner seed-coat. Tendril: A thread-like, leafless, spiral branch, may be modified leaf or stem. Teniafuge (taenifuge): A medicine that expels tape-worms. Ternate: Arranged in threes. Testa: The external integument of the seed. Tetradynamous: Having six stamens: four long, in pairs, and one short pair. Thalamus: The receptacle of a flower. Thorn: Same as Spine (usually for stems). Thyrsus: Branched panicle forming a pyramidal cluster. Tomentose: Pubescent, with short hairs.

Tonic: A medicine that gives tone to the system by stimulating nutrition. Torus: The receptacle or thalamus. Toxic: Poisonous. Trichomes: Hairs. Tricostate: Three-ribbed. Trilocular: Having the ovary three-celled. Tristichous: Leaves with three-ranked phyllotaxy. Truncate: Terminating abruptly. Tuber: An enlarged portion of underground stem. Tubercles: Enlarged oval or rounded portions of root. Umbel: Inflorescence with pedicels all proceeding from one place. Uncinate: Hooked. Unilocular: Having one division (ovary). Urceolate: Urn-shaped. Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra (the outlet from the bladder). Utricle: A superior, one-celled, few-seeded fruit. Valvate: United only by the margins. Valves: Portions detached by definite dehiscence. Vasodilator: A botanical that causes blood vessels to dilate. Vermifuge: A medicine that expels worms without killing them. Venation: Arrangement of veins in leaves. Verrucose: Covered with warts. Versatile: Freely swinging. Verticel: A whorl. Vesicants: Medicines producing a decided redness of the skin with formation of serum between epidermis and dermis. Vexillum: The standard, or erect (upper) petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Vittae: Oil canals in fruit-coat of Umbelliferae (schizogenous oil ducts). Volute: Rolled up. Vulnerary: A medicine that causes wounds to heal (salves). Wart: A solid glandular excrescence on epidermis. Whorl: A circle of leaves around a stem. Zones: Concentric bands.

* Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy, Sayre, Lucius E., 1895, pp; 529-536.

RECOMMENDED REFERENCE BOOKS

1. T.E. Wallis, Textbook of Pharmacognosy, 4th ed., J. & A. Churchill Ltd., London, 1960. 2. H.W. Youngken, A Textbook of Pharmacognosy, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co., Inc., Philadelphia, PA, 1936. 3. J. Bruneton, Pharmacognosy Phytochemistry Medicinal Plants, Lavoisier, Paris, 1995. 4. O. A. Wall, Notes on Parmacognosy, 2nd ed., Aug. Gast Bank Note and Litho Co., St. Louis, MO, 1902. 5. A. Y. Leung and S. Foter, Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996. 6. N. G. Bisset, Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals — A Handbook for Practice on a Scientific Basis, Medpharm Scientific Publishers, Stuttgart, 1994. 7. Tease and Evans, Pharmacognosy, 13th ed., Bailliere Tindall, London, 1989. 8. The Merck Index, 12th ed., Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., New Jersey, 1996. 9. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Medicine Association, Bournemouth, U.K., 1983. 10. British Herbal Compendum, Vol. 1, British Herbal Medicine Assoication, Biddles, Ltd., U.K., 1992. 11. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Medicine Assoication, Biddles, Ltd., U.K., 1990. 12. The National Formulary XVIII, American Pharmaceutical Association, Mack Publishing, Rock- ville, MD, 1995. 13. E. Guenther, The Essential Oils, Vol. 1–7, Robert E. Krieger Publishing, Huntington, NY, 1975. 14. Potter’s Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs & Preparations, 4th ed., R.C. Wren, Potter & Clarke, Ltd., 1932. 15. The Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, Pharmacopoeia Convention of the American Institute of Homeopathy, 7th ed., Ehrhart & Karl, Chicago, IL, 1964. 16. American Medicinal Plants of Major Importance, MIS Publication, Washington, D.C., 1930. 17. H. Wagner and S. Bladt, Plant Drug Analysis, A Thin Layer Chromatography Atlas, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, 1996. 18. M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, Vol. I and II, Dover Publications, 1971. 19. V.E. Tyler, The Honest Herbal, 3rd ed., Haworth Press, New York, 1993. 20. V.E. Tyler, Herbs of Choice, Haworth Press, New York, 1994. 21. J.A. Duke, Handbook of Biologically Active Phytochemicals and their Activities, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1992. 22. J.A. Duke, Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and other Economic Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1992. 23. K. Nakanishi et al., Natural Products Chemistry, Vol. I and II, Academic Press, New York, 1974. 24. American Herbal Products Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.