Cultural Flows in the Digital and Beyond: The Potency of a Symbol in Mainland China Justine Poplin A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) College of Arts and Education Creative Arts Victoria University Melbourne Australia Supervisor: Dr Sue Dodd Associate Supervisor: Associate Professor Dr Tom Clark 2017 Abstract In the twenty-first century, access to a fragmented global culture through online portals has created what Bauman (2011) calls a ‘liquid culture’. As screen-mediated ways of being grow and propagate through our art galleries, museums and online social media feeds, how are we to read this emergent visual grammar so that we can motivate, move or elevate our ways of knowing? This thesis explores the symbolism created in mainland China in 2009 through an emergent and retained set of subversive symbols: the Grass Mud Horse lexicon in Chinese visual culture and beyond. To date, theorists have focused predominantly on internet memes, independent of other multimodal forms generated and transitioned from symbolic online internet memes to offline symbolic use in art and design. I investigate ways of deciphering and articulating these visual gestures through accessing cultural keys. I claim that the new symbolism generated as a result of internet censorship in mainland China demonstrates a generational and ideological shift; it does so through the creation and propagation of new visual grammar in twenty-first century China. To scaffold my claims, I explore an overview of historical changes in the visual articulation of Chinese culture. The use of Mao Zedong as a symbol in art and design clearly illustrates a shift from veneration to subversion. By exploring the symbolism in visual culture dating from 1912 to China’s digital age, this study reveals a transition that proposes a new heroic icon, the Grass Mud Horse. The creation of this new symbolism has political relevance; it deploys practices and art forms to signal, dissolve and raise awareness of social and ideological change. This study maps the new symbolism to test the claim that over time, some symbols may lose potency, while others remain and reflect ideological shifts. The findings will be demonstrated through a synthesis of online digital ethnography, including semiotic and compositional interpretation, and incorporating multimodal discourse analysis. This study will challenge the Western perspective of Chinese stereotypes in visual culture by working with and interpreting visual cultural flows in the digital age. ii Declaration of Authenticity I certify that the work in this thesis has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree. The PhD thesis entitled Cultural Flows in the Digital and Beyond: The Potency of a Symbol in Mainland China is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature Justine Poplin iii To the challenges and joys of understanding and unfolding the many ways of knowing iv Acknowledgements The process and practice of undertaking this research would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), my supervisors, peers and colleagues (national and global), and like-minded and not so like-minded friends and family. I would like to extend my gratitude as an acknowledgement of the role they have played from the conception to manifestation of this thesis. This journey has granted me the time to research an area with which I have a strong and deeply rooted connection a cross-cultural researcher and also as a creative practitioner. My interest in creativity in China has been sparked by living, working and exhibiting on the mainland contractually since 2001. During this time, I met some wonderful academics, researchers and creative thinkers who share my thoughts on the rapid changes that are occurring to the ways of being in China. Most notably, Dr Michael Fitzhenry; we had many conversations about this transformative shift and its impact on visual culture. Sadly, Michael passed away suddenly in June 2015; he was a loyal and supportive colleague, friend and mentor of great inspiration. Our many conversations planted a seed that initiated this research. My thesis is dedicated to people with limited access to internet freedom in mainland China. With this limitation, creativity rises to the fore. To the online co-collective of creative practitioners who, through manifesting new visual forms, give voice to what cannot be written. To the YouTubers, tweeters, the artists and the unknown, may we all have the ability to read the replicators of our time. To the academic community in Australia and overseas, I am grateful that we can connect virtually through online networks. Now, unlike previous years one can instantly share and disseminate knowledge and curate a community. Thanks to the Thesis Whisperer Dr Inger Mewburn, particularly for her PhD resilience course, led through the Australian National University’s EdX online. As a participant in this online community of researchers in research training, I found useful connections to PhD and Early Career Researcher Parents on Facebook, which proved so supportive. Further, on the online contingent, a big shout out to guru Vlogger and Dean of Graduate Research at Flinders University Dr Tara Brabazon for her authentic and strategy driven guidance. v I would also like to acknowledge Dr Kalissa Alexeyeff, whom I am gratefully indebted to for her very valuable perspective and comments on this thesis. To my supervisors and staff in the Graduate Research Centre at Victoria University, which—due to an interstate transfer helped support and shape my PhD research and surrounding administration transition. In particular, I would like to thank Robert De Young for your conversations and guidance through the transition. Central and key to my journey were my supervisors, Dr Sue Dodd and Associate Supervisor Associate Professor Tom Clark. Thank you, Sue for your enthusiasm and passion for visual subcultures spurring me on and giving me validation and support, while gently guiding me to deliver a clear, engaging and provocative thesis. To Tom Clark, for his digital green spidery feedback, fine taste in Chinese tea and wall-mounted guitar, whose attention to detail was unwavering, particularly through the crucial last stages. Thank you for equipping me with the tools to navigate the processes of research, which have enabled my research vision to manifest at the College of Arts and Education at Victoria University. This thesis has been edited in accordance with the ‘Guidelines for Editing Research Theses’, jointly developed by the Institute of Professional Editors (Australia) and Australian universities. The thesis has been edited according to British/Australian punctuation and spelling conventions. Thank you to my friends and family who have now lived through the processes and many stages of Justine writing a thesis. It is a tremendous and monumental task in which, I feel forever changed. Spiritually, I thank Composed (community acapella group) directed by Stephen Sharpe; my weekly singing as a soprano in this group revitalised my equilibrium outside the academic ‘dark arts’ (Brabazon, 2017). My family support has been instrumental in ensuring I finish what I started. My second child Levi was conceived when I first commenced this research. He has not known his mamma without PhD research. To my daughter Aria, who has also lived half her life through this thesis. To my husband Zhenxing, whose understanding and unwavering support for me to complete this research is a sign of endearing endurance. To my mother Enid whom, I am sure will be pleased to hear of topics other than Grass Mud Horses and other visual signifiers that roam the internet. Thank you mum for listening. vi Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... ii Declaration of Authenticity........................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... v Contents ......................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................ ix List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... xii Glossary ........................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................................... 14 Setting the Research Question .................................................................................... 14 Thesis Structure .......................................................................................................... 20 Chapter Two: Internet Censorship and Expression of Identity in Mainland China .............................................................................................................................