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Postcolonial Perspectives in South India

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Postcolonial Perspectives in South India CONTEXTUALISING MISSIONARY ENGAGEMENT: TRANSITION FROM CHRISTIANISATION OF INDIA TO INDIANISATION OF CHRISTIANITY IN COLONIAL SOUTH INDIA- EDINBURGH CONFERENCE AND AFTER ∗ M. Christhu Doss INTRODUCTION It may be argued that in times of conflict, monuments and other historical structures are destroyed or whole communities converted in one way or the other to conqueror’s religion. The destruction of Hindu temples and monuments by Muslim rulers and vice-versa was a historical reality in the medieval period. 1 Colonial hegemony gave the colonisers not only the power to set the pattern of Indian historiography but also to take up issues related to religion,2general progress and modernity to the ‘subject’ peoples. 3 Not surprisingly then, there were formal links between Christianity and the British Raj. 4 Missionaries too had easy access to the highest government offices in British India. 5When religious doctrines were considered as the essence of world religions, the concept of true religion began to appear in the scene.6 Nevertheless, the ironies of colonialism were very much visible. 7 In addition to this, in the early days of missionary activity, the attitudes of the missionaries were extremely aggressive.8 It was firmly believed that Christianity was right, eternal and of God. All other religions were wrong, transitory, and if not of the devil, strongly conditioned in that direction. The attitude of foreign missionaries with few exceptions was the attitude of superiority ∗ M. Christhu Doss (Ph. D., J.N.U.) is working on a project called Towards Freedom , Vol. 10, Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi with Prof. Sucheta Mahajan as its editor. I thank Prof. Sucheta Mahajan, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, and my friends Shobana Sinha, Ashish Koul and Sam Raj for their valuable suggestions and comments in making the final draft of this paper. 1 Gauri Viswanathan, Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief, (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 153. 2 Hira Singh, Colonial Hegemony and Popular Resistance: Princes, Peasants, and Paramount Power , (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1998), 35. 3 Cf. Michael Mann, “‘Torchbearers Upon the Path of Progress’: Britain’s Ideology of a ‘Moral and Material Progress’ in India,” edited by Herald Fischer-Tine and Michael Mann, in Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India , (London: Wimbledon Publishing Company, 2004), 4-5. 4 Gerald Studdert-Kennedy, British Christians, Indian Nationalists and the Raj, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991), 94. 5 Dick Kooiman, Conversion and Social Equality in India: The London Missionary Society in South Travancore in the 19 th Century , (New Delhi: Manohar, 1989), 9. 6 Richard King, Orientalism and Religion: Post Colonial Theory, India and ‘The Mystic East ,’ (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), 38. 7 Nicholas B. Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India , (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001), 134. 8 Sometimes, missionaries, making use of their proximity to influential converts, would preach the Christian faith in front of Hindu temples and other public places with deliberate intentions and motives, hurting the feelings and sentiments of the people of other faiths. This attitude of missionaries towards other faiths directly and indirectly induced and instigated communal tension between faiths. A missionary from Church Missionary Society shares his experience in the following lines: “The opening words give the whole tone to the preaching, and as my companion read on ‘you must not worship Brahma-you must not worship Vishnu-you must not worship Shiva-all this is sin.” See Madras Church Missionary Record , (Madras: C.M.S., Oct.-Dec. 1875), 310-311. Also see Clifford Manshardt , Christianity in a Changing India, (Bombay: Y.M.C.A. Publishing House, 1932), 20-21. 1 and their preaching was considered mostly a message of condemnation. 9 Nevertheless, in their enterprise to win the ‘souls’ of the marginalised people, the missionaries often came into direct contact with them. Gradually, the missionaries began to wield a great deal of influence in the lives of the depressed classes, leading to the creation of quite a few local churches. In due course of time, the head-on-collision between the concepts of caste hierarchy and Christian equality created possibilities for the incorporation of Hindu social rules into the Christian congregations.10 The foundations of Protestant Christianity were laid by the works of Martin Luther (1483-1586), Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), and John Calvin (1509-1564). The history of Protestantism in India began11 with the arrival of two Germans, Bartholomaeus Zieganbalg, and Henry Plutschau in Tranquebar in 1706, sent by the Danish King, Frederick IV 12 with the twin objectives viz., evangelisation 13 and Christianisation. Another notable figure in this context was Christian Frederick Schwartz, a missionary of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.) who chose to work in 14 Tirunelveli, the southernmost point of Tamil Nadu (Tinnevelly in Missionary Records).15 In time, Tirunelveli emerged as an important centre for Protestant missionary activities. In Tirunelveli district, for every hundred of the population eighty-four were Hindus, ten were Christians and six were Muhammadans. Indeed, here the proportion of Christians to the total population was higher than in any other Madras district. In the decade 1900—1911 the Christian population (almost entirely Indian Christians) in the district increased by 17 per cent. 16 Thus, the southern tip of the peninsula was fully exposed to the impact of missionaries’ social action. Village after village accepted the new faith for various reasons partly constituted by material and partly spiritual compulsions. The followers of Jesus Christ in this religious process were mainly drawn from Shanars or Nadar s, a toddy tapping caste, Pariahs and the Paravas, a fishing community of the coast. 17 MODERN MISSIONARY MOVEMENT AND WORLD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE According to J. P. Jones, a missionary scholar, there were fifty-two hundred Protestant missionaries in India--men and women of all shades of Protestant belief, with all kinds and degrees of equipment for the work. He observed that never was the missionary better equipped, on the whole, to render effective missionary service, and never was there a keener demand for 9 Clifford Manshardt , Christianity in a Changing India, (Bombay: Y.M.C.A. Publishing House, 1933), 20-21. 10 M. Christhu Doss, Protestant Missionaries and Depressed Classes in Southern Tamil Nadu 1813-1947 , (Un- published Ph. D. Thesis) (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University, 2010), 1-5 11 Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India 1707-1858 , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 28- 29. 12 D. Dennis Hudson, Protestant Origins in India: Tamil Evangelical Christians, 1706-1835 , (Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. / Richmond: Curzon Press Ltd. 2000), 30-31. 13 Brian Stanley, Christian Missions and the Enlightenment , (Cambridge: Wm. Eerdmans Publishing Co., /Curzon Press Ltd., 2001), 2. 14 Cf. Walker, “The Tinnevelly Mission,” in The Harvest Field, (Madras: Addison & Co., Oct., 1892, 121-125. 15 V. S. Azariah, India and Christian Movement , (Madras: Christian Literature Society for India, 1934), 63-64. 16 H. R. Pate, Madras District Gazetteers: Tinnevelly , (Madras, Government Press, 1917), 88. 17 M. Christhu Doss, Protestant Missionaries and Depressed Classes in Southern Tamil Nadu 1813-1947, 2-6. 2 missionaries of the best training and noblest character. In fact, missionaries were supposed to possess the following characteristics and qualifications: He must of course be possessed of distinguished piety. The missionary must be a man or woman of culture and of constructive thought. They tend to leave every- thing, even the most cherished things of life and of thought, with an interrogation point stamped upon it. It is not enough that a missionary love the people; he must appreciate them also. He must also be a leader of men. It is of much comfort and help to him in this particular to know that the people of India have a genius for docility. 18 Furthermore, foreign missionary conferences also began to take place in South India, United States and in Europe, in which representatives of all Protestant missionary societies came together to discuss the common interests of the cause of evangelisation. One of the most significant of these was the World Missionary Conference, held in Edinburgh in 1910. The conference played a crucial role in the history of Christianisation in India. One of the outstanding features of the conference according to V. S. Azariah was the recognition it gave to the church in the mission field. According to many Indian Christians this recognition gave birth to a new era in the missionary world. Thus, the indigenous church was frankly acknowledged to be the greatest, the most potent, and the most natural factor in the “Indianisation” of evangelism in the country. 19 Growing out of the Edinburgh Missionary Conference, a Continuation Committee of forty members was constituted, representing the Protestant denominations of the world. Thus for the first time the missionary societies, across the globe were joining together for the elimination of the differences among themselves in pursuit of a “world-conquest.”20 Accordingly, among the topics considered at the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh that of the missionary message in relation to the non-Christian world occupied a crucial place due to various socio- political reasons. 21 The Continuation Committee later developed into the International Missionary Council which later on created few National Missionary Councils including the National Missionary Council of India. 22 Charles F. Ossory, a missionary writer, points out: “The first impression produced on many thoughtful minds by the announcement of an assembly calling itself the World Missionary Conference was a feeling of repulsion.”23 Nevertheless, the message of Protestant Christianity to the followers of the Hindu religion in South India started spreading without much objection.
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