The Life and Death of a Nineteenth-Century Single-Screw Steamer

THE LIFE AND DEATH OF A NINETEENTH-CENTURY SINGLE-SCREW STEAMER,

CITY OF TAMPA

Andrew M. Derlikowski

B.A., The University of West Florida, 2012

A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology College of Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

2017

Ó 2017 Andrew Derlikowski

The thesis of Andrew M. Derlikowski is approved:

______Della Scott-Ireton, Ph.D., Committee Member Date

______Amy Mitchell-Cook, Ph.D., Committee Member Date

______Gregory Cook, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date

Accepted for the Department/Division:

______John Bratten, Ph.D., Chair Date

Accepted for the University:

______John Clune, Ph.D. Date Interim Vice Provost for Academic Progress

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A number of people helped to make this thesis possible. I want to thank my thesis committee, Dr. Greg Cook, Dr. Della Scott-Ireton, and Dr. Amy Mitchell-Cook for helping me navigate the often-muddy waters of the thesis process. I couldn’t have completed this project without your feedback and flexibility. I would also like to thank The University of West Florida

Archaeology Institute, the Blackwater Pyrates, and the Pensacola Archaeological Society for the financial and material support that allowed me to conduct my research and fieldwork. Nathan

Woolsey for getting me so much great information, and my buddy Bill for all his steam engine knowledge. To the gents at Marine Services, Steve McLin, who taught me so much about the boats we use every day, Fritz Sharar, who gave me much support with all things underwater and above, and Del De Los Santos for always lending a helping hand, I couldn’t have done it without you.

Several of my professors in the Department of Anthropology contributed to this thesis as well. Dr. Ramie Gougeon, who talked with me about CRM life and my foray into actor-network theory, and Dr. John Bratten, who allowed me to go after City of Tampa in the first place. Cindi

Rogers and Juliette Moore, thank you for making sure that I was always on track with my paperwork, and for acting surprised to see me in the office. I also could not have finished my fieldwork without the help of my fellow graduate students during the 2013-2015 seasons. So many friends and students helped make this a reality, but I would like to acknowledge a few in particular. Meghan Mumford, you spent a ridiculous amount of time in the murky depths of the river, mapping City of Tampa with me. William J. Wilson, you’ve been with me from the beginning, relocating City of Tampa and working on her, your encouragement and friendship through this entire process has been of immeasurable value to me, thank you!

Most of all, I could not have done any of this without my wife, best friend, research assistant, and editor, Connie. I never dreamt of being able to go back to University, your belief in me makes me a better person every single day. You manage not only me, but our daughter and menagerie of animals while I get to be an archaeologist. I love and cherish you dearly.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES ...... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii

ABSTRACT ...... x

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER II. ENVIRONMENT ...... 7 A. Background ...... 7 B. Geographic Location ...... 8

CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF STEAMBOATING AND CITY OF TAMPA ...... 10 A. Industry in NW Florida ...... 10 B. Yellow Pine and other Types of Wood Used in Watercraft ...... 12 C. Introduction of Steam-powered Vessels ...... 14 D. Packet Steamer City of Tampa ...... 16 E. Problems with Steam-propelled Vessels ...... 21 F. Operation of Steam-driven Vessels ...... 24 G. Current Investigations ...... 30

CHAPTER IV. METHOLOGY AND FIELDWORK ...... 36 A. Pensacola Shipwreck Survey Phase I, 1991 ...... 36 B. Relocating City of Tampa ...... 36 C. Archaeological Operations 2013 ...... 38 D. Artifact Analysis ...... 41 E. Archaeological Investigation 2014 and 2015 ...... 44 F. Collecting Timber Samples ...... 46

CHAPTER V. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 50 A. Actor Network Theory Background ...... 50 B. Theory in Practice ...... 50 C. Actor Network Theory and City of Tampa ...... 51

CHAPTER VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 55 A. Conclusion ...... 57

REFERENCES ...... 60

APPENDIX APPENDIX A ...... 65 TRILATERATION FORM ...... 66

LIST OF TABLES

1. CHANGES TO CITY OF TAMPA FROM CONSTRUCTION TO SINKING ...17

2. WOOD SAMPLES COLLECTED AND LOCATIONS ...... 27

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Map indicating area of investigation (8SR1490) ...... 9

2. Loblolly Pine, Pinus taeda L., distribution ...... 13

3. Longleaf Pine, Pinus palustra L., distribution ...... 14

4. Volunteer on the Ohio river prior to modification ...... 19

5. City of Tampa in reverse on Blackwater River, date unknown ...... 19

6. City of Tampa, Ollinger and Bruce Dry-dock ...... 24

7. City of Tampa at Palafox Wharf, c. 1910 ...... 26

8. Changes in shape, size, and tonnage of City of Tampa ...... 27

9. City of Tampa under-steam, date unknown ...... 28

10. Steamer City of Tampa on Blackwater Bay ...... 29

11. City of Tampa, under steam ...... 29

12. City of Tampa at mooring, Keyser Wharf, Milton Florida ...... 30

13. Sector Scan north of boiler ...... 31

14. Advertisement from Milton Gazette 1919 ...... 33

15. Close-up of initial side-scan image, 2013 ...... 37

16. Meghan Mumford and author mapping in excellent visibility ...... 39

17. Magnetic signature of City of Tampa ...... 40

18. Stoneware ceramic fragment ...... 41

19. Graphitized globe valve cover ...... 42

20. XRF results indicating heavy presences of iron (Fe) ...... 42

21. Pressure relief valve, reads “Battle Creek” along upper portion ...... 43

22. X-Ray showing the brass interior of valve ...... 43

viii

23. Brass oiler, “McMillian Bros. Co.” embossed ...... 44

24. A map of total rainfall (mm) from the NASA near-real-time TRMM Multi-Satellite

Precipitation Analysis (TMPA-RT) for the period of 29 April – 1 May 2014...... 45

25. Construction plan of Sabino. Arrow denotes example of sample locations ...... 46

26. At amidships facing aft, starboard futtock, ceiling planking and firebox ...... 49

27. Four-blade propeller, facing toward the bow ...... 49

28. Site map of City of Tampa ...... 50

ABSTRACT

The wreck of City of Tampa is located at the confluence of the Yellow River and

Blackwater Bay in Santa Rosa County, Florida, in 7 ft. of water. A western-style single-screw steamer, the vessel operated during one of the most productive times in NW Florida’s history.

Built in Mason City, WV, it was single-decked, 12 ft. wide, and 91.3 ft. long. Once City of

Tampa outlived its usefulness to its West Virginia owners, the “Tampa” was sold to interests in

Florida and modified somewhere in the southeastern United States. The purpose of this thesis is to identify where these modifications occurred. An in-depth look into the history of the vessel, in order to gather a fuller picture of its use and importance to the area, is also explored.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Statement of Research Problem

The use of steam propulsion on vessels began at the end of the 18th century and eventually came to dominate the coasts and waterways of the United States in the 19th century.

Steam technology provided several benefits; it required fewer crew to operate a vessel, lowered costs, and lessened the time to bring goods to market. This innovation bolstered the young

American economy, and helped to open up the western and the southern frontiers. The steamboat also employed several designs that conformed to the specific environment in which the ships operated; the packet is one such vessel.

During the 19th century as use of steamboats expanded, several industries operated in and around the Port of Pensacola. Fishing, brick making, and the milling of yellow pine supported local workers and bolstered the economies of surrounding towns. This commerce depended largely on the waterways, specifically the Blackwater River, for movement of people, supplies, and the materials themselves. Steam vessels, especially the packet, were key to this process due to their particular shape and draft.

The packet steamer, City of Tampa (8SR1490), was one such vessel. This steamer made daily trips transporting goods and passengers in northwest Florida, and was highly regarded by the communities it served. The loss of this vessel while undergoing repairs, even for a day, was reported by The Milton Press Gazette and in The Pensacola Journal as an important news event.

City of Tampa served the area for over 20 years. The vessel was a major loss for residents when she caught fire while under repairs and sank in 1921.

The vessel’s remains were identified and added to the Florida Master Site File during the

1991/1992 Pensacola Shipwreck Survey conducted by the State of Florida. According to locals,

City of Tampa’s boiler was visible above the waters of Blackwater Bay for many years, at least until Hurricane Fredrick in 1979; after that, she became a popular fishing spot (Woolsey 2010:6).

In the Florida Master Site File, only her boiler was described as being found, most likely due to the challenging environmental conditions present in Blackwater Bay that prevented further investigation. In March of 2012, graduate students Andrew Derlikowski, William Wilson, and

Eric Swanson rediscovered City of Tampa using information from a 1960s article that described its sinking, NOAA charts, and data from the HMS Mentor survey. They found not only the boiler described in the 1991/1992 survey, but the complete wreck. Tampa was 25 ft. to the south of the boiler, and contrary to the newspaper article, was not in 12 ft. of water, but rather in 7 ft. The vessel was mostly intact, with its machinery, hull, and running gear, which terminated at the four-blade propeller. Researchers decided the vessel needed additional examination and the project became a thesis.

History and Background

City of Tampa (8SR1490), a western-style steamboat, was built in West Virginia in 1887 by the Bay Brothers (Way 1983:473). Originally named Volunteer, this vessel was used as a packet steamer during the entire course of her life, even after extensive modifications and a change in geographic location. As Volunteer, she worked on the Ohio River for a short time and was subsequently “sold south.” Often, northern boats that had outlived their usefulness to the owners were sold to interests elsewhere, usually down the Mississippi River, to be put into service in the waterways along the Gulf of Mexico. On the Ohio, the vessel had a single deck and was 93 ft. x 12.6 ft., with a draft of 2.3 ft. (Way 1983:473). These dimensions were ideal for navigating constantly changing river systems since a shallow-drafted vessel would be able to avoid the shoals and most submerged obstructions. Documents indicate she was modified

heavily prior to arriving in northwest Florida waters, including the doubling of her beam and the addition of a second deck, but exactly where these changes took place remains unknown.

Before being sold to Captain Augustus Mason in 1898, the vessel moved fruit on the

Manatee River south of Tampa, Florida (Woolsey 2010:4). Whether Tampa was modified at that time is not known. The City of Tampa spent the better part of her life in the south, with 23 of the vessel’s 34 years docked in Milton, Florida. An unusually long life for a packet steamer, with the average longevity of these vessels around 4.3 years. A packet’s short lifespan could be attributed to operating under tough conditions, moving large amounts of freight, and the jarring movements of a steam engine (Hunter 1993:101–103). The steamer’s modifications made her more desirable to use in these waters.

The Mason family owned City of Tampa for the majority of her career, until her final sale to G. C. Harvell and R. P. Broxon in 1919. The vessel continued to operate as a packet, making daily runs to Bagdad and Pensacola until 1921 (Woolsey 2010:6). According to the Milton Press

Gazette, during a routine boiler replacement, which was being conducted at the Bay Point

Shipyard, City of Tampa caught fire in the middle of the night. The fire moved quickly and was unable to be contained, eventually burning through the hawser, and the vessel drifted southeast with the outgoing tide until it struck a sandbar, burned to the waterline, and sank (Whatley

1964).

While much of City of Tampa’s history is available in photographs, primary sources, and secondary documents, little had been attempted archaeologically. Since packet steamers were mass-produced and had a number of varying hull and engine designs, very few prints, and even fewer scale drawings, are available for most of these vessels.

Though a substantial timeline is available in the documentary records, research was unable to locate information regarding the vessel’s extensive changes. In photographs and

Steamboat Registries, City of Tampa simply appears with one deck, and then reappears with two decks and twice the beam. The use of archaeology, historical construction methods, and wood samples from possible locations of alteration helped fill these gaps in her timeline. However, what makes this vessel unique is not only the physical changes, but the cultural impact that the

City of Tampa had on the residents of northwest Florida.

Theoretical Framework

City of Tampa was an important component of the communities she served, including

Cincinnati, Ohio, and central Florida, as well as Milton and northwest Florida. When City of

Tampa sank due to a catastrophic fire, the community lost more than wood and machinery, they lost a vital part of the local culture. Actor network theory (ANT) situates City of Tampa as an actant, or a comparison of humans and things, in the greater network of the Blackwater River and its communities. Actor network theory does not separate material from immaterial; therefore, viewing City of Tampa through this lens will give some insight as to why she lasted as long as she did. According to sociologist John Law, “ANT is a contrasting family of material-semiotic tools, sensibilities, and methods of analysis that treat everything in the social and natural worlds as a continuously generated web of relations within which they are located” (Turner 2009:141).

City of Tampa was the product of a time when steamboats not only transported freight, but moved information, as well, from port to port.

Area and Data

City of Tampa (8SR1490) is located in Blackwater Bay near the northern mouth of the

Yellow River in Santa Rosa County, Florida (Figure 1). The site is in 7 ft. of water and the

environment is brackish, although during periods of heavy rain it is not heavily affected by tidal change. The site’s extents are at least 100 ft. long and the scatter extends up to 100 ft. wide, since the boiler rests 25 ft. to the north of the main area of wreckage (Derlikowski 2013:1). A combination of archaeological and documentary evidence provide the location of the vessel’s hull modification. Since an abundance of photographs exist of City of Tampa, a large-scale excavation was not necessary at that time. Therefore, no test units were excavated on the site since much of the structure was visible above the sediment.

Methodology

The bulk of research focused on hull construction, but also included mapping and site delineation for submission of a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. Data gathered during the University of West Florida’s maritime field schools provided the majority of information, as did site visits after the field season concluded. Archaeological methods included installation of a baseline along the starboard side of City of Tampa, rather than the centerline due to the volume of material situated between the vessel and boiler. The baseline was used for mapping and artifact recovery recorded through trilateration. Data collection was completed quickly in order to avoid resetting the baseline due to snagging by fishing line or anchors.

Remote sensing was employed due to low visibility at 8SR1490, using a 1200 kHz side-scan sonar. A magnetometer was also used to gather a magnetic signature to help identify other iron- heavy wrecks in the area’s waterways.

Site Significance

The City of Tampa is significant not only for its contributions to historical and maritime archaeology, but also for understanding the story of a locally important vessel whose loss affected the citizenry of northwest Florida. City of Tampa is remembered affectionately; many

locals still tell stories about family that either spent time aboard her or witnessed her sinking.

The vessel not only transported people to their jobs at the mills, which dominated commerce on the Blackwater River, but she also became a symbol of progress in an area that was becoming increasingly modern in what was considered a frontier, even into the 20th century. While other examples of packet steamers have been examined archaeologically, City of Tampa is distinctive because the remains of the vessel are in remarkably good shape despite the catastrophic nature of its sinking. Due to almost zero visibility at the site, the vessel has been somewhat protected, and the nature of the tannic waters has also helped to preserve her. What is above the substrate provides an ample amount of data to answer the questions related to this thesis.

CHAPTER II ENVIRONMENT AND LOCATION

Background

A vessel is much more than an amalgamation of lines, sails, and, in this case, engines.

Ships connected people and places, and moved ideas, and City of Tampa was no different. City of

Tampa operated in the waters surrounding Florida’s panhandle in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, during the lumber boom in NW Florida. The vessel was an active participant in the culture and economic well-being of Milton and Pensacola. Without steamboats like Tampa,

Florida would not have benefited from tourists’ excursions, or from the development of interior settlements that the state still relies on today to keep the economy prosperous (Bass 2008:3).

In the 1800s and 1900s in NW Florida, lumber mills flourished, as did the fishing and brick-making industries, stabilizing the economy after the Civil War (Rucker 2011:5). Florida still, however, was considered an untamed frontier, and few, to no, roads connected Pensacola,

Milton, and Bagdad. Waterways, instead, were used for traveling between these areas quickly and efficiently. As described by Dr. Brian Rucker, the Blackwater River Valley forms the most central geographical feature of Santa Rosa County. Draining numerous tributaries, the

Blackwater River creates a large bay which extends southerly, growing larger as it receives the additional waters of Yellow River and East River (Rucker 1990:137). The large network of tributaries supported trade, which aided communities along the rivers and bays.

The Blackwater and its connecting waterways were the preferred, and most effective, mode of travel. Even before colonization by the Spanish, indigenous people relied on the vast system of waterways for travel into the interior. These rivers and bays are where City of Tampa, along with numerous other vessels, plied their trade.

Geographic Location

The Blackwater and Yellow Rivers in Santa Rosa County, Florida, are the focal points of this thesis, but these are only two of several storied waterways in northwest Florida (Fig. 1). The river is colored by a high tannin content, making obstructions and the bottom hard to see from the surface. These tannic acids give the Blackwater River its name; however, it was called the

Middle River by the British, due to its location between Escambia River and East Bay. The largest river system in northwest Florida, the Blackwater empties into Blackwater and East Bays.

The headwaters originate in Alabama, with four major river systems draining into the county:

Blackwater River, Escambia River, Yellow River, and East River. Of these, the Blackwater is the most central and includes the significant tributaries of Pond Creek, Clear Creek, Coldwater

Creek, and Big Juniper Creek. Escambia River, the western boundary of Santa Rosa, is a larger river, extending northward into southern Alabama where it becomes the Conecuh. The Yellow

River also originates in Alabama (Rucker 1990:v).

Currently, the Blackwater River centers less on commerce and is used more for leisure by the area’s residents. However, one needs only to look at the multitude of historical photographs to see lumber piled high along the banks; various types of watercraft, steam and sail; and shipyards, all contributing to the economic health of the area. Much of that past is still visible; the river is strewn with shipwrecks associated with various maritime industries. Many sites in the

Blackwater formed through a variety of human actions, consisting mostly of abandonment

(Wilson 2015:39). Several notable wrecks are the result of catastrophic sinking events as well.

Figure 1. Map indicating area of investigation (Courtesy of William J. Wilson, 2017).

CHAPTER III HISTORY OF STEAMBOATING AND CITY OF TAMPA

Industry in NW Florida

Pensacola and the surrounding area has been attractive for maritime purposes for thousands of years. The original inhabitants of the panhandle were Native Americans who arrived during the Ice Age and remained in the area until the colonial and early American period

(Rucker 2011:4). Pensacola has a naturally deep-water bay that is protected from the unpredictable waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The area is also rich in long-leaf yellow pine, live oak, juniper, and cypress. Pioneering lumbermen began transforming the virgin yellow pine forests of Santa Rosa and Escambia Counties into capital, and the lumber industry became the lifeblood of the area. This “frontier industry” developed in the piney woods of antebellum Santa

Rosa; sawmills, brickyards, bucket factories, shipyards, sash factories, and a textile mill appeared prior to the Civil War. Valuable shipbuilding timber was one reason the British,

French, Spanish, and American navies held an interest in northwest Florida as a priority for their militaries. Besides shipbuilding, controlling the coast was a way to stop foreign encroachment into the Gulf of Mexico. Spain controlled the Florida territory from Pensacola to St. Augustine, with the French to the west in Mobile, and the British to the north in Georgia (Rucker 2011:5), making the panhandle an important strategic location for European powers throughout the 16th to 18th centuries.

In the 18th century the lumber industry began to flourish, and people immigrated to the area seeking employment and fortune from the abundant virgin timber forests. The industry expanded after the removal of the Southern Homestead Act in 1876, which opened up new lands for lumber in northwest Florida (Moon 2001). The Southern Homestead Act stated that public lands in five southern states could now be sold to prospective buyers for timbering (Gates

1940:313). A secondary effect of the lumber boom was an increase in population in the settlements that surrounded the mills. These “mill-towns” sprang up along the Blackwater River and its tributaries and Bagdad and Bay Point Mills both prospered. Although the historic lumber companies are gone, their remnants are still visible along the Blackwater River. For example, the remains of the Rosasco family’s mill complex are evident from the river in the form of abandoned boilers and a substantial dry-kiln above water. The mill was operated by the Rosasco family from its purchase in 1904 until its sale in 1924 (Rosasco-Soule and Cannon 1987:xiii).

Present near the site are at least eight vessels connected to the lumber industry at Shields Point

(Sjordal 2007). Lumber workers and their employers needed supplies, food, and transportation, all of which were brought via the Blackwater River. City of Tampa filled this role for a number of the mills and their employees. The Bay Point mill had a reserved dock named after the vessel where it would drop off deliveries for the family and the business (Rosasco-Soule and Cannon

1987:78).

This industrial setting created a niche for steam packets, vessels not beholden to the wind and tides. During the area’s establishment in 1698, the sailboat or schooner was the primary mode of transportation along the Gulf Coast. Eventually, the steamboat replaced many of these vessels as the main form of cargo and passenger transport. Steam replaced sail for several reasons. Technological innovations, like the steam engine, were driven by commerce; the fewer people needed to complete a task, such as shipping and delivery, the more time and money were saved (Kane 2004:12). Running a steam-powered vessel required a smaller crew and less energy than raising a sail to make way, and no longer was a vessel constrained by the wind.

The lumber industry and all that it encompassed, including logging, mill work, delivery of product, and equipment transport, helped to drive the economy. Yellow pine supported many

of the area’s residents, including numerous captains and their crews who relied on shipping timber, mill supplies, and the people needed to operate those mills. Pine was also used to build homes and many of the vessels that worked northwest Florida’s coastlines and waterways

(Skinner 1908:136). Investigating a steamboat that worked the waters of northwest Florida during one of the lumber industry’s most productive times, one can begin to create a detailed picture of the relationship between City of Tampa and citizens of NW Florida throughout this time. It also helps to define the roles these vessels played in the lives of the people, as well as in the economic health of northwest Florida from the late 18th into the early 20th century.

Yellow Pine and other Types of Wood used in Watercraft

What made City of Tampa ideal as a packet was her light construction of yellow pine.

Southern yellow pine comprises six species; the two most commonly used in ship and home construction are Loblolly (Pinus taeda) and Longleaf (Pinus palustra) (Figs. 2 and 3). Richard

Steffy (2012:259) described the benefits of yellow pine for boat building: “Longleaf pine is classified as strong, stiff, hard, and relatively heavy when seasoned. Loblolly pine is somewhat lighter. Because they could be worked readily, and had such excellent characteristics, southern yellow pine was used extensively for ship and boat timbers, as well as masts and spars.” The easier the material was to shape and use, the cheaper the cost of labor to construct packet vessels, which likely explains the large number of these vessels in operation.

Current studies by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) show the distribution of pine now occupies a considerably smaller area than prior to the implementation of forest management practices and heavy logging activities that occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, the range for Loblolly pine (Fig. 2) extends from eastern Texas to the coastal

Carolinas, and extends as far north as Delaware, and south to central Florida. Longleaf pine (Fig.

3) has a smaller range, including a small patch on the border of Louisiana and Texas, and extends east to North Carolina and south to south-central Florida (USGS 1999).

Figure 2. Loblolly Pine, Pinus taeda L., distribution (Image courtesy of USGS, Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center, 1999).

Figure 3. Longleaf Pine, Pinus palustra L., distribution (Image courtesy of USGS, Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center, 1999).

Introduction of Steam-powered Vessels

Although relatively short lived compared to the Age of Sail, the steam engine forever changed the landscape of the country. “The nineteenth century marked a revolution in the history of seafaring, a turning point whose impact upon worldwide cultural, economic, and technological development is still being felt today (Bass 1996:231). The steam engine was first used to power boats in America by John Fitch in 1790, and then again in 1807 by Robert Fulton (Flexner

1978:370). Yet not until the 19th century did steam became viable on-board ships.

The invention of the steam engine changed the face of travel and shipping forever.

During the Industrial Revolution and the Civil War, the number of steam-power vessels increased greatly (Way 1983: i-iv). These types of craft were used by both the Confederate and

Union navies as troop transports, gunboats, ironclads, and blockade runners. After the war, the surviving boats were either retained in the service of the government or sold back into the commercial trade. The production and use of steamboats continued to flourish after the Civil

War, but gradually the increase in the use of railroads would help to usher in the end of the steamboat era. As railroads continued to expand, the steamboat lost its competitive edge due to its restriction to waterways (Gillespie 2001:275). Another reason that the use of steamboats declined was the development of the combustion engine. The combustion engine required much less maintenance and manpower to operate than a steam engine. Gasoline engines were smaller and more efficient as well.

Vessels along the coast of the continental United States, the Mississippi River, the Ohio

River, and a number of the nation’s waterways used steam power to ship supplies and mail to settlers as they relocated into the interior of the country. Adam Kane (2004:13) says it well:

“Steam navigation brought with it the motive and means for industrialization by facilitating trade between distant population centers and providing a vehicle for transporting the region’s natural resources. The steamboat’s ability to move trade goods affordably helped stimulate the area’s development of its natural resources.” Although Kane describes the impact of steam in the western United States, it also relates to City of Tampa’s impact on settlements along the

Blackwater River.

Steamboats were developed for specific tasks and geographic locations and therefore had many types of hull and engine designs. Successful vessel designs common to the waters of NW

Florida included the side-wheel, stern-wheel, and craft that retained both a steam power-plant and the sail as their propulsion system. Unfortunately, most boats were built without plans or blueprints, making it a challenge to observe the changes in these vessels (Hunter 1993:66). The lack of schematics makes observing changes in vessel designs challenging. However, some examples of shipbuilding exist in the archaeological record, as well as in a number of maritime museums, and some of these boats are used as living history exhibits.

Packet Steamer City of Tampa

The steamer City of Tampa was a packet vessel that began its life as Volunteer on the

Ohio River. Packet-type boats were the workhorse of the late 19th century; they were light, uncomplicated, hardy, and versatile. Its shallow draft design was common to vessels that worked on the Ohio River, and this made it an ideal boat for the ever-changing waters of Florida’s coastlines, interior rivers, and bays. Volunteer was constructed in Mason City, West Virginia, in

1887 by the Bay Brothers, and as a packet steamer it traveled the Ohio River (Way 1983:473).

Over the years, some confusion about the vessel’s early life has developed. Volunteer often is described as originally commissioned as a Coast Guard cutter (Whatley 1964); however, this information is incorrect.

While a cutter under that name did exist, it did not become City of Tampa (Way

1983:473). In Way’s Packet Directory are three vessels named Volunteer, one of which was listed as a boat contracted to the government (Way 1983:473). However, their physical descriptions, location, date of construction, tonnage, and methods of propulsion all differ

(TABLE 1). Since City of Tampa was never a Coast Guard vessel, much time spent searching military archives turned up nothing and led researchers in the wrong direction initially. Using newly gathered information, and other documentation, as well as archaeological evidence

collected from remote sensing and diver investigation, Volunteer was determined to be a prop-

driven packet steamer (Fig. 4). An article written by Jim Whatley in the Pensacola News-Journal

in 1964 also contains significant inaccuracies regarding her origins, but they are corrected in this

thesis. City of Tampa did not sink in 1922, nor did it sink in 12 ft. of water. These mistakes made

the initial search for the site difficult. The fact that many vessels of this era shared names

certainly added to the mystery of the vessel’s origin; however, cross-referencing descriptions of

the boats and their final dispositions helped sort out the confusion (TABLE 1).

TABLE 1 CHANGES TO CITY OF TAMPA FROM CONSTRUCTION TO SINKING

Date Location/Home Port Gross Length Beam Draft Updated records Tonnage 1887 Cincinnati, OH 23.44 91.3 12.6 2.8 Built as Volunteer by Bay Brother Mason City, WV. 1888 Cincinnati, OH 23.44 91.3 12.6 2.8 Named Volunteer 1890 Cincinnati, OH 23.44 91.3 12.6 2.8 Named Volunteer 1892 Cincinnati, OH 23.44 91.3 12.6 2.8 Named Volunteer 1895 Tampa, FL 61.15 91.3 20 3 Renamed City of Tampa inland steamer 1896 Tampa, FL 61.15 91.3 20 3 Listed inland steamer 1898 Tampa, FL/Pensacola, FL 61.15 91.3 20 3 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1899 Pensacola, FL 61.15 91.3 20 3 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1901 Pensacola, FL 61.15 91.3 20 3 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1910 Pensacola, FL 80 91.3 20 3 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1919 Pensacola, FL 80 91.3 20 3 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1920 Pensacola, FL 88 89.2 19.3 4.5 Crew of 6, 80 HP 1921 Pensacola, FL 88 89.2 19.3 4.5 Caught fire at Bay Point Mill, Sank

The packet-type addressed the need for a regular service schedule, unlike the transient or

tramp service which predated it (Hunter 1993:320). The transient and tramp had no scheduled

route, and they made their way on the rivers as necessity dictated; little wonder they were

replaced by vessels with a set schedule. Louis Hunter (1993:321) states, “The inducement for offering regular service were the more stable and assured business and the slightly higher rates and fares which were generally to be obtained by steamboats running expeditiously and on schedule.”

The packet-type boat moved cargo, mail, and sometimes passengers; it was a strictly utilitarian vessel, with no frills (Way 1983:i). The use of versatile packet steamers evolved into a line, which indicated two or more vessels operating on a fixed schedule. These boats provided shipping and travel, and lines consisted mostly of independent captains employed by a particular shipping company or firm. As the Volunteer, the steamboat worked what was known as the

Ironton-Proctorville Line for the Bay Brothers on the Ohio River from 1887 until she was sold south in 1892 (Way 1983:473).

The packet steamer typically had a short lifespan, averaging only about five years, but

City of Tampa far exceeded that number by 29 additional years of service. According to Way’s

Packet Directory, as the revenues related to freight began to diminish, the packet-type boats were converted into excursion vessels. These types of transformations may have included the addition of a second deck, such as that made to the City of Tampa (TABLE 1). These structural modifications are evident in the vast amount of photographic evidence available. A photograph taken while she was employed on the Ohio River as the Volunteer shows a low-slung hull with single deck, fastened with strapping along the port and starboard sides, and a pilot house that looks octagonal (Fig. 4). Later photos of City of Tampa show the addition of a second deck, a completely different location of the pilothouse, the stack of the boiler moved forward behind the pilothouse, and a widened hull (Fig. 5).

Figure 4. Volunteer on the Ohio River prior to modification (Courtesy of University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Record Display, date unknown).

Figure 5. City of Tampa in reverse on Blackwater River, date unknown (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Following modifications, her pilot/owner Captain Joseph Augustus “Gus” Mason purchased the boat in Tampa, Florida, in the late 1890s, after the boat he was operating caught fire and burnt at her dockage (Woolsey 2010:3). Volunteer/City of Tampa hauled fruit for a number of years on the Manatee River prior to her relocation to Milton, Florida, in 1898. City of

Tampa, whose name was changed in honor of Captain Mason’s home port, was an important fixture in northwest Florida. For example, City of Tampa helped to save Milton from the Great

Fire of 1909 that nearly burnt down the entire city. A description of the use of Tampa’s firefighting equipment is mentioned in The Pensacola Journal (1909) regarding the fire that almost destroyed the town in August 1909; the steamer City of Tampa and steamer Linus got up steam and put their fire-fighting apparatus at the command of the local fire company, and the service they did had much to do in staying the progress of the flames (Pensacola Journal 1909:2).

City of Tampa continued to work on a fixed schedule, as she did on the Ohio and when moving oranges on the Manatee River (Woolsey 2010:4). Numerous stories cite the vessel’s reliability in the local newspapers, as well as articles concerning passengers who traveled aboard

Tampa, its various excursions, and whether or not it was being repaired. With so much interest in its activities, the vessel clearly was an important part of the local communities that patronized her. The need for combining passenger service with the hauling of freight followed City of

Tampa from her days on the Ohio River. This union happened organically at her home port of

Milton due to the lack of roads to the Port of Pensacola and to Bagdad. An example of its multipurpose use comes from the Pensacolian Magazine, it reads in part:

I sat on the deck of the City of Tampa, Captain Mason commanding, and contemplated the comfortable benches extending around the entire deck, and the arm chairs grouped about the companion ways, empty for the most part, and this on one of the balmiest May days it had ever been my experience to enjoy in the open…At a loss to understand what made the wheels go round, I descended to the lower deck. Stacked to the very ceiling were tons and tons of freight; groceries, mainly, from the wholesale houses of Pensacola

for delivery to the merchants of Milton and Bagdad; but pieced out with machinery for the great mills at Bay and Robinson Point, and a general assortment for the needs of man and beast, from live chickens to baled hay. (Barker 1912:288)

Tampa charged 60 cents for a one-way ticket, one dollar for round-trip, and the steamer was loaded with cargo which traveled back to Milton along with her patrons (Woolsey 2010:5).

Problems with Steam-propelled Vessels

Though Tampa was known for reliability, that did not mean the steamer did not have its share of mechanical difficulties. The marine steam engines had a finite life span; they required constant maintenance and needed a dedicated crew member to tend the machinery. These complex propulsion systems also had a tendency to explode. Entire volumes are dedicated to recording the accounts of steamboat accidents, many of them involving a boiler malfunction

(Brown 1989). A newspaper article written in The Milton Gazette (1910) notes that, “City of

Tampa while raising steam a flue in the boiler sprung a leak, requiring immediate attention.”

Leaks had to be dealt with, as the steam engine is a volatile and precise piece of machinery, not unlike the modern combustion engine.

There are several types of boiler-engine combinations; the two most pertinent to the vessel discussed are the water-tube and fire-tube flue-type boilers. The water-tube boiler was the most common, with tubes grouped closely together and placed in a cylindrical housing; combined they were known as the “boiler.” In the water-tube boiler, heated water runs through the tubes, generating the steam required to power the ship. A fire-tube boiler like the one on City of Tampa required hot gases to pass through the tubes, creating steam essential to power the engine. Although City of Tampa’s high-pressure fire-tube boiler never had a catastrophic boiler explosion, she was certainly not without problems that accompany high-pressure steam engines

(Derlikowski 2013:21).

Boiler explosions were not the only cause of steamboats sinking. Shallow rivers across the southeast are known for their submerged obstructions, which is why the Army Corps of

Engineers employed snag-boats, large, shallow-draft barges, which had an A-frame-style crane mounted on the bow that was used to “snag” downed trees and sunken lumber from the riverbeds.

The steamers had a number of safety features, one of which was a sectioned driveshaft, like the one present on City of Tampa (Derlikowski 2013:22). This type of technology was especially important in northwest Florida during the lumber industry when cut logs were rafted downstream to the mills along Blackwater River, with some sinking below the water. If a screw- propeller came into contact with an obstruction, instead of destroying the entire running gear, it would break at one of the shearing points along the driveshaft (Fig. 6). Such an event occured as reported in The Pensacola Journal on 3 May 1914:

STEAMER SHAFT SNAPPED SHORT The City of Tampa, While nearing the City Suffers Quite an Accident, and It Will Have to go into Dock for Repairs. While nearing the city, from Milton yesterday, the tall shaft of the steamer City of Tampa snapped off short, and the steamer Gladys, which was available right then, ran over to the freight and passenger steamer, passed a line aboard and towed the City of Tampa to her regular berth on the east side of Palafox wharf. The accident fortunately occurred near the city, and within call of other tugs. Just what caused the accident, Capt. Mason was yesterday unable to explain, saying that the steamer was moving along at her regular speed, the shaft snapping off short without warning. The City of Tampa will have to be docked for repairs. (Pensacola Journal 1914:11)

This feature saved considerable expense and repair time, important to a vessel that was in direct competition with other boats and the burgeoning rail lines.

The Milton Gazette lists other examples of the vessel undergoing repairs, such as in

August of 1910. A front-page article states, “The familiar whistle of the City of Tampa is heard

throughout the land or rather on the river, she having undergone a thorough overhauling to be trim for the fall and winter” (Milton Gazette 1910). The aforementioned articles illustrate the vessel’s importance to the commerce in NW Florida.

Another feature to minimize accidents with the high-pressure steam engine was a governor. The governor was designed to keep the engine from overworking, the result of which could be a catastrophic system failure. A number of safety valves relieved pressure inside the boiler if the governor failed (Sennet 1898). Even with these features, a steamboat’s power plant required constant attention by the vessel’s engineer. The engineer would, for example, ensure the amount of air within the boiler was minimal; otherwise, oxidation could occur on the interior surface leading to a weakening of the iron. Yet, even with careful upkeep, accidents did happen

(Fig. 6). City of Tampa was to be towed to Pensacola to have a new boiler installed to avoid such an incident.

At the time of City of Tampa’s sinking, which occurred on 29 June 1921, she was in the process of having her boiler removed at Bay Point Mill Shipyard. This repair resulted in the fire that led to her demise, according to R. P. Broxon who was sleeping aboard the vessel (Whatley

1964). Walter L. Rosasco, son of Bay Point Mill owner Peter L. Rosasco, witnessed the fire as a boy, saying, “It was a spectacular sight as she drifted passed [sic] the house about midnight afire from stem to stern” (Woolsey 2010:6). This accident was not a product of a lack of care, as City of Tampa’s machinery was well maintained according to historical records. Her upkeep is documented in local newspapers reaffirming that until her sinking, the vessel’s equipment was maintained often and correctly.

Figure 6. City of Tampa, Ollinger and Bruce Dry-dock, date unknown (Photo courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Operation of a Steam-driven Vessel

A steamboat generally has a pilot, a fireman, and one or more engineers, depending on the number and type of power plants used to propel the vessel. When preparing to travel in a steamboat, a number of procedures must be followed. According to The Marine Steam Engine by

Sennet and Oram (1898:440), “a number of things need to happen prior to getting underway, the first is to fill the boilers with fresh clean water.” The precise method for raising steam is crucial to the proper management of the boiler and engine, and water, being a corrosive agent of iron, makes the quality of the liquid introduced to the system of the utmost importance. Once the correct pressure is attained, the engine must be inspected for any type of obstruction, and cranked by hand to ensure the proper rotation is achieved. Although the engine on City of Tampa was not of the large naval type described in The Marine Steam Engine, tending the boiler and

machinery in much the same way was necessary. Also important was the type of fuel available to heat the water in the boiler. Procuring fuel was often dependent on geographic location, and

Florida, not being rich in coal or oil, had instead an abundance of pine. Bob Bass (2008:18) noted, “In the pioneering days of Florida steam-boating, the only type of fuel that was available was local lighter-pine, due to the absence of large quantities of coal and oil in the state.” But wood burned quickly, and City of Tampa’s boiler was more than likely powered by coal as described by her fireman. This fuel was paid constant attention by fireman Will Walker, whose job it was to keep a full head of steam by constantly stoking the coals while underway (Woolsey

2010:5).

The practice of raising steam required the addition of latent heat to water in the boiler, or boilers, and maintaining this type of heat was necessary to power the engine, firefighting apparatus, electricity, and other steam-dependent machinery aboard these vessels. Once the proper pressure was attained, the engine was tested by conducting one revolution by hand. At this point, the vessel may get underway, but unlike a combustion engine, steam engines cannot easily be turned on and off. Keeping the fires burning under a latent heat in order to keep the pressure at a level conducive to run the engines was a full-time endeavor requiring an engineer to be stationed near the boiler at all times.

The rivers and bays were key to the success of maritime-related industries that called northwest Florida home, and the transition from sail to steam was an important step in the area’s commerce. One of the biggest challenges facing steamboats, and thus making them a viable travel option, was designing a hull that could withstand the weight and jarring movement of the steam power-plant. Steamboat vessel designs were mostly determined by geography. The western steamboat, built with a shallow draft and made of light-weight material, had a high-

pressure engine to easily navigate the shallow, often shoaling, waters of the Mississippi and Ohio

Rivers (Fig. 7). Steamers classified as eastern style had one or two decks with luxurious passenger accommodations, and were equipped with a side-wheeled propulsion system (Bass

2008:56). The hull design and propulsion of the eastern-style steamboat was a deeper draft and heavier engine, as these boats were made to travel the coasts and ports of the eastern seaboard.

Due to population size and the demand for cargo, boats in this area generally were greater in size than those found in the nation’s interior.

The Midwestern and Southern types had a square-shaped hull resembling the tow-barges they replaced, with little attention paid to passenger comforts. When built originally,

Volunteer/City of Tampa had a single deck and was 91.3 ft. from stem to stern, with a breadth of

12.6 ft. and drew 2.8 ft. of water. While operating on the Ohio River, her home port was listed as

Cincinnati, OH. After her modification, the length remained the same, but her beam doubled to

24 ft. and her draft increased to 3 ft. (Way 1983:473).

Figure 7. City of Tampa at Palafox Wharf, c. 1910 (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

The vessel’s lengths vary throughout the available records, most likely due to the lack of an established standard measurement or different people collecting the information. The Merchant

Steamship Registry, located in Mobile, Alabama, has City of Tampa listed in 1895, calling her home port Tampa, Florida, with her port changed to Pensacola in 1899. The Merchant Steamship

Registry also indicates City of Tampa was previously named Volunteer, with gross tonnage listed as 125 tons, a crew of 5, rated for passengers, and an 80-horsepower engine (TABLE 2). This size and style, even after the change in beam during modification, was indicative of the western- style steamboats (The Merchant Steamship Registry 1880:223). The steamboat era coincided with the Industrial Revolution in America. These vessels used the rivers to supply the growing populous during this period of change and growth and were a necessity for helping to shape the country.

Physical Changes to City of Tampa During Lifespan

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Tampa, FL Tampa, FL Tampa, Pensacola, FL Pensacola, FL Pensacola, FL Pensacola, FL Pensacola, FL Pensacola, FL Pensacola, Cinncinati, OH OH Cinncinati, OH Cinncinati, OH Cinncinati, OH Cinncinati, Tampa, FL/Pensacola, FL FL/Pensacola, Tampa, 1887 1888 1890 1892 1895 1896 1898 1899 1901 1910 1919 1920 1921

Gross Tonnage Length Beam Draft

Figure 8. Changes in shape, size, and tonnage of City of Tampa. Based on records in The Merchant Steamship Registry in Mobile, Alabama (Figure by author, 2017).

The material used traditionally to construct the hulls of eastern steamers changed during this time as well, evolving from wood to iron and steel. Metal hulls could withstand the abuse of the open ocean, while western steamboats continued using wood as this material was more suited to the shallow-draft design (Fig. 8, 9, 10, 11). The steamship eventually developed into the large gaudy passenger ships that Mark Twain made famous in his novels, described plying the

Mississippi River.

Figure 8. City of Tampa under steam, date unknown (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Figure 9. Steamer City of Tampa on Blackwater Bay, c. 1905 (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Figure 10. City of Tampa under steam, with two-masted schooner in the background along with cut lumber, date unknown (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Figure 11. City of Tampa at mooring, Keyser Wharf, Milton, Florida, date unknown (Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

Current Investigations

Archaeology conducted previously on City of Tampa was in the form of a Phase I survey during the Pensacola Bay system portion of a statewide shipwreck investigation. When investigated originally in 1991, the only portion of the wreck visible above the sediment was the boiler. Low visibility on site likely obscured the remaining structure of the vessel. These less than ideal conditions may have accounted for the original survey team missing the wreckage 15 m to the south of the boiler. The report notes the boiler was constructed of “Iron plates, riveted together, [that] form a long cylindrical shape measuring 14 ft. long, by 6 ft. wide, by 6 ft. high”

(Franklin et. al. 1991:183). These dimensions match closely to what was surveyed in the summer

of 2013. The team also made note of an oblong hole, near the location of the stack on top of the boiler, where ash was removed from the boiler during routine maintenance (Fig. 12).

Figure 12. Sector scan north of boiler, at 10 m. Note debris field to the south between the vessel and boiler (Photo by author, 2014).

City of Tampa was added to the Florida Master Site File, with an assessment, recommendations, and possible threats to the site mentioned within the report. City of Tampa is a locally well-known wreck and is often used by area fisherman. The vessel is listed as a hazard to navigation according to the most current NOAA maps, and articles at the time of the sinking in

the Milton Gazette mention that parts of the machinery remained above the water (Whatley

1964). In the 23 years since the report was published, several significant changes to the site have occurred; these changes were recorded as part of this thesis research.

This rediscovery showed the previously noted boiler from the 1991 survey, and more.

Sonar revealed that a few meters to the south of the boiler lay the wreckage of City of Tampa.

Further investigation, through contact with the physical remains of the site, points to a vessel with a rough length of 94.98 ft. (28.95m) (Derlikowski 2013). The length of the wreckage on the bottom of the Blackwater River is within 3 ft. of her documented measurements, which are listed in a number of the aforementioned primary sources, specifically, Way’s Packet Directory 1848-

1983. While there are several inconsistencies in the record of her sinking, most accounts note the general location as the northern mouth of the Yellow River, southeast of the location of the Bay

Point Mill, which proved to be accurate (Fig. 1).

Additionally, during the 2013 field season the boiler was noted to have sunken considerably into the sediment, which ranges from heavy silt on the northern side of the wreck to a sandy shell hash on the south. Investigations included the lower portion of the hull, boiler, engine machinery, and running gear which terminates with a four-blade propeller. A baseline was installed to map and delineate the wreckage, and diagnostic artifacts were removed and conserved. Sediment pins were installed amidships, port and starboard, to collect data on sedimentation by William J. Wilson (2015) as a way to monitor site formation processes in a riverine environment.

The site also helped to establish a magnetic signature to aid in discovering other possible steamboat wrecks that may be covered by the shifting sands of the Gulf Coast. The gathering of this data was achieved through the use of a Marine Magnetics magnetometer, on a site with a

vessel of known size and origin. City of Tampa is a fine example of a 19th-century coastal steamer, as well as a western-type packet vessel, which makes the wreck unique in these waters and a valuable tool for identifying similar sites.

City of Tampa did more than ferry cargo for the residents of northwest Florida and the lumber mills, which is evident in the way the locals remember her. City of Tampa is mentioned recently in a historical marker along Milton’s waterfront along with a number of other wrecks in the Blackwater River. Other historical records still exist that note this locally important steamer; they include a significant amount of photographic and historical evidence to help support the archaeological findings. The sinking event is well documented, as was the transfer of ownership from the Mason family to the final owners in 1919 (Fig. 13). At the time of the boat’s sinking in the summer of 1921, Cleve Harvell and R. P. Broxson had taken over the City of Tampa’s route

(Woolsey 2010:5).

Figure 13. Advertisement from Milton Gazette 1919, after City of Tampa was sold to her final owners (Photo Courtesy of Nathan Woolsey from the Mason Family).

The former owners recalled the vessel fondly in the Pensacola Journal, mentioning some of the cargo that was hauled aboard her such as fences, mules, huppmobiles, and people

(Whatley 1964). The best description of her sinking is found in the Milton Gazette’s 1 July 1921 edition. The article states that at the time she was getting ready to have her boiler replaced. After a long day’s work, she caught fire while the chief engineer, W. M. Broxson, was on board asleep. The fire spread too quickly to be brought under control, forcing Broxson to jump overboard and secure the skiff tied to the vessel, making his way to shore for help (Milton

Gazette 1921). The article also describes in geographic detail the final location where the vessel sank, that the boiler remained above water, and what causes led to the fire. The sinking event was confirmed by the archaeological investigation and documentary research conducted on the site. Traces of burned timbers are on the site, and in sediment cores collected for the thesis generated by William J. Wilson (2015). The article below details the sinking event from the

Milton Gazette July 1921 states:

STEAMER CITY OF TAMPA COMPLETELY DESTROYED BY FIRE WEDNESDAY MORNING

The Steamer, City of Tampa, which had, until a short time ago been operated as a freight and passenger carrier between Milton and Pensacola for nearly twenty-five years, was completely destroyed by fire about two o'clock Wednesday morning.

Mr. Cleve Harvell, one of the owners, or possibly the sole owner of the boat at this time, had taken it down to the Bay Point ship yard Tuesday, and with workmen were cutting a hole through the top of the housing of the boat, preparatory to having the boiler lifted out at one of the Pensacola Ship Building plants for repairs. They had worked on the vessel the greater part of the day Tuesday, and had but about an hour's more work to do Wednesday morning, in order to complete what they had undertaken, after which they expected to take the vessel on down to Pensacola Wednesday.

Mr. W. M. Broxson, who had been assisting in the work, remained on the boat Tuesday night, sleeping on the aft part of the boat which was swinging at anchor a short distance from the shore. About twelve o'clock, Mr. Broxson says he was awakened by being enveloped in a dense cloud of smoke. Not being able to see any fire from his location on

the upper deck he descended to the lower deck and found the fire making its way from the forepart of the boat toward the rear, being driven by a strong breeze. The fire had made such headway that the fire extinguishers usually carried on the boat made but little effect upon it, and Mr. Broxson had to leap over board to save himself. Securing a small skiff which he had tied to the rear of the boat, he made the shore and summoned help, as quickly as possible, meanwhile the fire had burned the hawser with which it was anchored in two, and drifted out into the bay, striking on a sand-bar between Bay Point and the upper mouth of Yellow river, north east of the light, where it sank with the exception of some of the upper parts.

The Tampa was built in Mason City, West Virginia in 1887, and was operated at Tampa, Florida for a number of years. In 1899 Capts. Mason and Barry brought the steamer here and began operating it between Milton and Pensacola.

In conferring with parties familiar with the vessel, it was stated by them that the vessel was in the neighborhood of an hundred ton boar, and that it would cost approximately $25,000.00 to build and equip a boat like it today. At the time the boat was burned, we understand she carried but $3,500.00 insurance. (Milton Gazette 1921)

Unfortunately for the owners, the Milton Gazette (1921) reported, at the time of her sinking

Tampa was lightly insured and not salvageable, due to the prohibitive cost to build and outfit a similar vessel. The loss was more than monetary for the local residents, the vessel had served

Milton, FL daily for 23 years bringing news and goods, Tampa scarcely missing more than a few days during its life.

CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY AND FIELDWORK

Pensacola Shipwreck Survey Phase 1, 1991

Initial investigations on City of Tampa (8SR1490) were conducted during the 1991/1992

Pensacola Shipwreck Survey by the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research (BAR). At that time, the steamer City of Tampa was tentatively identified, its location being at the intersection of the northern mouth of the Yellow River and Blackwater Bay to the west. During diver exploration, the only feature observed was the iron boiler, and no probing was done to delineate the site.

Archaeological assessments and recommendations at the time of the survey concluded that a site delineation and confirmation that the wreck was definitively City of Tampa were needed, but that no further work needed to be done at the time. The survey noted the vessel was locally important and was a fine example of coastal steamship construction, making it significant to Pensacola’s maritime history. The report also noted that, since the components of the vessel were below the water’s surface, the bulk of the site probably was under the sediment, making the vessel stable and not at further risk of looting.

Relocating City of Tampa

As stated in the BAR report, the vessel had the potential to add to the area’s history and archaeological significance. In 2013 University of West Florida maritime archaeologists reinvestigated the City of Tampa as a potentially significant topic for a master’s thesis. In late fall/early spring of that year, a plan was initiated by Andrew Derlikowski, William J. Wilson, and Dr. Gregory Cook to relocate City of Tampa, and to assess the wreck’s potential for an archaeological investigation. Researchers used HYPACK to create survey lines over an existing obstruction on the NOAA map in the general location of the wreck, making certain coverage was

well outside the borders of the target. The last time the wreck had been surveyed, the only feature proud of the sediment was the boiler. The first priority was locating the vessel, using

UWF’s 1200KHz side-scan sonar, in order to see if in the intervening years the hull structure of

City of Tampa had become visible above sediment (Fig. 14). If the effort to locate the remainder of the steamer was unsuccessful, then a magnetometer and possibly sub-bottom profiler could be employed (Fig. 16). With a survey area identified, Will Wilson, Eric Swanson, and Andrew

Derlikowski began an initial survey of the site.

10m

Figure 14. Close-up of initial side-scan image, 2013 (Photo by author, 2013).

At survey line 15 of 25, the boiler, machinery, debris field, and hull structure came into view on the screen. However, an increase in the wind and a heavy chop on the river prevented further survey efforts (Derlikowski 2013). Certain that the side-scan indicated the wreck of City of Tampa, a dive plan was put together to evaluate the vessel, look for evidence of burning, and take a rough measurement to compare against the vessel’s recorded length in the historic record.

On 26 April 2013, Rebecca Booker-DeMonbreun, Stewart Hood, Eric Swanson, and the author assembled to document the steamer. Upon diving, the reason the rest of the vessel was not located in 1992 became obvious. Conditions on site included low visibility due to the high level of silt and very tannic waters, which made for a low-light, brown-water environment. These factors, combined with a slow-moving current, did not remove heavy particulates from the site

(Wilson 2015:36). Archaeologists obtained a rough site boundary running bow to stern of 28.95 m, and identified a four-blade propeller not visible on the side-scan image due to the nadir between sonar channels.

Archaeological Operations 2013

The most effective course of action was to use the 2013 field school to increase the amount of labor and complete the remaining tasks. As noted, poor visibility made mapping and other simple tasks more challenging, which slowed progress considerably. Some days on City of

Tampa the team had up to 5 ft. visibility on site, while on other days it was 6 in. Working in this environment slowed data recovery significantly. Initially, dives were planned at incoming tides, hoping that clearer waters from the bay and increased currents would move the heavy particulate matter off site. Scheduling work common to other active underwater operations in the area did not translate to City of Tampa. The only assumption was that the confluence of the Yellow and

Blackwater Rivers, both being tidal and full of sediment and natural tannins from years of logging and agricultural activity, made any work nearly impossible (Fig. 15).

Figure 15. Meghan Mumford and author mapping in excellent visibility (Photo by author, 2015).

However, despite the difficult conditions, a baseline was installed along the southern portion of the wreck. This area was chosen because the debris field north of the vessel lay between the boiler and the bulk of the wreck, which would have resulted in the obstruction of the baseline. The baseline, a flexible fiberglass meter tape running at 120 degrees and secured by 18 in. earth anchors, was installed during the first field season. Data was collected using trilateration; the minimum distance between points was one meter. Measurements were taken in meters, and entered on a mylar sheet designed (Appendix A) by the author to make recording easier for the diver collecting the information. A few artifacts were collected but, due to the shallow nature of the vessel and the fact that when she sank she was undergoing a major refitting

of a new boiler, most of the equipment and personal effects likely had been removed. A flyover- style video of the entire vessel was taken during one of the few good visibility days. The video shortened the initial site tour and allowed operations to start immediately. Although very few dives were made, several magnetometer surveys were completed to help establish a magnetic signature on a western steamboat (Fig. 16). The Nano-Tesla range was a maximum of 48310, and a minimum of 47680 A total of 630 nT

Figure 16. Magnetic signature of City of Tampa (Image by William Wilson, 2016).

Artifact Analysis

As mentioned, only a few artifacts were collected, none of which were particularly relevant to this thesis research. On 2 July 2013, five artifacts were collected: brass nut fragment, stoneware fragment (Fig. 16), Muntz metal fragment, decorative brass key hole cover, and iron handle. Two other artifacts were collected in 2014, a pressure relief valve that reads “Battle

Creek,” and a graphitized globe valve cover (Figs. 19 and 20). The globe valve was surprisingly light, which made the author doubt it was metal (Fig. 17). An X-ray florescence spectrometer was used to analyze the material as iron (Fig. 18). In 2015 an artifact noticed during the initial investigative dive, but not collected due to the lack of a baseline for provenience, was retrieved.

The artifact proved to be a brass oiler, with “McMillian Bros. Co.” embossed on the upper portion (Fig. 21).

Figure 17. Stoneware ceramic fragment (Photo by author, 2014).

Figure 18. Graphitized globe valve cover (Photo by author, 2014).

Figure 19. XRF results indicating heavy presence of iron (Fe) (Photo by author, 2014).

Figure 20. Pressure relief valve, reads “Battle Creek” along the upper portion (Photo by author, 2015).

Figure 21. X-Ray showing the brass interior of valve (Photo by author, 2015).

Figure 22. Brass oiler, “McMillian Bros. Co.” embossed (Photo by author, 2015).

Archaeological Investigations 2014 and 2015

During the spring of 2014, Pensacola and the surrounding area were inundated with up to

28 in. of rain. Roads washed out along the major waterways and rivers overflowed their banks

(Fig. 23). UWF archaeologists hoped that by the beginning of the 2014 field season the waters would clear and recede. While they did recede, they did not clear up until the winter months of

2015. Almost no dives were conducted in 2014, although the author attempted to dive the site as weather, visibility, and other field school obligations permitted. Visibility on site was nil and the wreck remained covered with debris from up river. Instead, the site was used as training for the university’s survey portion of the field school. Magnetometer and side-scan sonar were both used to investigate the vessel.

Figure 23. A map of total rainfall (mm) from the NASA near-real-time TRMM Multi-Satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA-RT) for the period of 29 April – 1 May 2014. (Image courtesy of NASA).

The 2015 season was quite different; visibility on site was good to excellent, some days with distance of 5 ft. or more. A dive was scheduled prior to field school season to assess the condition of the vessel. Once on bottom, a team of three divers familiar with City of Tampa swam her extent, at which time they discovered that the baseline installed in 2013 was broken from the storm, leaving only the earth anchors in place. New 36-in. earth anchors were installed with a new baseline, limbs from pine trees scattered over the body of the wreck were removed. A positive aspect of the rains was the removal of sediment north and aft of City of Tampa, exposing decking with evidence of burning (Derlikowski 2013:80). A plan to map the newly exposed

timbers was created and a location for obtaining wood samples was identified using ship drawings from a similar contemporary vessel, Sabino (Fig. 24).

Figure 24. Construction plan of Sabino. Arrow denotes example of sample locations (Image courtesy of Mystic Seaport Museum Collections, May 1978).

Collecting Timber Samples

Sabino is part of the collection at Mystic Seaport Maritime Museum and was used as a template for wood sample collection due to modifications making it similar to City of Tampa.

The vessel is currently used as a living exhibit, ferrying guests of the museum around the bay in

Mystic, CT. Sample locations were identified on visible timbers along the port and starboard

sides at amidships where futtocks were scarfed together. The location was chosen in the with expectation that at the widest part of the vessel it would be more likely that wood from modification would have survived. A slice measuring between 3-5 cm was obtained using a titanium dive knife, bagged, and labeled underwater. The futtocks still retained their strength, and samples were quite difficult to collect. Once retrieved, samples were sent to Dr. Amy

Mitchell-Cook at the University of West Florida for analysis (TABLE 2). In all, 12 pieces of timber were gathered, given numbers, sketched, and their location was recorded using trilateration (Derlikowski 2013:63).

Due to better visibility, work was conducted almost every day on City of Tampa with students assigned to work on several areas simultaneously, a strategy not possible prior to this field season. The heavy particulate was moved off site due to stronger currents and the lack of rain, which clouded the water flowing down-river. A successful attempt to map the remaining and newly uncovered components was completed by the author, fellow graduate students, and

UWF field school students. Mapping was finished at the end of the summer. On days that visibility was compromised due to summer rains, magnetometer and side-scan sonar surveys were performed.

The site of City of Tampa measures 100 ft. by 45 ft. overall. Visible above the shell hash and silt are degrading futtocks of various sizes beginning at the bow, and ending amidships 3 ft. past the start of the running gear (Fig. 25). Also present on Tampa is the firebox, rectangular flue tubes from inside the boiler filling the structure. North of the firebox are various pieces of iron including pipes, globe valves, and undiagnostic metals that extend to the boiler. The boiler is cylindrical in shape measuring 12.30 ft. in length and 4.49 ft. wide. Atop the boiler is a circular hole where the stack was located, followed by an oval hole which was used to clean the boiler.

The vessel’s running gear is intact, ending with the four-bladed propeller half submerged in sediment (Fig. 26). Located just north of the start of the running gear is a possible steam pump.

Decking uncovered by the rains of 2014 shows evidence of burning, which corroborates accounts of her sinking. The artifacts collected were analyzed and conserved. Those with no diagnostic value were returned to the wreck. Their location was noted, and a trilateration point recorded in case the materials need to be recovered in the future.

TABLE 2 WOOD SAMPLES COLLECTED AND LOCATION

Point Number Starboard Port Result 500 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine 501 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine 502 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine 503 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine 504 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine 505 Two Samples Southern Yellow Pine

Figure 25. Four-blade propeller, facing toward the bow (Photo by author, 2015).

Figure 26. At amidships facing aft, starboard futtock, ceiling planking and firebox (Photo by Author 2015).

Figure 27. Site plan of City of Tampa (Illustration by author, 2017).

CHAPTER V THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Actor Network Theory Background

Actor network theory, or ANT, “is a family of material-semiotic tools, sensibilities, and method of analysis that treat everything in the social and natural worlds as a continuously generated effect of the web of relations within which they are located. It assumes that nothing has a reality of form outside the enactment of those relations” (Turner 2009:141). Law continues to describe the theory as a fluctuating web of relationships between the material and immaterial.

In short, ANT “tells stories about how relations assemble, or don’t” (Turner 2009:141).

The origins of this approach began in Paris, France, between 1978-1982, and the theory is based on Structuralism. A number of social scientists had a hand in shaping what was to become actor network theory, including Bruno Latour, Michael Callon, and John Law. Jim Dolwick

(2009:36) notes that ANT began in the fields of science and technology. Initially, the approach was designed as a way to investigate the social in the creation of technology and scientific discovery. Latour used many of the hallmarks of what was to become ANT in his studies at the

Salk Institute, where he sought to examine the “semiotics of the practices that lead to scientific truth-claims” (Turner 2009:143,144), essentially reinserting the social processes of discovery into scientific breakthrough.

Theory in Practice

The foundations of the ANT approach link together dissimilar components that shift depending on their usage, much like actor network theory itself. In no particular order, the basis of the approach is “the process of translation, [which] identifies the actors, the possibility of interaction, and the margins of maneuver” (Callon 1986:68). Translation at its core relates, defines, and orders objects, humans and otherwise (Turner 2009:145). An example of ANT in

practice is the case study conducted by Michel Callon on the scallops of St. Brieuc Bay, where the author studies the relationship between the scientists studying the scallops in order to help the population rebound from over-harvesting, and the fishermen who rely on the bivalve for their livelihoods (Callon 1986). “All of the actors are being domesticated, in a web of relations that makes and remakes its components” (Turner 2009:145). In his St. Brieuc Bay study, Callon uses the scientists studying the scallops, the fishermen harvesting the resource, and the scallops as actors to prove his relational web. All of the participants are equally important. In the actor- network the relationships are loosely held together; if one fails, then the web collapses. The study highlights the connections that exist between humans and material; one cannot function well to the detriment the other.

The social in actor network theory is used broadly to represent not only connections between humans, but also how those actors are interwoven into the material and historical record. An actor or actant may be any part of the web of relations, the material as well as immaterial. The vessel, the timbers used in its construction, the pilot, and the mill that needed a specific part to be delivered are all actors in the web. The primary actor examined in this thesis is

City of Tampa, particularly where she was modified.

Actor Network Theory and City of Tampa

The author believes that ANT helps to answer the question of why City of Tampa was modified. As mentioned in previous chapters, the vessel was widened by half, and had a second deck added. By expanding the vessel’s carrying capacity and adding a second deck, the owner was able to accommodate more cargo and passengers. These modifications altered the vessel’s place in the web of connections by increasing the economic and social value of the vessel, and by making Tampa available for more than just the movement of goods. City of Tampa moves

throughout the web each time her use shifts, such as from a cargo to a charter vessel; these uses would not have been possible without widening her. She could not have accommodated the number of patrons necessary to make the run to the beaches at Fort Pickens economically viable.

City of Tampa connected the daily lives of the people and businesses that relied on her services, and while the author has found no written evidence of it, Capt. Mason must have had the foresight to purchase a vessel that could perform a multitude of functions.

If City of Tampa had a mechanical issue and was not able to travel its normal route, a number of components in the network would collapse. Those who relied directly on the vessel for employment (owners, pilot, engineer, fireman) were impacted, as were those who relied on

City of Tampa to travel to and from their jobs at the lumber mills along Blackwater River. A leak in the boiler, the material component, reordered the entire web of relations. Affected as well was the freight being transported between Pensacola, Milton, and points in-between. The aforementioned city’s merchants felt the loss as well, and people who relied on victuals and other cargo to be delivered for human and nonhuman alike would find themselves at a loss. In the 9

October 1909 Pensacola Journal is an account of City of Tampa missing a daily run due to repairs:

MISSED A TRIP On account of some necessary boiler work, the Milton steamer City of Tampa did not go up on her regular trip yesterday afternoon as usual. The boilers will be in good shape today, however, and the steamer will leave at her regular afternoon hour as usual, carrying a large consignment of merchandise. It has been many a day since the City of Tampa missed a daily run. (Pensacola Journal 1909:7).

The loss of an important part that was scheduled to be delivered to a mill or business could shut down production at that particular component in the web until repairs were made, or transport was arranged on another vessel. The web of relations is almost infinite regarding City of Tampa; it involves technological advancement, political climate, economy, communication,

and people. The “actors” and “network” related to City of Tampa changed over time with the fluctuation of the material, including the vessel and the sum of her parts, and the immaterial, such as a patient being moved from Milton to Pensacola for treatment. The web of relations hold, but tenuously, due to a mechanical failure. The sinking of the vessel in 1921 changed the actors in the web of relations, and the vessel was no longer the center of the network.

Actor network theory helps explain the importance of City of Tampa’s modifications. Her size doubled to accommodate more passengers, more cargo, and more ideas, and with these came significant changes to the theoretical framework. The new commuters, the additional freight, and each component of modification are actors expanding the existing rich and complicated network.

However, to see just how far the network extended, one needs to know where her modifications happened. Knowing the region of her modification is essential to creating a clearer picture of all the actors involved.

If the modifications happened in the Midwest, new actors need to be considered. These actors include the very planks used for the construction; the people who logged, milled, and sold that timber to the shipyard; as well as the economies that were supported by that industry.

Conversely, if the changes occurred in the southeastern U.S., northern actors would have less significance in the newly formed web. Ever expanding, the network created by City of Tampa’s modifications is key to telling her story.

Jim Dolwick (2007:37) puts it best, “If there is any discipline where the relationships of people-and-things are a fundamental part of its aims and scope, it is archaeology. Maritime archaeologists deal with such dense assemblages, for example, we not only study boats, ships, landscapes, and settlements, but also people.” The vessel was more than an amalgamation of timbers, an engine, fasteners, a captain, a fireman, and an engineer. It moved commodities,

peoples, and ideas. It was designed and built with a number of tasks in mind, a tough, daily- running, lightly-built steamer, tasked to move people and resources from place to place. This sounds simplistic but, in reality, steamboats were a highly engineered piece of machinery that needed all its components working in concert to function effectively. If the boiler failed, the web of relations would be reordered. The material is, therefore, connected to the immaterial; to use

Law’s example, ships, sailors, and currents are all connected to one another in the web of relation (Turner 2009:148). The sailor relies on the ship for transport, livelihood, and a home.

The ship needs the currents and wind to move the sailor from port to port with goods.

City of Tampa affected more than commerce and travel; it helped to transmit intangible opinions, beliefs, and gossip to a mill-town separated from the bustling port of Pensacola. Using

City of Tampa as the central actor, one can expand the network to include the new information regarding her modifications. Southern pine and the industry around that material, including logging and milling, and the businesses that supported the workers are all actors. The finished steamboat, the cargo, and the passengers that benefitted from its more efficient redesign are also part of the network. The Tampa then comes full circle, carrying the very materials and workers that made it possible for her to perform these tasks.

CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The archaeological investigation and historical research of packet steamer City of Tampa was conducted to discover why a steamship built with a 12-ft. beam and a single deck in West

Virginia, appeared in Milton, Florida, twice the width and with an additional deck. A glut of steamships operated on the Ohio River and its tributaries, supported by a vibrant shipbuilding industry with skilled shipwrights. Florida in 1892 was still considered a frontier and lacked the metal foundries to manufacture cast-iron steam engines; it made sense to send older vessels south for repurposing.

While historical research documented the steamer from the location of its construction to its eventual sinking in the Blackwater River, the exact location of modifications remains undetermined at the writing of this thesis. However, in the authors estimation, moving a vessel with a 12 ft. beam through the unpredictable waters of the Gulf of Mexico would not have been a sound fiscal choice for the new owners looking to repurpose City of Tampa. Therefore, expanding the beam to 20 ft. prior to its journey to central Florida would create a more stable platform. The most likely geographic area of modification was either the lower Mississippi River or northern Gulf Coast.

The author used a multitude of historical documents to track the life and eventual death of the ship, and also to correct some of the historical inaccuracies relating to the vessel. The author hopes this thesis helps add to the rich maritime history of northwest Florida and its coastal communities. Using remote sensing equipment to relocate the vessel, and subsequent diver investigations, City of Tampa was mapped, artifacts were collected and conserved, and wood samples were collected and identified. Using the magnetometer, a mosaic was created of the anomaly to be used for future maritime investigations related to steamboats.

No subsurface excavations were conducted due to the amount of exposed structure proud of the sediment. At last dive on 3 August 2105, the vessel lay in 7 ft. of water, with the bow facing SE; the length of the steamer runs at a bearing of 120 degrees. The boundary of site

8SR1490 includes the bulk of the vessel itself, measuring 28.95 m, and the boiler, which is separated from the main wreck and is 15 m to the north mostly buried in sediment. Visible as of

2015 are futtocks, hull and ceiling planking, the firebox, and running-gear terminating at the four-bladed propeller. After the historic 2014 rains, more of the wreck was exposed from amidships to the stern. These newly exposed components were upper decking with evidence of burning. Burn timbers are the first evidence related to the sinking event observed, other than the presence of the vessel itself.

Wood samples were collected and identified as southern yellow pine, the species cannot be separated microscopically. The geographic range of these species encompasses much of the southeastern United States, making identifying the exact location, other than general geographic area, of City of Tampa’s modifications nearly impossible. Since southern yellow pine is available along the southernmost portion of City of Tampa’s route to west-central Florida, the vessel could have been modified anywhere between southern Louisiana and Tampa. Although, fiscally it would have made the most sense to take City of Tampa south down the Mississippi River toward the timber, instead of shipping the pine north to Ohio. Before modification, as Volunteer, a single-decked, 12 ft. wide vessel may have had a hard time navigating the unpredictable waters of the Gulf of Mexico. She may, therefore, have been widened prior to the journey to Tampa, as the deeper draft and wider beam would have helped steady the vessel. The second deck may have been added afterwards farther south. Since records of her stretch in Tampa have not been

located, definitive proof may come from further documentary and archaeological research.

Archaeological excavations placed in the bow, amidships, and stern may reveal the answer.

Few artifacts were recovered, likely due to the shallow nature of the wreck making it easily accessed by looters. Until 1979/1980, the boiler was visible above the surface of the river, still a part of the vessel which would have given looters the exact location of the ship. City of

Tampa’s shallow depth may have led to the removal of machinery, and of more diagnostic artifacts. Local rumors state that the smoke-stack of the boiler resides in the front yard of a

Milton resident. The author was shown a photograph of the smokestack, but was unable to locate it. Artifacts considered non-diagnostic were returned to the vessel after documentation, with coordinates recorded. All other artifacts were conserved and placed in curation at the University of West Florida collections facility.

Mapping was completed with significant challenges from consistently poor visibility and sediment conditions on-site due to the wreck’s location at the confluence of the Yellow and

Blackwater Rivers. Despite these challenges, a successful investigation was conducted. All portions of the wreck above the sediment were documented with photographs and video taken on a rare occasion when the site had the clearest visibility. Great care was taken not to disturb the site and hull and machineries were left in situ, excluding the wood samples and the few artifacts recovered.

Conclusion

This thesis provides a guide for further archaeological investigations of coastal and western steamers. Several remote-sensing surveys were conducted on Tampa, including side- scan sonar and magnetometer. Since City of Tampa has a large magnetic signature, it can be

compared against newly discovered targets throughout the Gulf Coast to possibly help determine whether they may be steamships.

The vessel has degraded since the author conducted fieldwork; the iron has become more fragile, and the heavy flooding that occurred in spring 2014 also affected the site. Timbers preserved under the sediment are now exposed, and a large piece of riveted iron has broken free of the fire-box where the boiler sat. The boiler has sunk into the sediment as well, hopefully preserving the integrity of this component. The site is important to the cultural identity of the area as part of the local maritime heritage that is promoted for tourism. An effort is underway by a local civic organization, The Blackwater Pyrates, to preserve the Blackwater Rivers history above and below the waterline.

City of Tampa is still well regarded by the residents that use and live along the historic

Blackwater River, and it is memorialized on a historic marker located on the waterfront in downtown Milton. City of Tampa was also part William J. Wilson’s (2015) thesis, Formation

Processes of Ship Sites in the Blackwater River, Santa Rosa County. It also is used as a teaching tool for the University of West Florida’s maritime archaeological field school.

This thesis adds to the abundant maritime history of northwest Florida, specifically the

Blackwater River and its communities. It highlights only a small aspect of what can be learned from a shipwreck as a cultural resource. Since shipwrecks are the product of a catastrophic event or abandonment, they are considered to be a snapshot of time. As part of ANT, the shipwreck

City of Tampa reveals that it is more than just a mode of transport, but a key participant in the communities it served. City of Tampa was a peripheral actor in the lumber industry, ferrying workers and supplies to and from the mills. The boat also provided daily service for citizens, encouraging trade and commerce between Milton, Bagdad, and Pensacola, as well as pleasure

cruising to boost tourism and occasional use as an emergency vessel to assist during fires and other catastrophic events. City of Tampa was an important component in northwest Florida, and the fluidity of its role as an actor helped to reorder the web of community relations throughout its life and sinking.

Today, the vessel is still an active actant in the culture of NW Florida. Although City of

Tampa has a smaller role than she did prior to her sinking, and the web of relations has changed, she continues to play an important part in the network. The steamer now influences the researchers, habitat for wildlife, local residents, historians, and archaeologists. City of Tampa is a record of 19th-century travel, technology, and economy, and tells the story of the people who constructed, owned, and operated the vessel. Even in death, it continues to serve the community by providing structure that supports fish, crabs, and other sea life, which in turn attracts local fisherman, as well as by being an important cultural resource and tangible link to the past.

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX A