SOME PICTURES IN AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS RAMSAY MAcMULLEN R EADERSof Ammianus are struck by the pattern which certain scenes of greeting follow (2 . Io, i, etc.), in an author who tries so hard to avoid pattern and repetition: a personage approaches a city; the populace streams out to receive him with torches and flowers; troops and senators cluster around; there are shouts hailing his presence and virtues; and thus accom- panied he enters the city gates. From other sources, however, we know that such occasions, through a very long history, had accumulated features which were indeed patterned, which included also details passed over by Ammianus such as chants and incense, and which were advertised to a larger audience in imperial coinage or in inscriptions set up by the local magistrates.' It would be interesting to find out how deeply into the society of Ammianus' time the impression of such events penetrated, and whether they were imposed by the rulers of the Dominate from above or whether they satisfied more widespread tastes. They are prominent enough in art, notably in relief sculpture; but most surviving art presents us with emperors, consuls, saints, great patrons. It is natural to attribute to the high position of men like these the qualities so often detected in the works they commissioned: grandiloquence, pose, theatricality, and dramatic richness. The present paper, however, pursues these qualities beyond painting and sculpture, into other forms and customs, and into lower levels of society. Its object is to add the support of some social history to the history of art; its conclusion is that, far from being isolated in the upper classes, fourth century art reflected with fair accuracy the enthusiasms and tastes of a popular audience. I. ARCHITECTURE,LANGUAGE, COSTUME The first question to ask is whether there was much communication or movement of ideas of any sort up and down through the various layers of society. Ancient authors concentrate on the doings only of the higher classes. They rarely dip below a senatorial level. To this point, indeed, evidence is plentiful. Ammianus fixes a sour stare (I4. 6, 9-17; 28. 4, 8-I9) upon those senators who can afford armies of servants mustered in brigades under their officers; upon their carriages, out-riders, and uniforms for the day; upon their rigid receptions and the degrees of condescension offered to the different members of their circle. But in much of this, emperor and noble copied each other. The hem of the senator's mantle that swept the marble floors of Constantine's palace as that senator kissed the imperial purple had lately been kissed by some much humbler client, and if the senator had been ranged among the privileged of the emperor's First Admission, that rank derived from the formalities of Republican levees to which even one's meaner acquaintance i. On the ceremonies of the later Empire, generally studied Westreichs," Bonner Jahrbiicher, CLII, 1952; on ceremonial with reference only to the emperor himself, the literature is architecture, A. Boethius, "The Reception Halls of the Roman now very abundant. The name most often cited is A. AlfSldi, Emperors," Annual of the British School at Athens, XLVI, whose kindness in criticizing this paper deserves special thanks. 1951, among others; on the adventus, H. P. L'Orange, "The His own two classic articles, "Die Ausgestaltung des monarchi- Adventus Ceremony," Late Classical Studies in Honor of A. M. schen Zeremoniells am ro-mischen Kaiserhofe," Mitteilungen des Friend, Princeton, 1955; F. Cumont, "L'adoration des mages Deutschen archiiologischen Instituts, r6mische Abteilung, XLIX, et Part triomphal de Rome," Atti della Pontificia Accademia 1934, and "Insignien und Tracht der ramischen Kaiser," Romana di Archeologia, Memorie, III, 1932-1933; and espe- ibid., L, 1935, are the main foundation for the subject, which cially E. Kantorowicz, "The 'King's Advent' and the Enig- has since been divided and pursued by narrower specialists: matic Panels in the Doors of Santa Sabina," ART BULLETIN, r6sum6 is W. "Der R. Delbriick, for instance, on costume, in his Die Consular- XXVI, 1944. A convenient general Ensslin, diptychen, Berlin, 1929; "Der spitantike Kaiserornat," Die Kaiser in der Spitantike," Historische Zeitschrift, CLXXVII, des Antike, vIII, 1932; and "Zu spitrfimischen Elfenbeinen 1954, PP. I77ff. 436 THE ART BULLETIN were admitted. The aristocracy, at least, could enjoy an elaborate ceremony of which they were themselves the direct heirs, without feeling wholly dependent on some still higher model. They brought it somewhat closer to the common man. From the emperor down at least to a town councillor's petitioners, the same customs were in use. But of course society, however one divides it for analysis, is not really made up of grades and distinctions, nor are its customs really kept in compartments. Was ceremonious behavior, for example, generally accommodated in an appropriate arrangement of rooms? By way of answer, we find a series unbroken from the emperors' reception halls of Spalato, Piazza Armerina, or Constantinople down through the mansions of rich provincials, and so to the houses of the middle class: all indulge in a showier use of marble; the opening out of public rooms at the expense of bed-chambers and servants' quarters; apsidal recesses to give focus to a room; monumental entrances.2 The point cannot be pursued here, so far as architecture is concerned, but it can be supported in various other ways. Take the recently discovered panegyric directed apparently by Constantius to one of his pretorian prefects: Innate virtue holds this extraordinaryadvantage for tested and faithful men, that when such a man is constantlyon the alert to promotethe interestsof his emperorand the republic,the glory of the thing weighsas much as the disadvantagesof the life itself and besideshe is consideredto have soughtfor himself in respectto fame this recognition,that by merit in the serviceof his emperorhe has prosperedas a result of industryand hard work. If anyoneamong all these men remainsfixed in our sight and mind-and the felicityof our age has drawn from fortunea great supplyof them-Philip would be the outstandingman whom I rightly proclaimour parent and friend.s The self-consciousness, sense of role, and importance which inflate the emperor can be found again and again throughout the period, more fully in the speeches of trained rhetoricians (a good ex- ample, keeping to the reign of Constantius, is Julian's Oration I. 50 C-D), less lengthily in the letters of Symmachus, and so too an unknown and ill-educated Egyptian monk, writing in the 330's: To the most genuine and most enlightened, most blessed, beloved and in God's keeping and filled with the Holy Ghost and most valuedin the sight of the Lord God, Apa Paieou,greeting in our masterJesus Christ.Before all thingsI pray for prosperityfor you with the Lord God. This our letter I wrote on this papyrusthat you might read it with joy and with most securepeace from the Holy Ghost and with cheer- fulnessin God's keepingand with entertainmentof long-sufferingfilled with the Holy Ghost. To you, then, I write, most genuineand most securein the sight of the Lord God, Apa Paieou. To these two lines of illustration, architecture and language, a third may be added: costume. We are fortunate enough to have an early fourth century procession fresco, showing soldiers, "magistrates, and high functionaries" parading with the emperors, and a mosaic street scene of the next century with people walking about or sitting at tables (Fig. 3)." Here, too, the styles that one can see in use among the great men of the realm prevailed at a lower level, so far as lesser riches, leisure, and sophistication allowed-many-colored clothing, and the embroidered patches and ribbons to be discussed later-giving to Ammianus' world a homogeneity of which he was himself hardly aware. 2. On the tendencies of late Roman private architecture to- was carefully written on stone. ward more grandioseeffects, see R. Stillwell, "Houses of An- 4. Translation of H. I. Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt, tioch," Dumbarton Oaks Papers, xv, 1961, pp. 55ff.; I. Lavin, London, 1924, p. 83. For further discussion of the style of "The House of the Lord," ART BULLETIN,XLIV, I962, pp. late Latin and Greek, and of the influence of the capitals like iff.; R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, Oxford, 1960, pp. 26off.; and Constantinople on the language of the man in the street, see L. Crema, L'architettura romana (Enciclopedia classica, Se- MacMullen, "Roman Bureaucratese," Traditio, xvIII, 1962, zione III: Archeologia e storia dell'arte classica, xII: Archeo- pp. 372ff. logia, I), Turin, 1959, pp. 604ff., especially p. 6o8. 5. U. Monneret de Villard, "The Temple of the Imperial 3. Translation of L. J. Swift and J. H. Oliver, "Constantius Cult at Luxor," Archaeologia, xcv, 1953, pp. 85ff., o5; D. II on Flavius Philippus," American Journal of Philology, Levi, Antioch Mosaic Pavements, Princeton, 1947, pp. 329-32. IV. LXXXIII, 1962, pp. 248ff. It is astonishing when one thinks On clothing, see further below, Section of it, that all this and a great deal more in the same vein SOME PICTURES IN AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS 437 But the three features of fourth century society collected here are chosen not only because they can be traced at several levels, but also because of a characteristic that they share. They may all be said to contain a kind of theatricality. Halls and courts in imperial palaces are deliberately adapted to dramatic appearances-appearances generally of the emperor, from behind a curtain, after the observers have been lined up formally like an audience; or, less often, appearances of consuls or high officers of state, surrounded like their ruler by a bodyguard.