Chapter 11. Topological Spaces: General Properties
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Convergence of Functions: Equi-Semicontinuity
transactions of the american mathematical society Volume 276, Number 1, March 1983 CONVERGENCEOF FUNCTIONS: EQUI-SEMICONTINUITY by szymon dolecki, gabriella salinetti and roger j.-b. wets Abstract. We study the relationship between various types of convergence for extended real-valued functionals engendered by the associated convergence of their epigraphs; pointwise convergence being treated as a special case. A condition of equi-semicontinuity is introduced and shown to be necessary and sufficient to allow the passage from one type of convergence to another. A number of compactness criteria are obtained for families of semicontinuous functions; in the process we give a new derivation of the Arzelá-Ascoli Theorem. Given a space X, by Rx we denote the space of all functions defined on X and with values in R, the extended reals. We are interested in the relationship between various notions of convergence in Rx, in particular, but not exclusively, between pointwise convergence and that induced by the convergence of the epigraphs. We extend and refine the results of De Giorgi and Franzoni [1975] (collection of "equi-Lipschitzian" functions with respect to pseudonorms) and of Salinetti and Wets [1977] (sequences of convex functions on reflexive Banach spaces). The range of applicability of the results is substantially enlarged, in particular the removal of the convexity, reflexivity and the norm dependence assumptions is significant in many applications; for illustrative purposes an example is worked out further on. The work in this area was motivated by: the search for " valid" approximations to extremal statistical problems, variational inequalities and difficult optimization problems, cf. the above mentioned articles. -
1.1.3 Reminder of Some Simple Topological Concepts Definition 1.1.17
1. Preliminaries The Hausdorffcriterion could be paraphrased by saying that smaller neigh- borhoods make larger topologies. This is a very intuitive theorem, because the smaller the neighbourhoods are the easier it is for a set to contain neigh- bourhoods of all its points and so the more open sets there will be. Proof. Suppose τ τ . Fixed any point x X,letU (x). Then, since U ⇒ ⊆ ∈ ∈B is a neighbourhood of x in (X,τ), there exists O τ s.t. x O U.But ∈ ∈ ⊆ O τ implies by our assumption that O τ ,soU is also a neighbourhood ∈ ∈ of x in (X,τ ). Hence, by Definition 1.1.10 for (x), there exists V (x) B ∈B s.t. V U. ⊆ Conversely, let W τ. Then for each x W ,since (x) is a base of ⇐ ∈ ∈ B neighbourhoods w.r.t. τ,thereexistsU (x) such that x U W . Hence, ∈B ∈ ⊆ by assumption, there exists V (x)s.t.x V U W .ThenW τ . ∈B ∈ ⊆ ⊆ ∈ 1.1.3 Reminder of some simple topological concepts Definition 1.1.17. Given a topological space (X,τ) and a subset S of X,the subset or induced topology on S is defined by τ := S U U τ . That is, S { ∩ | ∈ } a subset of S is open in the subset topology if and only if it is the intersection of S with an open set in (X,τ). Alternatively, we can define the subspace topology for a subset S of X as the coarsest topology for which the inclusion map ι : S X is continuous. -
Topology Via Higher-Order Intuitionistic Logic
Topology via higher-order intuitionistic logic Working version of 18th March 2004 These evolving notes will eventually be used to write a paper Mart´ınEscard´o Abstract When excluded middle fails, one can define a non-trivial topology on the one-point set, provided one doesn’t require all unions of open sets to be open. Technically, one obtains a subset of the subobject classifier, known as a dom- inance, which is to be thought of as a “Sierpinski set” that behaves as the Sierpinski space in classical topology. This induces topologies on all sets, rendering all functions continuous. Because virtually all theorems of classical topology require excluded middle (and even choice), it would be useless to reduce other topological notions to the notion of open set in the usual way. So, for example, our synthetic definition of compactness for a set X says that, for any Sierpinski-valued predicate p on X, the truth value of the statement “for all x ∈ X, p(x)” lives in the Sierpinski set. Similarly, other topological notions are defined by logical statements. We show that the proposed synthetic notions interact in the expected way. Moreover, we show that they coincide with the usual notions in cer- tain classical topological models, and we look at their interpretation in some computational models. 1 Introduction For suitable topologies, computable functions are continuous, and semidecidable properties of their inputs/outputs are open, but the converses of these two state- ments fail. Moreover, although semidecidable sets are closed under the formation of finite intersections and recursively enumerable unions, they fail to form the open sets of a topology in a literal sense. -
Compactness of a Topological Space Via Subbase Covers
Compactness of a Topological Space Via Subbase Covers France Dacar, Joˇzef Stefan Institute [email protected] February 29, 2012 Exercise 1 for §9 of Chapter I in Bourbaki’s General Topology: Let X be a topological space and S a subbase of the topology of X. If every open cover of X by sets belonging to S contains a finite subcover, then X is compact. This result is known as the Alexander subbase theorem. The exercise provides a hint how to go about proving the theorem. Here we shall approach it from a different direction, using the following special case of Tychonoff’s theorem: The product of any family of finite topological spaces is a compact topological space. We will actually need only the compactness of the product of finite discrete topological spaces. It is easily seen that this even more special case of Tychonoff’s theorem implies X ι ∈ I O the special case above: given any finite topological spaces ι, , the topology of the product space ι∈I Xι is cruder than (i.e. is a subset of) the topology of the product of discrete topological spaces on the sets Xι; since (we are assuming that) the latter topology is compact, the topology O is also compact. For a start, observe that the exercise becomes trivial if “subbase” is replaced by “base”. Let B be a base of the topology of X, and suppose that every cover V⊆B of X has a finite subcover. Given any open cover U of X, assemble the set V of all sets B ∈Bfor which there exists an U ∈Uthat contains B.ThenV⊆Bcovers X, it has a finite subcover W, and we obtain a finite subset of U that covers X by selecting (and collecting) for each set B ∈W asetUB ∈Uthat contains B. -
Basis (Topology), Basis (Vector Space), Ck, , Change of Variables (Integration), Closed, Closed Form, Closure, Coboundary, Cobou
Index basis (topology), Ôç injective, ç basis (vector space), ç interior, Ôò isomorphic, ¥ ∞ C , Ôý, ÔÔ isomorphism, ç Ck, Ôý, ÔÔ change of variables (integration), ÔÔ kernel, ç closed, Ôò closed form, Þ linear, ç closure, Ôò linear combination, ç coboundary, Þ linearly independent, ç coboundary map, Þ nullspace, ç cochain complex, Þ cochain homotopic, open cover, Ôò cochain homotopy, open set, Ôý cochain map, Þ cocycle, Þ partial derivative, Ôý cohomology, Þ compact, Ôò quotient space, â component function, À range, ç continuous, Ôç rank-nullity theorem, coordinate function, Ôý relative topology, Ôò dierential, Þ resolution, ¥ dimension, ç resolution of the identity, À direct sum, second-countable, Ôç directional derivative, Ôý short exact sequence, discrete topology, Ôò smooth homotopy, dual basis, À span, ç dual space, À standard topology on Rn, Ôò exact form, Þ subspace, ç exact sequence, ¥ subspace topology, Ôò support, Ô¥ Hausdor, Ôç surjective, ç homotopic, symmetry of partial derivatives, ÔÔ homotopy, topological space, Ôò image, ç topology, Ôò induced topology, Ôò total derivative, ÔÔ Ô trivial topology, Ôò vector space, ç well-dened, â ò Glossary Linear Algebra Denition. A real vector space V is a set equipped with an addition operation , and a scalar (R) multiplication operation satisfying the usual identities. + Denition. A subset W ⋅ V is a subspace if W is a vector space under the same operations as V. Denition. A linear combination⊂ of a subset S V is a sum of the form a v, where each a , and only nitely many of the a are nonzero. v v R ⊂ v v∈S v∈S ⋅ ∈ { } Denition.Qe span of a subset S V is the subspace span S of linear combinations of S. -
Section 11.3. Countability and Separability
11.3. Countability and Separability 1 Section 11.3. Countability and Separability Note. In this brief section, we introduce sequences and their limits. This is applied to topological spaces with certain types of bases. Definition. A sequence {xn} in a topological space X converges to a point x ∈ X provided for each neighborhood U of x, there is an index N such that n ≥ N, then xn belongs to U. The point x is a limit of the sequence. Note. We can now elaborate on some of the results you see early in a senior level real analysis class. You prove, for example, that the limit of a sequence of real numbers (under the usual topology) is unique. In a topological space, this may not be the case. For example, under the trivial topology every sequence converges to every point (at the other extreme, under the discrete topology, the only convergent sequences are those which are eventually constant). For an ad- ditional example, see Bonus 1 in my notes for Analysis 1 (MATH 4217/5217) at: http://faculty.etsu.edu/gardnerr/4217/notes/3-1.pdf. In a Hausdorff space (as in a metric space), points can be separated and limits of sequences are unique. Definition. A topological space (X, T ) is first countable provided there is a count- able base at each point. The space (X, T ) is second countable provided there is a countable base for the topology. 11.3. Countability and Separability 2 Example. Every metric space (X, ρ) is first countable since for all x ∈ X, the ∞ countable collection of open balls {B(x, 1/n)}n=1 is a base at x for the topology induced by the metric. -
Reviewworksheetsoln.Pdf
Math 351 - Elementary Topology Monday, October 8 Exam 1 Review Problems ⇤⇤ 1. Say U R is open if either it is finite or U = R. Why is this not a topology? ✓ 2. Let X = a, b . { } (a) If X is equipped with the trivial topology, which functions f : X R are continu- ! ous? What about functions g : R X? ! (b) If X is equipped with the topology ∆, a , X , which functions f : X R are { { } } ! continuous? What about functions g : R X? ! (c) If X is equipped with the discrete topology, which functions f : X R are contin- ! uous? What about functions g : R X? ! 3. Given an example of a topology on R (one we have discussed) that is not Hausdorff. 4. Show that if A X, then ∂A = ∆ if and only if A is both open and closed in X. ⇢ 5. Give an example of a space X and an open subset A such that Int(A) = A. 6 6. Let A X be a subspace. Show that C A is closed if and only if C = D A for some ⇢ ⇢ \ closed subset D X. ⇢ 7. Show that the addition function f : R2 R, defined by f (x, y)=x + y, is continuous. ! 8. Give an example of a function f : R R which is continuous only at 0 (in the usual ! topology). Hint: Define f piecewise, using the rationals and irrationals as the two pieces. Solutions. 1. This fails the union axiom. Any singleton set would be open. The set N is a union of single- ton sets and so should also be open, but it is not. -
General Topology
General Topology Andrew Kobin Fall 2013 | Spring 2014 Contents Contents Contents 0 Introduction 1 1 Topological Spaces 3 1.1 Topology . .3 1.2 Basis . .5 1.3 The Continuum Hypothesis . .8 1.4 Closed Sets . 10 1.5 The Separation Axioms . 11 1.6 Interior and Closure . 12 1.7 Limit Points . 15 1.8 Sequences . 16 1.9 Boundaries . 18 1.10 Applications to GIS . 20 2 Creating New Topological Spaces 22 2.1 The Subspace Topology . 22 2.2 The Product Topology . 25 2.3 The Quotient Topology . 27 2.4 Configuration Spaces . 31 3 Topological Equivalence 34 3.1 Continuity . 34 3.2 Homeomorphisms . 38 4 Metric Spaces 43 4.1 Metric Spaces . 43 4.2 Error-Checking Codes . 45 4.3 Properties of Metric Spaces . 47 4.4 Metrizability . 50 5 Connectedness 51 5.1 Connected Sets . 51 5.2 Applications of Connectedness . 56 5.3 Path Connectedness . 59 6 Compactness 63 6.1 Compact Sets . 63 6.2 Results in Analysis . 66 7 Manifolds 69 7.1 Topological Manifolds . 69 7.2 Classification of Surfaces . 70 7.3 Euler Characteristic and Proof of the Classification Theorem . 74 i Contents Contents 8 Homotopy Theory 80 8.1 Homotopy . 80 8.2 The Fundamental Group . 81 8.3 The Fundamental Group of the Circle . 88 8.4 The Seifert-van Kampen Theorem . 92 8.5 The Fundamental Group and Knots . 95 8.6 Covering Spaces . 97 9 Surfaces Revisited 101 9.1 Surfaces With Boundary . 101 9.2 Euler Characteristic Revisited . 104 9.3 Constructing Surfaces and Manifolds of Higher Dimension . -
Strongly Summable Ultrafilters: Some Properties and Generalizations
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by YorkSpace STRONGLY SUMMABLE ULTRAFILTERS: SOME PROPERTIES AND GENERALIZATIONS DAVID J. FERNANDEZ´ BRETON´ A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO DECEMBER 2014 c David J. Fern´andezBret´on,2014 Abstract This dissertation focuses on strongly summable ultrafilters, which are ultrafilters that are related to Hindman's theorem in much the same way that Ramsey ul- trafilters are related to Ramsey's theorem. Recall that Hindman's theorem states that whenever we partition the set of natural numbers into two (or any finite num- ber of) cells, one of the cells must entirely contain a set of the form FS(X) for some infinite X ⊆ N (here FS(X) is the collection of all finite sums of the form P x2a x where a ⊆ X is finite and nonempty). A nonprincipal ultrafilter on N is said to be strongly summable if it has a base of sets of the form FS(X), this is, if (8A 2 p)(9X 2 [N]@0 )(FS(X) ⊆ A and FS(X) 2 p). These ultrafilters were first introduced by Hindman, and subsequently studied by people such as Blass, Eis- worth, Hindman, Krautzberger, Matet, Protasov and others. Now, from the view- point of the definitions, there is nothing special about N, and analogous definitions for FS(X) and strongly summable ultrafilter can be considered for any semigroup (in the non-abelian case, one must first fix an ordering for X on order-type !). -
Chapter 3. Topology of the Real Numbers. 3.1
3.1. Topology of the Real Numbers 1 Chapter 3. Topology of the Real Numbers. 3.1. Topology of the Real Numbers. Note. In this section we “topological” properties of sets of real numbers such as open, closed, and compact. In particular, we will classify open sets of real numbers in terms of open intervals. Definition. A set U of real numbers is said to be open if for all x ∈ U there exists δ(x) > 0 such that (x − δ(x), x + δ(x)) ⊂ U. Note. It is trivial that R is open. It is vacuously true that ∅ is open. Theorem 3-1. The intervals (a,b), (a, ∞), and (−∞,a) are open sets. (Notice that the choice of δ depends on the value of x in showing that these are open.) Definition. A set A is closed if Ac is open. Note. The sets R and ∅ are both closed. Some sets are neither open nor closed. Corollary 3-1. The intervals (−∞,a], [a,b], and [b, ∞) are closed sets. 3.1. Topology of the Real Numbers 2 Theorem 3-2. The open sets satisfy: n (a) If {U1,U2,...,Un} is a finite collection of open sets, then ∩k=1Uk is an open set. (b) If {Uα} is any collection (finite, infinite, countable, or uncountable) of open sets, then ∪αUα is an open set. Note. An infinite intersection of open sets can be closed. Consider, for example, ∞ ∩i=1(−1/i, 1 + 1/i) = [0, 1]. Theorem 3-3. The closed sets satisfy: (a) ∅ and R are closed. (b) If {Aα} is any collection of closed sets, then ∩αAα is closed. -
Math 344-1: Introduction to Topology Northwestern University, Lecture Notes
Math 344-1: Introduction to Topology Northwestern University, Lecture Notes Written by Santiago Can˜ez These are notes which provide a basic summary of each lecture for Math 344-1, the first quarter of “Introduction to Topology”, taught by the author at Northwestern University. The book used as a reference is the 2nd edition of Topology by Munkres. Watch out for typos! Comments and suggestions are welcome. Contents Lecture 1: Topological Spaces 2 Lecture 2: More on Topologies 3 Lecture 3: Bases 4 Lecture 4: Metric Spaces 5 Lecture 5: Product Topology 6 Lecture 6: More on Products 8 Lecture 7: Arbitrary Products, Closed Sets 11 Lecture 8: Hausdorff Spaces 15 Lecture 9: Continuous Functions 16 Lecture 10: More on Continuity 18 Lecture 11: Quotient Spaces 19 Lecture 12: More on Quotients 20 Lecture 13: Connected Spaces 21 Lecture 14: More on Connectedness 22 Lecture 15: Local Connectedness 23 Lecture 16: Compact spaces 24 Lecture 17: More on Compactness 25 Lecture 18: Local Compactness 27 Lecture 19: More on Local Compactness 28 Lecture 20: Countability Axioms 29 Lecture 21: Regular Spaces 30 Lecture 22: Normal spaces 31 Lecture 23: Urysohn’s Lemma 31 Lecture 24: More on Urysohn 32 Lecture 25: Tietze Extension Theorem 32 Lecture 26: Tychonoff’s Theorem 33 Lecture 27: Alexander Subbase Theorem 36 Lecture 1: Topological Spaces Why topology? Topology provides the most general setting in which we can talk about continuity, which is good because continuous functions are amazing things to have available. Topology does this by providing a general setting in which we can talk about the notion of “near” or “close”, and it is this perspective which I hope to make more precise as we go on. -
Kevin Michael Drees a Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College
Cp(X; Z) Kevin Michael Drees A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2009 Committee: Warren Wm. McGovern, Advisor Christopher Rump, Graduate Faculty Representative Rieuwert J. Blok Kit C. Chan ii ABSTRACT Warren Wm. McGovern, Advisor We examine the ring of continuous integer-valued continuous functions on a topological space X, denoted C(X; Z), endowed with the topology of pointwise convergence, denoted Cp(X; Z). We first deal with the basic properties of the ring C(X; Z) and the space Cp(X; Z). We find that the concept of a zero-dimensional space plays an important role in our studies. In fact, we find that one need only assume that the domain space is zero-dimensional; this is similar to assume the space to be Tychonoff when studying C(X), where C(X) is the ring of real-valued continuous functions. We also find the space Cp(X; Z) is itself a zero-dimensional space. Next, we consider some specific topological properties of the space Cp(X; Z) that can be characterized by the topological properties of X. We show that if Cp(X; Z) is topologically isomorphic to Cp(Y; Z), then the spaces X and Y are homeomorphic to each other, this is much like a the theorem by Nagata from 1949. We show that if X is a zero-dimensional space, then there is a zero-dimensional space Y such that X is embedded in Cp(Y; Z).