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Morphology and Morphemes CTE – 02 Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota CTE - 02 Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Written English : Morphology and Morphemes CTE – 02 Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Written English : Morphology and Morphemes Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Kumar Pathak Vice-Chancellor Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Convener/Member Convener Dr. (Smt.) Kshamata Chaudhary Assistant Professor (English) Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University Kota Members Prof. H. P. Shukla Dr. L. L. Yogi U. K. Open University, Retd. Principal Haldwani, Uttrakhand Govt. College, Bundi Prof. Jaya Chakravarty Sh. Sanjay Chawla Head, Deptt. of English, Lecturer in English University of Rajasthan, Jaipur Director, Sanskrit Education, Kota Editor Dr. (Smt.) Kshamata Chaudhary Assistant Professor (English) Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Unit Writer Unit No. Unit Writer Unit No. Sh. Sanjay Chawla 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Dr. L. L. Yogi 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Lecturer in English Ex. Principal, Govt. College, Bundi Director, Sanskrit Education, Kota Academic and Administrative Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Kumar Pathak Prof. Leela Ram Gurjar Prof. (Dr.) P. K. Sharma Vice-Chancellor Director Director Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Academic Regional Development Department Kota Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Kota Course Production Sh. Yogendra Goyal Assistant Production Officer Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Published in November, 2013 © Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Spoken English : Phonetics and Phonology Units Unit No. Unit Name Page Unit – 1 Morphology and Morphemes : An Introduction 1 – 13 Unit – 2 Word Formation 14 – 29 Unit – 3 Basic Sentence Structures 30 – 40 Unit – 4 Sentence Structures 41 – 56 Unit – 5 Types of Sentences 57 – 73 Unit – 6 Indianization of English 74 – 80 Unit – 7 Bilingualism, Code Mixing & Code Switching 81 – 89 Unit – 8 Varieties of Prose 90 – 97 Unit – 9 Rhetoric and Prosody 98 – 109 Unit – 10 Phrasal Verb 110 - 122 Unit – 11 Proverbs, Idioms & One Word Substitution 123 – 134 Unit – 12 Consulting the Dictionary and Thesaurus 135 - 143 Block Introduction The teachers of English today confront myriad of questions and curiosities of the students regarding various nuances of the English language. The handy text books on English grammar sometimes do not help the teachers of English much. This block gives the teachers an in-depth study of the linguistics of English in simple and comprehensible way so that the teachers do not find it obscure. The study of morphology of English and sentence structures shall make the study of the English language quite easy. The study of Bilingualism, Code Mixing, Code Switching and Indianization of English has become a must in the changing scenario of English in India today. The unit on Rhetoric and Prosody shall cater to the requirements of the teachers interested in teaching how to speak and write elegantly, forthfully and impressively. The units on phrasal Verbs, Proverbs, Idioms and one word substitution deal with topics in a unique way – making the otherwise dull topics interesting and easy to internalise. Last but not least, the unit on consulting the Dictionary and Thesaurus will motivate all the learners to keep these two essentials at hand to extract all the necessary information to inculate good speaking and writing in their language. Unit - 1 Morphology and Morphemes: An Introduction Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Peculiar Nature of Morphology 1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.4 Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphology 1.5 Allomorphy 1.6 Lexemes and word forms 1.7 Inflection vs. word formation 1.8 Status of clitics 1.9 Categories and subcategories of words and morphemes 1.10 Constituent Structure of Words 1.11 Morphology FAQ 1.12 Let Us Sum Up 1.13 Review Questions 1.14 Bibliography 1.0 Objectives In this unit we shall have an introductory idea of the linguistic term morphology and the terms associated with this branch of study. 1.1 Introduction Morphology deals with morphemes (the minimal units of linguistic form and meaning), and how they make up words. In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context. While words are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most languages, if not all, words can be related to other words by rules (grammars). For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related—differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", which is only found bound to nouns, and is never separate. Speakers of English recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher, in one sense. The rules understood by the speaker reflect 1 specific patterns, or regularities, in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages. The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is called morphophonology. 1.3 The Peculiar Nature of Morphology Morphology is basically gratuitous, as well as complex and irregular. English can make iconify from icon and -ify, meaning "make into an icon." Perhaps it's nice to have a single word for it, but we could always have said "make into an icon." Indeed, the process in English is rather erratic: we say vaporize not *vaporify, and emulsify not*emulsionify, and so on. Yet irrational combinatoric nonsense of this type happens all the time in morphology. Consider the adjectival forms of the names of countries or regions in English. There are at least a half a dozen different endings, and also many variations in how much of the name of the country is retained before the ending is added: -ese Bhutanese, Chinese, Japanese, -an African, American, Cuban, -ian Argentinian, Australian, , Canadian, -ish Irish, British, Scottish, -i Afghani, Iraqi, Pakistani -? French, German, Greek And you can't mix and match stems and endings here: *Taiwanian, *Egyptese, and so on just don't work. To make it worse, the word for citizen of X and the general adjectival form meaning associated with locality X are usually but not always the same. Exceptions include Pole/Polish, Swede/Swedish, Scot/Scottish, Greenlandic/Greenlander. And there are some oddities about pluralization: we talk about "the French" and "the Chinese" but "the Greeks" and "the Canadians". The plural forms "the Frenches" and "the Chineses" are not even possible, and the singular forms "the Greek" and "the Canadian" mean something entirely different. 1.4 Fundamental concepts 1.4.1 Word: In language, a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own. A word may consist of a single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly, running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just mentioned, these are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes (rock-s, red-ness, quick-ly, run-ning, un-expect-ed), or more than one root in a compound (black-board, rat-race). Words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock), and sentences (He threw a rock too but he missed). 2 The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet. 1.4.2 Morpheme: In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding. Every word comprises one or more morphemes. Classification of morphemes Free vs. bound Every morpheme can be classified as either free or bound. These categories are mutually exclusive, and as such, a given morpheme will belong to exactly one of them. Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes (e.g. town hall, doghouse). Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes, examples of suffixes are: tion, ation, ible, ing etc. Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional. 1.5 Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphology Another common distinction is the one between derivational and inflectional affixes. Derivational morphemes make new words from old ones. Thus creation is formed from create by adding a morpheme that makes nouns out of (some) verbs. Derivational morphemes generally 1. change the part of speech or the basic meaning of a word. Thus -ment added to a verb forms a noun (judg-ment). re-activate means "activate again." 2.
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