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Time Scales and Processes of Shoreline Formation in Pluvial Lakes of the Great Basin, Western USA

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Time Scales and Processes of Shoreline Formation in Pluvial Lakes of the Great Basin, Western USA University of Nevada, Reno Time Scales and Processes of Shoreline Formation in Pluvial Lakes of the Great Basin, Western USA A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geology. by Noah F. Abramson Dr. Kenneth D. Adams/Thesis Advisor May, 2019 Copyright by Noah F. Abramson 2019 All Rights Reserved THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by NOAH ABRAMSON Entitled Time Scales and Processes of Shoreline Formation in Pluvial Lakes of the Great Basin, Western USA be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE , Advisor , Committee Member , Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean, Graduate School i Abstract This study examines historical beach deposits formed in Walker Lake, Winnemucca Lake, and Lake Tahoe to characterize the processes that lead to the construction of beach ridges along lacustrine shorelines and compares the volume of individual shoreline features to the lengths of time under which they formed. Maximum fetch distances of < 50 km limit waves generated in these basins. Waves that are capable of significant geomorphic work are generated during events that achieve wind speeds > 10 m/s for 3 or more hours. A 30-year wind record from the Dead Camel Mountains, NV indicate these wind events occur 5-24 times per year. Modeled maximum total wave swash elevations for the observed significant wind events range from 0.93- 1.93 m across the three lakes studied, which is in general agreement with heights of observed beach ridges. Total incident wave energy delivered to the shorelines of interest for the years 1999, 2007, and 2017 ranged from 0 - 2.5x108 J/m across the three basins, indicating total wave energy delivered per year can be highly variable. The volumetric analysis of historical beach ridges at Walker Lake showed a strong correlation between time of formation and increased volume, therefore, the individual volumes of beach ridges can be used as an indicator to infer relative durations of lake-level stability. By applying the volume vs. time of formation relationship developed on the historical shorelines, we estimate lake levels were sustained at 1262 m elevation for ~4.5 - 5.5 years in Walker Lake during the late Holocene highstand around 3500 cal yr. BP. When used to estimate durations of time of lake-level stability, volumetric analysis of beach ridges presents a new technique to further refine pre-historic lake-level curves on an annual to decadal timescale. However, given large variability in shoreline volumes and rates of development across basins, it is important to acknowledge differences in sediment supply, wind conditions, wave energy, shoreline equilibrium, and other parameters relating to beach ridge formation before applying volumetric relationships from one lake to another. ii Acknowledgements I give heartfelt thanks to all the people that have assisted me with this project. Particularly, Dave Page who helped collect aerial imagery used in this study. Thanks to Ann Millspaugh and Benjamin Serpa for helping me develop computer code to analyze my data. Thanks to Dr. Scott McCoy and Dr. Scott Mensing for providing constructive feedback and helping refine my interpretations made in this study. Most of all thanks to Dr. Ken Adams for giving me the opportunity to work on this project, and whose insight and support allowed me to become a better geomorphologist, critical thinker, and scientist. iii Table of Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ii Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 Pluvial Lakes and their Associated Landforms..........................................................................2 Previous Work……………………...………………………………….........................................6 Regional Settings and Hydrology Walker Lake…………………………………………………………………………………......10 Winnemucca Dry Lake…………………………………………………………………………..13 Lake Tahoe………………………………………………………………………………………17 Methods Wind Regime Characterization and Analysis……………………………………………………21 Wave Hindcasting ……………………………………………………………………………….24 Wave Runup, Wave Setup, and Wind Setup Modeling…………………………………………...27 Wave Refraction……………………………………………………………………………….....29 Wave Energy Modeling…………………………………………………………………………..31 Volumetric Analysis of Beach Ridges……………………………………………………...……..32 Duration of Lake-Level Residency Time for Historical Beach Ridges…………………….......…35 iv Results Wind Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………….36 Wave Hindcasting………………………………………………………………………………...39 Wave Runup………………………………………………………………………………………44 Wave Energy……………………………………………………………………………………...49 Volumetric Analysis: Walker Lake……………………………………………………………….53 Volumetric Analysis: Winnemucca Dry Lake……………………………………………...…….58 Volumetric Analysis: Lake Tahoe………………………………………………………………..61 Volumetric Analysis: Late Holocene Highstand at Walker Lake………………………………...63 Discussion Wind Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………….66 Wave and Runup Modeling……………………………………………………………………….70 Wave Energy……………………………………………………………………………………...71 Evidence for Historical Shoreline Deposits……………………………………………………....72 Shoreline Volume…………………………………………………………………………………74 Applying Volumetric Analysis of Beach Ridges to Paleoshorelines……………………………...77 Conclusions…………………………………………………………...……………………….....81 References………………………………………………………………………………………..85 v Tables Table 1: Volume Analysis of Walker Lake Shorelines…………………………………………...57 Table 2: Volume Analysis of Winnemucca-Dry Lake Shorelines………………………………..60 Table 3: Volume Analysis of Lake Tahoe Shorelines………………...………………………….63 Table 4: Duration Estimations of Late Holocene Highstand Walker Lake………...…………….65 Table 5: Frequency Distribution of 30-Year Significant Wind Events by Direction……...……..69 vi Figures Figure 1: Map of Late Pleistocene Extent of Pluvial Lakes in the Great Basin…………………...3 Figure 2: Map of Historical Beach Ridge Complex Walker Lake…………………………………4 Figure 3: Typical Shoreline Features of Pluvial Lakes…………………………………………….6 Figure 4: Map of Walker Lake Hydrography…………………………………………………….11 Figure 5: Historical Lake-Level Fluctuations at Walker Lake…………………………………...13 Figure 6: Tahoe-Pyramid-Winnemucca Lake Basin Hydrography………………………………15 Figure 7: Historical Lake-Level Fluctuations at Winnemucca-Dry-Lake………………………..16 Figure 8: Aerial Photo of Winnemucca-Dry Lake Historical Shorelines………………………...16 Figure 9: Map of Lake Tahoe Hydrography……………………………………………………...19 Figure 10: Map of Baldwin Beach Shoreline Deposits, Lake Tahoe…………………………….20 Figure 11: Historical Lake-Level Fluctuations at Lake Tahoe…………………………………...21 Figure 12: Map of Location of Dead Camel Mountain Weather Station…………………………22 Figure 13: Wave Refraction Mechanics…………………………………………………………..30 Figure 14: Cross-section of Baldwin Beach 1900 m Beach Ridge……………………………….34 Figure 15: Photo of Active Swash Processes, Lake Tahoe……………………………………….36 Figure 16: 30-year Average Windspeed and Annual Significant Wind Event Occurrence………37 Figure 17: Significant Wind Event Wind Rose 1999, 2007, 2017……………………………….38 Figure 18: Results of Modeled Deep-Water Wave Heights...........................................................40 Figure 19: Results of Modeled Wave Runups……………………………………………………45 Figure 20: Results of Modeled Wave Energy…………………………………………………….50 vii Figure 21: Map of Typical Shorelines Analyzed at Walker Lake………………………………..55 Figure 22: Volume vs. Lake Level Residency Time, Walker Lake………………………………56 Figure 23: Volume vs. Shoreline Elevation, Winnemucca-Dry Lake……………………………58 Figure 24: Map of Shorelines Analyzed at Winnemucca-Dry Lake……………………………...59 Figure 25: Volume vs. Lake Level Residency Time, Winnemucca-Dry Lake…………………...60 Figure 26: Volume vs. Lake Level Residency Time, Lake Tahoe……………………………….61 Figure 27: Map of Shorelines Analyzed at Lake Tahoe………………………………………….62 Figure 28: Geomorphic Map of Late Holocene Shorelines, Walker Lake……………………….64 Figure 29: Estimation of Time of Formation for Late Holocene Highstand, Walker Lake………65 Figure 30: Shoreline Evidence for N Directed Winds, Winnemucca-Dry Lake…………………68 Figure 31: Wind Rose of Significant Wind Events for 30-year Wind Record…………………...69 Figure 32: Lake-Level Curve Walker Lake, Late Holocene- Present…………………………….80 1 Introduction A key characteristic of closed lake basins is that lake stage is directly related to the relative abundance of inflow, which includes precipitation, runoff, and groundwater inflow vs. outflow, which includes evaporation and groundwater discharge (Mifflin and Wheat, 1979). These factors make lake-surface elevation in pluvial lakes a sensitive indicator of climatic conditions for a given time period. Past lake levels are often recorded in the form of distinct shoreline deposits, which have been used for over a century to document paleoclimatic fluctuations, paleohydrology, and tectonic deformation in the western U.S. (e.g., Russell, 1885; Mifflin and Wheat 1979; Adams and Wesnousky, 1998; Adams et al. 1999; Oviatt, 2015). Shoreline features form as near horizontal, equipotential surfaces associated with a particular lake level. These characteristics allow them to be easily distinguished from other landforms in the field, with topographic
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