Standards for the English Language Arts. P

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Standards for the English Language Arts

INTERNATIONAL READING ASSOCIATION 800 Barksdale Road, P.O. Box 8139, Newark, Delaware 19714-8139

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 1111 W. Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801-1096 IRA Board of Directors Dolores B. Malcolm (President), St. Louis Public Schools, Missouri; Richard T. Vacca (President-Elect), Kent State University, Ohio; John J. Pikulski (Vice President), University of Delaware, Newark; Richard L. Allington, State University of New York at Albany; James F. Baumann, National Reading Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens; John Elkins, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia; Yetta M. Goodman, University of Arizona, Tucson; Kathleen Stumpf Jongsma, Northside Independent School District, San Antonio, Texas; Sandra McCormick, The Ohio State University, Columbus; MaryEllen Vogt, California State University, Long Beach; Barbara J. Walker, Montana State University, Billings; Carmelita Kimber Williams, Norfolk State University, Virginia; Alan E. Farstrup (Executive Director).

NCTE Executive Committee Beverly Ann Chin (President), University of Montana, Missoula; Carol Avery (President-Elect), Millersville, Pennsylvania; Sheridan Blau (Vice President), University of California at Santa Barbara; Miriam T. Chaplin (Past President), Rutgers University, Camden, New Jersey; Judith M. Kelly (Representative at Large), Hine Junior High School, Washington, D.C.; Diane T. Orchard (Representative at Large), Lapeer Community Schools, Michigan; Greta D. Price (Representative at Large), Willowbrook Middle School, Compton, California; Kathy G. Short (Elementary Section Chair), University of Arizona, Tucson; Joan Naomi Steiner (Secondary Section Chair), School District of Marinette, Wisconsin; Kay Parks Bushman (Secondary Section Associate Chair), Ottawa High School, Kansas; Betty C. Houser (Secondary Section Associate Chair), Belmond/Klemme High School, Iowa; Frank Madden (College Section Chair), Westchester Community College, Valhalla, New York; Gail E. Hawisher (College Section Assistant Chair), University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign; Lester Faigley (CCCC Chair), University of Texas at Austin; Carol A. Pope (CEE Chair), North Carolina State University, Raleigh; Donald L. Stephan (CEL Chair), Sidney High School, Ohio; Miles Myers (Executive Director).

Cover design: Boni Nash, IRA Graphic Design Coordinator Interior design: Larry Husfelt, IRA Design Consultant Manuscript editors: Michael Greer, Rona S. Smith, Lee Erwin, NCTE

IRA Stock Number: 889 NCTE Stock Number: 46767-3050

©1996 by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. Published by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Photo Credits: Bill Leece (p. 4); Thompson-McClellan Photography (pp. 6, 9, 11, 18, 22, 29, 32, 35, 39, 43, 44); Ray Martens (pp. 15, 54); Susan Lina Ruggles (pp. 50, 57, 58, 59, 62); George Rattin and Mike Jankowski (p. 64). [Photography has been omitted from the online version of this work.]

High School Vignette 4 is adapted from The Writer’s Craft, Orange Level; copyright ©1992 by McDougal, Littell & Company, Box 1667, Evanston, IL 60204. All rights reserved. [This vignette has been omitted from the online version of this work.]

The Korean text appearing in Middle School Vignette 3 is excerpted with permission from Classroom Publishing: A Practical Guide to Enhancing Student Literacy, published by Blue Heron Publishing, Hillsboro, Oregon. [This text has been omitted from the online version of this work.]

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data National Council of Teachers of English. Standards for the English language arts. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8141-4676-7 (pbk.) 1. Language arts—United States—Standards. I. International Reading Association. II. Title. LB1576.N274 1996 808'.042'071—dc20 96-3238 CIP CONTENTS

Introduction v

Chapter 1: Setting Standards in the English Language Arts 1

Defining the Standards 1 The Need for Standards 2 To Prepare Students for the Literacy Demands of Today and Tomorrow 2 To Present a Shared Vision of Literacy Education 5 To Promote Equity and Excellence for All 6 Learning How to Learn 7 Equal Access to Resources 7 Adequate Staffing 8 Safe, Well-Equipped Schools 8

Chapter 2: Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 9

Literacy and Language Learning: An Interactive Model 9 Content 11 A Broad Range of Texts 11 Processes and Strategies 11 Systems and Structures of Language 12 Purpose 12 For Obtaining and Communicating Information 12 For Literary Response and Expression 12 For Learning and Reflection 13 For Problem Solving and Application 13 Development 13 How Students Acquire Knowledge and Develop Competency over Time 14

iii How Students Should Be Able to Use Language 15 Clearly 15 Strategically 15 Critically 15 Creatively 15 Context 16

Chapter 3: The English Language Arts Standards 18

IRA/NCTE Standards for the English Language Arts 19 The Standards in Detail 19 Standard 1 19 Standard 2 21 Standard 3 22 Standard 4 24 Standard 5 25 Standard 6 26 Standard 7 27 Standard 8 28 Standard 9 29 Standard 10 30 Standard 11 31 Standard 12 32 Realizing the Standards 32

Chapter 4: Standards in the Classroom 33

Elementary Vignettes 34 Middle School Vignettes 38 High School Vignettes 42

In Conclusion 46

Glossary 47

Appendix A: List of Participants 54

Appendix B: History of the Standards Project 84

Appendix C: Overview of Standards Projects 86

Appendix D: State and International English Language Arts Standards 88

Appendix E: Resources for Teachers 93

Appendix F: Response to Standards for the English Language Arts 106

iv Standards for the English Language Arts INTRODUCTION

he International Reading Association and how students learn—in particular, how they learn Tthe National Council of Teachers of language. English are pleased to present these stan- In the fall of 1992, the U.S. Department of dards for the English language arts. This document Education awarded a grant for the Standards Project is the result of an intensive four-year project involv- for the English Language Arts to educators at the ing thousands of educators, researchers, parents, Center for the Study of Reading at the University of policymakers, and others across the country. Our Illinois with the agreement that the Center would shared purpose is to ensure that all students are work closely with IRA and NCTE to develop the stan- knowledgeable and proficient users of language so dards. Federal involvement ended in 1994, and from that time until the present the project has been fund- that they may succeed in school, participate in our ed solely by IRA and NCTE. democracy as informed citizens, find challenging and Two principles endorsed by the National rewarding work, appreciate and contribute to our Academy of Education (McLaughlin and Shepard culture, and pursue their own goals and interests as 1995, p. xviii) have been central to our work: independent learners throughout their lives. The English Language Arts Standards Project is ■ Because there is not one best way to organize one of many efforts undertaken in recent years to de- subject matter in a given field of study, rigor- fine outcomes or goals for various school subjects. ous national standards should not be restrict- The project was first proposed in an August 1991 let- ed to one set of standards per subject area. ter to U.S. Secretary of Education Lamar Alexander ■ Content standards should embody a coher- from Judith Thelen, then president of the ent, professionally defensible conception of International Reading Association (IRA), and Shirley how a field can be framed for purposes of in- Haley-James, then president of the National Council struction. They should not be an exhaustive, of Teachers of English (NCTE). If the federal gov- incoherent compendium of every group’s desired content. ernment were to fund a voluntary standards project in English, then IRA and NCTE wanted to be in- From its inception, the English Language Arts volved. Our officers and committees believed—and Standards Project has been field-based. A guiding be- still believe—that English language arts standards lief has been that the process of defining standards must be grounded in what we know about language must be an open, inclusive one. As a result, thou- and language learning. If the standards do not have sands of K–12 classroom teachers have been in- this very important foundation, then they could un- volved in writing, reviewing, and revising the many dermine our nation’s commitment to educating all successive drafts of this document and have guided students, to emerging conceptions of literacy, and to its development every step of the way over the last publicly funded schools. The standards presented three-and-a-half years. Hundreds of parents, legisla- here grew out of current research and theory about tive leaders, administrators, researchers, and policy

Introduction v analysts in English language arts have played critical language arts standards must and will continue. To roles at each stage of the project. (Appendix A lists that end, we are enclosing a response form at the participants in the process.) end of this document. We invite you—in fact, we In generating this document, we have sought to urge you—to tell us what you think about our vision reflect the many different voices, interests, and con- of the English language arts curriculum. cerns of these diverse contributors. While we recog- We extend our deepest thanks to the thousands of nize that no single publication, no single set of individuals who have participated in the standards standards, can satisfy all interests and concerns, we project to date. Thank you for contributing your fervently hope that this work captures the essential voices to this important national conversation. We goals of English language arts instruction at the turn also wish to thank the College Board and the John of the century in the United States of America. Most D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for their important, we hope that it offers a coherent vision funding of the project at the beginning of the journey. for the future, complementing other current efforts to define performance standards, opportunity-to-learn Alan E. Farstrup standards, and assessment standards not only in the International Reading Association English language arts but in other school subject areas as well. Many states and local districts are already Miles Myers using these standards in their deliberations, and we National Council of Teachers of English have benefited from the responses of language arts coordinators in every state. The publication of this document represents not REFERENCE only the end of one process, that of defining the McLaughlin, M. W., & Shepard, L. A., with O’Day, J. A. (1995). standards, but also the beginning of a new one— Improving education through standards-based reform: A report by the National Academy of Education Panel on that of translating them into practice in classrooms Standards-Based Education Reform. Stanford, CA: National across the country. The conversation about English Academy of Education.

vi Standards for the English Language Arts CHAPTER 1

SETTING STANDARDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

his document describes standards for the projects to define voluntary standards for science, TEnglish language arts—that is, it defines mathematics, art, music, foreign languages, social what students should know about lan- studies, English language arts, and other subjects. guage and be able to do with language. Our goal is These efforts have served as catalysts in a wide- to define, as clearly and specifically as possible, the ranging national conversation about the needs of current consensus among literacy teachers and re- students and the instructional approaches of their searchers about what students should learn in the teachers. This dialogue is healthy and speaks well English language arts—reading, writing, listening, of the value placed on education by the American speaking, viewing, and visually representing. The public. ultimate purpose of these standards is to ensure that This document adds to the national dialogue by all students are offered the opportunities, the en- presenting the consensus that exists among thou- couragement, and the vision to develop the language sands of English language arts educators about what skills they need to pursue life’s goals, including per- all students in K–12 schools should know and be sonal enrichment and participation as informed able to do with language, in all its forms. We believe members of our society. that the act of defining standards is worthwhile be- Over the past several years, national education- cause it invites further reflection and conversation al organizations have launched a series of ambitious about the fundamental goals of public schooling.

DEFINING THE STANDARDS

Based on extensive discussions among educators dards, we mean statements that define what students across the country about the central aims of English should know and be able to do in the English lan- language arts instruction, the International Reading guage arts. Although the standards focus primarily Association and the National Council of Teachers of on content, we also underscore the importance of English have defined a set of content standards for other dimensions of language learning. In particular, the English language arts. By the term content stan- we believe that questions of why, when, and how

Setting Standards in the English Language Arts 1 students grow and develop as language users are also ing. They are not meant to be seen as prescriptions critical and must be addressed by those who trans- for particular curricula or instructional approaches. late the standards into practice. As we discuss in We must also stress that although a list implies that Chapter 2, the perspective informing the standards the individual entries are distinct and clearly separa- captures the interaction among these aspects of lan- ble, the realities of language learning are far more guage learning—content, purpose, development, and complex. Each of these standards is tied to the others context—and emphasizes the central role of the in obvious and subtle ways, and considerable over- learner, whose goals and interests drive the processes lap exists among them. Thus, while we identify dis- of learning. crete standards for purposes of discussion and In defining the standards, we use some terms that elaboration, and to provide a curricular focus, we rec- have multiple meanings. Briefly, we use the term text ognize the complex interactions that exist among the broadly to refer not only to printed texts, but also to individual entries and urge our readers to do the same. spoken language, graphics, and technological com- Subsequent chapters of this document explore a munications. Language as it is used here encom- model of language learning that provides a perspec- passes visual communication in addition to spoken tive for standards (Chapter 2); elaborate on the stan- and written forms of expression. And reading refers dards (Chapter 3); and consider some of the ways in to listening and viewing in addition to print-oriented which the standards are realized in the classroom reading. (See the Glossary for additional terms.) (Chapter 4). Before turning to these discussions, It is important to emphasize from the outset that however, we wish to take a closer look at the ration- these standards are intended to serve as guidelines ale for setting standards—why we believe defining that provide ample room for the kinds of innovation standards is important and what we hope to accom- and creativity that are essential to teaching and learn- plish in doing so.

THE NEED FOR STANDARDS

In defining standards for the English language arts, documented disparities that exist in educa- we are motivated by three core beliefs: tional opportunities. Standards can help us ensure that all students become informed cit- ■ First, we believe that standards are needed izens and participate fully in society. to prepare students for the literacy requirements of the future as well as the present. To Prepare Students for the Literacy Changes in technology and society have al- Demands of Today and Tomorrow tered and will continue to alter the ways in The standards outlined in this document reflect a which we use language to communicate and view of literacy that is both broader and more de- to think. Students must be prepared to meet manding than traditional definitions. For many years, these demands. literacy was defined in a very limited way—as the ■ Second, we believe that standards can articu- ability to read or write one’s own name, for exam- late a shared vision of what the nation’s teach- ple (Soltow and Stevens 1981). A much more ambi- ers, literacy researchers, teacher educators, tious definition of literacy today includes the capacity parents, and others expect students to attain to accomplish a wide range of reading, writing, and in the English language arts, and what we can other language tasks associated with everyday life. do to ensure that this vision is realized. The National Literacy Act of 1991, for example, de- ■ Third, we believe that standards are neces- fines literacy as “an individual’s ability to read, write, sary to promote high educational expecta- and speak in English and compute and solve prob- tions for all students and to bridge the lems at levels of proficiency necessary to function

2 Standards for the English Language Arts IRA/NCTE STANDARDS FOR THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

The vision guiding these standards is that all students must have the opportunities and resources to develop the language skills they need to pursue life’s goals and to participate fully as informed, productive members of society. These standards assume that literacy growth begins before children enter school as they experience and experiment with literacy activities—reading and writing, and associating spoken words with their graphic representations. Recognizing this fact, these standards encourage the development of curriculum and instruction that make productive use of the emerging literacy abilities that children bring to school. Furthermore, the standards provide ample room for the innovation and creativity essential to teaching and learning. They are not prescriptions for particular curriculum or instruction. Although we present these standards as a list, we want to emphasize that they are not distinct and separable; they are, in fact, interrelated and should be considered as a whole.

1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works. 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience. 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics). 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts. 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience. 8. Students use a variety of technological and informational resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge. 9. Students develop an understanding of and respect for diversity in language use, patterns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, geographic regions, and social roles. 10. Students whose first language is not English make use of their first language to develop competency in the English language arts and to develop understanding of content across the curriculum. 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities. 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

Setting Standards in the English Language Arts 3 on the job and in society, to achieve one’s goals, and Three sources of data indicate that, contrary to to develop one’s knowledge and potential.” popular belief, reading and writing abilities This historical perspective provides a context for have not declined over time: “then and now” interpreting current perspectives on English language studies, test restandardization research, and the arts education. For example, critics argue that fewer National Assessment of Educational Progress and fewer students are able to read and write well, surveys of reading and writing. blaming schools and teachers for failing to fulfill their responsibilities. In actuality, however, ever-increasing By readministering the same test over time, numbers of high school graduates have met our past “then and now” studies examine trends in stu- goals in literacy (see sidebar). The mismatch that cur- dent achievement based on past standards of lit- rently exists is between students’ achievements and eracy. Of the several dozen studies of this our expanded expectation for their literacy. nature, all but one conclude that more recent We see the need for change, but this need de- students outperform earlier students (Farr, rives from a vision of a more challenging future Tuinman, and Rowls 1974). The exception was rather than a criticism of past or current efforts. We found in a study comparing the skills of pre- believe that schools and teachers deserve praise for 1930 students and post-1935 students in oral the encouraging results they are achieving. This does reading, an area that was de-emphasized in the not mean, however, that all students today leave reading curriculum in the early 1930s. school with every skill they need to become critically literate citizens, workers, members of society, and When test publishers revise (or “restandardize”) lifelong learners. Indeed, we face new demands, an aging test, they administer both old and new new standards of critical thinking and expressive versions to a sample of current students. A re- ability, that we are now beginning to meet. view of test restandardization reports indicates Literacy expectations are likely to accelerate in that, since the mid-1970s, scores have increased the coming decades. To participate fully in society by about 2 percentile points per year for five of and the workplace in 2020, citizens will need pow- the six most widely used achievement tests in erful literacy abilities that until now have been grades 1 through 9. Changes in scores at the achieved by only a small percentage of the popula- high school level have been mixed, with scores tion. At the same time, individuals will need to devel- increasing slightly on some tests and decreasing op technological competencies undreamed of as slightly on others (Berliner and Biddle 1995; recently as ten years ago. One unexpected outcome Linn, Graue, and Sanders 1990; Kibby 1993, of the recent explosion in electronic media has been 1995; Stedman and Kaestle 1987). a remarkable increase in the use of written language, suggesting that predictions about the decline of con- The National Assessment of Educational Progress ventional literacy have been misplaced and prema- (NAEP) conducts periodic assessments of read- ture. Electronic mail, similarly, has fundamentally ing, writing, and other subject areas with altered personal written correspondence, and grow- nationally representative samples of 9-, 13-, and ing access to the Internet will continue to increase 17-year-olds. Since 1971, there has been a statis- the demand for citizens who can read and write us- tically significant increase in reading scores ing electronic media. Furthermore, reading and writ- among 13- and 17-year-olds (Mullis, Campbell, ing are essential skills in planning and producing and Farstrup 1993). nonprint media. This broadened definition of literacy means that Thus, evidence suggests that students today read English language arts education must address many better and write better than at any other time different types and uses of language, including those in the history of the country (Kibby 1993, 1995). that are often given limited attention in the curriculum. One such area is spoken language. We have learned to respect the continuing importance of oral culture in all communities and to recognize the rich

4 Standards for the English Language Arts interdependence between spoken and written lan- ple, that in the early stages of reading, the act of writ- guage. Much of our knowledge of language and our ing helps to shape children’s understanding of texts. acquisition of literacy depends on spoken language. Children use a number of strategies for writing. Any definition of the English language arts must Sometimes they read the stories they have composed therefore include helping students learn how to ac- to classmates to get feedback on what is working complish successfully the many functions of spoken well in their stories and what needs clarifying. language, such as discussing texts, making presenta- Sometimes they spell a word the way it sounds (that tions, assisting visitors, or telling stories to family and is, applying their knowledge of phonics), while at friends. other times they spell a word the way they recall see- Being literate in contemporary society means being it. These writing/spelling strategies draw chil- ing active, critical, and creative users not only of print dren’s attention to the conventions of print, enabling and spoken language but also of the visual language them to begin to read like writers. of film and television, commercial and political ad- Thus, English language arts learning activities are vertising, photography, and more. Teaching students seldom wholly discrete—“just reading,” “just writing,” how to interpret and create visual texts such as illus- or “just viewing,” for example. Each medium relates trations, charts, graphs, electronic displays, photo- directly or indirectly to every other. graphs, film, and video is another essential component of the English language arts curriculum. To Present a Shared Vision Visual communication is part of the fabric of contem- of Literacy Education porary life. Although many parents and teachers wor- Clearly defined standards offer a vision of the knowl- ry that television, film, and video have displaced edge and strategies that all students should develop reading and encouraged students to be passive, un- in the English language arts, as well as of the curric- reflective, and uninvolved, we cannot erase visual ular and instructional elements that can be used to texts from modern life even if we want to. We must foster this development. To achieve these standards, therefore challenge students to analyze critically the this vision must be shared by all those who have a texts they view and to integrate their visual knowl- stake in the future of our schools—not just the edge with their knowledge of other forms of lan- English language arts teachers who are directly re- guage. By studying how visual texts work, students sponsible for providing instruction, but also school learn to employ visual media as another powerful administrators, policymakers, parents, and members means of communication. of the general public. A shared vision means that dif- Based on this expanded definition of literacy, the ferent parties know what the work of the classroom standards outlined in this document address six is and should be, and have a clear sense of what they English language arts: reading, writing, speaking, lis- can do to support this work. Public commitments to tening, viewing, and visually representing. These six education may depend upon this shared vision. areas are notably different from one another, but A shared vision does not, of course, imply a sin- there are also important connections among them, gle approach to teaching. Teachers know that their and these connections are central to English lan- students develop language competencies in differ- guage arts instruction and learning. One familiar way ent ways and at different rates, and that learning to link the language arts, for example, is to pair them needs must be addressed as they arise and in the by medium: reading and writing involve written lan- ways that seem most appropriate. Adaptability and guage, listening and speaking involve spoken com- creativity are far more effective in the classroom than munication, and viewing and visually representing thoroughgoing applications of a single approach. involve visual language. Most teachers’ experience validates this philosophy There are many other important interconnections every day. They recognize that no single instruction- among the English language arts, as well. Learners’ al method or sequence of lessons can serve all stu- repertoires of words, images, and concepts grow as dents or all situations. they read, listen, and view; new words, images, and Despite the array of instructional approaches be- concepts then become part of their written, spoken, ing used in individual classrooms, teachers do ap- and visual language systems. We know, for exam- pear to share many views about teaching and

Setting Standards in the English Language Arts 5 learning in the English language arts. What are these Thus, while the shared vision of English language views? What are some of the elements of this com- arts education we describe is already being imple- mon vision? mented in many classrooms, there is clearly a need to First, and most important, teachers share a belief do more. By articulating standards, we hope to make that students should develop competencies in the it easier for a shared vision to become a reality. English language arts that will prepare them for the diverse literacy demands that will face them through- To Promote Equity and Excellence out their lives. Second, teachers agree that the for All English language arts are important not only as sub- One of our nation’s greatest aspirations has been to jects in and of themselves, but also as supporting provide equal educational opportunities for all. It is skills for students’ learning in all other subjects. The clear, however, that we have frequently fallen short English language arts help students gather and con- of this goal with children of the poor, students from vey information about mathematics, history, science, certain linguistic and cultural groups, and those in the arts, and an array of other subjects, and in all of need of special education. these subjects students use language to solve prob- We believe that defining standards furnishes the lems, theorize, and synthesize. Third, teachers agree occasion for examining the education of students that students can best develop language competen- who previously have not fully enjoyed prospects for cies (like other competencies) through meaningful high attainment. In a democracy, free and universal activities and settings, such as reading and viewing schooling is meant to prepare all students to become whole texts, writing and creating visual images for literate adults capable of critical thinking, listening, recognizable purposes, and speaking and listening to and reading, and skilled in speaking and writing. others both within and outside the classroom. Failure to prepare our students for these tasks under- Obviously, however, it is not enough simply to mines not only our nation’s vision of public educa- set forth a shared vision: English language arts teach- tion, but our democratic ideal. The consent of the ers must also identify and remove the barriers that governed is the basis of governmental legitimacy, prevent that vision from being translated into prac- and if that consent is not informed, then the founda- tice. For example, teachers often receive conflicting tions of government are shaky indeed. messages about what they should be doing. They Some of the most generously supported schools may be told they should respond to the need for re- in the world are found in our nation’s affluent sub- forms and innovations while at the same time being urbs, while many economically disadvantaged discouraged from making their instructional practices schools around the country are struggling to survive. look too different from those of the past. A vast gulf in academic resources and accomplish- In addition, while many teachers wish to gauge ments exists between the children of the rich and the their students’ learning using performance-based children of the poor, and between the powerful and assessment, they find that preparing students for the powerless. This often leads to sharp differences machine-scored tests—which often focus on isolat- in the opportunities provided to students with lined skills rather than contextualized learning—diverts guistic and cultural backgrounds that differ from valuable classroom time away from the development those of mainstream students. of actual performance. Similarly, in many schools, Students in special education programs in our the pressure to use particular textbooks discourages country also often receive fewer educational oppor- teachers from using materials that take advantage of tunities than other students. Students designated as students’ interests and needs and that involve them having learning disabilities, hearing or visual impair- productively in the curriculum. In these schools, stu- ments, emotional or behavioral disorders, or who dents may be forced to follow prescribed sequences have orthopedic or cognitive disabilities do present of instruction rather than engage in authentic, open- us with instructional challenges. However, when we ended learning experiences. So, too, the widespread view these exceptional conditions as individual vari- practice of dividing the class day into separate peri- ations and provide personalized, expert instruction, ods precludes integration among the English lan- students with disabilities can reach their academic guage arts and other subject areas. potential.

6 Standards for the English Language Arts It is, in fact, teachers’ responsibility to recognize students see themselves as able learners, capable of and value all children’s rich and varied potentials for monitoring and controlling their learning, they are learning and to provide appropriate educational op- more willing to tackle challenging tasks and take the portunities to nurture them. If we learn to recognize risks that move their learning forward. As students and value a variety of student abilities in the lan- move from school into their adult responsibilities at guage arts and then build on those strengths, we work and in the wider society, knowing how to learn make it possible for all students to attain high stan- will help them succeed in a changing economy and dards. Some will do so quickly and others more will enable them to become self-motivated, flexible slowly, but to bridge the wide disparities in literacy lifelong learners. attainment and to prepare all students to become in- By being attentive to, and talking about, their formed and literate citizens, we must hold these high own learning strategies, students develop this sense expectations for every student and every school. It of themselves as resourceful learners and provide is the responsibility not only of schools and teach- their teachers with valuable insights into their devel- ers, but also of policymakers, parents, and communi- opment. If students are conscious of the strategies ties, to support the schools. they use, they are better able to recognize when a fa- At the same time, we understand that standards, miliar strategy is not working, and they are more pre- by themselves, cannot erase the impact of poverty, pared to adapt or abandon one strategy in favor of ethnic and cultural discrimination, family illiteracy, more effective alternatives. and social and political disenfranchisement. If all stu- Our conviction that all students can learn and can dents are to receive equal educational opportunities understand the processes of learning leads us to and meet high expectations for performance, then stress that all students can, with appropriate instruc- these issues have to be addressed. Four factors are tion and experiences, achieve high standards. The especially important: (a) learning how to learn, (b) learner-centered perspective presented in this docu- equal access to school resources, (c) an adequate ment is, therefore, also a learning-centered model. number of knowledgeable teachers, and (d) safe, Teachers who implement this model help students well-equipped schools. see themselves as competent learners who understand the value of consciously reflecting upon their Learning How to Learn learning processes. Learning how to learn is at the Students not only need to develop specific compe- heart of all of the standards and is reflected in vari- tencies and to acquire knowledge—they also need ous ways in each of them. abundant opportunities to reflect on the process of learning itself. The conscious process of learning Equal Access to Resources how to learn is an essential element in students’ lan- If all students are to have equal opportunities to meet guage arts education, and it forms a central theme these standards, then all schools must have sufficient in the standards detailed in Chapter 3. funds to hire well-qualified teachers and staff, to ac- Knowing how to learn has not often been high- quire high-quality instructional materials, and to pur- lighted explicitly as part of instructional content in chase essential supplies such as books, paper, and the English language arts. It has commonly been desks. This means that states and communities must assumed that “bright” learners come by such knowl- address the often serious funding inequities across edge “naturally” in the course of learning subject- school districts. In most states, the wealthiest school matter content. The view of language learning districts spend two to five times as much per student presented here, in contrast, emphasizes the impor- as the poorest districts, and more than twenty years of tance of explicit attention to the learning process for community efforts and litigation have not resolved all students: learning how to learn ought to be con- these structural inequalities. Today, as we write this sidered as fundamental as other, more widely recog- document, there are public school teachers across the nized, basic skills in English language arts. country who must spend their own money for their All students have the ability to learn, but teachers students to have even the minimum—pencils, paper, can make that ability accessible by helping students and books—in an era when computer technology is reflect upon, and monitor, their own learning. When rapidly becoming a necessary part of instruction.

Setting Standards in the English Language Arts 7 To be sure, money alone does not guarantee ac- The condition and appearance of the school are ademic excellence. If funding is not used for con- also important aspects of the learning environment. structive purposes such as obtaining better Too many schools, particularly those in economical- instructional materials, reducing class size, or sup- ly disadvantaged communities, have suffered from porting professional development, then all the mon- years of neglect and are sadly in need of repair. ey in the world will not improve student outcomes. Some schools recruit student volunteers and employ- Schools can be expected to help their students meet ees to help with painting and renovation, but in high standards, however, only if they possess ade- many cases the major repairs needed go well beyond quate resources. the capabilities of volunteer workers. Communities should provide necessary resources to ensure that Adequate Staffing their schools are well-maintained, brightly lit, attrac- Schools must also have an adequate number of tive settings that encourage learning. knowledgeable teachers. Overcrowded classrooms make it virtually impossible to carry out the kinds of ■■■ individualized and performance-oriented instruction essential to meeting the standards. Yet, in many In summary, IRA and NCTE hope and believe that schools, teachers are typically assigned to classrooms the standards put forth in this document will pre- with thirty or forty students or more. In such settings, pare students for the literacy challenges they will chances for meaningful interaction between teacher face throughout their lives; bring greater coherence and student are slim, and opportunities for good and clarity to teaching and learning in the English teaching and learning are severely compromised. language arts; and provide greater opportunities for It is not enough to have a sufficient number of all students to become literate. well-qualified teachers, though; these teachers need to have access to ongoing opportunities for professional development. School districts need to provide REFERENCES Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. J. (1995). The manufactured crisis: both funding and support for teachers’ attendance Exploding the myths and confronting the real problems of at off-site conferences and staff development pro- education. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. grams. Teachers need opportunities to share ideas, Farr, R., Tuinman, J., & Rowls, M. (1974). Reading achievement in the United States. Bloomington, IN: The Reading Program engage in research, assist one another, and continue Center & the Institute for Child Study. learning about and responding to changes in their Kibby, M. W. (1993). What reading teachers should know about fields. Schools need to nurture an atmosphere of reading proficiency in the U.S. Journal of Reading, 37, learning that promotes teachers’ growth along with 28–40. Kibby, M. W. (1995). Student literacy: Myths and realities that of their students. (Fastback 381). Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Safe, Well-Equipped Schools Linn, R. L., Graue, M. E., & Sanders, N. M. (1990). Comparing The current epidemic of violence in our schools and state and district test results to national norms: The validity of claims that “everyone is above average.” Educational neighborhoods presents perhaps the single most seri- Measurement: Issues and Practice, 9(3), 5–14. ous threat to students’ learning and to achieving the Mullis, I. V. S., Campbell, J. R., & Farstrup, A. E. (1993). Executive standards set forth here. Students deserve safe environ- summary of the NAEP 1992 reading report card for the na- ments for learning. They can scarcely be expected to tion and the states: Data from the national and trial state assessments. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational care about literacy or learning if they must constantly Statistics. worry about being attacked in the hall or the school- Soltow, L., & Stevens, E. (1981). The rise of literacy and the com- yard. Therefore, states and communities must do all mon school in the United States: A socioeconomic analysis they can to ensure that students are protected. Ideally, to 1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Stedman, L. C., & Kaestle, C. F. (1987). Literacy and reading per- schools will become nurturing spaces where students formance in the United States, from 1800 to the present. are free to learn without the need for protection. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 8–46.

8 Standards for the English Language Arts CHAPTER 2

PERSPECTIVES INFORMING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS STANDARDS

anguage is the most powerful, most readily we write, each film we see, each message we hear. Lavailable tool we have for representing the The aim of the standards, then, is to develop stu- world to ourselves and ourselves to the dents’ knowledge of, facility in, and appreciation of world. Language is not only a means of communica- the English language in ways that will serve them tion, it is a primary instrument of thought, a defin- throughout their lives. ing feature of culture, and an unmistakable mark of This chapter presents the perspective that informs personal identity. Encouraging and enabling students the standards, which are then defined in the next to learn to use language effectively is certainly one of chapter. Specifically, we discuss the central role of the society’s most important tasks. learner in the standards and explore four dimensions Clearly, though, learning does not end the mo- of literacy and language learning: content, purpose, ment we graduate from school; it continues through- development, and context. These dimensions provide out our lives. In fact, the remarkable process of distinct lenses through which one can examine the language learning keeps blossoming with each new use of language and the learning of language use, all experience we have—each book we read, each letter leading to the attainment of the standards.

LITERACY AND LANGUAGE LEARNING: AN INTERACTIVE MODEL

The perspective that informs the English language in their own learning, acquire knowledge, shape ex- arts standards, presented graphically in Figure 1, perience, and respond to their own particular needs places the learner at the core. The centrality of the and goals through the English language arts. This re- learner is significant: our goal is to ground the stan- flects an active rather than a passive process of lan- dards in the experiences and activities of students as guage use and learning—a process in which they read, write, speak, listen, view, and visually rep- students’ engagement is primary. resent. Because the standards are learner-centered, The three circles shown in the graphic represent they focus on the ways in which students participate the areas of primary emphasis and concern in

Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 9 The purpose dimension addresses the question of why we use language. In other words, it considers the range of motives, reasons, and desired outcomes, or the ends to which we direct our literacy practices. We all use language for a variety of purposes, such as to learn, to express ideas, to convey information, to persuade others, to note things we observe, to savor aesthetic experience, or to engage with others socially. Again, any given literacy event may involve several of these different purposes. The development dimension focuses on how learners develop competencies in the language arts. Students grow as language users by building a knowledge of content, a repertoire of strategies (such as predicting, synthesizing, reflecting, and identifying words and their meanings), and the ability to apply these flexibly as they engage in various types of literacy activities. As students progress through their formal school- Figure 1. An Interactive Model for the English Language Arts ing, they grow in their ability to use language clearly, Standards strategically, critically, and creatively. They discover the rich assortment of ways in which they can use language to pursue their own goals and purposes. language learning: content, purpose, and develop- They develop a knowledge of the conventions of ment. These three are not so much discrete entities language and the capacity to apply this knowledge. as they are aspects or dimensions of learning. Briefly, They learn to integrate their knowledge of text with the content dimension elaborates what students their own experiences, enriching what they bring to should learn in the English language arts; the pur- each literacy event. pose dimension articulates why students use the lan- Because contextual variables influence all areas guage arts; and the development dimension focuses of learning, the graphic presents context encircling on how students grow as language users. the other three dimensions of this model. Social and Surrounding these parts of the model is a field we cultural contexts, in particular, shape linguistic pat- have labeled “context.” Because all language learn- terns, meanings, and uses. The standards do not fo- ing takes place in, responds to, shapes, and is in turn cus explicitly on context because, as we noted shaped by particular social and cultural contexts, this earlier, we leave the particulars of curricular defini- dimension encompasses the standards as a whole. tion in the hands of local educators—and that is one What precisely do we mean by these terms? Let place where context comes into play. We wish to af- us examine each dimension in turn. firm the importance of authentic learning experi- The content dimension addresses what students ences involving a variety of contexts, however. As should know and be able to do with the English lan- teachers, students, parents, and policymakers articu- guage arts. This includes knowledge of written, spo- late curricula, instruction, and assessment processes, ken, and visual texts and of the processes involved in they should generate learning opportunities that re- creating, interpreting, and critiquing such texts. spond to local needs and interests. Depending on the nature of the literacy task at hand, While each of these dimensions of the language content may be connected to personal knowledge, to learning model can be viewed independently, each schooling or technical knowledge, or to social or also overlaps with the others. The intersections of the community knowledge. Any given language event is content, purpose, and development circles in the fig- likely to encompass some combination of personal, ure reflect the profound interrelation of what, why, academic, and social knowledge. and how in English language arts learning. Our stan-

10 Standards for the English Language Arts dards concentrate primarily on the content dimen- such as the appropriate range and depth of reading sion (as we will discuss in the following chapter), but materials—are closely linked to purpose and devel- the other dimensions are always present. To put it opmental processes. In the remainder of this chapter, differently, within each standard, content issues— we consider each aspect of our perspective.

CONTENT

Every text experience we have—every work we read, Broad reading also includes informational and aca- see, hear, or create—expands what we bring to future demic texts, such as textbooks, lab manuals, papers, literacy experiences. Accordingly, the development of and reference materials; student-produced texts, in- literacy and the attainment of the English language cluding peer writing, journals, and student newspapers arts standards set forth in this document depend on and literary magazines; technological resources, such experience with and systematic study of a wide array as computer software, computer networks, databases, of texts, visual and spoken as well as written. CD-ROMs, and laser disks; mass media and other vi- Although we do not believe it is productive to sual texts, including films, selected television programs, dictate a specific English language arts curriculum that magazines, and newspapers; socially significant oral should be enacted in every classroom or every and written texts, such as speeches, radio and televi- school, it is important to define broadly the content sion broadcasts, political documents, editorials, and ad- that students need to know in order to become in- vertisements; and everyday texts, such as letters, formed, confident, and competent users of language. bulletin board notices, memos, and signs. That we discuss this knowledge base separately here Although it is important to study some texts in does not mean that content and skills should be detail, a primary goal should be for students to un- taught separately from one another. We believe, on derstand and enjoy texts and to explore diverse the contrary, that students will best develop their works independently. Students also need opportuni- knowledge, skills, and competencies through mean- ties to compare the ways in which ideas and infor- ingful experiences and instruction that recognize pur- mation are presented in different media—for pose, form, and content as inextricably interrelated. example, the ways in which a narrative differs when What are the essential elements of the knowl- read, heard, or viewed on film. edge base for the English language arts? All students Additionally, students need to know about the lit- need to know about and work with a broad range erary traditions that contextualize literary texts and of texts, spoken and visual as well as written. They about properties of the genres they represent. They must develop a repertoire of processes or strategies should realize, for example, that reading a literary text for creating, interpreting, and analyzing texts. And involves some different processes and different back- they need to know about the underlying systems and ground knowledge than reading an informational text. structures of language. Let us examine each of these Understanding the generic and formal constraints in areas in turn. informational texts (for example, the use of headings, graphic aids and other design elements, and the con- A Broad Range of Texts ventions of standard written English) is also an essen- Language learning depends on the exploration and tial part of students’ knowledge. Further, students careful study of a wide array of texts. In particular, need to develop some understanding of the underly- students need to read literature, including classic, ing systems and structures of texts and of the visual contemporary, and popular narratives, poems, songs, and linguistic systems out of which texts are created. and plays. Exploring literary worlds gives students a new perspective on their own experience and en- Processes and Strategies ables them to discover how literature can capture the In addition to knowledge of texts and text features, richness and complexity of human life. students need to learn an array of processes and

Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 11 strategies for comprehending and producing texts. knowledge and experience in greater detail, within These include, for example, the use of background the context of defining the standards. knowledge to construct meaning, effective strategies for fluently identifying words, study strategies to en- Systems and Structures of Language hance learning and recall, and systematic processes Another critical part of students’ English language for approaching writing. By strategies, we mean prac- arts education involves the study of the systems and ticed but flexible ways of responding to recognizable structures of language and of language conventions, contexts, situations, or demands. Because no one including grammar, punctuation, and spelling. In ad- reading strategy, study technique, or writing process dition to gaining competency in these aspects of lan- is best for all students, it is inappropriate to teach a guage use, students need to understand how single way of approaching all language tasks. language conventions vary from one context to an- However, we have the responsibility to use the best other. In other words, they need to know how to ap- available research and knowledge based on careful observations to recommend those instructional ply their knowledge of the systems and structures of processes and materials that promote the develop- language depending on the nature of the task at ment of language arts capabilities. hand. This requires experience in creating texts for These aspects of knowledge and understanding a range of audiences and purposes. As students be- are, we believe, critical to the development of stu- come experienced at composing different types of dents’ competencies in the English language arts. The texts, they learn to adapt their language to different following chapter discusses these various aspects of audiences and to other contextual variables.

PURPOSE

A strong grasp of content in the English language arts that interest us or to find out something we need to is vital, but knowledge alone is of little value if one know. Similarly, we create many different kinds of has no need to, or cannot, apply it. The ability to texts to convey information to others, ranging from di- use language for a variety of purposes is therefore agrams, verbal directions, and simple reports on ob- another essential part of the learning experience. We servations of natural phenomena to laboratory reports believe that a central goal of English language arts and multimedia research projects. By learning to use education is to ensure that students are able to use many different media—traditional and nontraditional, language to address their own needs as well as the print and nonprint—to collect and convey informa- needs of their families, their communities, and the tion, students become aware of the range of possibil- greater society. In particular, we recommend a focus ities available to them for communicating with others. in English language arts education on four purposes Building on the information-gathering and presenta- of language use: for obtaining and communicating tion skills that students use routinely in everyday life, information, for literary response and expression, for teachers can strengthen students’ ability to perform learning and reflection, and for problem solving and more complex and challenging tasks and to enhance application. their learning in other curriculum areas.

For Obtaining and Communicating For Literary Response and Expression Information Literary response and expression are aesthetic acts in- Nonfiction, informational books, magazine articles, volving complex interactions of emotion and intellect. documentary films, encyclopedia entries on paper or The acts of responding to, interpreting, and creating CD-ROM, catalogs, interviews, recordings of news literary texts enable us to participate in other lives and broadcasts, schedules, and instructions—we use all worlds beyond our own and to reflect on who we of these types of texts to get information about topics are. In order to interpret and create, students need to

12 Standards for the English Language Arts understand what makes a text literary. We use the tivities, and by discussing their reflections with oth- word literary broadly here, to mean the imaginative ers, students develop a sense of their own resource- treatment of a subject using language and text struc- fulness and of the possibilities that language makes ture that is inventive and often multilayered. available to them, and are better able to set and work From this perspective, students’ literary experi- toward their own goals. Such activities also provide ences should be extensive. Students should learn that their teachers with valuable insights into their stu- virtually any type of text—essay, diary, or film, as dents’ learning. well as sonnet, short story, or play—can contain powerful literary expression. Similarly, students need For Problem Solving and Application opportunities to compose many different types of Students use language every day to solve problems texts that draw on their imaginations and involve the and grapple with issues that concern them. To re- use of literary language. Such experiences enhance spond to these situations and demands, students students’ understanding and appreciation of the lit- need to be able to use language to pose significant erary texts they read as part of their schoolwork and questions, to become informed, to obtain and comas their chosen leisure reading. municate information, and to think critically and cre- For Learning and Reflection atively. Purposeful language use demands all of these capacities. Language is a powerful instrument for learning and reflection, and students who are encouraged to use Whether they are reading instructions in order their literacy skills to pursue their own interests and to make a model airplane, applying conflict resolu- questions are likely to discover this potential. From tion strategies to negotiate the use of a toy, writing this perspective, language enables us to communi- a letter to the police to report a stolen bicycle, or cate not only with and for others, but also with and writing a new script for an online role-playing game, for ourselves. students routinely use language for problem solving Students need frequent opportunities to talk and in everyday life. The challenge facing teachers is to write as learners and thinkers. Student journals and draw on students’ real needs for language and to use small-group discussions may be especially produc- these as a platform for motivating further learning tive in this regard. By engaging in these types of ac- and strengthening of their competencies.

DEVELOPMENT

The dimension of development—the question of how they begin to hear language, process it, and construct students should be able to use language—incorpo- meaning with it. Young children who see people rates two distinct issues. The first concerns how stu- around them engaging in literacy behaviors are curi- dents acquire knowledge and how they develop ous; they see what language can do, and they want to competencies with practice over time. This develop- participate in these forms of communication. As they mental dimension is emphasized in our discussion of listen to stories and nonfiction books that are read to “learning how to learn” (in Chapter 1), and is incor- them, young children begin to build appreciation for porated in many of the individual standards. The sec- books as a source of enjoyment and learning, to dis- ond issue focuses on performance and relates to the cover different literary genres, and to develop their quality of students’ performance over time. In partic- language abilities. Sharing books with children also ular it addresses the need for students to learn to use instills in them a sense of story and a sensitivity to language clearly, strategically, critically, and creatively. the writing styles found in expository texts. Through During their preschool years, young learners these experiences, children develop an understanding move toward literacy in a number of remarkable that spoken words are composed of a limited number ways. Their language development starts at birth as of identifiable units or sounds (phonemic awareness),

Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 13 and that the letters of the alphabet represent sounds we accept that language development occurs in speech (the alphabetic principle). In time, with this through purposeful use, then English language arts accumulation of literacy experiences and knowledge, instruction must nurture this development by giving young children begin to use reading and writing to students the opportunity to engage in a wide array of express their ideas and needs. experiences with language, and it must ensure that As children move through the elementary and students perceive the value of these experiences. middle school grades, their reading and writing ex- Development also implies a progression in stu- periences expand their understanding of the impor- dents’ competency and sophistication. While this as- tance of literacy in their lives. They often develop pect of development clearly informs the perspective preferences for specific types of books and read on learning presented here, it is important to contrast deeply within those they most favor. Their writing this integrative perspective with an incremental or experiences help them find their own voices and re- grade-level view of student progress. While we pre- alize that writing gives them new communicative sent a number of dimensions along which students’ powers. Additionally, they develop a wide range of development may be seen and evaluated, we do not strategies to draw upon in their reading and writing attempt to specify levels of achievement correspon- activities. ding to grade level or age. These criteria are best de- Similarly, older readers, such as high school stu- fined locally, in the contexts of specific schools and dents reading sonnets for the first time or learning students’ needs. the technical language of subjects such as physics or Furthermore, instructional approaches will not be calculus, continue to discover and learn to use new the same for all students because their experiences words and new forms of language through the prac- with literacy before entering school will not have tice of reading and writing. Thus, language learning been the same. Children who have been read to fre- is a dynamic and lifelong process through which in- quently, for example, will have a rich understanding dividuals develop and fine-tune an expanding reper- of some of the basics of print literacy, including the toire of capacities for communicating with others and direction of the print, the fronts and backs of books, with themselves. and, most fundamental, the awareness that the squig- gles or marks on the page represent sounds, words, How Students Acquire Knowledge or concepts in the language they already know. and Develop Competency over Time Children with limited preschool exposure to reading According to this integrative perspective of literacy may be less familiar with these concepts. Even so, development, all language learners—whether they they possess a large repertoire of images and back- are infants just beginning to speak, older children ground knowledge that provides a base for learn- learning to read and write, or adults acquiring a sec- ing, and through meaningful instruction and ond language or a new professional vocabulary— experience they will be able to build on their under- learn language by using it purposefully and standings. Their listening and speaking vocabularies negotiating with others. Language users “make” will expand and form a stronger foundation for read- meaning, constantly revising their initial understanding and writing. They will begin to examine books ings of what they read, hear, view, and create in light more carefully and build an appreciation for reading of what they learn from subsequent reading, listen- for enjoyment and information. They will see drawing, viewing, and creating. In other words, the ing and writing as ways of communicating through processes of language use are active, not passive. We marks made on paper and begin to attend to the learn language not simply for the sake of learning forms of letters and to sounds; with support and in- language; we learn it to make sense of the world struction, they will come to understand the alpha- around us and to communicate our understandings betic principle—that written letters can be used to with others. In fact, as we discuss in the following represent sounds. section, language cannot be divorced from the so- The first step in literacy education, then, is not cial contexts in which it occurs. to assume, as has been done too frequently in the This view of language development has clear and past, either that all students bring a common core of profound implications for teaching and learning. If literacy knowledge to school, or that those who do

14 Standards for the English Language Arts not bring what is customarily expected are deficient. When a student reaches an impasse and finds Rather, the first step is to respect each student’s home that his or her current strategies are not working, the language, prior knowledge, and cultural experience, teacher has an opportunity to help that student learn and to determine what he or she already knows and new ones. At such times, motivation to discover al- can do upon entering school. Teachers must then ternative approaches is usually very high. By giving provide appropriate and rich instructional support on learners a wide range of language experiences, par- that basis. ticularly experiences that are interesting and challenging to them, teachers are most likely to help How Students Should Be Able to Use students see the value of having an array of strategies Language and the ability to use them flexibly in various lan- A second issue connected to development is more guage activities. directly related to performance. This issue has to do with how students should be able to use language. Critically Several criteria for this are discussed below. Critical language users question and comment on what they read, hear, and view. Students’ critical Clearly skills are nurtured in classrooms where questioning, Students need to be able to use language clearly and brainstorming, hypothesizing, reflecting, and imaging fluently—with precision and accuracy. Audience and are encouraged and rewarded. Students develop the purpose are important considerations in deciding the ability to pose questions as they read, listen, and form that communication needs to take. For exam- view: What inferences can I draw from this text? What perspective does this text ask me to assume? ple, clarity can be achieved in face-to-face conversa- What viewpoint is presented in this text? What does tion with family members through unelaborated this text omit or distort? How is my own response language, while class discussions or conversations related to what is presented by the text? with public audiences may call for more complete Critical language users bring original ways of elaboration. thinking and novel interpretations to texts. While crit- In interpreting texts, students need to be able to ical thinking is often concerned with making distinc- use various types of cues to derive a clear under- tions and marking differences, effective critical standing of the range of possible meanings. Students thinkers also draw connections among texts, their should learn to respect the integrity of a text, and to own responses to them, various bodies of knowl- generate hypotheses and inferences drawn from it. edge, and their own experiences. Development of And in composing texts and visual representations, critical language skills enables students to provide in- students should be able to define audience, purpose, formed opinions about texts they encounter, and to and context; then, drawing on their knowledge of support their interpretations with multiple forms of the systems and structures of language, they should evidence. be able to organize and express their ideas clearly and precisely. Creatively Students use language creatively when they are en- Strategically couraged to stretch or reimagine received forms and Students need to be able to use a wide range of vocabularies, or to invent new ones, to embody their strategies (including predicting, hypothesizing, esti- own ideas. In composing their texts, creative lan- mating, drafting, synthesizing, and identifying words guage users pursue imaginative risks, departing from and their meanings) to interpret and create various established conventions and well-worn formulations. types of texts. This entails sensitivity to the purpose, Like critical thinkers, creative language users draw on nature, and audience of a text, and an ability to use their experiences, personal observations, strategies, this awareness to adapt language accordingly. Such and prior knowledge as they explore the boundaries flexibility is vital, for assembling a collection of strate- of texts and forms. They move beyond surface mean- gies is of little use without a knowledge of how and ings and appreciate the complexities and nuances when to apply them. of language.

Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 15 CONTEXT

Regardless of whether we are reading or writing, these shared conventions make communication pos- speaking or listening, viewing or visually represent- sible within and among these different groups. At the ing, a context always surrounds any activity. If we same time, these conventions are always changing, are composing a letter, for example, we consider our as new metaphors and terms are invented to reflect audience. To whom are we writing, and how does new ideas and experiences. this influence the ideas and language we choose? We know, of course, that our students come from Other contextual variables are at play, too, includ- many different language communities. This is espe- ing our level of motivation and interest. If we are lis- cially evident in classrooms where students speak a tening to a presentation, contextual variables include range of languages as well as different varieties of our perceptions of the speaker and our prior knowl- the language we call English. Recent research on ac- edge about what is being communicated. tual language use shows, moreover, that no single Perhaps one of the most influential aspects of con- “standard” of English exists around the world, or text is the social dimension. Many illustrations of read- even within a single country. All of us who speak ing and writing show one person alone, looking English speak different varieties of English depend- intently downward at a text or a paper, deeply im- ing on whom we are communicating with, the cir- mersed in thought. But we are coming to realize how cumstances involved, the purpose of the exchange, fundamentally social the process of becoming literate and other factors. Indeed, creative and communica- is. Saying that language development is social does tive powers are enhanced when students develop not mean that the process has no private dimensions. and maintain multiple language competencies. Indeed, all of us draw on our own sets of experiences Nonetheless, some varieties of English are more and strategies as we use language to construct mean- useful than others for higher education, for employ- ings from what we read, write, hear, say, observe, and ment, and for participation in what the Conference represent. These specific meanings are individual and on College Composition and Communication (1993) personal. Yet the range of possible meanings that we in a language policy statement calls “the language can discover and know is, to a great extent, socially of wider communication.” Therefore, although we determined. What we can know is much influenced respect the diversity in spoken and written English, by what those in our language community know and we believe that all students should learn this lan- by our shared experiences and shared texts. guage of wider communication. Perhaps the most obvious way in which language is social is that it almost always relates to oth- ■■■ ers, either directly or indirectly: we speak to others, listen to others, write to others, read what others In summary, the perspective informing the English have written, make visual representations for others, language arts standards places the learner at the cen- and interpret their visual representations. Doing so ter. The content dimension of the graphic presented also helps us clarify our ideas for ourselves, but what in Figure 1 addresses what students should know nourishes language growth is participation in lan- and be able to do with respect to the English language communities. As we grow and move in ever- guage arts. The purpose dimension addresses the broadening social situations, we become participants question of why we use language, and the develop- in an increasing number of language groups that ment dimension focuses on how learners develop necessarily influence the ways in which we speak, competencies in the language arts. Because context write, and represent. influences all areas of learning, this dimension en- Language development is also social in that we circles all three of the preceding areas. use a system of shared conventions to communicate Although it is illuminating to focus on these di- with one another and to create new language. We in- mensions of language learning separately, it is impor- teract using the conventions accepted in the different tant to emphasize the complex interactions that exist language communities in which we operate, and among them. Each dimension of language learning

16 Standards for the English Language Arts overlaps with the others, as the graphic illustrates. As overarching concerns and themes in the set of stan- noted earlier in this chapter, the English language dards as a whole. Further, it provides a way to ex- arts standards focus primarily on the content dimen- amine each particular standard in detail, through the sion, defining what we expect students to know and lenses of content, purpose, and development. be able to do with respect to language. Invariably in any language event, however, purpose, develop- REFERENCE ment, and context are also intertwined. Conference on College Composition and Communication. As we see in the following chapter, this perspec- (1993). The National Language Policy. [Brochure]. Urbana, tive on language learning can be used to discuss IL: NCTE.

Perspectives Informing the English Language Arts Standards 17 CHAPTER 3

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS STANDARDS

he standards presented in this chapter de- the preceding chapter, content cannot be separated T fine what we believe students should from the purpose, development, and context of lan- know and be able to do in the English guage learning. As educators translate these stan- language arts. As the preceding chapters have made dards into practice, they must consider the unique clear, we believe that these standards should articu- range of purposes, developmental processes, and late a consensus growing out of actual classroom contexts that exists in their communities. practices, and not be a prescriptive framework. If The twelve content standards for the English lan- the standards work, then teachers will recognize guage arts follow. Let us reflect briefly on the group their students, themselves, their goals, and their dai- as a whole before moving into more specific elabora- ly endeavors in this document; so, too, will they be tions of each in turn. inspired, motivated, and provoked to reevaluate The act of setting out a list like this one implies some of what they do in class. By engaging with that knowledge and understanding can be sliced into these standards, teachers will, we hope, also think tidy and distinct categories, but obviously literacy and talk energetically about the assumptions that un- learning (like any other area of human learning) is derlie their own classroom practices and those of far more complicated than that. We acknowledge the their colleagues. complex relationships that exist among the stan- The standards reflect some of the best ideas al- dards. Further, we do not mean to imply that the ready at work in English language arts education standards can or should be translated into isolated around the country. Because language and the lan- components of instruction. On the contrary: virtually guage arts continue to evolve and grow, our stan- any instructional activity is likely to address multiple dards must remain provisional enough to leave room standards simultaneously. Nor is the order of for future developments in the field. And it is impor- arrangement and numbering of the standards meant tant to reemphasize that these standards are meant to to suggest any progression or hierarchy. Numbering be suggestive, not exhaustive. Ideally, teachers, par- them simply makes it easier to refer to them concise- ents, administrators, and students will use them as ly in discussion. starting points for an ongoing discussion about class- Readers will recognize that these standards can be room activities and curricula. grouped into clusters. Standards 1 and 2, for example, The primary focus of the standards is on the con- discuss the range of materials that students should tent of English language arts learning. As we noted in read and their purposes for reading; the former em-

18 Standards for the English Language Arts phasizes breadth and diversity of texts, while the lat- nificance for language users. Standard 11 stresses the ter concentrates on literary works. Like Standards 1 use of collaborative learning as a way for students and 2, Standard 3 also concerns reading, but it ad- to use the language arts to find and develop a sense dresses reading strategies or processes rather than of community. In Standard 12, students, motivated by texts. This third standard also relates to Standard 4; their own goals, learn that the language arts can help both emphasize the importance of students’ knowl- them discover a sense of their individuality as well. edge of language use, variation, and conventions. Readers will find other ways of linking these Standards 5 and 6 work together to move from standards: the issue of new technology, for exam- reading and comprehending to creating texts. Both ple, addressed explicitly in Standard 8, on research discuss the types of knowledge that students need materials, is also a central theme in the discussion of in order to use language effectively as writers, speak- literacy communities in number 11. Student-directed ers, or visual representers. Both of these standards learning, a theme throughout many of the standards, also emphasize the connections between reading explicitly links numbers 7, 10, and 11. The structures and writing and the importance of gaining a work- and conventions of language, a central topic in all ing knowledge of language structure and conven- of the language arts, form a key focus in Standards tions. The next pair of standards, 7 and 8, concern 3, 4, 6, and 9. research and inquiry. Standard 7 stresses student ap- We encourage readers to reflect upon other ways proaches to inquiry, while Standard 8 concentrates in which these standards are connected, and to think on the use of research materials, with particular at- through the elaborations of the individual standards tention to new, technologically driven modes of re- using the lens provided by the graphic discussed in search and data synthesis. Chapter 2. That perspective may be used to explore The evolving needs of America’s students—whose the interplay of content, purpose, development, and growing ethnic and linguistic diversity is changing the context within each of the standards, and it serves social makeup of contemporary classrooms—are tak- to remind us of the central importance of the individ- en up in Standards 9 and 10. Taken together, these ual learner in all of them. Much as the dimension of standards suggest that a multicultural language arts context encircles our language learning model, so we curriculum is both useful and necessary today, offer- hope teachers and other readers of these standards ing students the language resources they will need to will draw on their own knowledge and experience, participate in the nation and world of tomorrow. and the salient needs in their own educational com- The last two standards build on the vital recog- munities, to enrich and expand the brief elaborations nition that literacy has both social and personal sig- offered below.

THE STANDARDS IN DETAIL

Students read a wide range of print and plore new ideas. It introduces us to different repre- 1 nonprint texts to build an understanding sentations of the world. It fills our needs for informa- of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the tion and communication and enables us to learn United States and the world; to acquire new in- about different subjects, perform various tasks, partic- formation; to respond to the needs and demands ipate in the workplace, and understand and evaluate of society and the workplace; and for personal our place in the world. It also gives us the intrinsic fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and pleasure of linguistic and imaginative activity. nonfiction, classic and contemporary works. Even before they enter school, children can learn to enjoy books and other print material. Listening to Reading is a wonderfully rich and complex human storybooks instills a sense of story and familiarizes activity. It provokes reflection, introspection, and children with different literary genres. In school, as imaginative thinking and allows us to create and ex- they read, respond to, and study a variety of texts,

The English Language Arts Standards 19 students become deeply engaged with language and Nonprint texts are also an essential part of stu- construct rich, personal meanings from what they dents’ reading experience. Students need to make ef- read. Knowledge of and about different types of texts fective use of a range of spoken texts, both formal gives students an orientation, a set of expectations, and informal, ranging from speeches and plays to that they can bring to each new text they encounter. word games and playful talk. Opportunities to study For example, some students just entering school, es- and create visual texts—including narrative and doc- pecially those who have not been read to regularly, umentary films, television, advertisements, maps, il- learn to use and understand new ways for talking lustrations, multimedia/CD resources, and other about stories they hear and stories they themselves graphic displays—are also crucial. Graphic and visu- read and write. They must think about “what hap- al messages influence contemporary society power- pens next” and “how characters feel” and “why an fully, and students need to learn how the elements of author makes choices.” In a similar fashion, older visual language communicate ideas and shape students may learn to expect that an experimental thought and action. film may deliver a nonlinear plot; that greater sus- What criteria should be used to select particular pension of disbelief is required in listening to class- works for classroom study? In choosing texts, teach- mates tell fantasy stories than in hearing them ers and students should consider relevance to stu- describe a family holiday; that some short stories be- dents’ interests and other readings; relevance for gin with flashbacks; and that political speeches re- students’ roles in society and the workplace; literary quire watchfulness for one-sided arguments. quality; and balance and variety in form, style, and content. Complexity is another important criterion. Through discussion of what they read and Students benefit from reading texts that challenge through their own extensive reading, students also and provoke them; they also benefit from simpler learn that any given text can be understood in a va- texts that promote fluency. Opportunities to read riety of ways, depending on the context. African folk books for pleasure are also vital. While some of these narratives or Greek myths, for instance, can be read texts will be suggested or assigned by teachers, stu- as delightful, entertaining stories, as representations dents also need to choose texts for themselves so of mythic archetypes, or as cultural, religious, or that they develop a sense of themselves as independ- philosophical histories of particular regions or peo- ent readers. As they discuss their reading selections ple. Reading activities often invite several types of with their teachers and peers, students gain insight understanding simultaneously. Equally important, into their reading preferences and learn to evaluate readers often read for several purposes—some in- the importance of different kinds of texts. ternal, such as personal growth, and some external, The works that students read should also reflect such as finding out new information and ideas. the diversity of the United States’ population in Because there are many kinds of reading and terms of gender, age, social class, religion, and eth- many purposes for reading, students need to read for nicity. Students’ understanding of our society and a range of purposes and within a variety of contexts its history—and their ability to recognize and ap- in order to become proficient and knowledgeable preciate difference and diversity—are expanded readers. They need opportunities to explore and when they read primary texts from across a wide de- study many different kinds of printed texts, including mographic spectrum. contemporary and traditional novels, newspaper and It is not enough to read a variety of works, how- magazine articles, poems, nonfiction works on a ever; students also need to discover the connections range of subjects, historical documents from family among them. Teachers can help students to discover and community sources, reference materials, chil- these textual relationships by assembling clusters of dren’s and young adult books and magazines, pop- readings that focus on a single theme or event but ular journals, biographies, autobiographies, journals, that cut across boundaries of geography, community, and letters. Students should also read work by other and genre. In one New Hampshire middle school, for students: writers and readers build self-confidence example, students engaged in an interdisciplinary and respect for one another by reading and study- learning project centered on Katherine Paterson’s ing their peers’ work. Lyddie, a historical novel about young girls working

20 Standards for the English Language Arts in nineteenth-century New England textile mills. evidence that when young children hear repeated Supplementary texts included women’s letters from readings of favorite books, their responses to all the period, historical writing on the economics of books become more complex. Young students can millwork, and Dr. Seuss’s The Lorax. Similarly, stu- learn about drama, too, through live action, dialogue dents in an Iowa high school read Twain’s games, and visual media. Poetry and rhyme help Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and explored con- young readers connect sounds to words and help nections to other novels of the period, to the political them enjoy the musical, rhythmic qualities of lan- issues of the time, and to the geography of the guage. As students grow in literary experience, they Mississippi River itself. Such learning experiences al- discover the qualities of various genres—for exam- low students to form a colorful portrait of their re- ple, how poems share certain uses of language and gion and to value reading as a source of important sound, how novels develop characters and plot, and information and new insights. how plays establish and resolve dramatic tension. Through experience with texts, students deepen Students who read literature learn that literary their knowledge not only of themselves but also of texts are often relevant to their own lives. Their ex- the world. Self-discovery and cultural awareness are ploration of literary worlds also offers perspectives intertwined. Extensive and varied reading provides which may contrast and conflict with their own expe- a lens through which to view and critique American riences and invite them to reflect critically on alterna- and world history and contemporary social life. Thus, tive ways of knowing and being. A literary education as students read widely, and as they discuss and re- consists of classic literary texts like Shakespeare’s flect on what they read, they develop an understand- Romeo and Juliet, Hinton’s The Outsiders, Hurston’s ing of themselves both as individuals and as parts of Their Eyes Were Watching God, Brown’s Goodnight a larger social whole. Their literacy skills and their Moon, or White’s Charlotte’s Web, as well as more re- social knowledge grow together. cent works like Paterson’s The Great Gilly Hopkins, Cormier’s I Am the Cheese, Mochizuki’s Baseball Students read a wide range of literature from Saved Us, or Greenfield’s Grandmama’s Joy. Both 2 many periods in many genres to build an un- classic and contemporary works are essential to a derstanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philo- literary education. sophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience. Students’ experiences of literary texts are made richer when they are familiar with the specialized The texts that we call “literary” have a special func- terms and concepts of literary analysis. Each literary tion in our culture and in student learning. Literary genre has its own formal qualities, and students ben- works are valuable not just as informative or commu- efit from studying these conventions. Young children nicative vehicles, but as artistic creations and repre- who have been read to extensively reflect their un- sentations of human culture at particular times and in derstanding of literary conventions in two ways. First, particular places. They are a living archive of a his- when they “read” or retell a story, their language may tory of philosophical, ethical, and aesthetic thought. take on a distinctly literary style, indicating that they As students learn to read and respond to literary understand the difference between conversation and texts, they discover the special features of these texts, “book talk.” Second, beginning writers often use con- and they develop the special skills and vocabulary ventions such as “once upon a time” or “the end” to needed to experience and appreciate literature fully, mark their early compositions as stories, rather than in all its various forms. They learn, for example, that as letters or informational pieces. Similarly, focusing literary language is rich with metaphor, imagery, on the structure of the sonnet and haiku in the con- rhyme, and other figures and devices. text of reading a variety of different poems allows Accordingly, students need to read and study lit- more experienced readers to discover connections erary texts in a variety of genres, including poetry, between theme and form. By studying various text short stories, novels, plays, essays, biographies, and genres in detail—for example, science fiction—stu- autobiographies. Narrative in its many forms can be dents learn to recognize their unique features and to introduced early, through picture books, puppet see connections across texts within a given genre. shows, role-playing, and story time. There is strong These studies enable students to learn how literary

The English Language Arts Standards 21 works are constructed, how they share certain artistic Before even beginning the first sentence of a text, forms, and what makes each a distinct work. knowledgeable readers know how to approach and Many literary texts—not just fiction, but also es- frame a reading experience with a sense of purpose, says, other prose works, plays, and poems—give stu- need, and direction. Becoming a knowledgeable dents opportunities to engage in ethical and reader, however, takes time and many experiences philosophical reflection on the values and beliefs of with different kinds of texts. Young learners soon their own cultures, of other cultures, and of other recognize that they must orchestrate several differ- times and places. They show how individuals discov- ent kinds of information in text. Drawing upon their er the significance of inner experience, social life, sense of phonological awareness (their conscious and history as they find their place in the world. In awareness that spoken words can be broken into many of our most important literary works, authors separate sounds and/or sound units), their knowledge of word meanings and language structure, and depict moral conflicts as characters struggle to know their knowledge of the world, they develop strategies themselves, to make decisions, and to act within, a for making meaning from many experiences with a larger society. Students who explore the moral and variety of texts. ethical dimensions of literature see that reading can Students become knowledgeable readers by deepen their understanding of the complexities of reading and studying a broad range of texts from human life, often affirming their own experiences or which they learn to generalize the demands differ- casting them in a new light. Literacy thus can become ent genres place upon them as readers. As students not just a means to an end, but an exploration in learn to form expectations about a text, they become which students’ own worlds and experiences open better able to decide which strategies they should themselves to those of many others. use to comprehend, interpret, and evaluate what Because literary texts enable students to envi- they are reading. Expectations may also enhance stu- sion and explore worlds (both actual and imagined) dents’ appreciation of texts and their personal re- from perspectives other than their own, they help sponses to them. students to imagine and challenge different worlds. Proficient readers also know how purpose affects Students who have learned, through literary texts, to their approach to a reading event. They know, for view their own lives and the world around them in example, that studying the history of a region would new and different ways are more apt to consider al- involve a certain kind of reading if one were plan- ternatives rather than simply accepting things as they ning a vacation there, and quite another if one were are. Literature thus plays a vital role in the develop- writing a research report on the region’s agriculture. ment of critical thinking. Through literary reading, Effective readers also draw on their previous students learn to think about and to question their reading experiences as they delve into new works. own perspectives; they learn to assume different, For example, there are many mystery stories written critical stances toward events, circumstances, and is- for elementary school students. As young learners sues. Readers of literature come to recognize and read these stories, they come to recognize the con- evaluate human experiences as well as the literature ventions of constructing mysteries, that is, how au- in which those experiences are represented. thors introduce clues and typically advance their plots. As they read more mysteries, younger readers begin to anticipate these conventions and use them Students apply a wide range of strategies to to guide both their comprehension of the stories and 3 comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and ap- their attempts to solve the mysteries. Later, they may preciate texts. They draw on their prior experi- use the same strategies with more complex and so- ence, their interactions with other readers and phisticated examples of the genre. This understand- writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of ing of the conventions of a specific genre is also other texts, their word identification strategies, useful in viewing mysteries on television or in the and their understanding of textual features (e.g., movies. sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, Although students come to recognize many of context, graphics). these expectations and strategies as they read and

22 Standards for the English Language Arts discuss related groups of texts, teacher explanation lished “big book” displayed in their classroom. These and modeling of reading strategies and independent sessions provided opportunities that were useful and conscious study also contribute to students’ profi- relevant to students’ level of emergent literacy. ciency. Students need encouragement to think and Flexibility in applying different reading strategies talk about how they are creating meaning as they is of the greatest importance: students need to know read and to pay close attention to the strategies they how to vary their approaches according to the nature are using to do so. Reading is an active, recursive of the text, the purpose of the reading, and their own process in which readers make predictions based on knowledge and experience. If they are reading a text linguistic and contextual cues (including the read- that uses familiar language, is in a familiar genre, or er’s knowledge of the world) and reevaluate those deals with a familiar topic, readers may proceed predictions in light of other cues. Students should ex- smoothly, rarely needing to stop to figure out a word plore this meaning-making process explicitly, talk- or to question the use of certain rhetorical devices. ing about how they move from predicting to On the other hand, if they are reading something that confirming (or revising) their predictions, and back is especially challenging or foreign to them, they may again. Thoughtful attention to their own cognitive processes will be rewarded with more complete and need to pause frequently to search for graphic, meaningful reading experiences and with an explicit phonological, syntactic, and semantic clues that will sense of how to manage their own thinking. help them make sense of the text. Through practice In one Chicago kindergarten class, an opportuni- and experience, students can learn to adapt or ty to learn about reading and writing strategies change the tactics they are using if they sense that emerged when a student brought a caterpillar to things are not going well or if they move from one school. It had begun to form a chrysalis, and this in- genre or context to another. spired much conversation, wonder, and questioning Further, students need to learn a variety of strate- among the students. A sign-in sheet and journal note- gies for comprehending, interpreting, and analyzing book were placed beside the caterpillar, in which stu- spoken and visual language. If they are having a con- dents recorded their names (in whatever way they versation with someone whose language patterns are knew how) and drew or wrote their observations and very different from theirs, they may need to use a questions. Students read and discussed what was real range of strategies (such as questioning, summariz- and what was fantasy in Eric Carle’s The Very Hungry ing, and restating) to resolve ambiguities that arise. Caterpillar as a group. The teacher also provided a And if they are viewing a television program, they supply of related books, many with detailed pictures may ask themselves about the purpose of the and charts about caterpillars, butterflies, and insects in program—is it to communicate information, to enter- general. These were displayed in the science corner tain, or to persuade the audience to accept a certain for students’ independent browsing. During this qui- point of view? Learning to be attentive to these differ- et reading time, the teacher listened to and monitored ent contexts enables students to move from basic students’ reading strategies, encouraging them to re- comprehension to more sophisticated responses to flect on and learn from their miscues. what they are reading. Using chart paper hung on the wall near the One of the most important functions of English caterpillar, the teacher recorded students’ responses to the Carle book, their observations of the caterpil- language arts education is to help students learn to lar’s metamorphosis, their conjectures about what interpret texts—that is, to reflect on textual mean- would happen to the chrysalis, and their understanding from their own perspectives—and to evaluate ings and questions about butterflies. As the teacher texts—that is, to use critical thinking to identify listened to the students’ comments, she often particular text elements, such as logic, emotional ap- stopped to point out an interesting idea or word or to peal, and purpose. As students interpret and evalu- elicit learners’ suggestions about how to spell a word ate texts, they explore their own feelings, values, or punctuate a sentence. On subsequent days, she and responses to the ideas presented. Thus, they and the students reviewed the charts both independ- make their own responses to texts an integral part of ently and together, much as they would enjoy a pub- their reading experience.

The English Language Arts Standards 23 Students adjust their use of spoken, written, teacher when discussing a piece of writing. While it 4 and visual language (e.g., conventions, may be perfectly appropriate to use personal lan- style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with guage in a diary entry, doing so in an editorial for a a variety of audiences and for different purposes. school newspaper is likely to undermine readers’ confidence in the author. Even handwriting can re- Throughout their lives, students will write and speak flect a consideration of audience: scribbles may work in widely differing social arenas: as informed citizens, when writing personal notes; however, directions to as employees and co-workers, as neighbors. They others on how to get to an unknown destination will will also use language as members of a family, for most likely require clear and complete writing. personal affirmation and reflection, and for cultural Individuals who are competent at communicating enrichment. In each instance, they will draw on their with others are sensitive to the needs of different au- knowledge of language conventions as they adjust diences and to the ways in which the purpose of a their speech and writing to respond to the needs of communication shapes the kinds of ideas and infor- specific audiences, purposes, and situations. mation they choose and the way in which they pre- Therefore, students need to study how language consent them. Depending on whether they are ventions vary from one context to another. They explaining something, arguing, persuading, or telling need to make use of a range of language conven- a story, good communicators have learned how to tions as they create texts for different audiences and vary their organizational strategies. They adapt the purposes. level of detail they provide and the language they Children’s early writing plays an important part in use according to the context of the communication. their growth in language arts. Movement through Students recognize, for example, that visual diagrams phases of writing development—from scribbling to can help clarify difficult concepts, that a timeline may temporary spellings to conventional spellings—offers illustrate historical relationships, or that a colorful il- learners a variety of opportunities to make sense of lustration may make a story more vivid for other how print communicates its message to a variety of readers. Through practice in making subtle (or not- audiences, for a variety of purposes. These initial ef- so-subtle) strategic changes in style to fit different cir- forts are unconventional by adult standards but they cumstances and audiences, students increase the are important for the following reasons: They pro- likelihood that the texts they create will be under- vide parents and teachers insights into how individ- stood and interpreted as they would like them to be. ual children construct meaning about why people Audience awareness is well illustrated in an write and about the process of writing. They also elementary–high school collaboration in one Illinois provide a valuable foundation for literacy growth. school district. During a visit to an elementary Through their drawing and scribbling, young learn- school, students in one teacher’s eleventh- and ers convey their understanding that marks on paper twelfth-grade classes interviewed third-grade stu- communicate ideas and information. They begin to dents, asking about their hobbies, pets, favorite reflect their recognition of print as a means of books, and other interests. The senior high students communication—an important preliminary to the then composed original stories tailored for their ele- many ways they will use writing. mentary counterparts, getting responses at the draft- As they compose different types of works, stu- ing stage to assure that the stories were both lively dents call on their knowledge of texts and text fea- and appropriate for their audience. Through this col- tures. Again, audience is an especially important laboration, both groups of students gained experi- consideration. Writing in a diary, drafting an e-mail ence in communicating with a different audience and message to a grandparent, and requesting informa- in exploring relationships between spoken and writ- tion from the chamber of commerce, for example, ten texts. all involve different audiences and therefore different To ensure that they can communicate effectively writing voices. Similarly, the informal, often fragmen- with a wide range of audiences, all students need to tary talk used among close friends gathered on the learn what we refer to as “the language of wider playground to discuss a basketball game is different communication”—the forms of our language that are from the more fully developed talk used with a most commonly recognized as standard English. This

24 Standards for the English Language Arts does not imply that other varieties of English are In order to attain these skills, students need fre- somehow incorrect or invalid; rather, it means that all quent opportunities to write about different topics students need to have standard English in their reper- and for different audiences and purposes. Their own toire of language forms, and to know when they experiences, enriched by their readings and discus- should use it. When students engage in discussions sions with others in and out of school, are impor- of when and where this language of wider communi- tant resources for writing. For example, some highly cation can and should be used, they further their rewarding writing was exchanged between high knowledge of audience, purpose, and context, and school students in Oklahoma City and Los Angeles in so doing discover something of the social signifi- when teachers in two schools set up e-mail commu- cance of different language practices. nication between their classes. The Oklahoma stu- The social nature of language and communica- dents were able to formulate and express their tion is central to Standard 4. When students explore emotional responses to the bombing in their city, and the connections between voice and audience, pur- the Los Angeles students vividly described their ex- pose and form, they become more versatile and con- periences during the earthquake there. Not only was fident in the choices they make as language users. a sense of empathy generated between the classes, Students who have experience communicating with but the students also saw how writing could help a range of different audiences, moreover, are able to them work through difficult and tangled emotions, find a voice and style that are uniquely their own. and they practiced using written language to cap- As students adapt and modify their language to suit ture and represent experience and memories for different purposes, they discover certain recurring readers at a distance. Out of a desire to help each phrases, devices, or images—the imprints of a per- other understand and cope with traumatic experi- sonal style of communication. ence, these students gained firsthand knowledge about the power of writing to connect people and Students employ a wide range of strategies as to connect events in different parts of the world. 5 they write and use different writing process Students need guidance and practice to develop elements appropriately to communicate with dif- their skills in academic writing, whether they are re- ferent audiences for a variety of purposes. sponding to literary works or writing for other school subjects. They need to understand the varying de- Just as students need an array of strategies for com- mands of different kinds of writing tasks and to rec- prehending, interpreting, evaluating, and appreciat- ognize how to adapt tone, style, and content for the ing the texts written by others, so too do they need particular task at hand. As with other aspects of to apply an array of strategies as they write. Reading learning, students’ ability to create text—whether ex- and writing are intertwined. Emergent writing efforts pressive or academic, formal or informal—is best de- focus young learners’ attention on details of text and veloped through engagement in meaningful reading reinforce beginning concepts about how print is pro- and writing activities. Students who write in the con- duced. For example, these efforts strengthen learn- text of meaningful goals are more likely to work ers’ phonological awareness as they attempt to spell carefully to shape and revise what they compose. words they do not yet know but wish to write, there- Teachers can create a sense of the purposefulness by reinforcing understandings about letter-sound as- of writing by helping students to consider the needs sociations necessary for beginning reading. Other of their audiences as they compose, edit, and revise. characteristics of good readers are also demonstrat- As writers hear how different readers interpret ed by good writers: a sense of purpose, an ability to and evaluate their work, they learn how to use con- frame expectations of a task by drawing on prior structive criticism to revise or recast their writing. writing experience, a knowledge of various ap- This process helps students to internalize a sense of proaches and how to apply them, the capacity to re- what their readers need and expect. It also extends flect on the writing process as it unfolds, and a the body of knowledge that they bring to future writ- willingness to change approaches in response to au- ing tasks, giving them greater confidence and versa- dience needs. tility as writers.

The English Language Arts Standards 25 In recent years many students have benefited is essential for responding to, discussing, critiquing, from what is known as a “process approach” to writ- editing, and revising print and nonprint texts. ing instruction, which focuses on different activities Students develop their knowledge of form and typically involved in effective writing, such as plan- convention in spoken, written, and visual language ning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing for as they create their own compositions and critique real audiences. Unfortunately, this approach is some- those of others. Whether they are just learning to or- times translated into a highly structured sequence of chestrate text in a left-to-right direction across a activities, regardless of the task at hand. While it is blank page, matching letters to the sounds they hear certainly crucial for students to understand the reper- in words they want to spell, varying their range of toire of techniques involved in the writing process, sentence structure in a written piece, or experiment- it is equally important to teach them flexibility so that ing with the arrangement and balance of visual ele- they know when to proceed step by step and when ments in an illustration, students need to understand to adopt alternative strategies. that attention to structure and form is an essential In reality, the writing process is recursive, not lin- part of the process of creating and revising text. ear. Writers focus on many aspects of a task at once, Students who can draw on a deep knowledge of lan- some general and some particular: what ideas to in- guage structure find that the texts they create are corporate, how to organize them, which words to both more accessible and more effective for their var- choose, how to arrange them, where to insert com- ious audiences. Spoken, visual, and written composition alike re- mas. Writers move fluidly from whole to part and quire the ability to grasp whole-to-part relationships. back again, shaping and defining their overall pur- Students who work with films, for example, become pose as they develop specific examples and refine aware of editing strategies that are used to weave passages. They are problem-solvers, deciding as they together individual scenes in order to produce a con- go along how to tackle the many different challenges tinuous narrative. The careful study of illustrations— that arise. whether in children’s stories or individual To become confident and effective writers, then, artworks—helps build knowledge of formal charac- students need to learn how to use various elements of teristics such as balance, composition, unity, and writing flexibly and adaptively, shaping their ap- symmetry (or asymmetry). An exploration of color, proaches according to the purposes and audiences interestingly, may be connected to notions such as they have in mind. They need to be encouraged to try mood or tone in written and performance works. A different approaches and to reconsider what they have seventh-grade teacher in Philadelphia, for example, written. In short, there is no such thing as one correct asks his students to depict the moods evoked in way of approaching writing. Effective student writers Madeleine L’Engle’s A Wrinkle in Time by cutting col- follow different strategies for different tasks, and they ored paper into shapes that seem to convey the tone discover with each new task what works best. of the chapter, then explaining their artistic depic- tions. Students who explore such cross-disciplinary Students apply knowledge of language connections as they develop a working terminology 6 structure, language conventions (e.g., to describe language structure become more thor- spelling and punctuation), media techniques, ough readers and more effective writers. figurative language, and genre to create, cri- As their peers respond to their compositions, stu- tique, and discuss print and nonprint texts. dents often discover that they need explicit instruction in particular aspects of writing or editing. A To ensure that the texts they create are well received student may recognize, for instance, that readers are and understood by those who will be reading, view- baffled by his or her use of conflicting metaphors in ing, or listening to them, students need a working a paragraph, or are confused about when sentence knowledge of the systems and structures of language fragments are acceptable in written texts. Or a stu- as well as familiarity with accepted language conven- dent may wish to explore ways to use punctuation tions, including grammar, punctuation, spelling, and more effectively in order to develop more complex, the formal elements of visual texts. This knowledge varied sentence patterns in his or her prose. Explicit

26 Standards for the English Language Arts instruction on such topics is most likely to be effec- Students conduct research on issues and in- tive when it is offered in the context of real writing 7 terests by generating ideas and questions, and peer-editing activities. Research has shown con- and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, vincingly that neither isolated exercises nor the study and synthesize data from a variety of sources of formal systems of grammar independent of con- (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) text affects most students’ actual speaking and writ- to communicate their discoveries in ways that ing skills. suit their purpose and audience. By closely observing students’ writing processes and carefully reading their work, teachers can see The ability to generate questions, identify issues, which aspects of language structure are giving stu- pose problems, and seek out answers is at the core dents trouble and help them learn these concepts of productive human living. In some measure, we through direct instruction and practice. It is also im- engage in research whenever we reflect on our prob- portant for students to discover that grammar, lems and concerns, even when our hypotheses are spelling, and punctuation are useful not only in the limited in number or sophistication. Our curiosity context of fixing problems or mistakes; they can be often inspires us to focus on solving problems and studied effectively in a workshop context in which investigating issues. From a very early age, we try to students work together to expand their repertoire of make sense of our physical world and the world of syntactic and verbal styles. When students connect ideas that surrounds us. the study of grammar and language patterns to the It is essential that students acquire a wide range wider purposes of communication and artistic de- of abilities and tools for raising questions, investigat- velopment, they are considerably more likely to in- ing concerns, and solving problems. In school, corporate such study into their working knowledge. “research” is the name commonly given to the Indeed, through their writing, editing, and revis- processes of addressing such concerns. However, a ing experiences, students come to understand that a rigid view of research as a series of mechanical steps composition may never be truly finished. Although misrepresents the complexity and creative potential a paper may be turned in, or a performance complet- of human problem solving and limits the range of ed- ed, we can always rethink, rework, and refine. The ucational experiences that can help students. Perhaps ability to step back and critique our work with an the idea of research is best considered in terms of eye to improving it is essential to good writing and to inquiry—the learner’s desire to look deeply into a both spoken and graphic compositions. As the term question or idea that interests him or her. Viewed in revision suggests, we can always see our work again this way, research becomes an investigation into an differently, or through the eyes of another reader or issue or problem chosen by the student. It involves another writer. Students who understand this are bet- posing interesting and substantive questions, identi- ter able to strengthen their competencies as writers. fying and securing multiple data sources, analyzing Critique and revision—seeing again, differently— and synthesizing data, and positing findings or new are crucial not only for students in the process of understandings. developing their skills as, say, storytellers or play- Language itself is a valuable research tool. The wrights; they are also essential for a deeper under- ability to use language to seek out and refine inter- standing of our culture. That is, students’ ability to esting questions, plan, predict, investigate, analyze, critique and respond meaningfully to peers’ written hypothesize, and speculate gives students a way to and spoken texts relates in important ways to their frame and address the issues that they encounter in ability to “read” culture and society from an in- academic subjects as well as in everyday life. formed, thoughtful perspective. For example, by Students often use language to investigate questions studying the structure of narrative in film—analyz- and tackle problems, but these experiences are fre- ing elements such as framing, shot selection, and the quently overlooked simply because they are so com- use of voice-over and dialogue—students become mon. The application of spoken language to problem more adept and perceptive viewers of television solving is especially pervasive. Students are constant- commercials, news, and drama. ly using talk informally, to negotiate among

The English Language Arts Standards 27 themselves and with others and to express their ideas lows students to assume greater responsibility for about school problems and social dilemmas. their own learning. For example, students are stimu- Everyday life provides abundant raw materials lated by the relative ease and flexibility of revising from which students can develop their investigative and editing online and by the prospect of printing language competencies. For example, a class of mid- and circulating their writings. Indeed, even very dle school students in Iowa were concerned with a young students like to compose on the computer. local crime problem and decided to do something Teachers can build on these interests by acting as about it. These students began their investigation by guides and observers, facilitating learning and help- discussing the problem with people in their commu- ing students discover, evaluate, and mine the many nity. These discussions helped the students to narrow resources available to them. the focus of their inquiry and to identify key people Students should use computers, then, to com- who could talk to the entire class about particular pose texts and graphics for themselves and others criminal acts or issues. The students also gathered and to publish their own works. This requires skill statistical and other data from appropriate sources, in keyboarding and word processing as students read books on crime, and clipped and shared articles draft, revise, and edit their writings, seeking feedback from various periodicals. Once the students had from peers and teachers along the way. Students gathered the information they found necessary, they should use computers individually and collaborative- analyzed it and formulated courses of action. Some ly to develop and publish a variety of works such as students wrote letters to the local newspaper; others storybooks, essays, newsletters, classroom antholo- wrote to the chief of police to offer solutions that gies, and school newspapers. Also, extended use of they thought would reduce the crime rate. Still others computers should be encouraged when connection prepared oral presentations to share with elemen- to a network makes it possible to correspond with tary school students, alerting them to criminal acts others nearby or far away. that could affect them. The students involved in this A creative and empowering use of recent tech- project used their language and research skills to nology is demonstrated in the following classroom confront real issues in their community. example. Video-recording helped fifth- and sixth- Students need to learn creative and multifaceted grade students in an urban Phoenix school to com- approaches to research and inquiry. The ability to municate with a group of pen pals from a Navajo identify good topics, to gather information, and to reservation in rural Arizona. The Phoenix students evaluate, assemble, and interpret findings from videotaped their homes (in public housing projects), among the many general and specialized information as well as their school and playground, using both sources now available to them is one of the most vi- words and images to describe for their Navajo friends tal skills that students can acquire. where they lived and what their daily lives were like. The Navajo students responded with their own Students use a variety of technological and videotapes, forming a multimedia correspondence 8 informational resources (e.g., libraries, which helped both groups better understand life for databases, computer networks, video) to gather someone else of the same age in a different geo- and synthesize information and to create and graphic and cultural setting. The two groups of stu- communicate knowledge. dents not only learned about life elsewhere, but also gained experience in using video technology to rep- To take advantage of the resources that technology resent themselves to others. Along the way, they saw offers and to become prepared for the demands that the power of visual representation and its importance will face them in the future, students need to learn in enriching a sense of cultural identity. how to use an array of technologies, from comput- Students need to use new technologies to gain ers and computer networks to electronic mail, inter- access to databases, bibliographies, other data re- active video, and CD-ROMs. Technology opens up sources, and computer users around the world, and new worlds to students, making available a tremen- they need to develop skill in synthesizing this broad dous assortment of information, ideas, and images. base of information. Student inquiry, problem solv- It also provides new motivation for writing and al- ing, and formal research at all levels are taking on a

28 Standards for the English Language Arts new character. A generation ago, students were gen- derstanding is growing increasingly urgent as our erally limited to seeking out resource materials for culture becomes more diverse. Students deserve and traditional research papers in library card catalogs need learning environments that respect cultural, and standard encyclopedias and reference sources. racial, and ethnic differences. Celebrating our shared They now have a wealth of resources, the very abun- beliefs and traditions is not enough; we also need to dance and complexity of which require new levels of honor that which is distinctive in the many groups sophistication in search techniques and an expand- that make up our nation. ed ability to choose, assess, and synthesize materials. Students who have difficulty relating to peers Direct instruction in electronic resources is becoming from different cultures may find it easier to under- increasingly important in today’s classrooms. stand their classmates’ unfamiliar backgrounds and Many teachers are not yet comfortable with new experiences—and may discover unexpected similar- technologies, however, and require professional de- ities—when they read and discuss stories and other velopment opportunities in order to meet the techno- texts that dramatize cultural frameworks and relation- logical needs of their students. On the positive side, ships. By understanding and appreciating differ- teachers can often be co-learners with their students, ences, students build the groundwork for unity and many of whom are more familiar with computer jar- shared experience. One way of approaching this is gon, the Internet, search techniques, and available seen in a culturally diverse classroom in the Bronx. resources. Teachers should welcome this activity, Students in language arts classes there select literary giving students the enjoyment and pride of some- works that explore their specific cultural and ethnic times being their teachers’ teachers. backgrounds. In addition to discussing these works Electronic technologies, perhaps more than any as a group, the students write book reviews that are other recent innovation, have heightened our sense collected in a booklet distributed to the entire class of the need for reform and have raised our expecta- and placed in the school library. This student-directed tions of what students must know and be able to do work encourages children and young adults to study in English language arts. It is therefore crucial that we both their own backgrounds and those of others in address the uneven distribution of technology in our their school community. nation’s schools. Some schools have abundant com- Students bring into the language arts classroom puters for students to use, while others have only a not only values and beliefs but also ways of seeing few, which are often reserved for the students re- the world. Ethnicity and culture go beyond visible garded as academically advanced. Students in eco- markers of difference (such as speech, dress, inter- nomically disadvantaged communities and those personal styles, food) to encompass larger issues of labeled as less proficient often lack access to new perception and interpretation. Students who explore technologies or are confined to routine computer ac- linguistic diversity among their peers discover that tivities that fail to challenge and develop their minds. language use, dialect, and accent are cues for other Schools and communities need to address these in- kinds of differences, and investigating these language equities to ensure that all students can become tech- features thoughtfully allows the discovery that dif- nologically literate. ferent cultures’ diverse ways of knowing the world are embodied in their languages. In this way, the Students develop an understanding of and study of language diversity opens onto subjects such 9 respect for diversity in language use, pat- as history, science, and social studies. Students can terns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, explore, for instance, the history of oral cultures and geographic regions, and social roles. their many philosophical and religious traditions, or the importance of nonwestern cultures in the devel- The capacity to hear and respect different perspec- opment of mathematics. tives and to communicate with people whose lives Schools are responsible for creating a climate of and cultures are different from our own is a vital el- respect for the variety of languages that students speak ement of American society. Language is a powerful and the variety of cultures from which they come. medium through which we develop social and cul- Students as well as teachers need to recognize and ap- tural understanding, and the need to foster this un- preciate linguistic and cultural variation, for it is truly

The English Language Arts Standards 29 an asset, not a liability. Students from a variety of lum provides a support system for learning English, backgrounds can connect their in- and out-of-school for making learning in other subject areas more com- experiences in meaningful ways. They should address prehensible, and for helping students to gain confi- questions such as these: What beliefs and traditions dence both socially and academically. are important to me and to other students? What con- Thus, there is an urgent need for programs that nections can we trace across our backgrounds? What enable students who speak other languages to attain values are shared among the various cultures we rep- proficiency in English while at the same time provid- resent? How do we view the world from different per- ing them the support they need to continue develop- spectives? Awareness of the connections between ing competency in their first language. Programs of language and culture, and exposure to variations in this nature, of course, are not always possible. In language use, are important dimensions of teaching some schools, for example, the number of students and learning in the English language arts. who speak a particular language is too small to enti- Students need opportunities to recognize and tle the school under current federal or state regulations honor cultural differences in ways that extend be- to fund a bilingual program. In such cases, students yond the ability to adapt to and communicate in a typically learn English in an English as a Second multicultural society. Recognizing that ethnic or racial Language (ESL) program. Even under these circum- bias is often embedded in language or metaphor, for stances, however, schools can offer students support example, may lead students to a deeper understand- in their primary language by seeking out other adults ing of the power of figurative language to shape per- (including parents) or students who speak the lan- ception. Similarly, students who trace the evolution guage in order to help translate or clarify concepts. of various dialects and speech patterns can learn It is important to bear in mind that even bilingual about the interconnectedness of language and social students who are confident and proficient speakers of history. Knowing how to share and construct mean- English often have difficulty grasping the specialized ing with peers across racial and cultural boundaries concepts in other subject areas. If support in their first enables all students to appreciate the richness and language is withdrawn too early, they are placed at a power of language. disadvantage in schooling. Whenever possible, then, students whose first language is not English should Students whose first language is not learn and study content in their first language while 10 English make use of their first language learning English as a second language. Eventually, as to develop competency in the English language their English proficiency develops, they can move arts and to develop understanding of content into content area classes conducted in English. Of across the curriculum. course, students benefit when they can continue studying content in both languages. Linguistic diversity is becoming more common in our On the other hand, it is vitally important that stu- nation’s classrooms, as growing numbers of students dents whose primary language is not English be in- have primary languages that are not English. cluded as fully as possible in the mainstream of school Accordingly, there is increasing debate as to how activities. Providing support in their first language schools should develop these students’ academic must not result in their separation or segregation from competencies and their English language proficiency. English language speakers. Social interaction is essen- Students whose first language is not English are tial for language learning, and it is vitally important more likely to achieve academic success in English in that all students who are learning English be provid- settings where their primary language is nurtured. ed with ample opportunities for developing their This position is affirmed by current research on lan- English through conversations with others. guage learning. Contrary to popular misconceptions, Furthermore, we must recognize that learning school-age children do not necessarily learn a sec- English as a second, or third, or fourth language is a ond language quickly and easily. The development challenging and complex process, and our response of competency in English is most effective when to the needs of students who are developing profi- students are in programs that build on their first lan- ciency in English must do justice to these complexi- guage. The use of primary language in the curricu- ties. Rather than generalizing about children who are

30 Standards for the English Language Arts learning English as a second language, we must re- texts and audiences. Much like language conven- member how students may differ. For example, some tions, literacy communities emerge within a social older students who are learning English have already context which may be geographically defined, or, as developed proficiency in both academic and con- in the case of many online communities, widely dis- versational use of their native language, while oth- persed. As students discover their connections to ers may be proficient in their native everyday such communities, they learn to think of themselves language but have limited academic language skills. as knowledgeable participants in the process of us- The language capabilities and challenges facing ing language to share ideas. every child, including those who are learning English Students not only join existing literacy commu- as a second language, must be carefully considered nities, they also create them. A student telling his or as we plan experiences and instruction. her friends or classmates a story, for example, is creating a community of engaged listeners by building Students participate as knowledgeable, their interest in the characters and events of the nar- 11 reflective, creative, and critical members rative. A group of students working together on a of a variety of literacy communities. research project develop a community of shared interests and common questions as they investigate a Members of any literacy community share interests in problem and compile information resources on their certain kinds of texts and have similar ways of talking chosen subject. about and responding to those texts and the issues In the literacy community of the classroom, stu- they raise. Students belong to many different com- dents’ work merits serious attention by peers and munities of language users—communities that in- teacher alike. As community members, students use clude their peers, teachers, friends, and family language in a variety of ways. For example, they may members. Students also participate in other, more read and respond to one another’s writing. They may dispersed literacy communities, comprising, say, listen to one another read aloud, critiquing the per- readers of a popular genre, like science fiction, or formance for fluency and effectiveness, or sharing viewers of Hitchcock films. In any community—and their personal responses to an author’s work. Or they literacy communities are no exception—each individ- may work together in a group to solve a persistent ual assumes a role, and these roles evolve as the problem in their school, e.g., “How can we convince members of the community spend time together. the principal to buy bike racks for the school?” In each Students should develop an awareness of their case, students and teachers are there for one another, own participation in various literacy communities benefiting from one another’s insights and knowledge. and their roles within them. Students are likely to Students who work with one another as authors identify some of their literacy communities quite and readers of texts discover the many ways in readily: if they participate in an online discussion which a given text can be interpreted and the many group on rainforest conservation, for example, they ways in which their personal experiences and have already made conscious choices to identify with knowledge influence the construction of meanings. that language group and to share their thoughts with By reading what others write, and listening to what members of that group via computer network. Other they say, students have a window into lives beyond literacy communities, though, may be less immedi- their own. Teachers who recognize the value of lit- ately apparent. Peer and cultural communities, for eracy communities will make sure that students have example, exert a powerful although sometimes sub- opportunities to work together and that students tle influence on students’ language. Connecting their have the skills they need to be supportive and pro- experiences in these communities with their in- ductive members of these communities. school study of language strengthens students’ com- The concept of the literacy community empha- petency as language users and their awareness of the sizes the collaborative nature of much language learn- power and versatility of literacy. ing. Whether students’ participation in a given By developing awareness of their own roles community is face-to-face (as in the case of friends within different literacy communities, students can and classmates) or technologically mediated (as in the see how language usage varies across different con- case of popular media and computer networking), it

The English Language Arts Standards 31 is an essential part of their coming to view themselves yond the school years. It is true that we cannot be as effective language users. certain in the present moment that we are helping to shape the well-motivated adult who is committed Students use spoken, written, and visual to continuing self-education. Nevertheless, we can 12 language to accomplish their own pur- create the conditions that are likely to lead to lifelong poses (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, learning, and this objective must be central if school- and the exchange of information). ing is to be meaningful and not merely a forced march through academic exercises. The work of the school must have an effect on the There are, in fact, clear signs during the school language and literacy choices made by individual years which indicate that students are developing students outside of the classroom—both in the pres- strong learning habits in and positive attitudes toward ent and into their post-school lives. Performing vari- the English language arts. Students may, for exam- ous class assignments and meeting these content ple, independently decide to read more books by au- standards are essential, but ultimately these goals thors they have studied or on themes they have lack meaning if students are not motivated to inte- discussed in class. They may talk in the cafeteria or grate their knowledge willingly, effectively, and joy- after school about issues and questions that were fully into their lives outside the classroom. raised in the classroom. They may express their views Of course, many of these standards emphasize thoughtfully and respect others’ perspectives, as mod- links between in-school and out-of-school experi- eled in good classroom interaction. They may men- ences. They focus, for example, on relationships between home language and school language; on tion, perhaps during class discussion or in their wide-ranging audiences for students’ writings; on journals, works they have composed on their own, variations in language use according to different so- such as poems, diaries, family letters, e-mail ex- cial environments; on everyday applications of changes, petitions, or home video productions. Their school learning; on technological and community parents may notice student choices that appear to be resources that extend the boundaries of learning; and influenced by the school’s English language arts pro- on connecting the student with diverse cultures in gram, perhaps commenting on more leisure reading the school, the community, the nation, and the or on more selective reading and television viewing. world. Students must also choose to make those link- Students’ self-motivation, then, is not merely a ages work in their own lives, however. wish for the future. It is a pervasive concern, evident This final standard is clearly related to the ideal in both subtle and more obvious ways in students’ of producing lifelong learners—a goal that goes be- lives within and beyond the classroom.

REALIZING THE STANDARDS

Imagine a classroom in which all of these standards visitors to the classroom and enhance students’ sense are realized, in which the goals we have articulated of being part of a vital language community both and discussed here form the daily foundation of within and beyond the school. English language arts experiences. Students are en- This kind of classroom, idealized as it may gaged in small-group and individual research proj- sound, can be and is being realized across the land ects that link classroom and academic inquiry to their every day. The standards listed here are a way of lived social and family experiences. They tell each highlighting these practices and articulating the con- other stories, argue constructively, share resources, sensus already being developed among teachers read newspaper articles aloud to one another, make around the country who are bringing out the best in collages and videotapes, and write letters and essays. their students day by day. Displays of students’ writing and graphics welcome

32 Standards for the English Language Arts CHAPTER 4

STANDARDS IN THE CLASSROOM

ecisions about how the English language general positive examples, they are intended to en- Darts standards will be realized in particu- courage critical review and discussion among teach- lar classrooms need to be made locally. ers and other readers of this document. As we have affirmed throughout this document, it is The vignettes are not meant to correlate directly the individuals working directly with students who are with individual standards; in fact, each depicts a rich best equipped to make the judgments and commit- learning experience that incorporates several stan- ments needed to bring the standards to life. Only dards simultaneously. These examples of classroom when students, parents, and communities discuss their practice make clear the important interrelations vision of language arts education, when administrators among the different language arts, as among the work to make the most of their schools’ resources, and standards themselves. In so doing, they highlight when teachers attend to their students’ particular both the complexities and the serendipities of litera- strengths and needs can these standards be realized. cy learning. This chapter offers some perspective on how the Between five and seven vignettes are presented standards might be implemented by looking at a se- for each level of schooling: elementary, middle, and lection of classroom vignettes. Students in these secondary.1 Although the grade levels are typically classrooms are engaged in challenging, purposeful indicated in each classroom example, the learning language experiences that draw on and enhance and teaching events presented are relevant and ap- their competencies in all six of the language arts. plicable for students at other levels as well. We there- These experiences help them gain the knowledge, fore encourage teachers to read through all of these confidence, and creativity to be fully literate partici- classroom portraits and not to limit themselves to pants in their world. Like the brief examples of class- the selections from their own teaching levels. room practice offered elsewhere in this document, Each vignette is followed by two or three ques- these vignettes are presented as further reflections on tions that frame the learning experiences depicted the standards, not as models that embody their thor- from a wider perspective. Characteristically, these ough realization. Although the approaches to teach- questions focus on alternatives that might be con- ing and learning depicted in the vignettes are in sidered in the activities presented, issues not fully

1. The vignettes are drawn from actual classrooms and depict real classroom practices; however, some details have been recast slightly to emphasize particular aspects of the standards.

Standards in the Classroom 33 addressed, and possible adaptations of the insights conversation about classroom practices. We encour- reflected in the classroom samples. The questions age readers to use the questions to consider the vi- posed in these sections, like the vignettes them- gnettes’ applicability in their own curricula and as a selves, invite readers to participate in an ongoing starting point for discussion among colleagues.

ELEMENTARY VIGNETTES

Elementary Vignette 1 Ravi’s example to demonstrate how compound Twenty-six first graders in an urban Philadelphia words are formed and how that knowledge can be school crowd around their teacher as she pulls a new used to decode words. picture book out of her tote bag. She places the book After this brief discussion about the title, the on her lap, quietly signaling the students to find a teacher asks the students if they have any idea how place to sit on the rug and get ready to share a very snowballs might be important to the story, and if special story. they can predict what will happen in the story. Alex Once the children settle down, the teacher holds suggests that the characters will make a snowman up Snowballs, by Lois Ehlert, and she and the chil- or a snow fort and that it will melt. The students then dren laugh and talk about the picture on the cover, listen intently as the teacher reads the first few pages which shows a snowman with a bird on his head. of the story. The teacher pauses briefly to discuss Before opening the book, the teacher asks the stu- the prediction Alex made and to see if he wants to dents if anyone can read the title. Lauren replies by revise his prediction. She then continues reading the sounding out /sn/ and then saying, “Snowman.” The story of a child who spends a glorious snowball day teacher tells Lauren that she used some good strate- creating a snow family, including a snow dad, a gies to read the title; she used her knowledge of the snow mom, a snow boy, a snow girl, a snow baby, sounds of the beginning letters along with the clues and a snow cat and dog. Unfortunately, when the from the picture on the cover. Then the teacher cov- sun comes out, the child has to watch each member ers the word snow and asks Lauren to look carefully of the snow family slowly melt away. This story, of at the word balls. Lauren sounds out /b/ and scans to course, elicits more talk among the teacher and stu- the end of the word before saying, “Snowball. Oh, it dents about their own wonderful “snowball days.” says snowballs.” The teacher reminds Lauren to be ■ How important is a noncompetitive, risk-taking sure to look at the middle and end of a word, as well as the beginning, to gather clues to what the word environment to the learning process? says and means. ■ How might the teacher keep track of student Ravi joins the discussion and says he figured out strengths and needs observed during whole- the title by looking at the two words: snow and balls. class discussions, so that she can use this The teacher tells the class that Ravi has just given knowledge to support students during indi- them yet another way to recognize a word. She then vidual reading conferences? quickly reviews the three word-recognition strategies Lauren and Ravi used to figure out the title of the Elementary Vignette 2 book: looking at and sounding out the letters at the Maya and Katherine are students in a multiage class beginning, middle, and end of a word; looking at the (6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds) in a small rural elementary picture; and looking for known words within a larg- school. Recently, the two of them collaborated to er, unfamiliar word. She tells them that after story write a fable entitled “Frown and Smiles,” which fea- time, she will add these strategies to their class chart tured a rabbit and a chipmunk as the main charac- titled “Strategies We Use to Understand What We ters. In the fable, Maya and Katherine have their Read.” She also makes a mental note to introduce characters argue, then walk off in different directions compound words to the class at another time, using toward their homes. Before they reach their homes,

34 Standards for the English Language Arts however, the rabbit and the chipmunk bump head- ■ What types of instruction and guidance must long into each other. this teacher have provided to get a group of During class sharing time, the girls read a draft students to achieve this level of independence? of their fable to the entire class. Their classmates like the story but wonder how the animals could bump Elementary Vignette 3 into each other if they walked off in different direc- Pollution in the water supply has become a topic of tions. Maya and Katherine try to explain how this widespread discussion in one Northeastern town. might occur, but they fail to help the class (and even After an order to boil public water is issued and is cov- ered extensively by the local media, a group of fifth each other) understand. The two girls realize that graders takes an interest in water purification. Four they have a problem to solve if they want to keep students—Tomas, Liz, Harrison, and Cecilia—decide this part in their story, so they use their writing time to make water purification the subject of their inquiry to role-play the two characters walking off in differ- project and to prepare a presentation for the class. ent directions and bumping into one another. After They name themselves the Water Purification Team. much rehearsal and discussion, they figure out that The four students spend a day reading different if the rabbit and chipmunk walk off in different di- sources and talking among themselves to define the rections but follow the same circular route, they will questions they will need to explore in more detail. eventually end up in the same place. When the After an initial conference with their teacher about teacher checks on the progress of their revision, which resources would be most useful, the students Maya and Katherine explain their discovery and their decide to begin their search with the newspaper, and plan to have the animals take a circular route rather to seek out local sources of information. Working than a straight one. The teacher points out, howev- with the school librarian, Liz and Harrison uncover er, that two characters with presumably good eye- information that extends well beyond the encyclo- sight would probably see each other coming. Maya pedia, which had been the starting point for their re- and Katherine ponder this comment. search. A database search shows the availability of The next day during class sharing time, the girls numerous books, films, free pamphlets, magazine ar- present their new version of the story, which details ticles, and other materials. Cecilia and Tomas call the the rabbit and the chipmunk walking off in different water company and talk to a spokesperson there. They also speak with a reporter who has written sev- directions but on the same circular path, while look- eral articles on water supply problems for the local ing down at their feet as they walk because they are newspaper. angry. Maya and Katherine then show their class- The students’ research expands to include taped mates their latest plan: a rough sketch of an illustrat- interviews with the water company representative ed map that shows the circular route, the characters’ and the reporter and a tour of the water plant. After homes, and the two characters bumping heads. The reviewing all of the material gathered in their re- girls’ classmates applaud the changes to the story and search, the students work together to outline their are especially impressed with the addition of the il- presentations. They divide their presentation into lustrated map. Several children comment that a map three parts: a description of how water purification might be a good idea for the stories they are working works, using charts they drew; an explanation of on. After sharing time, Maya and Katherine rush off how an aging piping system is causing the problems to work on their map and produce a final draft of in the town’s water supply; and a minidebate be- their fable. tween Cecilia and Tomas about whether a new piping system should be funded by raising the cost of ■ How effective is drama as a revision process? the water or by new taxes (an issue that had been What other processes besides rewriting and raised, but not resolved, by the newspaper reporter). drama might students use to make sense of The presentation generates enthusiastic responses their work? and many questions from their classmates, and the ■ How does this class’s literacy community Water Purification Team considers its project a major function to serve these young writers? success.

Standards in the Classroom 35 ■ In what ways was this research project an in- When the teacher finished reading the story, stance of integrated language arts and inter- Keoni eagerly joined in the discussion. He stated that disciplinary activity? the coyote was a niele (nee-eh´-lay)—the Hawaiian ■ What are the benefits of this type of activity word for a nosy creature. His teacher and several of for both younger and older students? the students laughed appreciatively at the connection Keoni had made between his home language and the ■ How can a teacher adapt a planned curricu- events in the story. “Yes,” she said, “the coyote is a lum to allow students to take up interests that niele, or you could say he is nosy or curious.” emerge, as in this example? Near the end of the discussion, the teacher shift- Elementary Vignette 4 ed the students’ attention from the content of the story to the structures of particular words. She Keoni is a kindergarten student of Native Hawaiian wrote the words coyote, roach, and crow on the ancestry whose primary language is Hawaiian Creole chalkboard and asked for volunteers to mark what English, a nonmainstream variety of English which they noticed about the words. Keoni raised his most people in Hawaii refer to as “pidgin.” Keoni has hand, and when he went to the chalkboard, he cir- learned many Hawaiian words from his family, al- cled the Cs at the beginning of coyote and crow. though he does not speak the Hawaiian language. “Like Candy,” he said, referring to the name of one When Keoni entered kindergarten, his teacher of his classmates. The teacher praised Keoni and noticed that he could tell many stories, especially said that yes, both words began with the letter C, about camping at the beach with his family. He did which was also the first letter in Candy’s name, and not have books at home, and his first exposure to the that Candy, coyote, and crow all began with the language of books occurred in the classroom. same sound as well. Keoni’s teacher read to her students every day, ex- posing them to an array of picture books and infor- ■ What benefits do students gain from having mational books in large and regular formats. She also their home language validated and used as a took dictation from the students, transcribing their curricular resource? words onto chart paper and encouraging them to ■ How do the underlying assumptions about share their ideas and stories with one another. emergent literacy fit with your own or your Through these activities, the students learned impor- district’s curriculum? If they are consistent tant concepts about print and about oral language. with your beliefs about teaching and learn- As Keoni watched and listened to the teacher reading ing, but not with your district’s, how might and pointing to the words in books and on the you get your district to learn about them? charts, he began to notice patterns in the language. ■ In what ways can the concept of emergent lit- He added his voice on familiar refrains, and he be- eracy be a useful reference for understanding gan to attend to the print on the page, noticing the literacy development of older students as words and letters. well as those just starting school? During story reading one morning, the teacher read a fable about a coyote and a flock of crows. The Elementary Vignette 5 fable included the words roaches and crows. Some of Katelyn, a third-grade student, has just returned to the children seemed puzzled by these words, so the school after spending several days at home with teacher pointed to the illustrations and asked if the strep throat. During writers’ workshop, she decides children knew what these animals were. Several chil- to write a Mother’s Day letter thanking her mother dren used the terms “cock-a-roach” and “mynah for the good care she gave her while she was sick. bird.” The teacher praised the children for these ob- Mr. J., the teacher, observes Katelyn as she sits and servations. She pointed out that roach was another thinks about what to write. She sits quietly for sev- word for “cock-a-roach” and explained that while eral minutes, not writing anything, and then sudden- crows were noisy like mynah birds, they were larger ly her pencil seems to fly across the page as she and were not found in Hawaii. writes:

36 Standards for the English Language Arts I can read!” On this particular day, the teacher notes Mike’s behavior and writes “Book Selection Conference” by his name on her planning schedule. At the beginning of the conference, the teacher tells Mike that she has some ideas about books he might like to read and suggests that they visit the classroom library area. Knowing Mike’s interest in sports, the teacher pulls out a copy of Skinnybones by Barbara Park. “Mike, you’re on a baseball team, and you have a good sense of humor. Somehow this book reminds me of you.” They spend a few minutes together, the teacher reading aloud and Mike listening. When she reads the part about Skinnybones wanting to fit into a size large baseball shirt, he laughs. Next, the teacher flips to her son’s favorite section, where Skinnybones gets a buzz haircut, and invites Mike to read that section to her. He reluctant- Jia-Ling, who sits next to Katelyn, asks her what ly takes the book and begins to read. Within a she is writing, so Katelyn reads her the letter. Jia-Ling minute he is laughing again. The teacher asks if he says it sounds like a poem, and they both laugh. Then would like to give Skinnybones a try. He takes the Sarah and Kyle join them. Sarah says her mom fixes book and walks toward his desk. The teacher says her milkshakes, too, when she is sick. They all agree she will check back with him shortly as she calls an- that milkshakes are their favorite kind of medicine. other student to join her for a conference. When Mr. J. stops by Katelyn’s table, he asks the stu- Mike does read Skinnybones, and then he reads dents what they are discussing, and Katelyn explains Almost Starring Skinnybones. In his literature log, he that they are talking about the letter she is writing to writes that he preferred the first book because “. . . it her mom and that Jia-Ling thinks it sounds like a was just funnier, but I really like the way the author poem. Mr. J. reads the letter and says he agrees with makes characters like real kids.” Jia-Ling. He asks Katelyn if she has considered turning the letter into a poem. Katelyn says she thought Postscript: This incident occurred when Mike was in about it, but she likes her letter the way it is. She then fourth grade. When he was in seventh grade, he asks Mr. J. if he will help her fix her spelling. stopped by to visit his fourth-grade teacher. As he entered the room, the first thing he said was: “Hey, Miss ■ What instructional strategies might help J., remember that day we read Skinnybones?” Katelyn to understand that revising writing is more than adding a few details to a piece or ■ In what ways has the teacher demonstrated correcting the spelling? her knowledge of both child development and the content of English language arts ■ What does Katelyn know about the function of exclamation points and hyphens? How can instruction? Mr. J. use what she knows to extend her ■ What are some ways in which teachers and understanding? parents can help reluctant readers to develop an interest in reading for pleasure? Elementary Vignette 6 ■ How do teachers decide when to let students Students in a fourth-grade classroom read independ- choose their own reading material and when ently each day while their teacher confers with indi- to choose for them? vidual students. For the past three weeks, Mike has begun the independent reading period with the same Elementary Vignette 7 complaint: “I can’t read. I hate to read. There’s no Mrs. D., a teacher in the upper elementary grades, is good books out there. Well, there are no good books conducting a minilesson on reading strategies. She

Standards in the Classroom 37 tells the students that she often stops her reading at Jennifer offers her perspective next. “I tried this particular points in a story to picture scenes or char- strategy, but it didn’t work as good for me. I like pre- acters in her head. She explains that this helps her tending to be the character better. Pretending I’m the understand the characters and gives her a better character really helps me understand what I read. I sense of the place and time of the story. At the end of did see some of the story in my head, but it was like the lesson, Mrs. D. invites her students to try this I was looking through Cleo’s [the protagonist of The strategy as they read a book of their own choosing. Island Keeper, by Harry Mazer] eyes instead of seeing After spending a few minutes circulating and check- a movie. I think that’s different from what Marco did, ing with students during this silent reading period, but that’s what worked for me.” the teacher also reads. The class is completely quiet, The teacher invites further comments. except for the sound of pages turning, as the students and teacher read independently. “I read both those books,” Brandy says, “and I Eight minutes before the end of the class period, think I used Jen’s strategy for both. Actually, I think the students gather for a sharing time. The teacher I usually use both of those strategies, but sometimes begins, as she always does, by asking, “How did it go one is stronger and sometimes the other is stronger.” today?” The teacher explains that Brandy probably did Marco speaks first. “I tried to see the story in my use both strategies. One strategy does not work in head, kind of like it was a movie, and I found my- every situation, she points out to the class; readers self getting more interested in what I was reading. need to make flexible use of a range of strategies. Yesterday I had trouble understanding this story ■ How does discussion about reading strategies [Hatchet, by Gary Paulsen], but today when I tried help students gain greater competence and to see it in my head, it made more sense. I saw Brian hitting the hatchet against the rock and I saw the independence as readers? sparks, too. Seeing it like a movie in my head really ■ What should a teacher do for students who helped me understand what I was reading.” over-rely on one strategy?

MIDDLE SCHOOL VIGNETTES

Middle School Vignette 1 My Daniel by Pam Conrad, a novel about a young A class of eighth-grade students in Tennessee is intro- girl whose brother dies. Her reading partners also se- duced to young adult literature when their teacher lect books by Conrad, with Jessie choosing Taking brings a cart loaded with more than 100 young adult the Ferry Home and Kelsie selecting Holding Me titles into their classroom. They watch and listen as the Here. As the three students read, they hold personal teacher reads selected passages, describes several of conferences and use journals to share episodes with the books’ plots, and recruits students to help drama- one another; sometimes they exchange books to tize a few important scenes. After this formal introduc- share excerpts that are especially relevant to their tion, the students select several books that capture own lives. Other students occasionally join the their attention. They browse through them independ- group’s conversation and discuss questions that help ently for a while as their teacher posts on the bulletin them to understand and cope with the death of board summaries and reviews written by previous stu- Joanna’s sister. dents. Each student decides on a book to read, and Janice, intrigued by what she hears about S. E. students form small groups with peers interested in Hinton, chooses Taming the Star Runner, The the same books or books by the same author. Outsiders, and Tex. She tells her reading partners that Jessie, Joanna, and Kelsie, who often work to- she picked these titles because Hinton’s books deal gether, become reading partners. Joanna, who has with young boys who are fatherless, and that she recently lost an older sister in a car accident, selects identifies strongly with those characters. In later con-

38 Standards for the English Language Arts versations, Janice explains that she is without parents because her father is in jail awaiting trial for killing her mother. Many students are startled and confused by this news, but others go on to talk about characters in books they are reading who had also lost family members. As the students become more familiar with particular authors, they present the books they have been reading to their classmates through dramatic booktalks (modeled on their teacher’s presentation the first day), visual presentations, and oral readings. The students also write response essays/reviews for Figure 2. Learning Web on Grizzly Bears one another, explaining why they liked a book or series of books by an author and encouraging their classmates to read them as well. These responses will into a visual diagram that helps show the relation- be saved so that next year’s students can read how ships among key concepts. (See Figure 2.) their peers responded to works that helped them un- The students gather in small groups to read a se- derstand their own lives more clearly. ries of articles about large animals. Working together, they decide which points are important enough to ■ How important to the curriculum is knowing underline or annotate. Each group then organizes the the students’ lives outside of the classroom? information it has found, using the type of visual What activities can be used to get to know model demonstrated by the teacher the day before. students better? Each group displays its diagram to the class as an ■ How do these types of interactions and per- overhead transparency, explaining the process they sonal responses help students to become used to produce the diagram. more competent and critical readers and The next day, the students write summaries of thinkers? the articles they have read and work together to prepare for an oral presentation to their class, using their Middle School Vignette 2 notes and diagrams to help them plan. A group of sixth-grade students is reading and study- ■ How are boundaries between subjects blurred ing science texts, such as primary sources, magazine in an activity like this one? How is this advan- articles, textbooks, and essays on scientific and envi- tageous for students and for teachers? ronmental topics. As part of a thematic exploration ■ What function(s) does writing serve in this of large mammals, the students read a number of example? magazine articles on endangered animals and work in small groups to practice using study strategies such as Middle School Vignette 3 underlining, annotating, and summarizing informa- Middle school students who are originally from a tion through visual diagrams. Their teacher models dozen different countries are studying folktales using study strategies in explicit class demonstrations. resources in English and, when available, in their pri- One day, before reading an article on grizzly mary languages. Many sources come from their class- bears, the students talk about specific ways of learn- room, school, and public libraries, but some, ing and remembering important ideas and informa- especially those written in the students’ primary lan- tion encountered during reading. The teacher models guages, come from their own homes. The students strategies she uses as she reads, such as underlining keep reflective reading journals and share responses and note taking, “thinking aloud” for the class as she to folktales they have read in small groups. As a sifts through information to highlight and organize class, the students read selected folktales together important points. She shows students a way in which and watch videotaped dramatizations of several sto- to transform key ideas and details that support them ries made by previous classes. Watching these tapes

Standards in the Classroom 39 excites the students as they see stories from many exist peacefully. The students begin by predicting different cultures being brought to life by their peers. the possible content of the story, based on the title, Their teacher models different storytelling tech- and they record these predictions (and the reasons niques, including puppetry, readers’ theater, and for them) in their journals. The students listen to role-playing. their teacher read the story aloud; then they read After a week of reading a number of different through selected passages themselves in small stories, the students each select one special story to groups, stopping often to discuss their ideas or write present to the class. Each student chooses the mode in their journals. of storytelling that is best suited to his or her story, After everyone has read the story, the teacher di- including staging a story as a mini-drama, drawing a rects the students to write brief impressions of the picture, or creating puppets to represent key charac- story’s protagonist, Squeaky, in their journals. The ters. Students then practice in small groups, and final- classmates exchange entries and discuss what they ly they present their folktales to the class. The have written, sharing their first impressions of the teacher videotapes each presentation so that students character. The class works as a whole to generate can watch and critique their own presentations later. and discuss responses to questions their teacher has The videotape will also provide a model for students written, referring often to the text of the story to sup- in next year’s class. port various responses. As a further exploration of narrative, students ask Following this discussion, the teacher asks stu- their parents or caregivers to tell them stories from dents to draw Squeaky as they visualize her, based their own cultures. Working together, students and on key passages they have chosen from the story. their parents write out these stories. In many cases, Then they make notes around their drawings, com- students write the stories both in their first language pleting sentence starters provided by their teacher: and in English. Figure 3 shows an example of a text “Squeaky likes . . . , Squeaky dislikes . . . , Squeaky written in Korean and in English. [NOTE: Figure sees the world . . . , Squeaky learns . . . .” They write omitted from this online version due to copyright the completed sentences around their drawings like considerations.] Some students also add illustrations captions and display their work for the class. After to help classmates who speak different languages to viewing one another’s work and talking about what understand and visualize their stories. The students they have written, students write a more formal pa- work in groups to assemble all of these stories and per analyzing their responses to Squeaky’s develop- create a book using the class computer. This book is ment as a character. duplicated so that each student has a copy. A copy is also donated to the school library so that other stu- ■ What could be done in this example to ex- dents may enjoy the stories and see different styles of pand students’ literary experiences, based on writing from around the world. their interest in the story? How might the theme of competition/winning be extended ■ In what way does this activity affirm both the to other works or other kinds of projects? students’ primary languages and cultures and their work toward proficiency in English? ■ In this vignette the teacher selected the story and guided the students toward specific ■ How might the students use videotaping to critique their own work? How can this tech- questions through cues and prompts. How nique be used to incorporate assessment into might this be balanced with student-selected the learning process? readings and student-guided activities? ■ How does the focused approach to Middle School Vignette 4 instruction—in which the teacher directs stu- A class of eighth-grade students learns about charac- dents’ attention to a specific topic, such as terization in fiction through reading Toni Cade character development—fit with instruction- Bambara’s “Raymond’s Run,” a short story in which al approaches that focus on students’ own re- a young female protagonist comes to understand sponses to and questions about what they are that competition and compassion cannot always co- reading?

40 Standards for the English Language Arts Middle School Vignette 5 send fliers home listing bus rules for students. The On a gloomy January day, a group of students noisi- students work together for a week to revise and pol- ly enters the classroom for their writing workshop. ish their letters, referring often to a poster on the Their teacher, who notices that this is not the first classroom door which shows proper letter format. time the students have been disruptive and loud late- They work energetically and are motivated to write ly, comments, “I’ve noticed a breakdown in manners clearly and effectively by their personal involvement lately. What are manners, anyway? I know what with the subject. adults mean by the term, but what does it mean to Within a couple of weeks, all of the students’ let- you?” Her questions stir up a conversation she could ters have received replies, and the principal has not have expected. agreed to meet with the students to discuss the is- After a few awkward moments, one boy offers a sue further. The students feel that their concerns definition: “Treating people kindly.” The ice is bro- have been heard, and they hope to be able to work ken, and students’ responses begin to flow. Within a with the principal and superintendent to create a vi- few minutes, the focus of the students’ conversation able solution to their problem. turns to unruly behavior on the school bus and how ■ What is a teacher’s role in creating a class- a lack of manners there is affecting everyone. “It’s room environment where students feel com- sometimes so bad,” says one new girl in the class, fortable discussing issues like behavior on “that I worry about my little sister who’s in kinder- the school bus? garten. What must she think of the kids fighting and cussing?” Other students confess their compliance, ■ How can students develop knowledge of the even participation, in the bad behavior. One quiet power of writing to serve their needs, both boy, generally a good writer and student, suggests, during the writing process and afterward? “It’s kind of a way to keep kids off your back, if you pick on others, too. A couple times I tried to help Middle School Vignette 6 little kids, though.” Students from eighteen different countries work to- The teacher and her aide sit on the sidelines of gether in one middle school classroom. Their teacher this conversation. The talk is serious and thoughtful, asks them to develop oral histories centered on ex- and the students are listening to one another and periences many of them share, such as immigrating sharing their feelings intently. They articulate very to a new country. The class begins this project by clearly their ambivalent feelings—fear of being the talking about the types of questions they might want brunt of verbal abuse on the bus and shameful em- to ask family members or others they plan to inter- barrassment at their own complicity. As the talk be- view. They agree that it is important to have a shared gins to wind down, the teacher asks, “How can you set of interview questions so that their oral histories change this situation?” fit well together in the collection they want to assem- The students agree that writing letters—to the su- ble later. A guest speaker comes to class the next perintendent and school board, to the principals of day, and students practice interviewing him. They the schools on the bus route, and to parents’ ask questions, tape-record their conversation, and groups—would be an effective way to make their learn about conducting interviews, using tape concerns known. The next day, their teacher offers recorders, and taking notes while talking. a mini-lesson on appropriate format and language The students begin their own independent inter- conventions for business letters, and suggests that views, adapting the list of questions developed in the best way to get results with a letter of complaint class to their particular situations, subjects, and inter- is to offer a possible solution to the problem. The viewees. Once they have completed their interviews, students draft and revise letters outlining several al- they shape their notes into narratives that will form ternative solutions: hire extra adults to ride the part of the class oral history portfolio. They share buses; ask for parents to volunteer on a rotating ba- their stories with their classmates, who offer sugges- sis; enlist high school seniors who are required to tions on how to revise and add detail and focus. complete a number of hours of social work before One student, Monica, interviews her uncle in graduation; ask the parent-teacher organization to Spanish, then translates the transcript into English

Standards in the Classroom 41 and forms it into a narrative account. Reading over When I was young, the people were talking about her interview transcript and notes, she thinks careful- America. Then I was dreaming of coming to the US, but I never imagined that I would be able to be here. ly about how to translate her uncle’s spoken words As the years are passing, the guerrillas and the army into writing in order to convey his meaning clearly to are fighting each other and killing innocent people. her classmates. After drafting her first-person narra- They go into houses taking the people away from their houses at night. So in the morning, they are killed al- tive based on the interview, she asks her classmates ready. Nobody knows who it is—the guerrillas or the to read it. They ask her questions about parts that are army. How I wish that this war would end! I think there unclear to them and point out mechanical problems should be no war in the world. I feel so sad about it and with punctuation and spelling. Monica works again I wouldn’t want this to happen anywhere in the world. Before coming to the US, I was working in the to revise her story with the help of her peers’ feed- Ministry of Agriculture of Granaries. I was giving advice back. Here is a later draft of her narrative: to the people so they can work in the land and become the owners of the land. I worked there for around 2 Problems in El Salvador years. Then I decided to come to the US because I Before I left my country I was working for a long time could have better opportunities of job and study. and I couldn’t finish my studies. It was very hard to I like El Salvador as my country but I do like the US be- live, especially when one is poor in El Salvador. cause it is very pretty. Both of the countries are pretty. I When I was a child, the war didn’t exist yet until like them a lot and wish to go just to visit my country. 1978–79. When the first groups formed in 1970, it was- ■ What is the teacher’s role in helping students n’t so terrible, like what is happening today. You cannot go outside at night. Well, it depends on where you recognize their primary languages as re- live. If you live in a place where the streets are dark, sources in their learning process? then you might get assassinated or kidnapped. So later ■ How can teachers help students with a proj- in 1978, this group began to fight against the government and so on. You’ll see that they didn’t stop yet. ect like this when they do not speak a stu- They have approximately 12 years of fighting. dent’s first language?

HIGH SCHOOL VIGNETTES

High School Vignette 1 in reconstructing everyday life in the past, and they To pull together what they have been learning about delve further into research and reading on the Jazz audience and voice in writing, as well as to develop Age, World War II, and the Kennedy years. their research skills, one eleventh-grade American lit- The students split into working groups of five or erature class has been given an assignment to fill the six, and each group chooses a decade of Aunt trunk belonging to an imaginary great-aunt, Rachel, Rachel’s life to focus on. These groups not only use recently deceased, with letters. The assignment is library materials (newspapers from the period, histor- prompted by an obituary which the students read ical narratives, biographies); they also interview fam- and discuss, seeking ideas about Aunt Rachel as well ily members and others in the community, including as information about historical contexts. Students residents of a nearby nursing home, asking what brainstorm the kinds of letters their imaginary aunt they remember from their lives during those times. might have received over the course of her lifetime, As they compile their historical materials, the stu- from childhood and school friends, parents, dents create a profile of Aunt Rachel—what she was boyfriends, employers, and so on. They find and like as a young girl, as a teacher, how she respond- study examples of published collections of letters ed to social changes in the sixties, and so on. Each from the period for models and clues. The students group prepares a presentation for the whole class, assemble a list of events, inventions, personalities, and these include a family dinner with dramatized manners and social customs, fashions, and fads that flashbacks, a reconstructed television newscast, and might have influenced Aunt Rachel and her corre- a reenactment of a trip to a 1950s drive-in, complete spondents. They soon realize how much is involved with a cardboard Chevy and movie screen.

42 Standards for the English Language Arts Adopting a specific persona, the students each powerful emotional responses to the books and the write letters to Aunt Rachel. These vary from a letter issues raised by them. from a South Pacific foxhole bearing a bullethole and These students are fortunate to have at their dis- the blood of a GI sweetheart wounded in the battle posal a variety of media and technological resources, of Tarawa, to a letter from a third-grade nephew on including CD-ROM materials on Nigerian and South wide-lined tablet paper, to a note sprinkled with African geography, history, and culture, several com- peace signs from Aunt Rachel’s former student puter workstations, a video camera, and multimedia turned antiwar activist in the sixties. presentation software that will allow them to prepare their presentation for the class. Together they decide ■ How would this assignment fit with the tra- what each of their roles will be in producing their ditional notion of research? presentation. One team within the group decides to ■ How effective is this project in developing in- focus on dance, and they videotape one of their terdisciplinary connections among literature, classmates, a dancer, performing an interpretive bal- writing, history, and social studies? let based on Nigerian music. Another team creates ■ What other types of research/inquiry projects maps of Nigeria and South Africa, using hypertext might be effective for high school students? “hot-buttons” to incorporate historical text into their visual maps. As a group, the students listen to record- High School Vignette 2 ings of some of the many different types of African Students in one high school literature class have re- music, selecting and editing pieces that will enhance cently finished reading Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall their visual and textual materials. Two of the students Apart and Alan Paton’s Cry, the Beloved Country. For work together to write the script that will tie the pres- most of the students, these two books have been entation together, and they record a soundtrack that their first experience with African literature (Achebe’s will serve as a voice-over for the entire presentation. novel is set in colonial Nigeria, Paton’s in South After two weeks of work, the presentation is as- Africa), and they have become deeply interested in sembled and shown to the whole class. The group the history of Africa, its colonization by European na- that has made the presentation leads discussion after- tions, and the politics of racial apartheid in South ward, responding to many of their classmates’ ques- Africa. Their engagement with the powerful drama of tions about African countries and their literature. At the two novels has led them to do further back- the end of class, they distribute an annotated bibliog- ground reading on the history of Africa and its rela- raphy of literary and historical works on modern tionship to European colonialism. One group of Africa. students, in particular, has begun to notice the ways ■ How might teachers modify this project for a in which literary texts can offer a different view of classroom that did not have such rich techno- events from what is commonly presented in histori- logical resources? How are the students em- cal reference works. powered to do different things by the Many of the students have also become interest- technology? ed in reflecting on the parallels and differences between racial relations in Africa and their own ■ What can a teacher do to create a literature experiences in the United States. Drawing on the classroom in which students’ experiences personal impact of racist policies on characters in the and concerns, particularly those relating to is- two novels, students have opened up many conver- sues like racism, can be openly and honestly sations about the experience of racial identity and addressed? difference as it has shaped their own lives. To ad- ■ What works of American literature might be dress the many questions they have raised, several effective in conjunction with the African nov- students in the class have decided to put together a els used in this class? multimedia presentation for their classmates. They want to show how the novels have affected them, High School Vignette 3 give their peers some background on Nigerian and Sharon, a student in a high school writing workshop, South African history and culture, and dramatize their is looking over the draft of a character sketch of her

Standards in the Classroom 43 grandfather. Her essay was discussed in peer revision ■ What other ways can peer groups be useful group the day before, and she is going through the in a writing class? How can peer groups work paper, looking for places to insert more sensory de- effectively during different phases in the writ- tail and descriptive language. ing process? Her teacher joins Sharon in analyzing the paper. “I can see by your writing-group evaluation sheet High School Vignette 4 that the group gave you lots of useful revision sug- [Vignette omitted from this online version due to gestions,” the teacher observes. “I really liked the copyright considerations.] way you described your grandpa’s house. I can see all those magazines and newspapers stacked up High School Vignette 5 around his rocking chair. But I wonder if you could Students in a high school literature class are watching tell me a little more about how he looked, what you a scene from Tony Richardson’s film version of see when you think of him.” Hamlet. This is the third clip of the “Get thee to a “Well, I said right here that he was bent over,” nunnery” scene they have watched since they fin- Sharon says, pointing to the middle of her first page. ished reading the play; the other two were directed “Yes, but I still can’t quite see him—all I see is a by Rodney Bennett and Laurence Olivier. Their bent-over outline. Was he all wrinkled and old? Big teacher is using film versions of the play to help the or small-boned?” students experience Hamlet on a more personal lev- “Well, you see, he’s only sixty but he’s all bent el. He challenges them to use what they see in the over because he didn’t drink his milk when he was clips to answer the question, “What does Hamlet a boy. They didn’t have milk for him to drink. And know of the plotting of Claudius and Polonius, and he worked pulling tobacco since he was four— when does he know it?” ruined his back.” In Richardson’s scene, Hamlet encounters “Pulling tobacco? What’s that?” Ophelia lounging in a hammock, and they exchange “That means picking tobacco, which is done by playful endearments. The camera work is tight, con- pulling off the yellowed leaves from the bottom of sisting of two-shots and close-ups. Hamlet coyly the stalk.” moves beneath Ophelia’s hammock to woo her from “Yes, I can visualize that. But how will your read- the other side, and the camera captures the chemistry er know what you just told me?” between the two. At first, Hamlet’s words “Get thee Sharon and her teacher discuss strategies for gen- to a nunnery” seem almost protective, as if a clois- erating and incorporating descriptive material in a tered sanctuary might save Ophelia from what paper. Sharon decides to use the “web” technique. Hamlet believes will be an uncertain and disturbing She writes the word grandpa in the center of a sheet future. But the camera pulls back to reveal Polonius of paper and begins adding words and images that spying on the pair from behind a partition. Hamlet, come to mind, circling each one and connecting it noticing a sudden movement, suspects that he has to grandpa in the center: bent, tobacco, etc. She then been set up by Ophelia and responds with bitter fills in more details under each word, using the fury, shouting, “Where’s your father?” Ophelia’s re- words as prompts for further images and language, sponse is ambiguous. Hamlet’s anger shocks her, and and so on, until she’s filled two pages with sensory when he departs with the line “To a nunnery, go,” detail. Sharon then returns to her paper to search for Ophelia poignantly responds, “O, what a noble mind places to insert the new material she has generated. is here o’erthrown!” The students are unsure, based on Ophelia’s ex- ■ What other techniques can be useful to en- pression in this scene, whether she was aware of her gage students more deeply with revision? father’s presence. One student expresses her belief How can teachers help students discover the that Ophelia would not have reacted with tears had creativity of the revising and editing stages? she been aware all along that she and Hamlet were ■ What considerations should be taken into ac- being watched. But another points out that in the count when deciding what and how much text of the play, Ophelia is present when the king direction to give a particular writing student? instructs Polonius to eavesdrop on the pair. “What

44 Standards for the English Language Arts gives the director the right to change the play like These vignettes illustrate a variety of classroom prac- that?” she asks. This comment prompts a return to tices and projects, in which students’ perspectives, the text for evidence, encouraging close reading and interests, and needs shape classroom discussion, lively discussion. writing projects, and curriculum choices. These il- Another issue raised by the film is the possibility lustrations clearly show the interconnections among of multiple “correct” interpretations of a work. Is the six English language arts. While many of the ex- Olivier’s shortened version any less Hamlet than amples focus primarily on reading, writing, or speak- Richardson’s? ing, for example, these are not isolated from other These questions concerning interpretation be- components of visual and spoken language use. come central to the students when they are given The vignettes also offer positive examples of in- the opportunity to play director themselves. One terdisciplinary learning. In many of the classrooms group of students is assigned the third scene—the portrayed above, the English language arts serve as “closet” scene—which the class will examine the a gateway into other subjects such as history, social next day. They are to describe the scene from the studies, art history, geography, even zoology. We en- perspective of a director, choosing particular actors, courage readers to work with colleagues in other dis- advising them on emphasis and tone, and blocking ciplines to develop connections among traditionally the physical interactions between Hamlet and his distinct content areas and to help students’ literacy mother. This project helps the students to visualize grow in relation to their work in an array of subjects. the scene and to interpret the images and lines for In choosing the classroom examples for this themselves and their classmates. chapter, we have sought to provide views of different As a further extension of the project, the students types of classrooms and different types of students. develop storyboards for particular scenes from the We recognize that some schools are richly endowed play. This requires them to think through the scene with reference materials and technological resources, differently, from a camera’s point of view, dividing while others have limited resources. So, too, we re- the action into frames and deciding who and what alize that many schools are demographically and will be the focus. They must think about camera an- linguistically diverse, while others are more homoge- gle, lighting, framing, set design, and all the elements neous in their makeup. We therefore offer these vi- of both film and drama. The students complete their gnettes as starting points for discussion, and we discussion of Hamlet by presenting their completed encourage teachers, parents, administrators, and oth- storyboards to their classmates and discussing choic- er readers to consider them in light of the particular es they have made in designing their own scenes. needs of their students and communities. Another theme that carries through all of these ■ In what other ways might film be used to classroom portraits is the teacher’s role in closely ob- help students explore and interpret difficult serving students. Judgments about how and how literary texts? well students are learning, and about the extent to ■ What would be lost or gained by substitut- which they are achieving the standards, need to be ing a traditional essay for the storyboard proj- made by those who see them working with language ect as a mode of student response to Hamlet? every day. In response to questions about how ■ What other activities and projects might progress toward the standards is to be evaluated, we teachers use to teach Shakespeare to high strongly reaffirm the role of the teacher. By watch- school students? ing students closely, reflecting on their development, and guiding them when they need help, teachers ■■■ both assess and advance their students’ progress.

Standards in the Classroom 45 IN CONCLUSION

his document describes what we—the As we discussed at the outset, we also believe that T International Reading Association and the standards are needed to prepare students for the lit- National Council of Teachers of English— eracy requirements of the future as well as the present. believe students should know about and be able to If we are to prepare all students to become proficient do with language by the time they reach the end of users of language, and if we are to bridge the great their secondary schooling. The twelve content stan- disparities that exist in educational opportunities, then dards we have proposed grow out of a national con- standards are a necessary part of that effort. versation about the goals and purposes of English This final point is particularly important. We do language arts education. Our aim is to ensure that not imagine that setting standards is, by itself, suffi- all students develop the literacy skills they need to cient to address the problems that beset our nation’s succeed in school and in various areas of life. schools. Perhaps one of the greatest challenges to the Many observers worry about the act of defining attainment of these standards is the plague of un- standards for the English language arts and other sub- equal opportunities and expectations. Some students ject areas, fearing that the result will be to restrict the in our country have abundant resources for learn- creativity and flexibility that characterize good teaching: they attend schools that are well equipped with ing and learning. This concern goes to the heart of books as well as technological and human resources; the tradition of public schooling in the United States. they have every opportunity to achieve high levels of Throughout our nation’s history there have been competency in all areas of the curriculum. Others, periodic attempts to define a national agenda for the however, are far less fortunate. Neither the most schools, yet decisions about what should be taught and forceful and eloquent standards in the world, nor how it should be taught have always been made by the most dedicated teachers, can overcome these local teachers and administrators in response to local needs and concerns. This is the way it should be, we barriers. believe, and these standards should not be seen as a These standards represent not an end but a veiled (or unveiled) attempt to undermine that tradition. beginning—a starting point for discussion and ac- Rather, we urge a more positive view of standard- tion within states, districts, and individual schools setting. We feel strongly that guidelines for English across the country. Quality education can only hap- language arts education are necessary because they pen, we believe, when it is fostered by local conver- provide a clear map of the goals of schooling. This sations. Teachers and school administrators must clarity of purpose is particularly important in our cur- translate these standards for themselves, considering rent political and economic climate, in which public and responding to the particular needs of their stu- expectations of the schools, as well as criticisms of dents and communities. To make certain that our na- their work, are increasing. Standards offer a way to tional conversation continues, we are asking you to guide and support the best practices in English lan- complete and return the survey form in Appendix F. guage arts education. In addition to this document, If this book encourages fertile debate about the IRA and NCTE have prepared several documents means and ends of English language arts education, showing classroom practices using these standards. then its central aims will have been achieved.

46 Standards for the English Language Arts GLOSSARY

The following terms are used in the preceding chap- a dramatic performance or speech) or separated by ters or are closely related to concepts presented there. time and distance (in the case of written texts). aesthetic Pertaining to judgments of beauty or authentic Something that is meaningful because it formal appropriateness, originality, or interest. reflects or engages the real world. An authentic task Traditionally, the “aesthetic dimensions” of literary asks students to do something they might really response have been associated with the reflective have to do in the course of their lives, or to apply contemplation of the literary text as an artistic work in certain knowledge or skills to situations they might itself, apart from social and historical contexts. really encounter. However, the standards presented here are founded canon The body of literary or other artistic works on the assumption that an aesthetic experience results that a given culture defines as important at a given from a reading event that mutually involves and is time; that is, works perceived by that culture to express influenced by the reader and the text in a particular significant values and to exemplify artistic excellence. context. The reader brings to the text internalized lan- CD-ROM Compact disc with read-only memory. A guage and life experiences, which in the encounter computer add-on used in place of a floppy disk and with the text create a new experience. Thus interpre- disk drive because it has a much larger storage capac- tation of a literary work depends not only on the text ity for text, graphics, sound, and computer programs. itself, but also on the reader’s ideas and feelings evoked during engagement with the text. classic texts Literary or other works (e.g., films, speeches) that have been canonized, either contin- analysis The process or result of identifying the parts uously or intermittently, over a period of time be- of a whole and their relationships to one another. yond that of their initial publication and reception. appreciation Thoughtful awareness of value; per- cognitive process Process by which readers, writ- sonal understanding and respect for; judgments ers, and viewers actively construct meaning as they made with heightened perception and understand- engage with texts by organizing, selecting, and con- ing. Literary appreciation goes beyond simple com- necting information; making inferences; and per- prehension to involve personal or moral judgment, forming acts of interpretation. artistic awareness, and emotional investment in a work or performance. communication The meaningful exchange of ideas or information between a speaker and a lis- assessment standards 1. Statements setting forth tener (or a reader and a writer, etc.). Communication guidelines for evaluating student work, as in the may be primarily functional (“Pass me the salt”), pri- Standards for the Assessment of Reading and Writing marily expressive (“To be, or not to be”), or some (see Appendix E). 2. Measures of student performance. combination of the two. Throughout these standards, audience The collection of intended readers, listen- communication is understood as an interactive ers, or viewers for a particular work or performance. process, in which both speaker and listener partici- An audience may be physically present (in the case of pate in the construction of meaning.

Glossary 47 comprehension The construction of the meaning critical thinking The thought processes character- of a written, spoken, or visual communication istic of creativity, criticism, and logic in literature, the through a reciprocal interchange of ideas between the arts, science, and other disciplines; divergent thinking. receiver and the composer; comprehension occurs cues Various sources of information used by read- within and is influenced by the immediate context. ers to construct meaning. The language cueing sys- constructing meaning The process by which tems include the graphophonic (also referred to as readers (meant here in the term’s broadest sense) graphophonemic) system—the relationships between create meaning for the texts they read, view, or listen oral and written language (phonics); the syntactic to. These meanings are built from the connections system—the relationship among linguistic units such the reader makes between the new material and his as prefixes, suffixes, words, phrases, and clauses or her prior knowledge, the ways the reader struc- (grammar); and the semantic system—the meaning tures meaning, and decisions the reader makes about system of language. Reading strategies and language what is important or relevant. cueing systems are also influenced by pragmatics—the contemporary texts Literary or other works that knowledge readers have about the ways in which lan- have been written in recent years; they frequently ad- guage is understood by others in their culture. dress issues and events of current concern to a giv- curriculum 1. The actual opportunities for learn- en community but may also be broader in scope or ing provided at a particular place and time. 2. The to- retrospective in content. tal program of formal studies offered by a school. 3. content One of three dimensions in our concep- All the educational experiences planned for and pro- tual model for the English language arts standards, vided by a school. 4. A particular part of the program content refers to what students should learn in the of studies of a school, as the English curriculum, the English language arts. The content dimension ad- reading curriculum. dresses what students should know and be able to decode 1. To analyze spoken or graphic symbols do with respect to the English language arts. This in- of a familiar language to ascertain their intended cludes knowledge of spoken, visual, and written meaning. 2. To change communication signals into texts and of the processes involved in creating, cri- messages, as to decode body language. tiquing, and interpreting such texts. development One dimension of our conceptual content standards Statements of what students model, development refers to how students grow as should know and be able to do in a given discipline, language users. The development dimension focus- here the English language arts. es on the ways in which learners develop compe- context 1. The sounds, words, or phrases adja- tencies in the language arts. cent to a spoken or written language unit; linguistic dialect A social or regional variety of a particular environment. 2. The social or cultural situation in language with phonological, grammatical, and lexical which a spoken or written message occurs. patterns that distinguish it from other varieties. convention 1. An accepted practice in a spoken diversity The multitude of differing viewpoints or written language. 2. An accepted way of creating and perspectives—based at least in part on gender, an effect, as the soliloquy in drama, the flashback in race, culture, ethnicity, or religion—in the United fiction. States and the world. critical reading Reading a text in such a way as to question assumptions, explore perspectives, and emergent literacy Development of the association critique underlying social and political values or of print with meaning that begins early in a child’s stances. Critical reading is resistant, active, and fo- life and continues until the child reaches the stage cused on both the text and the world. Critical readers of conventional reading and writing. bring a range of experiences to texts, and, in turn, ethnicity Affiliation with any of the large groups of use texts to develop critical perspectives on person- people commonly classified by language, race, na- al and social experience. tional or geographic origin, culture, or religion.

48 Standards for the English Language Arts evaluation 1. The use of critical reading and visual ones, or to any physical or ideational represen- critical thinking to judge and assign meaning or tation of such experiences. 1. A mental representa- importance to a particular experience or event. 2. tion of something, usually incomplete; impression. 2. The process used by teachers and students to ap- A description in speech or writing. 3. A figure of praise and judge achievement, growth, product, and speech, especially a simile or metaphor. process or changes in these, frequently through the imagery 1. The process or result of forming men- use of formal and informal tests and techniques. tal images while reading or listening to a story, view- expressive text Written, spoken, or visual creation ing a film, etc. 2. The use of language to create that reveals or explores the author’s thoughts, feel- sensory impressions, as the imagery of the phrase ings, and observations—for example, in questions, “such sweet sorrow.” 3. Collectively, the figurative comments, journal entries, logs, or freewriting. language in a work. 4. The study of image patterns fiction Imaginative literary, oral, or visual works in literature for clues to the text’s deeper meaning. representing invented, rather than actual, persons, inquiry A mode of research driven by the learner’s places, and events. Widely recognized genres of fic- desire to look deeply into a question or an idea that tion include mystery, romance, and adventure. interests him or her. figurative language Any language, whether in a integrated language arts A curricular organiza- literary or a nonliterary text, using figures of speech tion in which students study and use the language such as metaphor or hyperbole to create multiple or components of speaking, listening, reading, and writ- intensified meanings. ing as a mutually reinforcing process that evolves fluency The clear, rapid, and easy expression of through a unified core of concepts and activities. ideas in writing or speaking; movements that flow interpretation 1. The process of inferring beyond smoothly, easily, and readily. the literal meaning of a communication. 2. The genre A category used to classify literary and oth- analysis of the meaning of a communication. Note: In er works, usually by form, technique, or content. this context, interpretation involves both grammati- Categories of fiction such as mystery, science fiction, cal and semantic analysis and the interplay between romance, or adventure are considered genres. them. 3. A performance, usually artistic, to which the performer gives distinctive meaning. grammar The means by which the different components of language can be put together in groups of language diversity Variety in both national lan- sounds and written or visual symbols so that ideas, guages and dialects or codes within national lan- feelings, and images can be communicated; what one guages. Our understanding of language diversity in knows about the structure and use of one’s own lan- this document recognizes the historical, cultural, re- guage that leads to its creative and communicative use. ligious, and personal meanings that these different languages and forms of language carry within them. graphophonic/graphophonemic One of three cueing systems readers use to construct texts; the re- linguistic patterns The characteristics of syntax, lationships between oral and written language diction, vocabulary, or degrees of elaboration that (phonics). may vary according to social and cultural context. home language The language or languages learned linguistics 1. The study of the nature and structure and used by children in their homes and communi- of language and languages. 2. The study of the na- ties both before and after their entry into school. The ture of language communication. term may refer both to national languages and to va- listening Attending to communication by any rieties of English and other languages. means; includes listening to vocal speech, watching image Note: Image is a general term with many signing, or using communication aids. shades of meaning but usually implies a physical or literacy The standards outlined in this document mental resemblance. An image may be concrete or reflect a contemporary view of literacy that is both abstract. It may be based on experience or imagina- broader and more demanding than traditional defi- tion. It may refer to sensory experiences, especially nitions. Until quite recently, literacy was generally

Glossary 49 defined, in a very limited way, as the ability to read graphs, computer-generated charts, and audiotaped or write one’s own name. A much more ambitious interviews. definition of literacy today includes the capacity to narrative Text in any form (print, oral, or visual) accomplish a wide range of reading, writing, speak- that recounts events or tells a story. ing, and other language tasks associated with everyday life. National Academy of Education Association founded at Stanford University in 1965 as a forum for literacy community A group of language users, educational research and discussion. Publisher of The whether within the classroom or outside, who share Nation’s Report Card: Improving the Assessment of a common language and a common set of concerns. Student Achievement. Students in the classroom work together as a literacy community to read, listen to, and view their class- nonprint text Any text that creates meaning mates’ and others’ works, to articulate and negotiate through sound or images or both, such as photo- meanings, and to foster one another’s development. graphs, drawings, collages, films, videos, computer graphics, speeches, oral poems and tales, and songs. literary analysis The careful, detailed reading and study of a literary work by a critic, student, or scholar. opportunity-to-learn standards Statements of literature Imaginative writings in prose or verse, the basic conditions necessary for students to be able as poems, plays, novels, and short stories. Although to achieve content or performance standards. in its modern usage literature is distinguished from These may include statements concerning learning historical writing, and increasingly from such popular environment, equity, and access to resources. forms as romance or mystery fiction, in this docu- outcome Knowledge, skills, and understandings ment we use a broad definition of literature that in- students gain as a result of education and experience. cludes often excluded forms such as essays, journals, performance-based assessment The measure- and autobiographies. ment of educational achievement by tasks that are media The various physical means through which similar or identical to those that are required in the information may be communicated or aesthetic instructional environment, as in performance assess- forms created, for example, newspapers, film, books, ment tasks, exhibitions, or projects, or in work that is computer software, painting. assembled over time into portfolio collections. metaphor A figure of speech in which the deno- performance standards Statements that attempt tative word or phrase (e.g., train) is replaced by an- to specify the quality of student performance at vari- other word or phrase which, though not literally true, ous levels of competency in the subject matter set suggests a likeness or analogy (e.g., iron horse). In out in the content standards. addition to being a significant element of literary expression, metaphor is also a constituent of many oth- phonics Generally used to refer to the system of er kinds of language. sound-letter relationships used in reading and writing. Phonics begins with the understanding that each miscues Unexpected responses cued by readers’ letter (or grapheme) of the English alphabet stands knowledge of their language and concepts of the for one or more sounds (or phonemes). world. Miscues are not random errors, but result from attempts by readers to construct meaning as they en- print awareness In emergent literacy, a learner’s gage with texts. growing awareness of print as a system of meaning, distinct from speech and visual modes of representation. moral Referring to the rules of behavior, or of right and wrong, that are accepted within a certain social print text Any text that creates meaning through group, rules that may be based on religious, ethical, writing, such as books, stories, reports, essays, po- or philosophical systems of belief. ems, play scripts, notes, and letters. Print texts may multimedia Incorporating or making use of more also be produced and circulated electronically. than one medium. For example, a multimedia re- prior knowledge Knowledge that stems from pre- search project might include a written report, photo- vious experience. Note: Prior knowledge is a key com-

50 Standards for the English Language Arts ponent of schema theories of reading comprehension The study of the theory and principles of effective in spite of the redundancy inherent in the term. communication. punctuation An orthographic system that sepa- rhetorical devices Any of the techniques used by rates linguistic units, clarifies meaning, and can be writers to communicate meaning or to persuade an used by writers and readers to give speech character- audience. Rhetorical devices range from word- or istics to written material. sentence-level techniques such as the use of purpose One dimension of our conceptual model metaphor or apostrophe (direct address to the read- for the English language arts standards, purpose er) to techniques that shape an entire piece, such as refers to why students use the language arts. In par- irony or extended analogy. ticular, we recommend a focus in English language semantics One of three cueing systems readers arts education on four purposes of language use: for use to construct texts. The semantic system focuses obtaining and communicating information, for liter- on the meaning of texts, where meaning is seen as ary response and expression, for learning and reflec- connections between words (or other linguistic units) tion, and for problem solving and application. and the reader’s prior knowledge of language and reading The complex, recursive process through linguistic forms, understanding of the world, and ex- which we make meaning from texts, using seman- perience of other texts and contexts. tics; syntax; visual, aural, and tactile cues; context; and prior knowledge. Note: In Standards for the speaking The act of communicating through such English Language Arts, reading refers to listening and means as vocalization, signing, or using communi- viewing in addition to print-oriented reading. cation aids such as voice synthesizers. Learners with visual or other impairments may read by spelling The process of representing language by means of, for example, braillers, sign language, mag- means of a writing system, or orthography. nification devices, and closed-captioned television. standard English 1. That variety of English in recode To change a message into symbols, as re- which most educational texts and government and coding oral language into writing, or recoding an media publications are written in the United States. idea into words. Note: Also referred to as the language of wider com- recursive Characterized by moving back and forth munication in this document. 2. English as it is spo- through a document in either reading it or creating ken and written by those groups with social, it, as new ideas are developed or problems encoun- economic, and political power in the United States. tered. In reading a text, recursive processes might Note: Standard English is a relative concept, varying include rereading earlier portions in light of later widely in pronunciation and idiomatic use but main- ones, looking ahead to see what topics are addressed taining a fairly uniform grammatical structure. or how a narrative ends, and skimming through text to search for particular ideas or events before con- standards Statements about what is valued in a tinuing a linear reading. In creating a written com- given field, such as English language arts, and/or de- position, recursive processes include moving back scriptions of what is considered quality work. See and forth among the planning, drafting, and revising content standards, assessment standards, and phases of writing. performance standards. reflection 1. The process or result of seriously think- strategy A practiced but flexible way of responding over one’s experiences. 2. An approach to problem ing to recognizable contexts, situations, or de- solving that emphasizes the careful consideration of mands. Because no single reading strategy, study the nature of the problem, the thorough planning of technique, or writing process is best for all stu- procedures to solve the problem, and the monitoring dents, it is inappropriate to teach a single way of ap- of the processes used in reaching a solution. proaching all language tasks. Instead, we must help rhetoric 1. The art or science of using language every student to acquire a range of strategies and to in prose or verse. 2. The effective use of language learn how to choose and apply those that best fit his in oratory to influence or persuade an audience. 3. or her needs and the literacy situation at hand.

Glossary 51 style 1. The characteristics of a work that reflect usage The way in which the native language or its author’s distinctive way of writing. 2. An author’s dialect of a speech community is actually used by its use of language, its effects, and its appropriateness to members. the author’s intent and theme. 3. The manner in viewing Attending to communication conveyed which something is said or done, in contrast to its by visually representing. Students with visual im- message, as Hemingway’s terse, blunt, conversation- pairments might “view” tactile drawings, charts, or al style. 4. The particular way in which a person uses diagrams. language in a given social environment. visually representing Conveying information or syntax 1. One of three cueing systems readers use expressing oneself using nonverbal visual means, to construct texts; the syntactic system focuses on the such as drawing, computer graphics (maps, charts, relationship among linguistic units such as prefixes, artwork), photography, or physical performance. For suffixes, words, phrases, and clauses (grammar). 2. students with visual impairments, this language art The study of how sentences are formed and of the might also include communicating by means of tac- grammatical rules that govern their formation. 3. The tile drawings or diagrams, as well as by gesture and pattern or structure of word order in sentences, performance. clauses, and phrases. vocabulary Those words known or used by a per- synthesis The process of identifying the relationships son or group, including the specialized meanings among two or more ideas or other textual elements. that words acquire when they are used for technical technological communication Communication purposes, regional usages, and slang. by means of the newer technologies of film, video- word recognition 1. The quick and easy identifi- tape, and electronic media (such as e-mail and the cation of the form, pronunciation, and appropriate World Wide Web). meaning of a word previously met in print or writing. technological resource An informational re- 2. The process of determining the pronunciation and source using newer technologies such as computer some degree of meaning of a word in written or software, computer networks, databases, CD-ROMs, printed form. and laser discs. writing 1. The use of a writing system or orthography by people in the conduct of their daily lives to text In the Standards for the English Language Arts communicate over time and space. 2. The process or we use the term text broadly to refer to printed com- result of recording language graphically by hand or munications in their varied forms; oral communica- other means, as by the use of computers or braillers. tions, including conversations, speeches, etc.; and visual communications such as film, video, and com- writing process The many aspects of the complex puter displays. act of producing a written communication; specifically, planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. text structure The temporal and spatial arrangement of elements in a written, oral, or visual text. For example, the text structure of a narrative film REFERENCES might involve moving back and forth among differ- Australian Education Council & National Council of Ministers of Education. (1994). Key assumptions underlying the English ent time periods in recounting events; or the text profile. In English—A curriculum profile for Australian structure of an argumentative essay might involve a schools. Carlton, Australia: Curriculum Corporation. linear arrangement of definitions, arguments, evi- DeFabio, R. Y. (1994). Outcomes in process: Setting standards for dence, counterarguments, and rebuttal. language use. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Delaware Department of Public Instruction. (1995). Glossary of textual features Characteristics of print texts such terms. In New directions: State of Delaware English lan- as sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, guage arts curriculum framework. Dover, DE: Author. Flood, J., Jensen, J., Lapp, D., & Squire, J. R. (Eds.). (1991). and context. Handbook of research on teaching in the English language tone The implied attitude toward the subject matter arts. IRA and NCTE. Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy diction- or audience of a text that readers may infer from ary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE: the text’s language, imagery, and structure. IRA.

52 Standards for the English Language Arts Holman, H. C., & Harmon, W. (1992). A handbook to literature Ohio Department of Education, Division of Curriculum, (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan. Instruction, and Professional Development. (1992). Model Lentricchia, F., & McLaughlin, T. (Eds.). (1990). Critical terms competency-based language arts program. Columbus, OH: for literary study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Author. Purves, A. C. (Ed.), with Papa, L., & Jordan, S. (1994). Nevada Department of Education. (1994). Glossary. In Nevada Encyclopedia of English studies and language arts: A proj- English language arts framework (Draft 2). Carson City, NV: ect of the National Council of Teachers of English. New York: Author. Scholastic. New Zealand Ministry of Education. (1994). Selected glossary. Rosenblatt, L M. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The trans- In English in the New Zealand curriculum. Wellington, New actional theory of the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Zealand: Learning Media, Ltd. Illinois University Press.

Glossary 53 Appendix A

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

The following lists have been compiled as carefully Janis Gabay, Teacher, Junipero Serra High School, as possible from available records. We apologize to San Diego, CA anyone whom we have omitted or whose name, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Professor, Harvard address, or affiliation we have misrepresented. University, Cambridge, MA Inclusion on these lists does not imply endorsement Roseann Dueñas Gonzalez, Director, Writing Skills of this document. The following abbreviations have Improvement Program, University of Arizona, been used in these lists: SPELA (Standards Project Tucson for English Language Arts), IRA (International Reading Association), and NCTE (National Council of The Honorable William Goodling, Representative Teachers of English). from Pennsylvania, United States House of Representatives, Washington, DC SPELA NATIONAL BOARD Donald Hamingson, Teacher, Columbia High (October 1992–March 1994) School, Maplewood, NJ Janet Emig, Chair; Professor Emeritus, Rutgers Shirley Brice Heath, Professor, Stanford University, University, New Brunswick, NJ; Tacoma, WA Palo Alto, CA Richard C. Anderson, Director, Center for the Study Julie M. Jensen, Professor, University of Texas at of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana- Austin Champaign Mary Kitagawa, Teacher, Marks Meadow Kathryn Au, Formerly: Educational Psychologist, Demonstration School, Amherst, MA Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu, HI; Now: Arturo Madrid, Murchison Distinguished Professor University of Hawaii, Honolulu of the Humanities, Trinity University, San George Ayers, Executive Director, Council for Antonio, TX Exceptional Children, Reston, VA Sharon O’Neal, Director, English Language Arts and Adrienne Bailey, Superintendent of Instructional Reading, Texas Education Agency, Austin Services, Chicago Public Schools, IL Katherine Paterson, Author, Barre, VT Christopher Cross, Executive Director, Educational Darzell Paz, Reading Specialist, Lake Seneca Initiative for the Business Roundtable, Elementary School, Germantown, MD Washington, DC Jerry Pinkney, Illustrator, Croton-on-Hudson, NY Lois Distad, Teacher, Bar Nunn Elementary School, Linda Rief, Teacher, Oyster River Middle School, Casper, WY Durham, NH Pascal D. Forgione, Jr., Superintendent, Department Richard Robinson, President, Scholastic Inc., New of Public Instruction, Dover, DE York, NY

54 Standards for the English Language Arts Robert Scholes, Professor, Brown University, Doris Roettger, Heartland Area Education Agency, Providence, RI Johnston, IA; Past President, International The Honorable Paul Simon, Senator from Illinois, Reading Association United States Senate, Washington, DC Roger Rogalin, New York, NY; Associate Director, Sheila Valencia, Professor, University of Washington, Association of American Publishers Seattle SPELA EARLY SCHOOL TASK FORCE Patrick Welsh, Teacher, T. C. Williams High School, (October 1992–March 1994) Alexandria, VA Erminda García, Chair; Teacher, Alianza Elementary SPELA EX OFFICIO BOARD School, Watsonville, CA (October 1992–March 1994) Dawn Harris Martine, Co-Chair; Teacher, Manhattan New School, New York Donna Alvermann, University of Georgia, Athens; Co-Director, National Reading Research Center Bernice Cullinan, Executive Secretary; Professor, New York University Arthur N. Applebee, State University of New York at Albany; Director, National Research Center on Shelley Harwayne, Director, Manhattan New School, Literature Teaching and Learning New York Miriam T. Chaplin, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ; Edward J. Kameenui, Professor, University of Past President, National Council of Teachers of Oregon, Eugene English Irene Serna, Formerly: Professor, Arizona State Beverly Ann Chin, University of Montana, Missoula; University, Tempe. Now: Scottsdale Public President, National Council of Teachers of Schools, AZ English Timothy Shanahan, Professor, University of Illinois Sarah W. Freedman, University of California at at Chicago Berkeley; Director, National Research Center on Susan Stires, Teacher, Center for Teaching and Writing and Literacy Learning, Edgecomb, ME Susan Mandel Glazer, Rider College, Lawrenceville, NJ; Past President, International Reading SPELA MIDDLE SCHOOL TASK FORCE Association (October 1992–March 1994) John Guthrie, University of Maryland, College Park; Maureen Barbieri, Chair; Teacher, Spartanburg Day Co-Director, National Reading Research Center School, Greenville, SC Marshá Taylor DeLain, Co-Chair; Associate State Janie Hydrick, McArthur Elementary School, Mesa, Superintendent, Department of Public AZ; Past President, National Council of Teachers Instruction, Dover, DE of English Dennie Palmer Wolf, Executive Secretary; Director, Barbara Kapinus, Washington, DC; Senior Program PACE, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA Director, Council of Chief State School Officers Robert E. Probst, Professor, Georgia State Dolores B. Malcolm, St. Louis Public Schools, MO; University, Atlanta President, International Reading Association Carol Santa, Coordinator, Language Arts and Social Barry McLaughlin, University of California-Santa Studies, School District #5, Kalispell, MT Cruz; Formerly: Co-Director, National Research Center on Cultural Diversity and Second Carol Tateishi, Director, Bay Area Writing Project, Language Learning Berkeley, CA Jesse Perry (retired), San Diego City Schools, CA; Edith Tony, Teacher, Chuska Boarding School, Past President, National Council of Teachers of Tohatchie, NM English Richard Vacca, Professor, Kent State University, OH

List of Participants 55 SPELA HIGH SCHOOL TASK FORCE Amber Walker, Project Staff; University of Illinois at (October 1992–March 1994) Urbana-Champaign Doris Dancy, Chair; Teacher, Hampton High School, VA IRA PRESIDENTS (During project duration) Gwendolyn Alexander, Co-Chair; Instructional Specialist, Washington, DC, Public Schools Judith Thelen, 1991–1992, Frostburg State University, MD James Marshall, Executive Secretary; Professor, University of Iowa, Iowa City Marie Clay, 1992–1993, University of Auckland, New Zealand Carmen A. Aviles, Teacher, Community High School, District 94, West Chicago, IL Doris Roettger, 1993–1994, Heartland Area Education Agency, Johnston, IA Sheridan Blau, Professor, University of California at Santa Barbara Susan Mandel Glazer, 1994–1995, Rider University, Lawrenceville, NJ John Forsyth, Teacher, Lander Valley High School, WY Dolores B. Malcolm, 1995–1996, St. Louis Public Schools, MO R. Stephen Green, Assistant to the Superintendent, Lawrence Township School District, Richard Vacca, 1996–1997, Kent State University, OH Indianapolis, IN John J. Pikulski, 1997–1998, University of Delaware, Faith Schullstrom, Administrator, Guilderland Newark Central School District, NY Douglas Vance, Teacher, LaFollette High School, IRA BOARD MEMBERS Madison, WI (During project duration) Joan F. Curry, 1990–1993, San Diego State SPELA STAFF MEMBERS University, CA (September 1992–March 1994) John J. Pikulski, 1990–1993, University of Delaware, Alan E. Farstrup, Project Co-Director; International Newark Reading Association Kathryn Ann Ransom, 1990–1993, Springfield Public Miles Myers, Project Co-Director; National Council Schools, IL of Teachers of English Daniel R. Hittleman, 1991–1994, Queens College, P. David Pearson, Project Co-Director; Formerly: CUNY, Flushing Center for the Study of Reading, University of Donna M. Ogle, 1991–1994, National-Louis Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Now: Michigan University, Evanston, IL State University, East Lansing Pehr-Olof Rönnholm, 1991–1994, Cygnaeus School, Jean Osborn, Project Coordinator; Center for the Turku, Finland Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Mabel T. Edmonds, 1992–1995, St. Louis Public Schools, MO Carolyn Hill, Project Associate; National Council of Teachers of English Linda B. Gambrell, 1992–1995, University of Maryland, College Park Fran Lehr, Editor; Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Jerry L. Johns, 1992–1995, Northern Illinois Anne Stallman, Data Analyst; University of Illinois at University, De Kalb Urbana-Champaign Sandra McCormick, 1993–1996, Ohio State Ellen Swengel, Conference Coordinator; Center for University, Columbus the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at MaryEllen Vogt, 1993–1996, California State Urbana-Champaign University, Long Beach

56 Standards for the English Language Arts Carmelita Kimber Williams, 1993–1996, Norfolk Brenda S. Townsend, Director of Professional State University, VA Development John Elkins, 1994–1997, University of Queensland, Melanie Wahl, Committee Coordinator St. Lucia, Australia Tracy Webb, Marketing Manager, 1992–1995 Yetta M. Goodman, 1994–1997, University of Arizona, Tucson IRA ADVISORY COMMITTEE Barbara J. Walker, 1994–1997, Montana State Morton Botel, University of Pennsylvania, University, Billings Philadelphia Richard L. Allington, 1995–1998, University at Jack Cassidy, Millersville State University, Albany–SUNY Millersville, PA James F. Baumann, 1995–1998, University of Jacqueline Comas, University of Maryland, Georgia, Athens Columbia Kathleen Stumpf Jongsma, 1995–1998, Northside Janice A. Dole, University of Utah, Salt Lake City Independent School District, San Antonio, TX Nancy Roser, University of Texas, Austin Timothy Shanahan, University of Illinois, Chicago IRA STAFF (During project duration) IRA SPECIAL ADVISORS Alan E. Farstrup, Executive Director Lynn B. Jenkins, Writing and Editing Consultant, Terry S. Salinger, Director of Research/Project Northford, CT Coordinator Michael W. Kibby, University of Buffalo–SUNY Gall Keating, Projects Manager, Research John Kruidenier, Education Consultant, Bryn Mawr, PA Other staff: John Mayher, New York University Janet Butler, Public Information Coordinator Jean Osborn, Center for the Study of Reading, Mary E. Cash, Senior Secretary, Executive Office University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Matthew S. Freeman, Associate Editor, Reading Today IRA FOCUS GROUP COORDINATORS Deborah A. Moses Houston, Research Specialist Elizabeth (Betty) Bowers, Rapid City, SD Larry Husfelt, Design Consultant Suzanne F. Clewell, Prince George County Schools, MD Joan M. Irwin, Director of Publications Gay Fawcett, Summit County Schools, Cuyahoga Robert G. Jones, Director of Finance (retired Falls, OH December 1995) Gail Gayeski, Wilkes University, Wilkes-Barre, PA Steven C. LaMarine, Marketing Manager Patricia Mulcahy-Ernt, College Reading & Learning Richard Long, Washington Representative Association, Bridgeport, CT Linda McAfee, Library and Divisional Assistant, Sharon O’Neal, Texas Education Agency, Austin Research Maurine V. Richardson, University of South Dakota, John Micklos, Jr., Editor, Reading Today Vermillion Boni Nash, Graphic Design Coordinator Wendy Lapham Russ, Assistant Director of IRA STATE STANDARDS COORDINATORS Publications Tara Azwell, Emporia State University, KS Iona Sauscermen, Production Manager Nancy A. Becher, Hofstra University, West Islip, NY

List of Participants 57 Karen L. Benner, Meeker School District RE-1, CO Jane A. Kearns, Manchester Public Schools, NH Cindy Bowen, Baltimore County Public Schools, MD Colleen Kryszak, Lowell Elementary, Tacoma, WA Benita Buckles, G. C. Burkhead School, Gregg Kurek, Bridgman Public Schools, St. Joseph, MI Elizabethtown, KY Karen S. Kutiper, Southwest Texas State University, George Canney, University of Idaho, Moscow San Marcos Angela Carducci, Teacher/Textbook Consultant, Las Jill Lewis, Jersey City State College, NJ Vegas, NV Norman C. Machart, Valley City, ND Barbara Carruthers, North Carolina Department of Bonnie Martinson, Morris Bye Elementary School, Public Instruction, Raleigh Coon Rapids, MN JoAnn M. Carter, University of Sciences and Arts of Betty Jo McCarty, Florida State University, Panama Oklahoma, Tuttle City Cathy Chaney, Dutch Fork Elementary School, Anita McClain, Pacific University, Forest Grove, OR Irmo, SC Coleen McClanahan, Iowa Department of Char Hallmann Cieply, Wheeling School District Education, Des Moines #21, IL Mary R. Mills (retired), Muscogee County School Don Collins, Franklin West Supervisory Union, District, Columbus, GA Fairfax, VT Kay Moore, California State University, Sacramento Genny Cramer, Southern Missouri State University, Springfield Lynn Oltmanns Olson, Morton Elementary School, Omaha, NE Suzanne G. Curry, Red Clay School District, Wilmington, DE Lillian R. Putnam (retired), Mountain Lakes, NJ Ruth Davison, Boothbay Regional Elementary Marguerite C. Radencich, Day County School Board, School, ME Miami, FL Cheryl H. DeVenney, Caledonia High School, Maurine V. Richardson, University of South Dakota, Columbus, MS Vermillion Marie DiBiasio, Rhode Island State Department of Elinor P. Ross, Tennessee Tech University, Education, Providence Cookeville Gay Fawcett, Summit County Schools, Cuyahoga Vickie Ryan, Fairview School, Cullman, AL Falls, OH Joye Coy Shaffer (retired), Literacy Volunteers of Mary Beth Fletcher, Buckingham Browne Nichols America, New Smyrna Beach, FL School, Cambridge, MA Marilyn Skinner (retired), Kokomo Center Schools, IN Kate Friesner, College of Santa Fe, Albuquerque, NM Jane Barber Smith, La Grange Elementary School, Kathryn F. Groller, School District of the City of Poughquag, NY Allentown, PA John A. Smith, Wilson Elementary School, Logan, UT Robert L. Harrison, Jr., West Virginia State Richard B. Speaker, Jr., University of New Orleans, LA Department of Education, Charleston Anna Sumida, Kamehameha Elementary School, Dolores Heiden, University of Wisconsin, Onalaska Honolulu, HI Ceil Hogan, Hamden Hall County Day School, Joan Turtle, Marshall Simonds Elementary School, Hamden, CT Burlington, MA Hazel H. Jessee, Virginia Beach City Public Schools, JoAnn Vandine, Carmichael Elementary School, VA Sierra Vista, AZ Virginia Juettner, Anchorage School District, AK Barbara J. Walker, Montana State University, Billings

58 Standards for the English Language Arts Sarah Womble, Pulaski County Special School Janet A. Busboom, President, 1993–1994, Macon, GA District, Little Rock, AR Oweita Calvert, President, 1995–1996, Cheyenne, OK Leanne Woodfill, Dean Morgan Junior High School, Jan Carlson, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Formoso, KS Casper, WY Jacquie J. Casati, President, 1995–1996, Anchorage, AK IRA STATE COUNCIL PRESIDENTS Jeanne G. Cheek, President, 1993–1994, Monroe AND COORDINATORS City, MO Susan Abramson, President, 1993–1994, Finksburg, Roseine Church, President, 1993–1994, Cheyenne, WY MD Sally W. Clark, President, 1994–1995, Marietta, GA Elizabeth Anderson, President, 1994–1995, Wichita, KS Tanna M. Clark, President, 1993–1994, Hot Springs Mary G. Anderson, President, 1993–1994, Elk City, OK National, AR Sara Anderson, President, 1994–1995, Gladstone, MO Donna M. Clause, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Long June Atkins, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Helena, MT Branch, NJ Paula J. Bailey, President, 1994–1995, Edmond, OK Betty Clifton, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Oklahoma Elizabeth M. Baker, Coordinator, 1993–1996, City, OK Columbia, MO Ward Andrew Cockrum, President, 1994–1995, Lynne Z. Ball, President, 1994–1995, Boise, ID Sedona, AZ Lucille Bartolomo, Coordinator, 1993–1994, West Judy L. Cohen, President, 1994–1995, Highland Simsbury, CT Park, NJ Rose Ann Beason, President, 1995–1996, Neptune Donald E. Collins, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Fairfax, VT Beach, FL Susan L. Collins, President, 1994–1995, Fairfax, VT Ed Becker, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Enterprise, KS Clyde G. Colwell, President, 1993–1994, Norfolk, VA Stewart Behling, President, 1995–1996, Ferron, UT Jacqueline C. Comas, President, 1994–1995, Sherry G. Belk, President, 1993–1994, Monroe, NC Gainesville, FL T. J. Betenbough, President, 1994–1995, Silver City, Patsy J. Conner, President, 1994–1995, Sheridan, WY NM Lois K. Cook, President, 1994–1995, Walpole, MA Janice Lake Betts, President, 1993–1994, Petersburg, NJ Paula Costello, President, 1994–1995, N. Kathryn A. Biggins, Coordinator, 1993–1996, North Tonawanda, NY Scituate, RI Phyllis Y. Coulter, President, 1995–1996, Gerry Bohning, President, 1993–1994, Ft. Harrisonburg, VA Lauderdale, FL Elizabeth Cronemeyer, President, 1995–1996, Elizabeth J. Bowers, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Rapid Lawrence, KS City, SD Joanne Cunard, Coordinator, 1993–1996, West Phyllis C. Brady, President, 1993–1994, Minneapolis, Hartford, CT MN Doris Walker Dalhouse, President, 1994–1995, Jo Anne Bryant, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Prattville, AL Moorhead, MN Benita Buckles, President, 1993–1994, Cathy C. Davis, President, 1994–1995, Austin, TX Elizabethtown, KY Thelma A. Davis, President, 1994–1995, Las Vegas, NV Susan Fleming Buescher, President, 1995–1996, McCall, ID Jean F. de Tarnowsky, President, 1995–1996, North Sandra E. Burgess, President, 1995–1996, San Scituate, RI Antonio, TX Amy A. DeLucia, President, 1995–1996, Waterbury, CT

List of Participants 59 Marc A. Devenney, President, 1993–1994, Elaine M. Healy, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Las Vegas, Columbus, MS NV Lawrence R. DeVoogd, President, 1994–1995, Patricia B. Henry, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Casper, WY Muskegon, MI Luann Hermreck, President, 1993–1994, Merriam, KS Sharon A. Diaz, President, 1994–1995, Clarksburg, WV Arlene Hett, President, 1993–1994, Great Falls, MT Jean E. Doll, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Lancaster, PA Dennis C. Hickey, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Albany, Dorothy F. Earle, President, 1995–1996, Salem, MA OR Kathie J. Elder, President, 1995–1996, Helena, MT Jeff Hildreth, President, 1995–1996, De Kalb, IL Sherry M. Erwin, President, 1995–1996, Elko, NV Joyce Hinman, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Bismarck, ND Nancy Jane Feeney, President, 1994–1995, Bel Air, MD Dianne M. Hoffman, President, 1995–1996, Joan Fingon, President, 1993–1994, Rutland, VT Reisterstown, MD Marsha Fisher, President, 1995–1996, Americus, GA Ruby Hopwood, President, 1993–1994, Boardman, OH Carolyn J. Foster, President, 1995–1996, Portales, NM Frances E. Horton, President, 1995–1996, Vincent P. Fouchi, President, 1994–1995, Metairie, LA Huntington, WV Susan M. Fowler, President, 1993–1996, Newport, OR Marilyn Howard, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Moscow, ID Marcella R. Frevert, President, 1993–1994, Jill P. Hughes, President, 1995–1996, Utica, KY Emmetsburg, IA Leslie A. Hume, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Smyrna, DE Linda S. Fuller, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Schaumburg, IL Susan K. Imig, President, 1994–1995, Goehner, NE Marilyn C. Funes, President, 1995–1996, Staten Peggy Isakson, President, 1993–1994, Longmont, CO Island, NY Eren Johnson, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Woodlands, Judith F. Galbert, President, 1995–1996, Fishers, IN TX Cheryl B. Garner, President, 1993–1994, Ruston, LA Kathleen Stumpf Jongsma, President, 1993–1994, San Antonio, TX Gail Y. Gayeski, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Forty Fort, Virginia W. Juettner, President, 1994–1995, Chugiak, PA AK Janis K. George, President, 1993–1994, Chattaroy, WA Lucille M. Keuntjes, President, 1994–1995, Marguerite K. Gillis, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Buda, TX Wisconsin Rapids, WI Susan L. Gilmore, President, 1995–1996, Dover, DE Adria F. Klein, President, 1995–1996, Redlands, CA Wanda J. Glasshoff, President, 1993–1994, Gretna, NE Beverly J. Klug, President, 1993–1994, Pocatello, ID Cathy Goslin, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Stillwater, ME Barbara R. Kruse, President, 1994–1995, Loveland, CO Lannie R. Griffeth, President, 1994–1995, York, SC Helen Ladner, President, 1993–1994, Rapid City, SD Mary Jean Grimes, President, 1995–1996, Chehalis, WA Roberta J. Laird, President, 1993–1994, Clarion, PA Kathleen A. Hall, President, 1995–1996, Kansas City, Janet C. Langlois, President, 1995–1996, Baton MO Rouge, LA Susan K. Hanks, President, 1994–1995, Normal, IL Diane L. Larson, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Faribault, Susan L. Hanson, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Juneau, AK MN Dee Hayes, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Marne, MI Ann Laurimore, President, 1995–1996, Traverse City, Kathy S. Neal Headley, President, 1993–1994, MI Clemson, SC Judy Lavoie, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Gilford, NH

60 Standards for the English Language Arts Nora Davenport Lawson, President, 1993–1994, Barbara A. Nourse, President, 1995–1996, Montgomery, AL Portsmouth, OH Marsha M. Lewis, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Janet E. Nuckles, President, 1995–1996, Maplewood, Kenansville, NC MN Judy Lissman, President, 1995–1996, Torrington, WY Julia Olive, President, 1995–1996, Chattanooga, TN Marian Littman, President, 1993–1994, Oak Park, MI Rebecca L. Olness, President, 1993–1996, Kent, WA Penny W. Love, President, 1993–1994, Manchester, NH Lillian L. Panchhi, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Reno, NV Norman C. Machart, President, 1994–1995, Valley Sharon Papineau, President, 1995–1996, Valley City, City, ND ND Barbara M. May, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Cedar Mary A. Parrish, President, 1994–1995, Alexandria, VA Rapids, IA Judy Poe, President, 1994–1995, East Liverpool, OH Anita McClain, President, 1993–1994, Portland, OR Nancy J. Port, President, 1994–1995, Nevada, IA Coleen L. McClanahan, President, 1995–1996, Ames, Richard E. Potts, President, 1994–1995, Memphis, TN IA Connie M. Pribbeno, President, 1995–1996, Faye C. McDonough, President, 1993–1994, Imperial, NE Wiscasset, ME Dixie D. Pryor, President, 1994–1995, North Lois A. Meadows, President, 1993–1994, Webster, IN Parkersburg, WV Ethna R. Reid, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Salt Lake Penny K. Merriman, President, 1994–1995, Auburn, City, UT WA D. Ray Reutzel, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Provo, UT Kristine M. Michell, President, 1995–1996, Green G. Veloy Richards, President, 1993–1995, Bay, WI Farmington, UT Marilyn Miles, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Casa Mesa, CA Marilyn Ridenhower, President, 1993–1994, Dickinson, ND Arlene V. Militello, Coordinator, 1993–1994, North Kingstown, RI E. Jean Roberts, President, 1994–1995, Richmond, KY Ann Millikan, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Kokomo, IN Jean M. Roberts, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Superior, CO Jocelyn Mokulehua, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Christine Roderick, President, 1995–1996, Gilford, NH Wahiawa, HI George E. Rusnak, President, 1995–1996, Swanton, VT Joanne K. Monroe, President, 1995–1996, Vickie L. Ryan, President, 1994–1995, Cullman, AL Annandale, NJ Norman S. Sam, President, 1993–1994, Coordinator, Karen Moore, President, 1994–1995, Placersville, CA 1994–1996, Casa Grande, AZ Joyce Morris, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Fairmont, WV Susan Sandler, President, 1995–1996, Readfield, ME Mary H. Mosley, President, 1994–1995, Conway, AR Grace P. Sawyer, President, 1994–1995, Coordinator, 1995–1996, N. Whitefield, ME James Mullins, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Nokesville, VA Ronald J. Scherry, President, 1994–1995, Ballantine, Carole Nagan, President, 1993–1994, Kodiak, AK MT Linda Nishioka, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Mililani, HI Bonnie L. Schmeltz, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Laurel, Patricia R. Nix, President, 1995–1996, Hoover, AL MD Patricia C. Norman, Coordinator, 1993–1996, New Paula Schoenfelder, President, 1993–1994, Batavia, IL Richmond, WI Cynthia Seastrong, President, 1994–1995, Dale E. Norton, President, 1993–1994, Visalia, CA Bridgeport, CT

List of Participants 61 Judith Shively, President, 1993–1994, Torrington, CT Nancy Hunter Todd, Coordinator, 1993–1994, Nancy Short, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Marion, OH Louisville, KY Martha A. Simpson, President, 1995–1996, Rebecca B. Tonietti, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Alexander, AR Glendale, KY Debra A. Sinclair, President, 1994–1995, Vermillion, SD Frances M. Troxler, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Gramercy, LA Barbara J. Singleton, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Ocean Springs, MS E. Jean Tucker, President, 1994–1995, Newark, DE Mary Ellen Skidmore, President, 1994–1995, Joan L. Tuttle, President, 1993–1994, Woburn, MA Whispering Pines, NC Marge R. Vallejos, President, 1993–1994, Las Vegas, Darlene Skrdlant, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Bladen, NE NM Jane Barber Smith, President, 1993–1994, Kerry C. Vath, President, 1995–1996, Tucson, AZ Poughquag, NY Brad L. Walker, President, 1995–1996, Wilmington, NC Sharon Smith, President, 1994–1995, Concord, NH Diane A. Walworth, President, 1994–1995, The Hoyte Snow, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Brentwood, TN Dalles, OR Patricia A. Sowls, President, 1993–1994, New Lillian Ward, President, 1993–1994, Gallatin, TN London, WI Joan Warnaar, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Muskegon, MI Theodosia S. Spewock, President, 1995–1996, John R. Watkins, Jr., Coordinator, 1993–1996, Hollidaysburg, PA Binghamton, NY Peggy G. Stephenson, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Nancy A. Zamierowski, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Arlington, VA Arlington, MA Vicki C. Sterling, President, 1993–1996, Madison, SD Sylvia M. Stevens, Coordinator, 1993–1996, IRA REVIEWERS REPRESENTING President, 1993–1994, Dover, DE LITERACY ORGANIZATIONS (Invited to review) Joan C. Stevenson, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Rock Hill, SC Martha Abbott, Fairfax County Public Schools, Falls Church, VA Alice S. Stovall, Coordinator, 1993–1996, North Little Rock, AR Donna Alvermann, National Reading Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens Madeleine D. St. Romain, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Stone Mountain, GA Gordon Ambach, Council of Chief State School Officers, Washington, DC JoAnn G. Sugden, President, 1994–1995, Woonsocket, RI Lorraine Amico, Governors Association, Washington, DC Constance Sullivan, President, 1993–1994, Middletown, RI Richard C. Anderson, Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Ellen Supran, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Miami, FL Arthur Applebee, National Research Center on Ronald K. Sutherland, President, 1995–1996, Grand Literature Teaching and Learning, SUNY, Albany Junction, CO John Auchter, American Council on Education, Melinda S. Swain, Coordinator, 1993–1996, Gallup, NM Washington, DC Philip Talbert, President, 1993–1994, Greenfield, IN Richard Bagin, National School Public Relations Dora D. Tartar, President, 1994–1995, Kunkletown, PA Association, Arlington, VA Teresa F. Taylor, President, 1995–1996, Turbeville, SC Peggy Barber, American Library Association, Dana G. Thames, President, 1994–1996, Petal, MS Chicago, IL

62 Standards for the English Language Arts Patte Barth, Council for Basic Education, Sarah Freedman, National Center for the Study of Washington, DC Writing and Literacy, University of California, David Bayless, Bayless and Associates, Research Berkeley Triangle Park, NC Mike Friedman, FairTest Examiner, Cambridge, MA Michael Beck, Beck Evaluation and Testing Lorraine Gaire, Educational Testing Service, Association, Pleasantville, NY Princeton, NJ Kate Blossom, National Research Center on James Gates, National Council of Teachers of Literature Teaching and Learning, SUNY, Albany Mathematics, Reston, VA Mary Lyn Bourque, National Assessment Governing Joel Gomez, National Association for Bilingual Board, Washington, DC Education, Washington, DC Margaret Branson, Center for Civic Education, Gilbert Grovenor, National Geographic Society, Calabasas, CA Washington, DC Joan L. Buttram, Research for Better Schools, John Guthrie, National Reading Research Center, Philadelphia, PA University of Maryland, College Park Sydell T. Carlton, Educational Testing Service, Marilyn Hala, National Council of Teachers of Princeton, NJ Mathematics, Reston, VA Don Cartensen, American College Testing Program, David Haynes, National Board for Professional Iowa City, IA Teaching Standards, Washington, DC Charles Cascio, National Board of Professional Joan Heman, Center for Research on Evaluation, Teaching Standards, Washington, DC Standards, and Student Testing, UCLA Micki Clemens, Singleton Education Centre, Burlington, ON Lois Karl, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA John Y. Cole, Center for the Book, Washington, DC Nancy Katins, Educational Testing Service, Joann Crandall, National Clearinghouse on Princeton, NJ Literature, Washington, DC Stanley Katz, American Council of Learned Brian Curry, Association for Supervision and Societies, New York, NY Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA Ernest Kimmel, Educational Testing Service, Glen W. Cutlip, National Education Association, Princeton, NJ Washington, DC Martharose Laffey, National Council for the Social Kitty Dalton, Center for Early Adolescence, University of North Carolina, Carrboro Studies, Washington, DC Stephanie Dalton, National Cultural Diversity Linda Lange, Research for Better Schools, Center, University of California, Santa Cruz Philadelphia, PA Anthony DeSouza, National Geographic Society, Julia Lara, Council for Chief State Schools Officers, Washington, DC Washington, DC Thomas Dickinson, National Middle School John Mahlmann, Music Educators National Association, Columbus, OH Conference, Reston, VA John Dilworth, The Psychological Corporation, San Gary Marx, American Association of School Antonio, TX Administrators, Arlington, VA Timothy Dyer, National Association of Secondary Lynn McFarlane, Center for Policy Research, New School Principals, Reston, VA Brunswick, NJ Lorraine Edmo, National Indian Education Mark Molli, Center for Civic Education, Washington, Association, Washington, DC DC

List of Participants 63 Monty Neill, National Center for Fair and Open Willa Spicer, South Brunswick Public Schools, Testing, Cambridge, MA Monmouth Junction, NJ Judith Olson-Fallon, Case Western Reserve Sandra G. Spooner, Cambridge Public Schools, MA University, Cleveland, OH Don I. Tharpe, Association of School Business John O’Neil, Association for Supervision and Officers, Reston, VA Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA Daniel Wagner, National Center on Adult Literacy, Jean Osborn, Center for the Study of Reading, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Judy Wagner, Ohio State University, Columbus P. David Pearson, Formerly: Center for the Study of Judith Walter, Association for Supervision and Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana- Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA Champaign; Now: Michigan State University, East Lansing Ruth Wattenberg, American Federation of Teachers, Washington, DC Joy Peyton, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC Ann Weeks, American Association of School Librarians, Chicago, IL Andy Plattner, National Center on Education and the Economy, Washington, DC Kathryn Whitfill, National PTA, Chicago, IL George Powell, Educational Testing Service, Andrea Whittaker, Far West Laboratory, San Evanston, IL Francisco, CA Charles Quigley, Center for Civic Education, Judy Young, National Association of State Personnel Calabasas, CA Executives, Reston, VA Paula Quint, Children’s Book Council, New York, NY REPRESENTATIVES OF STATE Allen A. Raymond, Teaching K–8, Norwalk, CT DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION David Reiderman, Children’s Book Council, New AND STATE READING SPECIALISTS York, NY (Invited to review) Marie Robinson, National Association of Elementary Bill Abrams, Department of Education, Carson City, School Principals, Alexandria, VA NV Bella Rosenberg, American Federation of Teachers, Herman M. Aizawa, State Department of Education, Washington, DC Honolulu, HI Herb Salinger, American Association of School Elizabeth Alfred, Nebraska Department of Personnel, Sacramento, CA Education, Lincoln, NE Samuel Sava, National Association of Elementary Nancy C. Andrews, Department of Education, School Principals, Alexandria, VA Augusta, ME C. Edward Scebold, American Council of Teachers, Robert V. Antonucci, Department of Education, Yonkers, NY Malden, MA James Shriner, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Raymond G. Arveson, Department of Education, Jay Smink, National Dropout Prevention Center, Baton Rouge, LA Atlanta, GA June Atkins, Office of Public Instruction, Helena, MT Carol Smith, American Association of Colleges for Paula Bailey, Monroney Junior High School, Teacher Education, Washington, DC Midwest City, OK Duane Smith, Center for Civic Education, Calabasas, Fred Bannister, Office of Public Instruction, CA Olympia, WA Pat Spahr, National Association for the Education of JoEtta Barnett, Department of Education, Columbia, Young Children, Washington, DC SC

64 Standards for the English Language Arts Robert E. Bartman, Department of Elementary and James E. Cheek, State Department of Education, Secondary Education, Jefferson City, MO Charlotte Amalie, VI Scott W. Bean, State Office of Education, Salt Lake Mitchell Chester, State Department of Education, City, UT Hartford, CT Adelaida Bellin, Guam Department of Education, Doug Christensen, State Department of Education, Agana, Guam Lincoln, NE John T. Benson, State Department of Education, Mary Beth Clark, Utah State Department of Madison, WI Education, Salt Lake City Beth Berghoff, Indiana Department of Education, Wilmer S. Cody, State Department of Education, Indianapolis Frankfort, KY Susan Carey Biggam, Department of Education, Trudy Collier, Maryland Department of Education, Montpelier, VT Baltimore Judith A. Billings, State Department of Public Jeanne Wells Cook, Mississippi Department of Instruction, Olympia, WA Education, Jackson Clarence Bina, State Department of Public Karen Costello, State Department of Education, Instruction, Bismarck, ND Hartford, CT C. Diane Bishop, State Department of Education, Gerald Covey, State Department of Education, Phoenix, AZ Juneau, AK Diane Bloom, New Jersey Department of Education, Cris Crissman, Department of Public Instruction, Trenton Raleigh, NC John Bonaiuto, State Department of Education, Mary Crovo, Washington, DC Pierre, SD Catherine Davis, Texas Education Agency, Austin William C. Bosher, Jr., State Department of Education, Richmond, VA William Dawson, State Department of Education, Sacramento, CA Thomas C. Boysen, State Department of Education, Frankfort, KY Dale M. Dennis, State Department of Education, Topeka, KS Kenneth Bradford, Department of Education, Richmond, VA Charlotte Diffendale, Rhode Island Department of Education, Providence Mary Brandt, State Department of Education, Honolulu, HI Imogene Draper, Roanoke, VA Frank T. Brogan, State Department of Education, Lee Droegemueller, State Department of Education, Tallahassee, FL Topeka, KS Carol Brown, Ohio Department of Education, Delaine Eastin, State Department of Education, Columbus Sacramento, CA Tom Burnham, State Department of Education, Lois Easton, Arizona Department of Education, Jackson, MS Phoenix Donald M. Carroll, State Department of Education, Hilda Edwards, Department of Education, Harrisburg, PA Columbus, OH Betty Castor, State Department of Education, Burton Elliott, State Department of Education, Little Tallahassee, FL Rock, AR Judy Catchpole, State Department of Education, Arthur Ellis, State Department of Education, Cheyenne, WY Lansing, MI

List of Participants 65 Judith Entwife, Alaska Department of Education, Bill Hammond, Georgia Department of Education, Juneau Atlanta Bob Etheridge, State Department of Education, Richard Harmston, Utah Department of Education, Raleigh, NC Salt Lake City Jerry Evans, State Department of Education, Boise, Cindi M. Heuts, Department of Public Instruction, ID Raleigh, NC Victor R. Fajardo, State Department of Education, Geof Hewitt, Vermont Department of Education, San Juan, Puerto Rico Montpelier Vincent Ferrandino, State Department of Education, Eugene W. Hickok, State Department of Education, Hartford, CT Harrisburg, PA Rex Filmer, Nebraska Department of Education, Lynette Hill, Idaho Department of Education, Boise Lincoln Shirley J. Holloway, Department of Education, L. R. Fischer, State Department of Education, Juneau, AK Albany, NY Judy Hood, Michigan Department of Education, Mary Lee Fitzgerald, State Department of Education, Lansing Trenton, NJ Juanita Hoskyn, Arkansas Department of Education, Bernard Floriani, Department of Public Instruction, Little Rock Dover, DE Betty Johnson, Indiana Department of Education, Indianapolis Pascal D. Forgione, Jr., State Department of Public Instruction, Dover, DE Fred Johnson, Georgia Department of Education, Atlanta Anne C. Fox, State Department of Education, Boise, ID Lory Johnson, Department of Education, Des Moines, IA Michael W. Frye, State Department of Education, Raleigh, NC Barbara Kapinus, Council of Chief State School Officers, Washington, DC Sandy Garrett, State Department of Education, Oklahoma City, OK Jacqueline Karbon, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, Madison Judy Gilbert, Eagle Rock School, Estes Park, CO Nancy Keenan, State Office of Public Instruction, John M. Goff, State Department of Education, Helena, MT Columbus, OH Elizabeth M. King, Department of Education, Salem, Claudette Goss, Oklahoma Department of OR Education, Oklahoma City Lloyd Kjorness, Department of Education, Lisa Graham, State Department of Education, Cheyenne, WY Phoenix, AZ Leo F. Klagholz, State Department of Education, Nancy S. Grasmick, State Department of Education, Trenton, NJ Baltimore, MD Diane Kubinski, State Department of Education, Alton L. Greenfield, Department of Education, St. Trenton, NJ Paul, MN Ellen Last, Wisconsin Department of Education, Dennis Gribbs, Department of Education, Pierre, SD Madison Herbert Grover, State Department of Education, Robert Leininger, State Department of Education, Madison, WI Springfield, IL Jan Cladouhos Hahn, Montana Department of Nancy Leinius, Wyoming Department of Education, Education, Helena Cheyenne

66 Standards for the English Language Arts William Lepley, State Department of Education, Des Diana Ohman, State Department of Education, Moines, IA Cheyenne, WY Nancy Livingston, Brigham Young University, Alan Olds, Colorado Department of Education, Provo, UT Denver Joseph Lutjeharms, State Department of Education, Sharon O’Neal, Texas Education Agency, Austin Lincoln, NE Dennis Parker, California Department of Education, Gene Mammenga, State Department of Education, Sacramento St. Paul, MN Eugene Paslov, State Department of Education, Jacqueline Marino, New York State Department of Carson City, NV Education, Albany Alberta Patch-Slegaitis, New York State Education Henry R. Marockie, State Department of Education, Department, Albany Charleston, WV Norma Paulus, State Department of Education, Charles H. Marston, State Department of Education, Salem, OR Concord, MA Mary Pautsch, Department of Education, KS Leo G. Martin, Maine Department of Education, Augusta Mary L. Peterson, State Department of Education, Steve McAliley, Alabama Department of Education, Carson City, NV Montgomery Sheila Potter, Department of Education, Lansing, MI Judy McCoy, Hawaii Department of Education, Jo Prather, Mississippi Department of Education, Honolulu Jackson Peter McWalters, State Department of Education, Katherine Pugh, Tennessee Department of Providence, RI Education, Nashville John L. Meehan, Department of Education, Pat Rael, State Department of Education, Santa Fe, NM Harrisburg, PA William T. Randall, State Department of Education, Lynn Meeks, State Department of Education, Boise, Denver, CO ID Suellen K. Reed, State Department of Education, Lionel R. Meno, State Department of Education, Indianapolis, IN Austin, TX Lawrence Richard, Texas Education Agency, Austin Richard P. Mills, State Department of Education, Albany, NY Edward Richardson, State Department of Education, Montgomery, AL Warren R. Mitchell (retired), State Department of Education, Montgomery, AL Susan Richardson, State Board of Education, Springfield, IL Alan D. Morgan, State Department of Education, Santa Fe, NM Marcia L. Rieder, McDougal Littell, Houghton Mifflin Mike Moses, Texas Education Agency, Austin Company, Evanston, IL Wayne L. Mowatt, State Department of Education, Mel Riggs, Kansas Department of Education, Augusta, ME Topeka Barbara S. Nielsen, State Department of Education, Juan J. Rodriguez, Department of Education, Hato Columbia, SC Rey, Puerto Rico Leila Norris, Department of Public Instruction, Werner Rogers, State Department of Education, Bismarck, ND Atlanta, GA Charlotte O’Brien, Missouri Department of Linda Romero, State Department of Education, Education, Jefferson City Santa Fe, NM

List of Participants 67 John Rosario, Public School System, Northern Margaret Sullivan, New Hampshire Department of Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP Education, Concord Angela Rose, State Department of Education, Roland L. G. Taimanglo, Department of Education, Hartford, CT Agana, Guam Mary R. Rose, Department of Public Instruction, Wayne Teague, State Department of Education, Raleigh, NC Montgomery, AL Muriel Rosmann, Arizona State Department of Charles Toguchi, State Department of Education, Education, Phoenix Honolulu, HI Ted Sanders, State Department of Education, Elizabeth M. Twomey, State Department of Columbus, OH Education, Concord, NH Wayne G. Sanstead, State Department of Education, Olga Vaughn, New York Education Department, Bismarck, ND Lancaster Karon Schaack, Department of Education and Kathy Verille, School Improvement Unit, Phoenix, AZ Cultural Affairs, Pierre, SD Kay Vincent, Kentucky Department of Education, Frankfort Robert Schiller, State Department of Education, Lansing, MI Mary G. Wade, Bureau of School Improvement, Baton Rouge, LA Ann Schluter, State Department of Education, St. Paul, MN Florence Wakuya, State of Hawaii Department of Education, Honolulu Helen Schotanus, Department of Education, Concord, NH Jane Walters, State Department of Education, Nashville, TN Linda C. Schrenko, State Department of Education, Atlanta, GA Susan Watt, Florida Department of Education, Tallahassee Theodore S. Sergi, State Department of Education, David Westmoreland, Arkansas Department of Hartford, CT Education, Little Rock Diane Shock, State Department of Education, Mary White, District of Columbia Department of Worthington, OH Education Cheryl Sigmon, South Carolina State Department of Gene Wilhoit, State Department of Education, Little Education, Columbia Rock, AR Diane K. Skiffington, Department of Education, Lea-Ruth C. Wilkins, Department of Education, Harrisburg, PA Tallahassee, FL Charles E. Smith, State Department of Education, Tish Wilson, Kentucky Department of Education, Nashville, TN Frankfort Franklin L. Smith, District of Columbia Public Barbara Wolfe, Oregon Department of Education, Schools Salem Thomas Sobol, State Department of Education, Katie Young, Louisiana Department of Education, Albany, NY Baton Rouge Joseph A. Spagnolo, State Board of Education, Carla Zimerelli-Clifford, State Department of Springfield, IL Education, Baltimore, MD Judith Staten, Massachusetts Department of Education, Malden IRA REVIEWERS (Not listed elsewhere) Frederick M. Stillwill, State Department of Ira E. Aaron, Athens, GA Education, Des Moines, IA Marcia Baghban, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing

68 Standards for the English Language Arts Rose Ann Beason, Jacksonville, FL Diane Levin, Language Arts Consultant, Sacramento, David Berg, Public School 272, Carnarshi, NY CA Cathy Biggins, N. Scituate, RI James Lindon, Tuscarawas Valley High School, Zoarville, OH Deanna Birdyshaw, Lansing, MI Joye A. Lucas, Moses Lake, WA Nancy L. Blackbill, Nazareth, PA Caryl Lyons, American College Testing, Iowa City, IA Phyllis Brazee, University of Maine, Orono Susan Malaska, Shelby City Schools, OH Marietta Catlin, Pierre, SD Martha Maxwell, MM Associates, Kensington, MD Dorothy D. Chase, Community of Southern Nevada, Las Vegas Donald McFeely, IRA Professional Development Fred Cheney, District 11, Colorado Springs, CO Associate, Indiana, PA Shirley Choo, Burnaby, British Columbia Marie S. Melican, Medford, MA Jo Cleland, Arizona State University West, Phoenix Max Miller, Glen Burnie, MD Phyllis Y. Coulter, Eastern Mennonite University, James Mosenthal, University of Vermont, Burlington Harrisonburg, VA Judith Olson-Fallon, Case Western Reserve Bernice Cullinan, Sands Point, NY University, Cleveland, OH JoAnne Dickey, Richmond, KY Nancy Padak, Kent State University, OH Billie Enz, Arizona State University, Tempe Connie Palmer, Pierre, SD Marie H. Erwine, Pringle, PA Beth Parliament, Hazel, SD Mary Beth Fletcher, Lexington, MA Emily Miller Payne, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos James Flood, San Diego State University, CA Laurence Peters, Office of Education Research and Nancy W. Gammon, Harris-Stowe State College, St. Louis, MO Improvement, Washington, DC Julianne B. Y. Gehman, New Holland, PA Virginia S. Popper, Mercer University, Macon, GA Lorraine Gerhart, Oconomowoc, WI Karen Quinn, University of Illinois at Chicago Evelyn Guentzel, Austin, MN Fred Quinonez, Denver, CO Kim Harper-Given, Halifax, Nova Scotia Robert Riordan, Cambridge Ridge & Latin School, MA Susan Harris-Sharples, Wheelock College, Boston, MA Andrea Rosenblatt, Miami, FL Franklin L. Herrington, Jacksonville, FL Susan B. Schuster, Baltimore, MD Sally Hilldruys, Fredricksburg, VA MaryJane Simpson, Mills, MA Don Hillyard, Evansville, IN Celia A. Stabile, Cranston, RI Verna Hines, Big Walnut High School, Sunbury, OH Betty Steeds, Kent, WA Joyce Hinman, Bismarck, ND Jane Sullivan, Rowan College of New Jersey, Glassboro Janci Hurt, Winter Haven, FL Joyce Tanner, Kelowna, British Columbia Will Johnson, Howard University, Washington, DC Mary Watson Jones, Albany, GA Martha Thurlow, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Kathryn George Kuhlman, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO Margaret A. Valinsky, Pottsville, PA Brenda Lawson, Woodward Elementary School, Don Vescio, Wilkes University, Wilkes-Barre, PA Woodward, OK Sean Walmsley, University of Albany–SUNY

List of Participants 69 Pat Ward, District Reading Coordinator, New Castle, Annual Convention, Toronto, Ontario, May 11, WY 1994. Martha Wells, Emmetsburg, IA English Language Arts Forum, IRA 22nd Southwest Bruce Whitehead, School District #44, Missoula, MT Regional Conference, Little Rock, AR, November 18, 1994. Beverly Wicinsky, Winneconne, WI Education 2000: Standards and Assessments for Ellen Witkowski, Academy of the Holy Name, World-Class Education in the English Language Tampa, FL Arts, National Teleconference sponsored by John Wood, Kutztown University, PA International Reading Association, National Marian Wulfot, Ontario, NY Council of Teachers of English, Delaware State University, and Department of English, Purdue Maureen Zientek, Holy Family School, St. University, January 27, 1995. Petersburg, FL Working Session: IRA Standards Project, IRA Annual SESSIONS AT IRA CONVENTIONS Convention, Anaheim, CA, May 2, 1995. AND REGIONAL CONFERENCES Update on Standards: Efforts in the States, IRA RELATED TO STANDARDS Annual Convention, Anaheim, CA, May 3, 1995. National Standards for English Language Arts The IRA/NCTE English Language Arts Standards: Education, Reading Research ’93 Conference What Do They Mean for You, Your Students, sponsored by IRA, San Antonio, TX, April 24, Your School? IRA 22nd Plains Regional 1993. Conference, Des Moines, IA, September 29, Open Forum on the Standards Project for English 1995. Language Arts, IRA Annual Convention, San Standards for English Language Arts: Update, Antonio, TX, April 27, 1993. Preview, and Plans, IRA Rocky Mountain The IRA/NCTE Partnership: The Standards Project Regional Conference, Billings, MT, October 19, for English Language Arts, IRA Annual 1995. Convention, San Antonio, TX, April 27, 1993. The IRA and NCTE Standards, First Combined IRA Open Forum on Standards in English Language Regional Conference, Great Lakes and Arts, IRA Tenth Great Lakes Regional Reading Southeast, Nashville, TN, November 11, 1995. Conference, Rosemont, IL, September 22, 1993. IRA AND NCTE CONSENSUS COMMITTEE Standards for the English Language Arts: An Victoria Purcell-Gates, Harvard Graduate School of Emerging Reality, IRA 21st Southwest Regional Education, Cambridge, MA Conference, Tulsa, OK, November 11, 1993. Ramsay Selden, CCSO, Washington, DC English Language Arts Curriculum Standards, IRA 21st Southwest Regional Conference, Tulsa, OK, Dorothy Strickland, Rutgers University, New November 12, 1993. Brunswick, NJ Language Arts Standards State Representative Carol Tateishi, Director, Bay Area Writing Project, Meeting, IRA 21st Southwest Regional Berkeley, CA Conference, Tulsa, OK, November 12, 1993. Douglas Vance, La Follette High School, Madison, WI IRA/NCTE National Standards for the English Language Arts: A Progress Report and Open NCTE PRESIDENTS Forum, IRA Fifteenth West Regional Conference, (During project duration) Reno, NV, February 25, 1994. Shirley Haley-James, 1990–1991, Georgia State The Standards Project for English Language Arts: An University (retired) Open Forum on Issues and Progress, IRA James E. Davis, 1991–1992, Ohio University, Athens

70 Standards for the English Language Arts Jesse Perry, 1992–1993, San Diego City Schools, CA IMMEDIATE PAST MEMBERS OF NCTE (retired) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Janie Hydrick, 1993–1994, Entz Elementary School, Janie Hydrick, Past President; Entz Elementary Mesa, AZ School, Mesa, AZ Miriam T. Chaplin, 1994–1995, Rutgers University, Ruth Nathan, Elementary Representative at Large; Camden, NJ Novato, CA Beverly Ann Chin, 1995–1996, University of Willie Mae Crews, Secondary Section Associate Montana, Missoula Chair; Birmingham Public Schools, AL James L. Hill, College Section Chair; Albany State NCTE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE College, GA (1995–1996) Jacqueline Jones Royster, CCCC Chair; Ohio State Beverly Ann Chin, President; University of Montana, University, Columbus Missoula Carol Avery, President-Elect; Millersville, PA NCTE STAFF Miles Myers, Executive Director Sheridan Blau, Vice President; University of California, Santa Barbara Charles Suhor, Deputy Executive Director Miriam T. Chaplin, Past President; Rutgers Karen Smith, Associate Executive Director University, Camden, NJ Patricia Lambert Stock, Associate Executive Director Judith M. Kelly, Secondary Representative at Large; Katherine Hope, Associate Executive Director for Hine Junior High School, Washington, DC Business Diane T. Orchard, Elementary Representative at Jeanne Bohlen, Secretary to the Executive Director Large; Lapeer Community Schools, MI Joellen Bryant, Staff Designer Greta D. Price, Middle School Representative at Millie Davis, Director of Affiliate and Member Large; Willowbrook Middle School, Compton, CA Services Kathy G. Short, Elementary Section Chair; University Maria Drees, Standards Project Associate of Arizona, Tucson Lee Erwin, Editor Joan Naomi Steiner, Secondary Section Chair; Mary Fortune, Standards Manager School District of Marinette, WI Sandra Gibbs, Director of Special Programs Frank Madden, College Section Chair; Westchester Michael Greer, Editor Community College, Valhalla, NY Zarina M. Hock, Coordinator of Editorial Services Betty C. Houser, Secondary Section Associate Chair; John Kelley, Administrative Assistant to the Belmond/Klemme High School, Belmond, IA Executive Director Kay Parks Bushman, Secondary Section Associate Margaret Lee, Staff Associate Chair; Ottawa High School, KS Richard Long, Washington Representative Gail E. Hawisher, College Section Assistant Chair; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Cliff Maduzia, Director of Publication Services Lester Faigley, CCCC Chair; University of Texas at Gwen McDuffy, Standards Project Secretary Austin Kathy Parham, Standards Coordinator Carol Pope, CEE Chair; North Carolina State Rona S. Smith, Editor University, Raleigh Liz Spalding, Project Manager for Standards Donald L. Stephan, CEL Chair; Sidney High School, Kent Williamson, Director of Marketing and OH Membership Development

List of Participants 71 CONSULTANTS NCTE ELEMENTARY SECTION STEERING Lynn B. Jenkins, Northford, CT COMMITTEE Michael W. Kibby, State University of New York, Kathy G. Short, Chair; University of Arizona, Tucson Buffalo Carol Avery, Millersville, PA John Mayher, New York University Pat Cordeiro, Rhode Island College, Providence Jean Osborn, Center for the Study of Reading, Cora Lee Five, Edgewood School, Scarsdale, NY University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Jerome Harste, Indiana University, Bloomington Stephen Tchudi, University of Nevada, Reno Don Howard, Oak Park, IL Donna Maxim, Center for Teaching and Learning, CONTRIBUTORS Edgecomb, ME Kathryn H. Au, University of Hawaii, Honolulu Regie Routman, Shaker Heights (Ohio) City School Sheridan Blau, University of California, Santa District Barbara Yvonne Siu-Runyan, University of Northern Sally Burgett, South Side Elementary School, Colorado, Greeley Champaign, IL Karen Smith, NCTE Staff Liaison; Urbana, IL Shirley Chambers, Auburndale Intermediate School, William H. Teale, ex officio, Editor, Language Arts; Corona, CA University of Illinois-Chicago Margaret Cusack, Ledgeview Elementary School, Clarence, NY NCTE SECONDARY SECTION STEERING COMMITTEE Dan Daniel, Parkersburg High School, WV Joan Naomi Steiner, Chair; School District of Millie Davis, NCTE, Urbana, IL Marinette, WI Marie Dionisio, Louis M. Klein Middle School, Kay Parks Bushman, Associate Chair; Ottawa High Harrison, NY School, KS Pat Egenberger, Ustach Middle School, Modesto, CA Betty C. Houser, Associate Chair; Belmond/Klemme Douglas Felter, Union County Regional High School High School, Belmond, IA District #1, Clarke, NJ Beverly Ann Chin, Executive Committee Liaison; Cynthia W. Joor, Harmony Hills Elementary School, University of Montana, Missoula NEISD, New Jersey Writing Project in Texas; San Elizabeth Close, Farnsworth Middle School, Antonio, TX Guilderland, NY Michael Kibby, State University of New York, MaryCarmen E. Cruz, Cholla High School, Tucson, AZ Buffalo Charleen Silva Delfino, East Side Union High Callie R. Kingsbury, State College Area School School, San Jose, CA District, State College, PA Kristina M. Elias, RHAM Middle School, Hebron, CT Joy McCaleb, Upperman High School, Baxter, TN Bonnie O. Ericson, CEE Representative; California Carol Santa, School District #5, Kalispell, MT State University, Northridge Susan Stires, Center for Teaching and Learning, Carolyn Loft, University of Montana, Missoula Edgecomb, ME John Manear, Seton-LaSalle High School, Pittsburgh, Carol Tateishi, Bay Area Writing Project, Berkeley, PA CA Carol Ann North, Woodrow Wilson Sr. High School, Susan Katz Weinberg, University of New Mexico, Washington, DC Albuquerque Carolyn Tuten Ross, Seneca High School, SC

72 Standards for the English Language Arts Wendell Schwartz, CEL Representative; Adlai Mary Ellen Thornton, Associate Chair; Chandler Stevenson High School, Lincolnshire, IL Elementary School, Kilgore, TX Sarah Wiggins, Person Senior High School, Donald Shafer, Corresponding Secretary; Fairview Roxboro, NC Park High School, OH Charltes Suhor, NCTE Staff Liaison; Urbana, IL Myles Eley, Past Chair; Warren Central High School, Leila Christenbury, ex officio, Editor, English Indianapolis, IN Journal; Virginia Commonwealth University, Jeff Golub, University of South Florida, Tampa Richmond Victor Jaccarino, Herricks Schools, New Hyde Park, NY NCTE COLLEGE SECTION STEERING Pat Monahan, Downers Grove South High School, IL COMMITTEE Bill Newby, Shaker Heights High School, OH Frank Madden, Chair; Westchester Community College, Valhalla, NY Wanda Porter, Kamehameha Secondary School, Honolulu, HI Gail Hawisher, Assistant Chair; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign James Strickland, Slippery Rock University, PA Pat Belanoff, State University of New York, Stony Henry Kiernan, ex officio, Editor, English Brook Leadership Quarterly; West Morris Regional Miriam T. Chaplin, Executive Committee Liaison; High School, Chester, NJ Cherry Hill, NJ NCTE CONFERENCE ON COLLEGE Collett B. Dilworth, CEE Representative; East COMPOSITION AND COMMUNICATION Carolina University, Greenville (CCCC) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Theresa Enos, CCCC Representative; University of Lester Faigley, Chair; University of Texas at Austin Arizona, Tucson Nell Ann Pickett, Assistant Chair; Hinds Community Dawn Rodrigues, Kennesaw State College, Marietta, College, Raymond, MS GA Cynthia L. Selfe, Assistant Chair; Michigan Ida Simmons Short, Schoolcraft College, Livonia, MI Technological University, Houghton Howard Tinberg, Bristol Community College, South Attleboro, MA Jacqueline Jones Royster, Past Chair; Ohio State University, Columbus Demetrice A. Worley, Bradley University, Peoria, IL Barbara Stout, Secretary; Montgomery College, Patricia Lambert Stock, NCTE Staff Liaison; Rockville, MD Washington, DC Chris Anson, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Paul Bodmer, ex officio, Bismarck State College, Bismarck, ND Lilly Bay, Rockland Community College, Suffern, NY Mark Reynolds, ex officio, Editor, Teaching English Suzanne Benally, Western Interstate Commission for in the Two-Year College; Jefferson Davis Higher Education, Boulder, CO Community College, Brewton, AL Don Bialostosky, Pennsylvania State University, Louise Z. Smith, ex officio, Editor, College English; University Park University of Massachusetts at Boston Paul Bodmer, Bismarck State College, ND Rebecca E. Burnett, Iowa State University, Ames NCTE CONFERENCE ON ENGLISH LEADERSHIP (CEL) EXECUTIVE Kermit E. Campbell, University of Texas, Austin COMMITTEE Juanita Comfort, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Donald L. Stephan, Chair; Sidney High School, VA Sidney, OH JoEllen Coppersmith, Utah Valley State College, Orem

List of Participants 73 Peter Elbow, University of Hawaii, Honolulu Susan Hynds, Syracuse University, NY Theresa Enos, University of Arizona, Tucson Rosalie Black Kiah, Norfolk State University, VA Richard Fulkerson, East Texas State University, Nancy McCracken, Kent State University, OH Commerce Peter Medway, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario Paula F. Gillespie, Whitefish Bay, WI Susan Ohanian, Charlotte, VT Barbara Guilland, Big Bend Community College, Maria de la Luz Reyes, University of California Moses Lake, WA Tom Romano, Utah State University, Logan Patricia Harkin, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN Hephzibah Roskelly, University of North Carolina, Richard H. Haswell, Washington State University, Pullman Greensboro Deborah James, University of North Carolina, Bonnie Sunstein, University of Iowa, Iowa City Asheville Don Zancanella, University of New Mexico, Gesa E. Kirsch, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI Albuquerque Dennis Kriewald, Laredo Community College, TX Miles Myers, NCTE Staff Liaison; Urbana, IL LuMing Mao, Miami University, Oxford, OH NCTE COMMISSION DIRECTORS Beverly Moss, Ohio State University, Columbus Christine Kline, Commission on Composition; Elizabeth Nist, Anoka-Ramsey Community College, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA Coon Rapids, MN Kathleen Dudden Andrasick, Commission on Teresa M. Redd, Howard University, Washington, DC Curriculum; University of Hawaii-Manoa Mark Reynolds, Jefferson Davis Community College, Roseann Dueñas Gonzalez, Commission on Brewton, AL Language; University of Arizona, Tucson Nedra Reynolds, University of Rhode Island, Carol Jago, Commission on Literature; Santa Monica Kingston High School, CA M. Elizabeth (Betsy) Sargent, Western Oregon State College, Monmouth Lawrence B. Fuller, Commission on Media; Bloomsburg University, PA Marie Secor, Pennsylvania State University, University Park Diane Stephens, Commission on Reading; University of Hawaii at Manoa C. Jan Swearingen, University of Texas, Arlington Arthur Young, Clemson University, SC NCTE BLACK CAUCUS CHAIR Joseph Harris, ex officio, Editor, College Keith Gilyard, Syracuse University, NY (CCCC Composition and Communication; University of Executive Committee) Pittsburgh, PA NCTE LATINO CAUCUS CHAIRS NCTE CONFERENCE ON ENGLISH EDUCATION (CEE) EXECUTIVE MaryCarmen E. Cruz, Cholla High School, Tucson, AZ COMMITTEE Cecilia Rodriguez Milanes, Indiana University of Carol Pope, Chair; North Carolina State University, Pennsylvania Raleigh Patricia Kelly, Vice Chair; Virginia Polytechnic NCTE STANDARDS RETREAT Institute, Blacksburg PARTICIPANTS (July 1993 and July 1994) Richard Harmston, Recording Secretary; Utah State Wendy Bishop, Florida State University, Tallahassee Office of Education, Salt Lake City Lil Brannon, State University of New York at Albany

74 Standards for the English Language Arts Barbara Cambridge, Indiana University-Purdue Anne Bendixen, Michigan Department of Education, University at Indianapolis Lansing Linda Crafton, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL Clarence Bina, North Dakota Department of James Davis, Ohio University, Athens Education, Bismarck Lela DeToye, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale Dianne Bloom, New Jersey Department of Education, Trenton Barbara Flores, California State University, San Bernardino Kenneth Bradford, Virginia Department of Education, Richmond Anne Ruggles Gere, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Carol Brown, Ohio Department of Education, Columbus Doris Ginn, Jackson State University, MS Mary Beth Clark, Utah State Office of Education, Jacquelyn Harris, St. Louis Public Schools, MO Salt Lake City Betty Hart, University of Southern Indiana, Evansville Jeanne Wells Cook, Mississippi Department of Frankey Jones, Brookwood Elementary School, Education, Jackson Snellville, GA Karen Costello, Madison (Connecticut) School Thomas Jones, Wyoming Valley West High School, District Plymouth, PA Charlotte Diffendale, Rhode Island Department of Willa Mae Kippes, Valley High School, Gilcrest, CO Education, Providence William McBride, Colorado State University, Fort Judith Entwife, Alaska Department of Education, Collins Juneau Ann McCallum, Fairfax County Public Schools, Rex Filmer, Nebraska Department of Education, Annandale, VA Lincoln Kevin McHugh, Finneytown Junior/Senior High Bernard Floriani, Delaware Department of Public School, Cincinnati, OH Instruction, Dover Mildred Miller, Laguna Beach High School, CA John Fortier, Wisconsin Department of Education, Patricia Phelan, University of San Diego, CA Madison Helen Schwartz, Indiana University-Purdue Mike Frye, North Carolina Department of Education, University at Indianapolis Raleigh Connie Sears, Weatherford High School, OK Judy Gilbert, Eagle Rock School, Estes Park, CO Consentine Thompson, Ballou High School, Claudette Goss, Oklahoma Department of Washington, DC Education, Oklahoma City Judith Wambu, Kean College of New Jersey Al Greenfield, Minnesota Department of Education, St. Paul ASSEMBLY OF STATE COORDINATORS Mae Gundach, California Department of Education, OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS (ASCELA) Sacramento Bill Abrams, Nevada Department of Education, Jan Cladouhos Hahn, Montana Department of Carson City Education, Helena Amy Alday-Murray, Oregon Department of Richard Harmstron, Utah State Office of Education, Education, Salem Salt Lake City Nancy Andrews, Maine Department of Education, Robert Harrison, West Virginia Department of Augusta Education, Charleston Adelaida Bellin, Guam Department of Education, Geoff Hewitt, Vermont Department of Education, Agana Montpelier

List of Participants 75 Lynette Hill, Idaho Department of Education, Boise Susan Richardson, Illinois State Board of Education. Veronica Huller, Illinois State Board of Education, Springfield Springfield Mel Riggs, Kansas Department of Education, Topeka Fred Johnson, Georgia Department of Education, Linda Romaro, New Mexico Department of Atlanta Education, Santa Fe Lory Nels Johnson, Iowa Department of Education, John Rosario, Public School System, Northern Des Moines Mariana Islands, Saipan MP Barbara Kapinus, Council of Chief State School Muriel Rosmann, Arizona Department of Education, Officers, Washington, DC Phoenix Ellen Last, Wisconsin Department of Education, Cheryl Sigmon, South Carolina Department Of Madison Education, Columbia Nancy Leinius, Wyoming Department of Education, Diane Skiffington, Pennsylvania Department of Cheyenne Education, Harrisburg Starr Lewis, Kentucky Department of Education, Ruth Smith, South Dakota Department of Education, Frankfort Pierre Kathleen Lindas, Wisconsin Department of Public Judith Staten, Massachusetts Department of Instruction, Madison Education, Malden Jacqueline Marino, New York State Department of Margaret Sullivan, New Hampshire Department of Education, Albany Education, Concord Steve McAliley, Alabama Department of Education, Peggy Taylor, Washington Department of Education, Montgomery Olympia Judy McCoy, Hawaii Department of Education, Lanny van Allen, Texas Education Agency, Austin Honolulu Kay Warner, Kentucky Department of Education, Charlotte O’Brien, Missouri Department of Frankfort Education, Jefferson City Susan Watt, Florida Department of Education, Alan Olds, Colorado Department of Education, Tallahassee Denver David Westmoreland, Arkansas Department of Sharon O’Neal, Texas Education Agency, Austin Education, Little Rock Dennis Parker, California Department of Education, Mary White, District of Columbia Department of Sacramento Education Gayle Pauley, Washington Department of Barbara Wolfe, Oregon Department of Education, Education, Olympia Salem Sheila Potter, Michigan Department of Education, Katie Young, Louisiana Department of Education, Lansing Baton Rouge Kathryne Pugh, Tennessee Department of Carla Zamerelli-Clifford, Maryland Department of Education, Nashville Education, Baltimore Fred Quinonez, Colorado Department of Education, REVIEWERS FROM OTHER Denver ORGANIZATIONS (See also NCTE Affiliate Beverly Reitsma, Indiana Department of Education, and Chartered Task Forces) Indianapolis Roy Berko, Associate Director, Speech Lawrence Richard, Texas Education Agency, Austin Communication Association, Annandale, VA

76 Standards for the English Language Arts Shirley R. Crenshaw, Research & Training Ball State University Standards Project Task Force, Associates, Inc., Overland Park, KS Muncie, IN Margaret M. Crisculoa, The Great Books Bay Area Writing Project, Berkeley, CA Foundation, Chicago, IL Bellows Free Academy English Department, St. Robert C. Dixon, National Center to Improve the Albans, VT Tools of Educators, Olympia, WA Bismarck Teachers Applying Whole Language, ND Marisa Farnum, Senior Examiner, Educational Byron C.U.S.D. #226 Whole Language Council, IL Testing Service, Princeton, NJ Capital Area Writing Project, Middletown, PA Mary Fowles, Principal Measurement Specialist, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ CEA Task Force #2, Dearborn, MI Kenneth Ives, Journal of the Simplified Spelling Central California CTE Affiliate Task Force, San Society, Chicago, IL Francisco Pam Ladd, Kentucky Writing Program, Paducah Central Jersey Teachers Applying Whole Language, Princeton Gary Marx, Senior Associate Executive Director, American Association of School Administrators, Central VATE Affiliate Task Force, Richmond, VA Arlington, VA Chapter I, ECIA, Rosedale, MS Paul Ramsey, Vice President, Teaching and Learning Chartered Task Force on Workplace Literacy, Great Programs, Educational Testing Service, Lakes, IL Princeton, NJ Clackamas High School English Department, David Russell, Iowa State University, Ames Portland, OR William J. Starosta, Speech Communication Coastal Area Teachers Applying Whole Language/ Association, Howard University, Washington, DC Coastal Area Writing Project, Myrtle Beach, SC Julie Tallman, The American Association of School Coastal Georgia Writing Project, Savannah Librarians, University of Georgia Cobb County Schools Secondary English Curriculum Connie Wolfe, Kentucky Middle School Association, Committee, Marietta, GA Midway College College English Association SPELA Task Force #3, NCTE AFFILIATE AND CHARTERED Silver Spring, MD TASK FORCES College English Association SPELA Task Force #4, Fort Wayne, IN Acadiana CTE Affiliate Task Force, New Iberia, LA Colorado LAS Affiliate Task Force, Arvada Alabama CTE Affiliate Task Force, Enterprise Connecticut CTE Affiliate Task Force, Fairfield Alaska State Writing Consortium, Juneau Curriculum Study Commission, Napa, CA Alverno College English Department, Milwaukee, WI Dade County CTE Affiliate Standards Task Force, Amarillo ISD Language Arts Chartered Task Force, TX Miami, FL AMS Communication Arts Department, Ardsley, NY Dayton Language Arts Assessment Team, OH Archbishop Hannan High School English Department, Meraux, LA DC CTE Affiliate Task Force, Washington Arizona ETA Affiliate Task Force, Glendale Denton Avenue School, New Hyde Park, NY Association of College Teachers of Alabama Affiliate Driscoll Catholic High School English Department, Task Force, Montevallo Addison, IL Audrey Cohen College, Department of Curriculum Dwight Elementary #232, IL and Instruction, Mamaronech, NY East Baton Rouge CTE Affiliate Task Force, LA

List of Participants 77 East End Teachers Applying Whole Language, Holy Cross Area Schools, Portland, OR Southampton, NY Houston CTE Affiliate Task Force, Missouri City, TX East Hartford Public Schools, CT Humble Independent School District, TX East Tennessee CTE Affiliate Task Force, Maryville Idaho CTE Affiliate Task Force, Boise Eastern Shore/Northern Neck VATE Affiliate Task Inland Northwest CTE, Moses Lake, WA Force, Eastville, VA Inland Northwest CTE Affiliate Task Force, Odessa, Ecole Connaught Community School, Regina, WA Saskatchewan Iowa Writing Project, Cedar Rapids Education Development Center Task Force, Newton, MA Jackson Public School District, MS Education Trust-American Association for Higher Jersey City Implementation Team, NJ Education, Washington, DC Joint Task Force on Standards, Madison, WI Educators of Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Students, K–12 Language Arts, Longview, WA Portland, OR Kentucky CTE/LA Affiliate Task Force, Paducah English Department of Bishop McDevitt High Kiona-Benton Committee on Standard Practices in School, Harrisburg, PA English, Benton City, WA English Department, South Tredell High School, Lamar Cluster, Arlington, TX Statesville, NC Language Arts Committee Stage 1, Soldotna, AK ETC Public Schools Task Force, Ramsay, MI Language Arts Department of Southwest Missouri ETS Group for English & Verbal Ability, Princeton, NJ Affiliate Task Force, Springfield Florida CTE (Commission on Blueprint 2000) Language Arts Standards Project of the Los Angeles Affiliate Task Force, Jacksonville Unified School District, CA Florida CTE Affiliate Task Force, Orlando Ledgeview Network, Williamsville, NY Florida State University Task Force, Tallahassee Leflore County School District Language Arts Task Forest Park Professional Study Group, East Force, Greenwood, MA Northport, NY Lincoln Junior High Standards Team, Burns, OR Frameworks Grant Curriculum and Advisory Committee, Helena, MT The Literacy Connection, Granville, OH Gardiner Area High School English Department, ME Logan High School English Standards Task Force, UT Georgia LA Supervisors Affiliate Task Force, Decatur Long Branch High School English Department, NJ Grapevine-Colleyville Writing-Reading Cadre, Louisiana CTE Affiliate Task Force, Alexandria Roanoke, TX Loveland High School English Department, CO Greater Akron TELA Affiliate Task Force, OH Lowell Language Arts Committee, Waukesha, WI Greater Louisville EC Affiliate Task Force, KY Maine CELA Affiliate Task Force, Brunswick Greater St. Louis English Teachers Association, MO Maryland I.F.A Supervisors’ Network, Baltimore Haddonfield Memorial High School, NJ Maryland Writing Project, Towson Hawkins Language Arts, Hattiesburg, MS Massachusetts CTE Affiliate Task Force, Arlington Hazelwood School District, Florissant, MO McREL Group, Aurora, CO High Expectations in Literacy, Greeley, CO Michigan CTE Region 1 Affiliate Task Force, Detroit High Plains Task Force, Portales, NM Michigan CTE Region 4 Affiliate Task Force, Holton High School English Teachers, KS Waterford

78 Standards for the English Language Arts Michigan CTE Region 8 Affiliate Task Force, New York State EC Affiliate Task Force, Garden City Kalamazoo Newark Board of Education, NJ Middle Tennessee Teachers Applying Whole Newport News City Schools, VA Language, Nashville North Carolina ETA Affiliate Task Force, Cherryville Midlands Writing Project, Columbia, SC North Community High School English Department, Mid-Missouri Teachers Applying Whole Language Minneapolis, MN Task Force for Language Arts Standards, North Dakota English Collaborative, Bismarck Columbia Minnesota CTE Affiliate Task Force, St. Paul North Eastern Section of Connecticut Task Force, Dayville Mississippi CTE Affiliate Task Force, Jackson North Harris County CTE Affiliate Task Force, Missoula County Public Schools, MT Houston, TX Missouri ATE Affiliate Task Force, Columbia North Scott Junior High School Task Force, Monroe County Teachers Exploring Language & Bettendorf, IA Literacy, Trenton, MI North Shore School District 112, Highland Park, IL Montana ATELA Affiliate Task Force, Missoula Northern Arizona Task Force, Flagstaff Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, MD Northern VATE Affiliate Task Force, Annandale, VA Mt. St. Mary Academy Language Arts Project, Northwest Educators of Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Kenmore, NY Students, Vancouver, WA Naperville School District #203 Literacy Committee, IL Northwest Pennsylvania CTE, Edinboro Nashville CTE Affiliate Task Force, Hermitage, TN Northwestern Pennsylvania English Standards Task National Center to Improve Practice: Using Force, Edinboro Technology & Media to Promote Language Arts Ohio CTELA Affiliate Task Force, Columbus Outcomes for Students with Disabilities, Newton, MA Ohio Regional Assessment Network, Beachwood National Computer Systems and Eden Prairie Oklahoma Language Arts Supervisors, Oklahoma Community School System, MN City National Writing Project of Acadiana, Lafayette, LA Oklahoma State University Writing Project, Stillwater NCRE Task Force, Cambridge, MA Oregon CTE Affiliate Task Force, Corvallis NCTE Commission on Literature, Pacific Palisades, CA Parkway School District ELA Department, St. Louis, MO NCTE Commission on Media, Long Beach, CA PAWP/PENNLIT Standards Task Force, Kennett Nebraska ELAC Affiliate Task Force, Omaha Square, PA Nevada Department of Education, Carson City Pennsylvania Writing and Literature Projects, West Nevada State CTE Affiliate Task Force, Reno Chester New Hampshire Postsecondary Communications Performance-Based Language Arts Reading Task Force, Laconia Committee, Evergreen, CO The New Jersey Writing Project in Texas, Spring, TX Philippine English Studies & Comparative Literature New Mexico CTE Affiliate Task Force, Albuquerque Association Affiliate Task Force, University of New Orleans Public Schools English Language Arts the Philippines, Quezon City Task Force, LA Pine Elementary, Michigan City, IN New River/Roanoke Valley VATE Affiliate Task Pine Tree Standards Project for English Language Force, Salem, VA Arts, Longview, TX

List of Participants 79 Pinellas County CTE Affiliate Task Force, St. Southwestern VATE Affiliate Task Force, Pound, VA Petersburg, FL Sparta English/Reading Department, NJ Pleasant Valley School District, Brodheadsville, PA St. James English Standards Team, MO Prince George’s County Public Schools English St. Vrain Valley Task Force, Longmont, CO Language Arts Department, Landover, MD Standards Project Study Group, Overland Park, KS Prince William County Public Schools Task Force, State of Idaho Department of Education, Boise Manassas, VA Task Force #1, CEA, Houston, TX Public Schools English Language Arts Committee, Lexington, MA Tennessee CTE Affiliate Task Force, Cookeville Quincy Public Schools English Language Arts Task Texas CTE Affiliate Task Force, Houston Force, MA Texas CTE Affiliate Task Force, Marshall Rabun Gap-Nacoochee, Rabun Gap, GA Thames English Language Arts Standards Task Redwood CTE Affiliate Task Force, Fortuna, CA Force, Hattiesburg, MS Rhode Island CTE Affiliate Task Force, Providence Theodore Roosevelt High School English Department, Kent, OH Rio Grande Valley Language Arts Coordinators, McAllen, TX Tremper Semantics, Tremper High School, Kenosha, WI Rural Technical Assistance Center, Regions 6, 7, & 8, Portland, OR Tri-County Education Service Center, Channahon, IL San Antonio Literacy Network, TX Tri-County, Tri-Racial Task Force (Hoke, Robeson, and Scotland Counties), Pembroke, NC San Diego City Schools, CA University of North Carolina at Charlotte Writing Santee-Wateree Writing Project, Columbia, SC Project Scholastic Network English Standards On-Line Task Utah CTELA Affiliate Task Force, Salt Lake City Force, New York, NY Valparaiso High School, IN Secondary Language Arts (6–12) Curriculum Virginia ATE Affiliate Task Force, Christiansburg Development Committee, Springfield, MO Virginia Department of Education, Richmond Seekonk High School Language Arts Team, MA Walker County Board of Education, Jasper, AL Shelby-Memphis CTE Affiliate Task Force, Memphis, TN Washington State CTE Affiliate Task Force, Longview Sheldon-Williams Collegiate English Department, Regina, Saskatchewan Wayne County High School, Jessup, GA Shenandoah Valley VATE Affiliate Task Force, Wayne County High School English Task Force, Harrisonburg, VA Waynesboro, MS Shine Standards Task Force, Hershey, PA West Tennessee CTE Affiliate Task Force, Oakfield South Brunswick Language Arts Standards Task Western Massachusetts Writing Project, Amherst Force, Monmouth Junction, NJ Western Pennsylvania CTE Affiliate Task Force, Southeast Texas CTE Affiliate Task Force, Beaumont Tarentum Southeastern VATE Affiliate Task Force, Westside Community Schools, Omaha, NE Chesapeake, VA Willowbrook High School English Department, Southern Nevada TELA Affiliate Task Force, Morris, IL Henderson Wilmington, MA, English/Language Arts Southside VATE Affiliate Task Force, Farmville, VA Wisconsin Assessment Consortium

80 Standards for the English Language Arts Wood Oaks Junior High, Northbrook, IL Standards, NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, Wyoming ATE Affiliate Task Force, Cheyenne PA, November 1993. Y.I.S.D. Pebble Hills School Task Force, El Paso, TX Setting Up Standards in England, NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. NCTE CONVENTION AND CONFERENCE Working Session on the Standards Project for SESSIONS RELATED TO STANDARDS English Language Arts, NCTE Annual The Role of State Agencies in Setting Standards, Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Curriculum, and Assessment, and How You Can Authentic Assessment, NCTE Annual Convention, Be Involved, sponsored by the Assembly of Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. State Coordinators of English/Language Arts, Working Session on the Standards Project for NCTE Annual Convention, Louisville, KY, English Language Arts, NCTE Annual November 1992. Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. English Language Arts Standards: An Open Forum, Standards Issues, presented by Brian Cox, NCTE Annual Convention, Louisville, KY, University of Manchester, United Kingdom, November 1992. NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, Academic Standards and the Right, NCTE Annual November 1993. Convention, Louisville, KY, November 1992. Open Forum on the Standards Project for English If NCTE Had Published Standards Like NCTM, What Language Arts, NCTE Annual Convention, Would They Be? NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Louisville, KY, November 1992. Democratic Classrooms with “Standards”? sponsored The Discourse of Educating for Democracy: Toward by the Elementary Section, NCTE Spring Its Critical Reconstruction, NCTE Spring Conference, Portland, OR, March 1994. Conference, Richmond, VA, March 1993. Open Forum on the Standards Project for English English Language Arts Standards: An Open Forum, Language Arts, NCTE Spring Conference, NCTE Spring Conference, Richmond, VA, March Portland, OR, March 1994. 1993. Working Session on the Standards Project for Standards for All, NCTE Annual Convention, English Language Arts, NCTE Spring Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Conference, Portland, OR, March 1994. Who Will Control the English Classroom? A Forum Working Session on the Standards Project for on National Standards, NCTE Annual English Language Arts, NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Convention, Orlando, FL, November 1994. Standards for English Language Arts in Democratic College Section Forum: The Debate on National Cultures, NCTE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, Standards, NCTE Annual Convention, Orlando, PA, November 1993. FL, November 1994. National Standards: Questions of Equity, sponsored Standards for English Language Arts: Project Update by the Committee on Racism and Bias in the and Open Forum, NCTE Annual Convention, Teaching of English, the Black Caucus, and the Orlando, FL, November 1994. Latino Caucus, NCTE Annual Convention, The Search for Standards and Common Sense in the Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Assessment of English Language Arts, sponsored Standards! Standards! Standards! What Are They? by the Standing Committee on Testing and Who Sets Them? NCTE Annual Convention, Evaluation, NCTE Annual Convention, Orlando, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. FL, November 1994. Standards and Assessment, NCTE Annual English Standards, NCTE Annual Convention, Convention, Pittsburgh, PA, November 1993. Orlando, FL, November 1994.

List of Participants 81 Standards for Democratic Classrooms: A Grassroots September 10, 1993, and Boston, MA, Working Party, sponsored by the Conference on September 29, 1995. English Education, NCTE Spring Conference, Region 2 (Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Minneapolis, MN, March 1995. Virginia, West Virginia, District of Columbia), Conversations about Humanities: What if I Love Baltimore, MD, September 30, 1994. Humanities? What if I Write Poetry? Can Region 3 (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Standards and Assessments Be Vehicles for North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee), Professional and Personal Growth? NCTE Spring Clearwater Beach, FL, January 13, 1995. Conference, Minneapolis, MN, March 1995. Region 4 (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Working Session on the Standards Project for North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin), Sioux English Language Arts, NCTE Spring Falls, SD, April 29, 1994. Conference, Minneapolis, MN, March 1995. Region 5 (Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, A Report on Recent Attempts to Reform National Nebraska, Oklahoma), Oklahoma City, OK, Curriculum and Assessment in South Africa and March 4, 1994. the United Kingdom, sponsored by the Region 6 (Louisiana, New Mexico, Texas), Dallas, International Assembly, NCTE Spring,Conference, TX, September 16, 1994. Minneapolis, MN, March 1995. Region 7 (Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Why CCCC Should Participate in the Standards Washington, Wyoming, Alberta, British Project, CCCC Annual Convention, Washington, Columbia, Saskatchewan), Vancouver, BC, DC, March 1995. November 5, 1993, and Missoula, MT, September 8, 1995. National Standards for the English Language Arts in the USA, NCTE International Conference: Region 8 (Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Reconstructing Language and Learning for the Nevada, Utah, Philippines), Phoenix, AZ, 21st Century, New York, NY, July 1995. February 24, 1995. What Parents and School Boards Should Look for in MEETINGS WITH COUNCIL OF CHIEF the NCTE/IRA Content Standards, NCTE Annual STATE SCHOOL OFFICERS (CCSSO) Convention, San Diego, CA, November 1995. Conference on Standards-Focused Collaboration to Update on the NCTE/IRA Content Standards, NCTE Improve Teaching and Learning. Sponsored by Annual Convention, San Diego, CA, November CCSSO, Pew Charitable Trusts, The MacArthur 1995. Foundation, and the U.S. Department of NCTE/IRA Content Standards: From Concept to Education. Dallas, TX, December 11–12, 1994. Classroom, NCTE Annual Convention, San Case Studies in Standards Implementation. Diego, CA, November 1995. Sponsored by CCSSO, Pew Charitable Trusts, How States and Local Districts Can Use the and The MacArthur Foundation. Crystal City, NCTE/IRA Content Standards, NCTE Annual VA, December 7–8, 1995. Convention, San Diego, CA, November 1995. Draft National Standards for the English Language The NCTE/IRA Content Standards, NCTE Annual Arts. Sponsored by CCSSO. Atlanta, GA, Convention, San Diego, CA, November 1995. October 27, 1995. Participants: NCTE AFFILIATE STANDARDS WORKSHOPS June Atkins, Montana Office of Public Instruction Region 1 (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, New Carol Brown, Ohio Department of Education Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Miriam T. Chaplin, National Council of Teachers of Island, Vermont), New Brunswick, NJ, English

82 Standards for the English Language Arts Bernard Floriani, Delaware Department of Public Terry S. Salinger, International Reading Association Instruction Helen Schotanus, New Hampshire Department of Bill Hammond, Georgia State Department of Education Education Kaye Warner, Kentucky Department of Education Barbara Kapinus, Council of Chief State School Officers Rodney Wilson, Louisiana Department of Education Janet Langlois, Louisiana Department of Education Donna S. Woods, Oklahoma State Department of Julia MacMillan, Council of Chief State School Education Officers Shirley Wright, Longview Independent School Dolores B. Malcolm, International Reading District, Texas Association Katie Young, Louisiana State Department of Miles Myers, National Council of Teachers of English Education Sharon O’Neal, Texas Education Agency Angela Rose, Connecticut Department of Education MEETINGS WITH THE MODERN Joseph Rubin, Fort Worth Independent School LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION District, Texas New York, July 1994 and June 1995

List of Participants 83 Appendix B

HISTORY OF THE STANDARDS PROJECT

The Standards Project for the English Language Arts CHRONOLOGY OF THE (SPELA)—co-directed by IRA, NCTE, and the Center STANDARDS PROJECT for the Study of Reading at the University of Illinois— Summer 1992 began work to develop English language arts stan- ■ IRA and NCTE boards approve a partnership dards in the summer of 1992. In October 1992 SPELA with the Center for the Study of Reading at received a grant from the U.S. Department of the University of Illinois to develop standards Education. Under direction from the SPELA Board, for the English language arts. The two boards three task forces representing early school, middle meet together in the summer of 1992 to chart school, and high school drafted a framework, stan- a course for standards development. The John dards, and vignettes. Between October 1992 and D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation March 1994, several drafts were circulated to hun- helps support this meeting in Chicago. dreds of review groups in the field for response (see Appendix A for a list of participants). In March 1994, Fall 1992 federal funding ceased. Following this decision, the ■ Members of the advisory board and task IRA and NCTE boards pledged to continue the work forces are selected. of SPELA, allocating $500,000 each to complete the project. January 1993 IRA and NCTE composed and circulated sepa- ■ The kick-off meeting for the Standards rate standards drafts in the fall of 1994. Joint Project for English Language Arts (SPELA) is IRA/NCTE drafts were circulated in the spring and held. summer of 1995. A final draft was disseminated for review to over 2,500 individuals and groups in August 1993 October 1995. Throughout the process, IRA and ■ Advisory board and task forces meet; work NCTE hosted numerous regional and state meetings progresses on standards toward development on standards and sponsored hundreds of standards- of Professional Collection 1, a “sampler” of related sessions at their respective conventions. Both the work of the project containing the first organizations worked closely with more than half the draft set of standards, a preamble and intro- states in the development of state standards. duction, and vignettes. The following chronology highlights key dates ■ Apple Computer, Inc., provides computers in the standards project. for the project.

84 Standards for the English Language Arts Fall 1993 ■ DOE announces in the Federal Register that ■ Professional Collection 1 is distributed for it intends to publish a request for proposals review. for the development of standards for English ■ Advisory board meets. language arts. ■ Application for continuation of funding is submitted to the U.S. Department of Education Fall 1994 (DOE). ■ IRA and NCTE develop separate drafts of ■ Feedback from reviews is analyzed. standards documents and circulate them to ■ Jostens Learning Corporation provides com- reviewers. puters for the project. ■ IRA and NCTE members file objections to DOE’s plans to assign English standards to January 1994 other agencies. ■ A small group of task force members and ■ DOE announces that it will not fund a project staff from IRA, NCTE, and CSR meet to con- to develop standards in English language arts. tinue work. ■ A preliminary face-to-face review with DOE February 1995 officials is held at the University of Illinois. ■ Representatives of IRA and NCTE develop a “consensus draft” of standards, which merges March 1994 the standards that had been developed inde- ■ The application for continuation of funding is pendently by the two associations. rejected.

Spring–Fall 1995 Spring 1994 ■ ■ IRA and NCTE decide to continue the project. The work continues as a document is produced and submitted for widespread review Summer 1994 and consensus-building. ■ Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) expresses interest in becoming involved in the March 1996 project. ■ Standards are published.

History of the Standards Project 85 Appendix C

OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS PROJECTS

In the past few years, several separate projects have ASSESSMENT STANDARDS emerged to set standards for the teaching of the AND NEW ASSESSMENTS English language arts. While many of their goals are IRA/NCTE Joint Task Force on Assessment complementary, each project has a different focus In 1991, IRA and NCTE collaborated to describe stan- and a different purpose. This appendix explains dards for assessment. Their findings were published these projects. in 1994 in Standards for the Assessment of Reading and Writing. The work of the IRA/NCTE Joint Task CONTENT STANDARDS Force on Assessment was jointly funded by IRA and This book, Standards for the English Language Arts, NCTE, with additional assistance from the John D. sets forth content standards for the English language and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. arts. Content standards describe what students should know and be able to do in the field of English New Standards Assessments language arts. The goals of the project have been New Standards is developing a new system of assess- threefold: to create standards that assure all students ments (performance tasks, projects, and portfolios) in the opportunity to develop their unique verbal abili- English language arts, mathematics, science, and ap- ties and to become fully literate citizens in a demo- plied learning. These assessments are designed to cratic society; to guarantee access to the most improve the performance of all students and to creative and effective English curricula available; and gauge student progress toward high national education standards. States, districts, and schools will have to define a common core of what we value in the flexibility to set their own curricula within a common teaching and learning of language, emphasizing local system of student performance standards proposed involvement in the development of standards. by New Standards. These performance standards, Articulation of the content standards is a joint proj- which are derived from the content standards devel- ect of the International Reading Association and the oped by professional organizations, attempt to spec- National Council of Teachers of English (see Appendix ify “how good is good enough.” The judges in this B for a more detailed history of the project). process are classroom teachers. Standards for the English Language Arts is not New Standards is a joint program of the Learning formally linked to New Standards, the National Board Research and Development Center at the University for Professional Teaching Standards, or the National of Pittsburgh and the National Center on Education Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. and the Economy in Rochester, New York. Twenty-

86 Standards for the English Language Arts one states and school districts are Project Partners; The National Board for Professional Teaching together they enroll about half of the schoolchildren Standards in the United States. The Literacy Unit of New The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards is housed at the National Council of Standards (NBPTS) establishes high professional Teachers of English, which holds a subcontract from teaching standards and operates a voluntary certifica- New Standards. The primary assignment of the tion and assessment system. Professional teaching Literacy Unit at NCTE is to develop and pilot vari- standards specify what accomplished elementary and ous models of a portfolio assessment system. Officers secondary teachers, including English language arts of IRA and NCTE have served on the Advisory Board teachers, should know and be able to do. of the New Standards Literacy Unit, reviewing the de- NBPTS is a nonprofit organization founded in velopment of portfolio models. 1987. The NBPTS Board of Directors is composed PROFESSIONAL TEACHING STANDARDS of classroom teachers, teaching professionals, other educators, and members of the public. A majority National Council for Accreditation of Teacher of the members are practicing elementary, middle, Education and secondary school teachers, and fourteen of IRA and NCTE are active members of the National sixty-three seats are set aside for leaders of discipli- Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education nary organizations. (NCATE), which is the national organization for ac- crediting teacher education programs. COURSE AND CLASS CONTENT NCATE has approved the guidelines prepared by The development of standards or curriculum con- sixteen specialty organizations as the NCATE standards tent can take the form of an overall framework, for teacher preparation in those fields. The NCTE/ which is the purpose of this document, or can take NCATE teacher education guidelines are those criteria the form of a course syllabus or a description of one used to evaluate English language arts teacher educa- unit or segment of class content. An example of a tion programs across the United States. NCATE dele- gates to NCTE the construction of these guidelines and course syllabus is the Pacesetter course, a challeng- the actual evaluation of each teacher education pro- ing capstone English course for high school seniors, gram in English language arts which comes under developed by NCTE and the College Board and mar- NCATE review. NCTE reviews only the program for keted by the College Board. initial certification of English language arts teachers, Examples of class content can be found in the grades 7–12. The review process allows an institution numerous publications of IRA and NCTE which out- to have its English language arts teacher education line standards-consistent content of classes at differ- program evaluated by a trained team of English lan- ent grade levels. These publications can be found in guage arts educators from across the country. Appendix E, which lists teacher resources.

Overview of Standards Projects 87 Appendix D

STATE AND INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS STANDARDS

STATE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS California. (1995). Language arts standards: Draft STANDARDS interim content and performance standards. Contact: Wendy Harris, Language Arts/Foreign Alabama. (n.d.). Learning goals and performance Languages, California Department of Education, objectives. Contact: J. Steve McMiley, Alabama 721 Capitol Mall, Third Floor, Sacramento, CA Department of Education, Gordon Persons 95814. Phone: 916/657-5409. Fax: 916/657-3391. Building, 50 North Ripley Street, Montgomery, Colorado. (1994). Model content standards for AL 36130-3901. Phone: 205/242-8059. Fax: reading, writing, mathematics, science, history, 205/242-0482. and geography. Contact: Standards and Alaska. (1994). Alaska student performance Assessment Council, C.S. 6, Box 166, 1525 standards. An eight-panel brochure. Contact: Sherman Street, Denver, CO 80203-9772, or Alan Judith Entwife, Education Specialist II, Olds, English/Language Arts Senior Consultant, Department of Education, 801 West 10th Street, Colorado Department of Education, 201 East Suite 200, Juneau, AK 99801-1894. Phone: Colfax Avenue, Denver, CO 80203. Phone: 907/465-8721. Fax: 907/465-3396. 303/866-6744. Fax: 303/830-0793. Connecticut. (1995). Common core of learning. Arizona. (1989). The language arts essential skills. Contact: Angela Rose, Connecticut Department Contact: Muriel Rosmann, Writing/Language Arts of Education, Box 2219, Hartford, CT 06145. Specialist, Arizona Department of Education, Phone: 203/566-4736. Fax: 203/566-5623. 1535 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007. Phone: Delaware. (1995). English language arts content 602/542-7840. Fax: 602/542-3620. standards. Draft. Contact: Douglas Grudzina, Arkansas. (1993). Arkansas English language arts Department of Public Instruction, The Townsend curriculum framework. Draft. Contact: David Building, P.O. Box 1402, Dover, DE 19903-1402. Westmoreland, English Curriculum Specialist, Phone: 302/739-4888. Fax: 302/739-4654. Arkansas Department of Education, State District of Columbia. (in process). English language Education Building, Room 107A, 4 Capitol Mall, arts/history framework. A document will be Little Rock, AR 72201-1071. Phone: 501/682- completed in 1996. Contact: Dr. Karin Cordell, 4556. Fax: 501/682-4886. Senior Associate, Curriculum Renewal, or Gwen

88 Standards for the English Language Arts Alexander, English Language Arts Content Springfield, IL 62777. Phone: 217/782-5596. Fax: Specialist, District of Columbia Department of 217/524-1289. Education, 20th and Evarts Streets NE, Indiana. (1994). Essential skills content standards. Washington, DC 20018. Phone: 202/576-7816. Contact: Beverly Reitsma, Language Arts Fax: 202/576-7041. Consultant, Office of Program Development, Florida. (1995). The cornerstone of learning. Draft. Center for School Improvement and Contact: Susan Watt, K–12 Language Arts Performance, Room 229 State House, Program Specialist, Florida Department of Indianapolis, IN 46204-2798. Phone: 317/232- Education, Capitol Building, Suite 444, FEC, 9155. Fax: 317/232-9121. Tallahassee, FL 32399. Phone: 904/487-8819. Iowa. Creation and implementation of content Fax: 904/488-6319. standards for all subjects is left to each school Georgia. (1991). English language arts quality: core district. Contact: Lory Nels Johnson, Language curriculum. Contact: Fred Johnson, Coordinator, Arts Consultant/Coordinator, Iowa Department English Language Arts, Georgia Department of of Education, Grimes State Office Building, Education, 1954 Twin Towers East, Capitol Bureau of Instructional Services, Des Moines, IA Square, Atlanta, GA 30334. Phone: 404/656- 50319. Phone: 515/281-3145. Fax: 515/242-6025. 2586. Fax: 404/651-8582. Kansas. (1993). Curricular standards for Hawaii. (1992). Essential content. Contact: Judy A. communications. Contact: Mel Riggs, McCoy, Administrator, Languages Section, English/Language Arts Specialist, Kansas General Education Branch, Office of Department of Education, 120 East 10th, Instructional Services, 189 Lunalilo Home Road, Topeka, KS 66612. Phone: 913/296-3379. Fax: 2nd Floor, Honolulu, HI 96825. Phone: 808/396- 913/296-7933. 2505. Fax: 808/548-5390. Kentucky. (1994). Content guidelines for writing Hawaii. (1993). Student outcomes for the foundation and reading. Contact: Kaye Warner, Language program. Contact: Judy A. McCoy, Arts Consultant, Kentucky Department of Administrator, Languages Section, General Education, Capitol Plaza Tower, 18th Floor, 500 Education Branch, Office of Instructional Mero Street, Frankfort, KY 40601. Phone: Services, 189 Lunalilo Home Road, 2nd Floor, 502/564-2106. Fax: 502/564-6470. Honolulu, HI 96825. Phone: 808/396-2505. Fax: 808/548-5390. Louisiana. (in process). Contact: Katie Young, Program Manager, English, Louisiana Hawaii. (1994). Language arts standards of the Department of Education, P.O. Box 94064, Hawaii state commission on performance Baton Rouge, LA 70804. Phone: 504/342-0170. standards. Final Report. Contact: Judy A. Fax: 504/342-4474. McCoy, Administrator, Languages Section, General Education Branch, Office of Maine. (1991). Maine’s common core of learning: Instructional Services, 189 Lunalilo Home Road, An investment in Maine’s future. Contact: 2nd Floor, Honolulu, HI 96825. Phone: 808/396- Wayne L. Mowatt, Commissioner, Maine 2505. Fax: 808/548-5390. Department of Education, State House Station #23, Augusta, ME 04333. Phone: 207/287-2550. Idaho. (1994). K–12 English language arts content guide and framework. Contact: Lynette Hill, Maine. (in process). State of Maine learning results, English/Language Arts Consultant, Idaho English language arts. Contact: Nancy Andrews, Department of Education, P.O. Box 83720, English/Language Arts Coordinator, Maine Boise, ID 83720-0027. Phone: 208/334-2113. Department of Education, State House Station Fax: 208/334-2228. #23, Augusta, ME 04333. Phone: 207/287-5939. Illinois. (1995). Illinois academic standards project. Fax: 207/287-5927, Draft. Contact: Lynne Haeffele, Illinois State Maryland. (n.d.). English language arts: A Maryland Board of Education, 100 North First Street, curricular framework. Contact: Sally Walsh,

State and International English Language Arts Standards 89 Division of Instruction, Maryland State King Street, Capitol Complex, Carson City, NV Department of Education, 200 West Baltimore 89710. Phone: 702/687-3136. Fax: 702/687-5660. Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone: 410/767- New Hampshire. (1994). English/language arts 0346. Fax: 410/333-2379. curriculum framework, K–12. Draft. Contact: Massachusetts. (1995). The Massachusetts English Helen D. Schotanus, Curriculum Supervisor, language arts curriculum framework: State Department of Education, 101 Pleasant Constructing and conveying meaning. Draft. Street, Concord, NH 03301. Phone: 603/271- Contact: Judith Staten, Instruction & Curriculum 3841. Fax: 603/271-1953. Services, Massachusetts Department of New Jersey. (1995). New Jersey content standards in Education, 350 Main, Malden, MA 02148. Phone: language arts/literacy. Draft. Contact: Roseann 617/388-3300 ext. 268. Fax: 617/388-3395. Harris, Project Director, New Jersey State Michigan. (1995). Michigan model content Department of Education, 225 West State Street, standards for curriculum in English language CN 500, Trenton, NJ 08625. Phone: 609/633- arts. Contact: Sheila Potter, English Language 7180. Fax: 609/984-6032. Arts Specialist, Michigan Department of New Mexico. (in process). Language arts Education, Box 30008, Lansing, MI 48909. competency framework. Contact: Linda Romero, Phone: 517/373-8793. Fax: 517/335-2473. Language Arts Consultant, New Mexico Minnesota. (1988). Model learner outcomes for Department of Education, State Education language arts education. Contact: Al Greenfield, Building, Santa Fe, NM 87501. Phone: 505/827- Minnesota Department of Education, 635 6569. Fax: 505/827-6694. Capitol Square Building, 550 Cedar Street, St. New York. (1994). Curriculum, instruction, and Paul, MN 55101. Phone: 612/296-6104. Fax: assessment: Preliminary draft framework for 612/296-3775. English language arts. Contact: Jacqueline Mississippi. (1996). Curriculum structure. Marino, Associate in English Language Arts, Document to be completed in 1996. Contact: New York State Department of Education, Room 671 EBA Education Department, Albany, NY Jeanne Wells Cook, Language Arts Specialist, 12234. Phone: 518/486-7891. Fax: 518/473-4884. Mississippi Department of Education, P.O. Box 771, Jackson, MS 39205. Phone: 601/359-3778. North Carolina. (1992). Competency-based Fax: 601/352-7436. curriculum teacher handbook, English language arts K–12. Contact: Michael W. Frye, Subject Missouri. (1994). Communication arts curriculum Area Coordinator, English Language Arts, North framework. Draft. Contact: Charlotte O’Brien, Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 301 Language Arts Supervisor, Missouri Department North Wilmington Street, Education Building, of Education, Box 480, Jefferson City, MO Raleigh, NC 27601-2825. Phone: 919/715-1886. 65102. Phone: 314/751-0682. Fax: 314/751-9434. Fax: 919/715-1897. Montana. (1994). Framework for aesthetic literacy. North Dakota. (1994). English language arts Contact: Jan Cladouhos Hahn, Language Arts curriculum frameworks: Standards and Specialist, Montana Department of Education, benchmarks. Contact: Clarence A. Bina, Director P.O. Box 202501, Helena, MT 59620-2501. of Special Projects, Department of Public Phone: 406/444-3714. Fax: 406/444-3924. Instruction, Special Projects Unit, 600 East Nebraska. (in process). Contact: Rex Filmer, English Boulevard Avenue, 9th Floor, Bismarck, ND Consultant, Nebraska Department of Education, 58505-0440. Phone: 701/328-2098. Fax: 301 Centennial Mall South, Box 94987, Lincoln, NE 701/328-4770. 68509. Phone: 402/471-4336. Fax: 402/471-0117. Ohio. (1992). Model competency-based language Nevada. (1994). Nevada English language arts arts program. Contact: Carol Brown, framework. Draft 2. Contact: Julie Gabica, English/Language Arts Consultant, Ohio Nevada Department of Education, 400 West Department of Education, 65 South Front Street,

90 Standards for the English Language Arts Columbus, OH 43266-0308. Phone: 614/466- Texas. (1993). Essential elements for English 2761. Fax: 614/752-8148. language arts. Contact: Lawrence L. Richard, Oklahoma. (1993). Priority academic student skills. Assistant Director, English Language Arts and Contact: Claudette Goss, Language Arts Reading, Division of Curriculum and Textbooks, Coordinator, State Department of Education, 1701 North Congress Avenue, Austin, TX 78701- 2500 North Lincoln Boulevard, Oklahoma City, 1494. Phone: 512/463-9273. Fax: 512/475-3667. OK 73105-4599. Phone: 405/522-3522. Fax: Utah. (1995). Standards for Utah, K–6. Draft. 405/521-6205. Contact: Richard Harmston, Elementary Language Arts Specialist or Mary Beth Clark, Oregon. (in process). Contact: English/Language Secondary Language Arts Specialist, Utah State Specialist, Oregon Department of Education, Office of Education, 250 East Fifth South, Salt 255 Capitol Street NE, Salem, OR 97310. Phone: Lake City, UT 84111-3204. Phone: 801/538-7765. 503/378-3602. Fax: 503/373-7968. Fax: 801/538-7769. Pennsylvania. (1990). Pennsylvania framework for Vermont. (1994). Vermont’s common core reading, writing and talking across the framework for curriculum and assessment. curriculum: PCRP II. Contact: Diane K. Draft. Contact: Douglas Walker, External Skiffington, English/Language Arts Coordinator, Manager, Vermont Department of Education, Pennsylvania Department of Education, 333 Teaching and Learning Team, 120 State Street, Market Street, 8th Floor, Harrisburg, PA 17126. Montpelier, VT 05620-2501. Phone: 802/828- Phone: 717/787-5482. Fax: 717/783-3946. 3111. Fax: 802/828-3140. Rhode Island. (1994). Developing a common core of Virginia. (1995). Language arts standards of learning: A report on what we heard. Draft. learning. Draft. Contact: Kenneth Bradford, Contact: Marie C. DiBiasio, Rhode Island Principal Specialist for English/Reading, Virginia Department of Education, 22 Hayes Street, Department of Education, P.O. Box 2120, Providence, RI 02908. Phone: 401/277-2648 or Richmond, VA 23216-2120. Phone: 804/225- 401/277-2649. Fax: 401/277-6033. 2888. Fax: 804/371-0249. South Carolina. (1995). English language arts Washington. (1995). English language arts K–12 framework. Draft. Contact: Cheryl Sigmon, curriculum guidelines. Contact: Gayle Pauley, Language Arts Consultant, South Carolina, Reading/Language Arts Supervisor, Washington Department of Education, 801 Rutledge Department of Education, Old Capitol Building, Building, 1429 Senate, Columbia, SC 29201. P.O. Box 47200, Olympia, WA 98504-7200. Phone: 803/734-8362. Fax: 803/734-8624. Phone: 206/753-2858. Fax: 206/753-6754. South Dakota. (1996). Communication standards: West Virginia. (1993). English language arts English language arts. Draft 2. Contact: Dr. instructional goals and objectives. Contact: Margo Heinert, English Language Arts Robert Harrison, Director, Office of Professional Coordinator, South Dakota Department of Development, West Virginia Department of Education, 700 Governor’s Drive, Pierre, SD Education, 1900 Kanawha Boulevard East, 57501. Phone: 605/773-3134. Fax: 605/773-6139. Charleston, WV 25305-0330. Phone: 304/558- Tennessee. (1993). Curriculum framework for 2702. Fax: 304/558-0882. language arts: English goals and objectives Wisconsin. (1991). Guide to curriculum planning in 9–12. Contact: Dr. Kathryne H. Pugh, Language English language arts. Contact: Ellen Last, Arts/Foreign Language Consultant, Tennessee Consultant, English/Language Arts Education, Department of Education, Eighth Floor, Wisconsin Department of Education, 125 South Gateway Plaza, 710 James Robertson Parkway, Webster Street, P.O. Box 7841, Madison, WI Nashville, TN 37243-0379. Phone: 615/532-6283. 53707-7841. Phone: 608/267-9265. Fax: Fax: 615/532-8536. 608/264-9553.

State and International English Language Arts Standards 91 Wyoming. (in process). Contact: Nancy Leinius, Title 3BT, England, or Welsh Office Education VI (Chapter 2) Consultant, Wyoming Department Department, Phase 2, Government Buildings, Ty of Education, Hathaway Building, 2nd Floor, Glas Road, Llanishen, Cardiff CF4 5WE, Wales. Cheyenne, WY 82002-0050. Phone: 307/777- New Zealand. (1994). English in the New Zealand 6226. Fax: 307/777-6234 or 307/777-5421. curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand. Prepared by the Ministry of Education. Contact: Learning INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE Media Ltd. Box 3293, Wellington, New Zealand. ARTS STANDARDS Nova Scotia. (1994). English language arts P–12 Australia. (1994). 1. A statement on English for outcomes. Prepared by the Nova Scotia Australian schools. 2. English—a curriculum Department of Education and Culture. Contact: profile for Australian schools. 3. Using the Ann Blackwood, Department of Education and English profile. Carlton, Australia: Curriculum Culture, Box 578, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3J 2R7, Corporation. Prepared by Australian Education Canada. Phone: 902/424-5430. Council, the National Council of Ministers of Education. Contact: David Francis, Executive Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Director, Curriculum Corporation, St. Nicholas Prince Edward Island. (1995). Foundation for Place, 141 Rathdowne St., Carlton Vic 3053, the Atlantic Canada English language arts Australia. Phone: 011-613-639-0699. Fax: 011- curriculum. Validation draft. Prepared by the 613-639-1616. four provinces. Contact: Ann Blackwood, Department of Education and Culture, Box 578, British Columbia. (1992). 1. Evaluating writing across Halifax, Nova Scotia B3J 2R7, Canada. Phone: curriculum: Using the writing reference set to 902/424-5430. support learning. 2. Evaluating writing across curriculum: Student samples for the writing Ontario. (1995). Provincial standards, language, reference set. Prepared by the Ministry of grades 1–9. Field test version. Prepared by the Education and the Ministry Responsible for Ontario Ministry of Education and Training. Multiculturalism and Human Rights, Contact: Mary Lou Sutar-Hynes, Ministry of Examinations Branch. Contact: Becky Matthews, Education and Training, 16th Floor, Mowat Director, Examinations Branch, Parliament Block, 900 Bay Street, Toronto, Ontario M7A Buildings, Victoria, British Columbia V8V 2M4, 1L2, Canada. Phone: 416/325-2376. Canada. 3. Primary through graduation Saskatchewan. (1989). 1. Policy for English curriculum/assessment framework: Humanities language arts kindergarten to grade twelve for strand, language arts English. Prepared by the Saskatchewan schools. Summary Paper. 2. Ministry of Education and the Ministry English language arts: A curriculum guide for Responsible for Multiculturalism and Human the elementary level. Contact: Saskatchewan Rights, Curriculum Development Branch. Education, Training and Employment, 2220 Contact: Robin Syme, Director, Curriculum College Avenue, Regina, Saskatchewan S4P 3V7, Development Branch, Room 206, 633 Courtney Canada. Phone: 306/787-6030. Street, Victoria, British Columbia V8V 2M4, Scotland. (1991). Curriculum and assessment in Canada. Phone: 604/356-2317. Fax: 604/356-2316. Scotland, national guidelines: English language England and Wales. (1995). English in the national 5–14. Prepared by the Scottish Office Education curriculum. London: HMSO. Prepared by Department. Contact: The Scottish Office Department for Education, Welsh Office. Education Department, New St. Andrew’s Contact: Department of Education, Sanctuary House, Edinburgh EH1 3SY, Scotland. Fax: Buildings, Great Smith Street, London SWIP 031/244-4785.

92 Standards for the English Language Arts Appendix E

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS

The following teacher resources are available from IRA and NCTE.

STANDARDS-RELATED BOOKS Standards in Practice Series This series illustrates how students, teachers, parents, and schools can work together to meet higher literacy achievement standards. Each book offers descriptive vignettes that demonstrate how en- lightened thinking about teaching and learning can foster student achievement in the language arts. Crafton, L. K. (1996). Standards in practice, grades K–2. NCTE. Sierra-Perry, M. (1996). Standards in practice, grades 3–5. NCTE. Smagorinsky, P. (1996). Standards in practice, grades 9–12. NCTE. Wilhelm, J. D. (1996). Standards in practice, grades 6–8. NCTE. Standards Consensus Series Books in this ongoing series are designed to serve as useful guides for teachers who are striving to align lively, classroom-tested practices with standards. Each book surveys local, state, and national standards to highlight key topics of consensus and then presents the best teaching ideas from prior NCTE publications on those topics. Motivating writing in middle school. (1996). NCTE. Teaching literature in high school: The novel. (1995). NCTE. Teaching literature in middle school: Fiction. (1996). NCTE. Teaching the writing process in high school. (1995). NCTE. IRA/NCTE Joint Task Force on Assessment. (1994). Standards for the assessment of reading and writing. IRA and NCTE. This landmark report is the culmination of a joint IRA/NCTE effort to define standards for assessing literacy in ways that further learning rather than distort it. The report offers guidelines for assessment methods that reflect the complex interactions now recognized among teachers, learners, texts, and communities; that ensure fair and equitable treatment of all students; and that foster the critical, reflective literacy our society requires. IRA Professional Standards and Ethics Committee & Advisory Group to the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education Joint Task Force. Standards for reading professionals. (1992). IRA. Designed to assist in the establishment and evaluation of programs of teacher preparation, to guide the individual professional who seeks to assess and develop his or her own qualifications, and to inform public and state agencies as they shape reading instruction now and in the future.

Resources for Teachers 93 ASSESSMENT ment without sacrificing accountability, validity, and reliability of results. Education Department of South Australia. (1991). Literacy assessment in practice: Language arts. Yancey, K. B. (Ed.). (1992). Portfolios in the writing Education Department of South Australia. classroom: An introduction. NCTE. Distributed by NCTE. Classroom teachers from various backgrounds re- Provides a comprehensive framework for defin- flect upon how using portfolios has shaped their ing and organizing all the various aspects of lit- own teaching. They discuss ways to introduce eracy that might need to be considered in literacy portfolios into the classroom, different models assessment. It also offers teachers a range of and assessment practices for portfolio projects, practical ideas to incorporate into the assessment and new kinds of collaboration among students process. Grades K–7. and teachers. Grades 7–College. Jongsma, E., & Farr, R. (Eds.). (1993). Literacy BUILDING LITERACY COMMUNITIES assessment. (Themed issue of the Journal of Reading, April 1993). IRA. Brooke, R., Mirtz, R., & Evans, R. (1994). Small groups in writing workshops: Invitations to a This offprint contains seven articles that address writer’s life. NCTE. issues surrounding the demand for educational reform; the mismatch between testing and cur- Drawing on their own and their students’ expe- riculum; and the search for standards and the im- riences in a variety of response groups, the au- plications for assessment at the middle school thors suggest four principles on which level and in secondary, college, and workplace writing-intensive classrooms can be designed: literacy programs. time provided for writing, student ownership of the choice of topic and genre, constant and con- Ransom, K., Roettger, D. D., & Staplin, P. M. tinuous response to writing throughout the cre- (Project Coordinators). (1995). Reading ative process, and exposure to many different assessment in practice. IRA. people’s writing. Grades 9–College. A video-based staff development program de- Golub, J. N. (1994). Activities for an interactive signed to help teachers examine issues and prac- classroom. NCTE. tices in performance assessment, identify new opportunities to observe and assess student read- Offers stimulating exercises to shift the process of reading and writing from a solitary activity to a ing performance, and reflect on their own assess- group experience. Grades 7–12. ment practices. The program includes one 45-minute video, a viewer’s handbook, a book of Golub, J., & the NCTE Committee on Classroom readings (28 articles from The Reading Teacher Practices. (1988). Focus on collaborative and the Journal of Reading), and one copy each learning. Classroom Practices in Teaching of Authentic Reading Assessment: Practices and English series. NCTE. Possibilities and Standards for the Assessment of The first section of this book provides guidelines Reading and Writing. for developing these collaborative learning skills. Valencia, S. W., Hiebert, E. H., & Afflerbach, P. P. Other sections contain activities for literature (Eds.). (1993). Authentic reading assessment: study; writing, revising, and editing; and televi- Practices and possibilities. IRA. sion, music, and scriptwriting. Grades K–College. This publication presents nine case studies that Marzano, R. J. (1991). Cultivating thinking in demonstrate how the challenge of reforming as- English and the language arts. NCTE. sessment can be met at the school, district, and Describes four patterns of thought particularly state or provincial levels. The studies are written compatible with English/language arts instruc- by educators actually involved in efforts to cre- tion: (1) contextual thinking, (2) thinking that fa- ate assessments that match instruction and yield cilitates the construction of meaning, (3) thinking an authentic picture of students’ literacy develop- that enhances knowledge development, and (4)

94 Standards for the English Language Arts thinking that results in higher-order learning. Reading and young children: A practical guide for Marzano maintains that helping students devel- child care providers. (1992). IRA. op these four patterns of thought will require sig- This 12-minute video provides general, practical nificant shifts in the form and function of information on the importance of making reading English/language arts instruction. Grades 5–12. a part of every child’s day. The video demon- Yatvin, J. (1991/1992). Developing a whole language strates techniques for reading aloud, choral read- program for a whole school. Virginia State ing, using Big Books, and storytelling. Reading Association/IRA. Roskos, K. A., Vukelich, C., Christie, J. F., Enz, B. J., Succinctly presents a solid, readable description & Neuman, S. B. (1995). Linking literacy and of the principles on which whole language is play. IRA. based and provides thoughtful responses to This 12-minute video with facilitator’s guide and many concerns raised by teachers who are start- book of readings provides early childhood teaching out with whole language. ers with ideas about how to use the natural environment of play to foster literacy development. EMERGENT LITERACY Four topics are addressed: exploring beliefs Adams, M. J., with Stahl, S. A., Osborn, J., & Lehr, F. about literacy in play, creating literacy-based en- (Summary Authors). (1990). Beginning to read: riched play environments, understanding adult Thinking and learning about print, a summary. roles that support literacy, and promoting literacy Center for the Study of Reading, University of while preserving play. Illinois. Strickland, D. S., & Morrow, L. M. (Eds.). (1989). Drawn from the larger work of the same title, this Emerging literacy: Young children learn to read summary describes important issues in beginning and write. IRA. reading and features a comprehensive review of Offers practical ideas for day care workers, class- research from the fields of cognitive psychology, room teachers, and curriculum specialists. developmental psychology, linguistics, computer science, and anthropology, as well as educa- ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE tion and reading. Olivares, R. A. (1993). Using the newspaper to teach Goodman, Y. M. (Ed.). (1990). How children ESL learners. IRA. construct literacy: Piagetian perspectives. IRA. Addresses the use of newspapers as an instruc- Presents a wealth of information on children’s lit- tional tool for English as a Second Language eracy development. Topics examined include the (ESL) students and provides practical suggestions evolution of literacy development, applications based on solid theory. This book emphasizes us- of psychogenetic literacy research to literacy ed- ing newspapers to teach second language learn- ucation, children’s knowledge about literacy de- ers basic language skills as well as math, science, velopment, and the influences of classroom-social and social studies content. settings on the development of literacy. Rigg, P., & Allen, V. G. (Eds.). (1989). When they Morrow, L. M., Burks, S. P., & Rand, M. K. don’t all speak English: Integrating the ESL (Eds./Compilers). (1992). Resources in early student into the regular classroom. NCTE. literacy development: An annotated A collection of essays by notable figures in ESL bibliography. IRA. teaching and research who outline principles and Identifies a wealth of resources in a concise, ac- techniques for working effectively with language- cessible volume for teachers, parents, and admin- minority students in the classroom. Grades K–9. istrators; includes books, book chapters, Spangenberg-Urbschat, K., & Pritchard, R. (Eds.). pamphlets, journals, journal articles, videos, and (1994). Kids come in all languages: Reading other materials. instruction for ESL students. IRA.

Resources for Teachers 95 Identifies and answers the major questions sur- Includes descriptions of more than 200 maga- rounding reading instruction for ESL students. zines from around the world on topics from car Includes topics such as creating learning settings racing to learning French to protecting native that emphasize communicative fluency, imple- African wildlife. menting authentic, meaning-centered instructional activities, and assessing literacy development. INQUIRY Grades K–8. Bosma, B., & Guth, N. D. (1995). Children’s literature in an integrated curriculum: The FAMILY LITERACY authentic voice. Teachers College Press/IRA. Hydrick, J. (1996). Parent’s guide to literacy for the Details success stories from classroom teachers 21st century: Pre-K through Grade 5. NCTE. who have integrated language arts, science, so- Explains key literacy topics and offers concrete cial studies, and other content areas by using suggestions for activities parents can do at home children’s literature as a bridge. Includes ac- with their children. counts of teachers working with at-risk learners Morrow, L. M. (Ed.). (1995). Family literacy and multiaged groups of students. connections in schools and communities. IRA. Freeman, E. B., & Person, D. G. (Eds.). (1992). Presents a wide variety of school-based and Using nonfiction trade books in the elementary organization-sponsored programs and initiatives, classroom: From ants to zeppelins. NCTE. from which practitioners and researchers will Discusses the genre of nonfiction, the link be- learn how others are responding to the needs of tween nonfiction and the elementary curriculum, families and will gain insight into how to develop and the use of nonfiction in the elementary class- new programs. room. The collection contains numerous sugges- Morrow, L. M., Neuman, S. B., Paratore, J. R., & tions for classroom activities and features an Harrison, C. (Eds.). (1995). Parents and literacy. extensive bibliography. Grades K–6. IRA. Tchudi, S. (Ed.). (1993). The astonishing This offprint of the combined April 1995 issues of curriculum: Integrating science and humanities The Reading Teacher and the Journal of Reading through language. NCTE. addresses the growing concerns of educators re- This book delves into the possibilities of inter- garding family literacy. Twelve articles, present- disciplinary learning and integrated curriculum ing different perspectives on the issues of family through the structuring and expressive powers of literacy, challenge and encourage educators to language. The fifteen chapters explore the issues review current programs, rethink definitions and of bridging the gap between the two cultures of perceptions, and reformulate projects and prac- science and humanities, demystifying science for tices in order to develop stronger home/school learners, teaching students to construct and ex- partnerships. plain their own knowledge, integrating science Morrow, L. M., Tracey, D. H., & Maxwell, C. M. and humanities with society, and creating a lan- (Eds.). (1995). A survey of family literacy in the guage base for learning. Grades K–College. United States. IRA. Traces the field’s historical development and pro- INTEGRATING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE vides an overview of the current state of family ARTS literacy in the United States. Includes discussions Flurkey, A. D., & Meyer, R. J. (Eds.). (1994). Under of more than 100 sources of information about the whole language umbrella: Many cultures, family literacy issues. many voices. NCTE and Whole Language Stoll, D. R. (Ed.). (1994). Magazines for kids and Umbrella. teens. Educational Press Association of This collection brings together respected whole America/IRA. language leaders—classroom teachers, theorists,

96 Standards for the English Language Arts researchers, and teacher educators—to provide Smagorinsky, P. (1991). Expressions: Multiple a comprehensive view of whole language. intelligences in the English class. Theory and Grades K–8. Research Into Practice series. NCTE. Gallas, K. (1994). The languages of learning: How Presents evidence supporting recognition of four children talk, write, dance, draw, and sing their scales of intelligence—the spatial, musical, bodily- understanding to the world. Teachers College kinesthetic, and interpersonal-intrapersonal—that Press/IRA. are not as commonly assessed as are the linguistic and logical-mathematical competencies. The Offers a fresh approach to understanding how “Practice” section helps teachers develop learning young children communicate their knowledge of situations that encourage students to exercise the world with a definition of narrative that in- these alternative intelligences. Grades 7–12. cludes the many types of communication chil- Voices from the middle. The first-year collection. dren use to express their thoughts. (1995). NCTE. Gere, A. R. (Ed.). (1985). Roots in the sawdust: This collection highlights the ways that middle Writing to learn across the disciplines. NCTE. school teachers can make learning more mean- Teacher-authors from a wide variety of disci- ingful, purposeful, and enriching for their stu- plines detail how they have successfully used dents. Topics include responding to literature, composition exercises to measurably improve building literacy pathways for at-risk students, their students’ comprehension—without creating developing portfolio cultures, and enhancing reading processes. a grading nightmare for themselves. Grades K–College. LANGUAGE Primary voices K–6: The first-year collection. Cullinan, B. E. (Ed.). (1993). Children’s voices: Talk (1994). NCTE. in the classroom. IRA. In its first year, Primary Voices K–6 addressed Presents a collection of essays designed to sug- many of the key issues affecting English/lan- gest ways teachers can help children develop guage arts education today—inquiry-based in- their speaking and listening abilities. Activities struction and evaluation, theme cycles, writing such as storytelling, creative drama, small-group to learn, and improving teaching and learning. discussions, and literature circles are used to lead Grades K–6. students to talking, listening, learning, and fun Primary voices K–6: The second-year collection. in the classroom. (1995). NCTE. McAlexander, P. J., Dobie, A. B., & Gregg, N. (1992). Beyond the “SP” label: Improving the This second-year bound volume addresses impor- spelling of learning disabled and basic writers. tant English language arts topics like generative Theory and Research Into Practice series. NCTE. curriculum, conflict resolution, children’s litera- This book provides both research and practical ture, and talking and learning in the classroom. activities to help learning disabled and basic writ- Raines, S. C. (Ed.). (1995). Whole language across ers become better spellers. Grades 7–College. the curriculum: Grades 1, 2, 3. Teachers College Noguchi, R. R. (1991). Grammar and the teaching Press/IRA. of writing: Limits and possibilities. NCTE. Shows primary teachers what it means to be a Noguchi argues that the main reason formal gram- whole language teacher and how to incorporate mar instruction does not help students improve the best whole language practices into their own their writing is that teachers have had unrealistic teaching. Provides classroom models for gradual- expectations of what grammar can do. He believes ly accommodating this theoretical base for in- that grammar can help students—but only with struction called whole language. style, not with content or organization—and he

Resources for Teachers 97 suggests presenting students with a “writer’s gram- Dyson, A. H., & Genishi, C. (Eds.). (1994). The need mar” that specifically addresses the problems that for story: Cultural diversity in classroom and crop up most often or those that society deems community. NCTE. most serious. Grades 7–College. Nineteen contributors explore the nature of Robinson, R. (1988). Unlocking Shakespeare’s story—the basic functions it serves, its connections language: Help for the teacher and student. to the diverse sociocultural landscape of our soci- Theory and Research Into Practice series. ety, and its power in the classroom. Emphasizing ERIC/RCS and NCTE. the complex relationships among story, ethnicity, With the activities in this book, students can and gender, the book includes within its scope come to understand the language of Shakespeare stories both oral and written, those authored by by learning to recognize and translate trouble- children and by teachers, professionally produced some words and syntactic patterns. Grades 7–12. or created in the classroom. Grades K–12. Weaver, C. (1979). Grammar for teachers: LITERATURE Perspectives and definitions. NCTE. Anderson, P. M., & Rubano, G. (1991). Enhancing Discusses the nature of language processes and aesthetic reading and response. Theory and shows some of the ways teachers can put their Research Into Practice series. NCTE. own knowledge of grammar to use without in- timidating or overwhelming students. The book Aesthetic dimensions of the English curriculum also presents a basic grammar text for teachers are explored in this TRIP booklet, which draws that covers all three systematic grammars: tradi- upon the reader response theory of Louise tional, structural, and transformational. Grades Rosenblatt, as well as the research of James K–College. Britton, Alan Purves, Lee Galda, Arthur Applebee, and others. Grades 5–12. LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL Applebee, A. N. (1993). Literature in the secondary DIFFERENCES school: Studies of curriculum and instruction in Cook, L., & Lodge, H. C. (Eds.). (1995). Voices in the United States. NCTE Research Report No. 25. English classrooms: Honoring diversity and NCTE. change. Vol. 28, Classroom Practices in Applebee provides a scholarly appraisal of the lit- Teaching English series. NCTE. erature curriculum at the middle school and sec- Organized into three language, composition, and ondary levels, based on a series of field studies literature strands, nineteen essays affirm that “di- examining literature instruction in public and pri- versity connotes the challenge and reward of vate schools. He concludes that the selections providing quality programs and instruction that chosen for study in American secondary schools tap into the experience that students bring to are neither as inappropriate as many critics sug- their learning.” gest nor as well-chosen as the profession might Daniels, H. A. (Ed.). (1990). Not only English: want them to be. Grades 7–College. Affirming America’s multilingual heritage. NCTE. Beach, R. (1993). A teacher’s introduction to reader- The book is divided into four sections: the first response theories. Vol. 3, Teacher’s Introduction describes the nature, development, and extent series. NCTE. of the contemporary English-only movement; the Provides a comprehensive overview of the wide second looks at the potential impact of the pro- range of reader-response theories that have revo- posed federal English Language Amendment; the lutionized the fields of literary theory, criticism, third analyzes the causes and motivations of lan- and pedagogy. Beach discusses the relationships guage protectionism; and the fourth suggests po- between reader and text from five theoretical litical and professional responses to the perspectives: textual, experiential, psychologi- English-only movement. Grades K–College. cal, social, and cultural. Grades 7–College.

98 Standards for the English Language Arts Cullinan, B. E. (Ed.). (1992). Invitation to read: More Langer, J. A. (1995). Envisioning literature: Literary children’s literature in the reading program. IRA. understanding and literature instruction. Discusses ways to use children’s literature in the Teachers College Press/IRA. classroom with many creative ideas for using Langer proposes new ways of thinking about lit- poetry, fiction, and nonfiction in a literature- erature instruction and its contribution to stu- based reading program and for learning across dents’ learning. She focuses her theory of the curriculum. literature instruction on creating “literate commu- Cullinan, B. E. (Ed.). (1993). Fact and fiction: nities” in the classroom and developing a reader- Literature across the curriculum. IRA. based pedagogy for all students. The book is rich Discusses how to use trade books across the cur- with narratives of actual classroom experiences riculum in innovative ways. Historical fiction, in elementary, middle, and high schools in ur- books from and about other cultures, and nonfic- ban and suburban communities. tion on a range of topics can enliven social stud- Langer, J. A. (Ed.). (1992). Literature instruction: A ies units. Favorite books have great potential for focus on student response. NCTE. teaching common mathematical concepts such as This collection of essays by major researchers in time, classification, and money. the teaching of literature summarizes current Davis, J. E., & Salomone, R. E. (Eds.). (1993). classroom practice and reader-response theory Teaching Shakespeare today: Practical and offers practical strategies for instruction de- approaches and productive strategies. NCTE. signed to engage students creatively in the ex- The first section of the book is a general collec- perience of literature. Grades K–College. tion of different approaches to Shakespeare, both Lee, C. D. (1993). Signifying as a scaffold for critical and pedagogical. The second section fo- literary interpretation: The pedagogical cuses on performance-oriented teaching strate- implications of an African American discourse gies. Pedagogical strategies for using extratextual genre. NCTE Research Report No. 26. NCTE. resources—mostly film, but also live theater, fes- tivals, computerized hypertext, and knowledge Argues for an instructional model that brings bases—are discussed in the third section. Grades “community-based prior knowledge” to the fore- 7–College. front of the classroom. Students in Lee’s urban high school already had an understanding of sig- Goebel, B. A., & Hall, J. C. (Eds.). (1995). Teaching nifying, a mode of discourse in African American a “new canon”? Students, teachers, and texts in speech. In the author’s own words, this report the college literature classroom. NCTE. provides “an example of an instructional ap- Focuses on identifying a practical pedagogy that proach which speaks to the problems of literacy will serve a dynamic student population and rap- in African American and, by extension, other eth- idly changing reading lists. Contributors evaluate nically diverse populations, as well as to the the adaptability of portfolios, team teaching, problems that plague literature instruction in U.S. theme-based units, alternative assessments, and schools.” Grades 7–College. writing assignments as potential strategies to be employed in “dealing with difference” in the liter- Macon, J. M., Bewell, D., & Vogt, M. E. (1990). ature classroom. Grades 9–College. Responses to literature, grades K–8. IRA. Kahn, E. A., Walter, C. C., & Johannessen, L. R. (1984). Provides classroom activities that encourage stu- Writing about literature. Theory and Research Into dents to think more as they read and to focus on Practice series. ERIC/RCS and NCTE. the literary elements of a story. Presents a set of sequences designed to teach Marshall, J. D., Smagorinsky, P., & Smith, M. W. students to support an interpretation, explicate (1994). The language of interpretation: Patterns an implied relationship, and analyze an author’s of discourse in discussions of literature. NCTE generalizations. Grades 7–College. Research Report No. 27. NCTE.

Resources for Teachers 99 Drawing on interviews and on the actual lan- Nearly thirty teacher contributors share their guage that readers use to interpret and respond classroom-tested approaches and activities for to literary texts, the researchers examine the con- encouraging this response and growth. Part 1 fo- ventions that shape talk about literature in large cuses more generally on how students collabo- groups, small groups, and adult book clubs. By rate and create meaning from what they read. In looking across contexts, the authors raise chal- Part 2, the contributors present ways to help stu- lenging questions about the usual ways of talking dents connect with literature through specific and thinking about literature and suggest some reading, listening, and writing strategies. Grades promising alternatives based on new theories of K–College. literary understanding. Grades 7–College. Roser, N. L., & Martinez, M. G. (Eds.). (1995). Book McClure, A. A., & Kristo, J. V. (Eds.). (1994). talk and beyond: Children and teachers respond Inviting children’s responses to literature: to literature. IRA. Guides to 57 notable books. NCTE. Details actual classroom dialogues that demon- A practical collection of ideas intended to help strate how teachers can achieve the important teachers invite preschool through middle school goal of fostering children’s literary development; readers to respond more thoughtfully to books. offers ideas for using children’s literature such Each guide’s teaching suggestions highlight activ- as forming teacher and student book clubs, ities that encourage children to use conversation, teaching and using webbing and language charts, writing, reading, and listening to respond to the and exploring literature through drama and art. stories, compare those stories to others they have read, and make connections with their own ex- Rygiel, M. A. (1992). Shakespeare among periences. Grades K–8. schoolchildren: Approaches for the secondary Meltzer, M. (Ed.). (1994). Nonfiction for the classroom. NCTE. classroom: Milton Meltzer on writing, history, Rygiel combines conventional Shakespeare les- and social responsibility. Teachers College sons with ideas and teaching practices that ad- Press/IRA. dress contemporary concerns about teaching this Advocates enlivening the teaching of history and canonical figure to today’s students. Grades 7–12. social studies through the use of well-written Short, K. G. (Ed.). (1995). Research and trade books; deals both with reading and writ- professional resources in children’s literature: ing nonfiction and with teaching and learning Piecing a patchwork quilt. IRA. history. Brings together a volume of research on chil- Nelms, B. F. (Ed.). (1988). Literature in the dren’s literature that will provide teachers, re- classroom: Readers, texts, and context. NCTE. searchers, and librarians with important Eighteen essays discuss the teaching of literature information for further research and curriculum from first grade through senior high school with- development. in a variety of theoretical perspectives. Smith, M. W. (1991). Understanding unreliable Oliver, E. I. (1994). Crossing the mainstream: narrators: Reading between the lines in the Multicultural perspectives in teaching literature. literature classroom. Theory and Research Into NCTE. Practice series. NCTE. Gives both a rationale and practical resources for Smith takes an honest look at the practice of providing a more complete treatment of teaching literature to secondary students. He America’s literature in high school and college points to studies that show students learn better classrooms. Grades 7–College. when they are actively engaged in drawing in- Phelan, P. (Ed.). (1990). Literature and life: Making ferences from what they read, and underscores connections in the classroom. Vol. 25, Classroom the importance of the reader’s ability to assess Practices in Teaching English series. NCTE. the integrity of an author’s characters without re-

100 Standards for the English Language Arts lying on either the narrator or the teacher to do Bishop, R. S. (Ed.). (1994). Kaleidoscope: A the work. Grades 5–12. multicultural booklist for grades K–8 (1st ed.). Sorensen, M. R., & Lehman, B. A. (Eds.). (1995). NCTE. Teaching with children’s books: Paths to Provides annotations of nearly 400 multicultural literature-based instruction. NCTE. books published between 1990 and 1992. To highlight both commonalities and differences Twenty-seven essays by teachers, administrators, among cultures, chapters group books by genre and teacher educators focus on practical experi- or theme rather than by cultural group. Includes ences with literature-based instruction and are fiction and nonfiction. Grades K–8. grouped into eight steps along the pathway to using literature in the classroom: understanding, Brailsford, A. (1991). Paired reading: Positive considering, preparing, modeling, teaching, col- reading practice. Northern Alberta Reading Specialists’ Council/IRA. laborating, assessing, and supporting. Grades K–8. This video-based training package demonstrates Stewig, J., & Sebesta, S. (Eds.). (1989). Using literature the paired reading technique in three different in the elementary classroom (Rev. ed.). NCTE. settings. Suggestions for organizing paired read- “Many of us were concerned about the fragmen- ing projects in school or adult literacy settings, tation of reading into several hundred skills. We samples of inservice handouts, and evaluation wondered if reading, like Humpty Dumpty, materials are presented in the companion guide. could ever be put together again.” The essays Carlsen, G. R., & Sherrill, A. (1988). Voices of contained in this book provide rationales, expla- readers: How we come to love books. NCTE. nations, applications, and examples of using chil- Using more than 1,000 “reading autobiographies” dren’s literature in the classroom. Grades K–6. collected over the past thirty years, the authors Vine, H. A., Jr., & Faust, M. A. (1993). Situating develop fresh views of reading by listening to the readers: Students making meaning of literature. voices of readers who have written about their NCTE. experiences with books. Grades K–College. Using an approach they developed and refined Christenbury, L. (Ed.). (1995). Books for you: An over their combined forty-four years of teaching, annotated booklist for senior high students. NCTE. Vine and Faust encourage literature teachers at Designed to assist students, high school teachers, the high school and college levels to empower and librarians, this book surveys more than 1,000 their students as readers—and meaning- titles grouped by subject into thirty-five thematic makers—of literature. Grades 7–College. chapters. Each entry includes full bibliographic information, a concise summary of the book’s READING contents, and a notation about any awards the Allington, R. L., & Walmsley, S. A. (Eds.). (1995). No book has won. Grades 7–12. quick fix: Rethinking literacy programs in Cramer, E. H., & Castle, M. (Eds.). (1994). Fostering America’s elementary schools. Teachers College the love of reading: The affective domain in Press/IRA. reading education. IRA. Provides suggestions to improve instruction for Among the questions explored in this volume all children, particularly those who are at risk and are: Why do some people who can read simply often do not succeed in today’s classrooms. choose not to, while others read widely for in- Discusses practical matters such as funding, cur- formation and pleasure? How important is read- riculum, and assessment; presents numerous case ing in modern life? What can teachers do to studies of effective programs; challenges the sta- encourage the development of the reading habit? tus quo; and contributes to the work of shaping Duffy, G. G. (Ed.). (1990). Reading in the middle education for the twenty-first century. school (2nd ed.). IRA.

Resources for Teachers 101 Combines both theory and practical suggestions ask about the role of phonics in a whole lan- for creating effective instructional improvement guage curriculum. Grades 1–6. through collaboration among teachers and uni- Samuels, B. G., & Beers, G. K. (Eds.). (1995). Your versity faculty. reading: An annotated booklist for middle Harste, J. C. (1989). New policy guidelines for school and junior high (1995–96 ed.). NCTE. reading: Connecting research and practice. Covering young adult literature published in 1993 NCTE and ERIC/RCS. and 1994, the book contains more than 1,200 an- To arrive at the policy guidelines presented in this notations organized by topic. Half of the annota- book, Harste and others at Indiana University re- tions are on nonfiction subjects. Also includes a viewed research studies from a ten-year period list of 100 notable young adult books published (1974–84), as well as classroom practices in read- during the twenty-five years prior to this edition ing instruction in thirteen states and Canada. The of Your Reading. Grades 6–9. guidelines describe a curriculum in which reading Slaughter, J. P. (1993). Beyond storybooks: Young and writing are tools for learning: where children children and the shared book experience. IRA. learn to read by reading and to write by writing, A practical, hands-on book for people working and where children are permitted to choose read- with emergent, developing, and at-risk readers ing materials, activities, and ways to demonstrate in the preschool and early elementary years; in- their understanding of texts. Grades K–12. spires creative teachers and children to come up Jensen, J. M., & Roser, N. L. (Eds.). (1993). with thousands of projects of their own, and Adventuring with books: A booklist for pre- thereby become curriculum planners and devel- K–grade 6 (10th ed.). NCTE. opers as they take ownership of their teaching Illustrated with photographs featuring the covers and learning. Includes an annotated bibliography of many of the books included, this enlarged of more than 100 children’s books. tenth edition contains summaries of nearly 1,800 Wood, K. D., Lapp, D., & Flood, J. (1992). Guiding children’s books published between 1988 and readers through text: A review of study guides. IRA. 1992. Grades K–6. Discusses why and how study guides help stu- Kibby, M. W. (1995). Practical steps for informing dents comprehend text, while emphasizing the literacy instruction: A diagnostic decision- most effective ways to use these guides in the making model. IRA. classroom; gives complete descriptions, along Details steps elementary teachers and special ed- with examples from a wide variety of lessons in ucation teachers need to take as they assess a primary through secondary grades. student’s reading abilities in order to make decisions about instruction; presents a cognitive RESEARCH ON TEACHING organizer of the components and strategies im- AND LEARNING portant to a successful reading and a schema for Flood, J., Jensen, J., Lapp, D., & Squire, J. R. (Eds.). evaluating each student’s reading proficiency in a (1991). Handbook of research on teaching the rational and efficient manner. English language arts. IRA and NCTE. Mills, H., O’Keefe, T., & Stephens, D. (1992). A comprehensive resource, this book includes Looking closely: Exploring the role of phonics in contributions from many prominent scholars in one whole language classroom. NCTE. English/language arts education. Through this detailed look at a successful class- Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). The room, the authors explain the relationship be- literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading tween whole language and phonics and how and writing. IRA. phonics, syntax, and semantics work together to Drawing on input from hundreds of members of help children construct meaning. This book pro- the reading profession and related disciplines, this vides practical answers to the questions teachers book defines reading and literacy-related terms

102 Standards for the English Language Arts along with vocabulary from other areas that con- Includes four sections: historical changes in read- tribute to the study of reading. Definitions repre- ing; processes of reading and literacy; models of sent both technical and nontechnical perspectives reading and literacy processes; and new para- on vocabulary used in the classroom and in the digms. Includes new, revised, and classic mod- research arena. els from some of the most prominent members of Neuman, S. B., & McCormick, S. (Eds.). (1995). the profession. Single-subject experimental research: Samuels, S. J., & Farstrup, A. E. (Eds.). (1992). What Applications for literacy. IRA. research has to say about reading instruction Describes various single-subject designs in the (2nd ed.). IRA. context of literacy studies; includes suggestions Balances theory and practice while reflecting cur- on how these designs can be implemented in rent research and changes in the way reading is classrooms either independently or in combina- being taught. tion with elements from traditional statistical Shanahan, T. (Ed.). (1994). Teachers thinking, analysis or case-study methods. teachers knowing: Reflections on literacy and Patterson, L., Santa, C. M., Short, K. G., & Smith, K. language education. NCRE and NCTE. (Eds.). (1993). Teachers are researchers: Thirteen essays by university scholars and Reflection and action. IRA. teacher-researchers explore what teachers of the More than twenty chapters explore teachers’ re- English language arts must know to be effective flections on what is really happening in their class- and how such knowledge can best be assessed. rooms. Teacher researchers tackle tough questions Simmons, J. S. (Ed.). (1994). Censorship: A threat to and reveal valuable information about both their reading, learning, thinking. IRA. teaching practice and the research process. Examines important censorship cases and ex- Pinnell, G. S., & Matlin, M. L. (Eds.). (1989). plains how they affect teaching and learning. Teachers and research: Language learning in Included are documented accounts of recent the classroom. IRA. complaints and challenges illustrating how cen- Mixes theory and personal accounts that show sorship undermines the goals of elementary and how research about children’s language learning secondary education and plagues all areas of the can be translated into classroom practice. curriculum. Acknowledged authorities stress the importance Weintraub, S. (Ed.). (1995). Annual summary of of teachers and researchers working together to investigations relating to reading. IRA. help children learn language. Summaries of research published in periodicals, Purves, A. C. (Ed.), with Papa, L., & Jordon, S. books, conference proceedings, and other pub- (1994). Encyclopedia of English studies and lications related to the field of reading for the language arts: A project of the National Council period July 1, 1993 to June 30, 1994. Annotations of Teachers of English. New York: Scholastic. describe qualitative and quantitative research un- A two-volume overview of English language arts der the major categories of teacher preparation and its teaching, created by NCTE, the NCTE and practice, sociology of reading, physiology Fund, and Scholastic, Inc. Individual entries pro- and psychology of reading, the teaching of read- vide an extended definition and description of the ing, and reading of atypical learners. Includes an topic, place it historically in the field of English author index and a listing of the journals moni- studies and English language arts teaching, discuss tored for the summary. controversies or policy decisions surrounding the topic, and include references to related articles. SPEAKING AND LISTENING Ruddell, R. B., Ruddell, M. R., & Singer, H. (Eds.). Horowitz, R. (Ed.). (1994). Classroom talk about (1994). Theoretical models and processes of text. Themed issue of the Journal of Reading, reading (4th ed.). IRA. April 1994. IRA.

Resources for Teachers 103 This offprint contains seven articles designed to els will find classroom implications and specific help teachers and researchers better understand teaching strategies. Grades 7–College. the possibilities for classroom talk about texts. Garrett, S. D., Frey, J., Wildasin, M., & Hobbs, R. The articles identify new forms and functions that (1995). Messages and meaning: A guide to classroom talk can take as teenagers attempt to understanding media. IRA. interpret or produce texts in school and thereby learn about themselves and the world. Presents activities to help students become informed consumers of media messages; specific Hynds, S., & Rubin, D. L. (Eds.). (1990). Perspectives lessons involving print and electronic media will on talk and learning. Vol. 3, NCTE Forum show students how to access, analyze, evaluate, series. NCTE. and produce messages. Seeks to render talk more visible and therefore more subject to reflective teaching. Chapters deal Garrett, S. D., McCallum, S., & Yoder, M. E. (1996). specifically with issues such as the role of talk in Mastering the message. IRA. learning to write; teacher-student talk, the collab- Focuses on media literacy as a companion piece orative conference; language diversity and learn- to the 1995 guide, Messages and Meaning: A ing; and bilingual-ESL learners talking in the Guide to Understanding Media. English classroom. Grades K–College. Monroe, R. (1993). Writing and thinking with Trousdale, A. M., Woestehoff, S. A., & Schwartz, M. computers: A practical and progressive (Eds.). (1994). Give a listen: Stories of approach. NCTE. storytelling in school. NCTE. Monroe offers a rationale and much practical ad- What exactly is “storytelling”—ancient art or every- vice for the use of computers in the English class- day conversation, teaching tool or survival tech- room. Although he argues persuasively that nique? In this collection, teachers from elementary computers have a place in the curriculum, through university levels tell tales of rediscovering Monroe is firm in his belief that technology must the power of oral storytelling for themselves and serve that curriculum, Grades 7–College. their classrooms. Grades K–College. Wresch, W. (Ed.). (1991). The English classroom in TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA the computer age: Thirty lesson plans. NCTE. Costanzo, W. C. (1992). Reading the movies: Twelve The essays are arranged in three groups for stu- great films on video and how to teach them. dents with varying levels of computer skills and NCTE. contain suggestions for adaptation to various computer facilities that a school may have. Arguing that films can be “read” as thoroughly Grades 7–College. as books, Costanzo urges teachers to help students approach films with the knowledge that they are prepared texts, designed and orchestrat- WRITING ed to create effects, raise issues, and evoke re- Bright, R. (1995). Writing instruction in the sponses. The book provides an overview of the intermediate grades: What is said, what is done, film genre and illustrates how traditional textual what is understood. IRA. analysis can be extended to cinematic concepts. Describes what goes on in two classrooms—one Grades 9–College. a grade 4/5 class and the other a grade 5/6— Fox, R. F. (Ed.). (1994). Images in language, media, where both writing processes and products are and mind. NCTE. emphasized. What teachers say and do, how chil- In essays examining politics, television, teach- dren respond, what children write, and how ing, learning, advertising, war, and sexuality, teachers’ and children’s expectations and under- contributors to this book show how we use im- standings about writing meet and sometimes di- ages and how images use us. Teachers at all lev- verge are all discussed.

104 Standards for the English Language Arts Cullinan, B. E. (Ed.). (1993). Pen in hand: Children shape their writing to meet the shifting demands become writers. IRA. of their own lives. Grades K–College. Shows the important role writing can play in the Harris, M. (1986). Teaching one-to-one: The writing classroom; offers ideas and suggestions for mak- conference. NCTE. ing writing time fun. Activities include writing Covers goals of the one-to-one conference, vari- imaginative pieces in response to reading, creat- ous aspects of the conference, problems that may ing exciting nonfiction reports, learning about crop up, diagnosis of such problems, and strate- the steps in the writing process, polishing me- gies for developing students’ skills. Grades chanics, and working on pieces for portfolios. 9–College. Dunning, S., & Stafford, W. (1992). Getting the Johnson, D. M. (1990). Word weaving: A creative knack: 20 poetry writing exercises 20. NCTE. approach to teaching and writing poetry. NCTE. Dunning and Stafford, both widely known poets Part 1 focuses on the various roles of the poet, on and educators, offer twenty exercises, each cov- the essential ingredients of poetry, and on sug- ering a different kind or phase of poetry writing. gestions for the beginning writer. Here the author Through this sequence of writing assignments, also discusses open forms versus closed forms, as teachers can guide students toward full participa- well as misconceptions about poetry. Part 2 con- tion in and appreciation of the power of poetry. tains suggestions for discussion and writing cen- Grades 6–12. tering on basic themes of human existence. Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth Grades 7–12. graders. NCTE Research Report No. 13. NCTE. Proett, P., & Gill, K. (1986). The writing process in Reports on a case study in which eight twelfth action: A handbook for teachers. NCTE. graders were asked to give autobiographies of This book provides a myriad of ways to put the their writing experiences and compose aloud in writing process into action in the classroom and, the presence of the investigator. Based on her more important, in students’ lives beyond the findings, the author suggests changes in the ways limited student-teacher interaction. Chapters ad- composition is taught and the way teachers are dress each stage of the writing process, explore trained to teach it. Grades K–College. the possibilities of writing as discovery, and of- Gill, K. (Ed.), & the Committee on Classroom fer numerous innovative ideas to support stu- Practices. (1993). Process and portfolios in dents’ practice of writing. Grades 5–12. writing instruction. Vol. 26, Classroom Practices Tsujimoto, J. I. (1988). Teaching poetry writing to in Teaching English series. NCTE. adolescents. ERIC/RCS and NCTE. Describes the benefits of using portfolios in as- Poetry can be an outlet for expressing the strong sessing student writing and tells how portfolios emotions of adolescence. The best examples for and a process approach help students to build students are poems by other students because self-confidence and to develop sensitivity about young people are interested in knowing what what constitutes good writing. Throughout the their peers are experiencing and feeling. They sixteen accounts—drawn from the elementary, are also less likely to feel intimidated about using secondary, and college levels—these teachers these poems as models for their own poetry. This stress the value of student collaboration and the book offers teaching designs and eighteen dif- necessity of allowing students to rework and re- ferent poetry assignments. Grades 7–12.

Resources for Teachers 105 Appendix F

RESPONSE TO STANDARDS FOR THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

Setting and achieving high standards is an ongoing, continually evolving process. The standards presented in this volume will not be complete until they are realized at the local level. Please let us know your reaction to these standards and how the process of setting and achieving standards is progressing in your school district or state.

Please send your comments to:

Terry Salinger, INTERNATIONAL READING ASSOCIATION, 800 Barksdale Road, Newark, DE 19714 OR Karen Smith, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, 1111 W. Kenyon Road, Urbana, IL 61801-1096

Name: ______Check one: _____group _____individual

This response reflects the perspective of (check all that apply): ____teacher (level ____) ____parent ____English language arts coordinator ____reading specialist ____principal ____superintendent ____student ____community/business ____other (Please specify______)

1. Does this document meet your expectations for how standards should explain what students should know and be able to do in the English language arts?

2. How will this document help you achieve high standards for the English language arts in your school or locality?

3. What do you like about this document?

4. What are your concerns about this document?

5. What revisions would you suggest? (Please cite page numbers.)

(Please make extra copies of this form as needed.)