DOCSLIB.ORG

Rhythmic Perception and Entrainment in 5-Year-Old Children

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Rhythmic Perception and Entrainment in 5-Year-Old Children Rhythmic Perception and Entrainment in 5-Year-Old Children. An Exploration of the Relationship between Temporal Accuracy at Four Isochronous Rates and its Impact on Phonological Awareness and Reading Development. An investigation into how the structure of simple songs and nursery rhymes could best increase ‘large grain’ phonological awareness skills (rhyme and syllable awareness) in 4 to 5 year old children as part of a classroom based pre-literacy strategy. This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By John P. Verney Supervisor: Professor Usha Goswami The Faculty Of Education Homerton College University of Cambridge University of Cambridge Preface Originally the title of the thesis was ‘Entrainment in 5-Year-Old Children: Temporal Accuracy at Four Isochronous Rates and Its impact on Phonological Awareness and Reading Development…….’ After discussion with my PhD examiners it was considered that this title did not fully represent the content of the thesis, nor would it attract the readers who would find the subject matter interesting and of relevance to further study. However I was reluctant to loose the word ‘entrainment’ from the title because it is used widely in research within the field of neuroscience associated with how brainwave frequencies fall into step with a periodic aural stimulus such as a rhythmic pulse in music or the perception of accents within the speech stream. Entrainment refers not only to an ability to extract the main accents and stress in music and speech, but also to an ability to maintain a perception of pulse for future use. In speech the pulse or accents might become quite ambiguous at times, but the brain can still assemble them with reference to the entrained beat, thus allowing the listener to predict and react to what will come next. In music the brain can also perceive very small changes to the musical beats or accents that occur whenever we perform music but these, sometimes deliberate, inaccuracies do not affect our ability to synchronise movement such as tapping, drumming, or dancing to the rhythms implicit in the performance. Rhythmic perception is perhaps a more familiar term than is ‘entrainment’. It is more generally associated with the extraction of the principle beats in a piece of music that allow us to tap and sing along with it, but it also encompasses the rhythmic regularity found in speech accents and stresses. The thesis also explores in some depth the different musical contexts in which the child encounters rhythmic perception, either whilst drumming to music, a metronome or singing with or without a musical harmonised accompaniment. The modified title is an attempt to place the research into the domains of both an academic readership in experimental psychology and neuroscience and one that is concerned with the teaching of both literacy and music to young children. ii Abstract Phonological awareness is an important component of early literacy and many children struggle to master its key elements, such as the ability to hear syllables and rhymes within the speech stream. The hypothesis explored within this study is that since music and language have parallel auditory perceptual mechanisms then training in rhythmic activities, such as music, could lead to increased understanding of the rhythmic nature required to decode early language and literacy skills. Previous research investigating the relationship between the constructs of music perception and phonological awareness has been promising, but generally inconclusive. Within the study I examine whether there is a link between the temporal processing required to process rhythmic entrainment in both phonological awareness skills and music. The data are interpreted with respect to a theoretical framework linking music and language based on temporal sampling. The ‘temporal sampling theory’ (Goswami, 2011) suggests that the decoding of both language and music is linked to the perception of accent and beat, and that the ability to hear the onset of these accents is critical within a stream of auditory events. To this end rhythmic entrainment tasks were presented in a range of musical activities including drumming along to music and singing nursery songs and rhymes. The musical and rhythmic activities were given in several different forms, to see which would be most effective in showing the children’s ability to synchronise to a beat. These were all presented at four pulse rates (400 ms, 500 ms, 666 ms, 1000 ms). Data were collected over a period of 2 years commencing in November 2009. In Study1 93 4 and 5-year-old children were tested and in Study 2 data were collected from a further 99. In addition to psychometric tests for IQ, Word Recall, teachers from the schools provided information from the children’s Foundation Stage profiles. Phonological awareness skills (syllable and rhyme) were also measured, as was reading development. Overall, children showed greater temporal accuracy (rhythmic entrainment) in keeping time with a musical piece than in keeping time with a metronome. Entrainment accuracy was greatest at the 500 ms rate, the only rate for which entrainment was as accurate with iii music and metronome. Individual differences in rhythmic entrainment whilst drumming were not linked to I.Q. Children were more temporally accurate when singing than in the rhythmic entrainment tasks and temporal accuracy at pulse rates of 500 ms (2 Hz) and 666 ms (1.5 Hz) showed some significant links to rhyme awareness and to reading. Temporal accuracy in singing a rhyming word on time was also greatest at 500 ms, although simply singing along to music did not show a preferred rate. Unexpectedly, temporal accuracy in singing was linked to I.Q., and was not linked independently to syllable and rhyme awareness. However, temporal accuracy in singing at the 500 ms rate was linked to reading. In Sample 2 of the PhD I report on the results of a seven-week three group matched intervention study of 99 children. The intervention was designed to investigate whether a short intervention of either music or ‘rhythmic speech’ based around the preferred rate of 500ms would lead to improved phonological awareness skills. Group 1 was given a programme of music games and songs, and group 2 was given a matched programme of games and ‘rhythmic speech’, without musical accompaniment or singing, to promote syllable and rhyme awareness. A third group, who received no additional training acted as a control. The results show that an intervention based on rhythmic structure in either a rhythmic speech form or in musical form can be successful in improving children’s phonological awareness skills. The rhythmic speech programme proved to be a more successful vehicle than the music intervention in improving the phonological skills of this group of 90 children. Both interventions were successful in improving both rhyme and syllable awareness, but the greatest improvements came in the syllable tests. There was further evidence that an intervention in either rhythmic speech or music would impact on the children’s future reading skills. Both interventions produced significantly higher correlations with a Word Reading test than the control group. There was no evidence to suggest that a musical intervention based on tapping along to a beat was of more benefit than one based on rhythmic speech. Overall the evidence gathered from the data in this study does suggest that there are direct links between rhythmic awareness, as measured by tapping to an iv isochronous beat, and the children’s capacity to decode phonological information. The favoured rate at which the brain processes information in both domains, thus linking them together, is at a pulse rate with an Inter Onset Interval set to 500ms. This study’s results could be used to support the development of rhythmic based interventions, in both a rhythmic speech and musical form in support of early literacy skills in 4 and 5 –year –old children. v Acknowledgements I firstly thank my supervisor Professor Usha Goswami for her academic mentorship. There is no doubt that I would have struggled to achieve the necessary standards and rigour of research without her help and guidance. I feel fortunate to have found, probably the only person, who could have helped me bring this project to fruition after many years of searching for the right road to travel. I must also thank all the many members within the Centre For Neuroscience and Education who have supported and helped to keep me going over the years. I would particularly like to thank Nichola Daily who has been of enormous help to me in providing administrative support over the long distance between Northumberland and Cambridge. The whole project was reliant on the co-operation of the seven small schools in Northumberland and they all need a mention:- Amble First, Amble St Cuthbert’s, Broomhill, Felton, Red Row, Shilbottle and Swarland. All the headteachers and reception class teachers gave me access to their children without hesitation, and helped me organise the research. The one area of the research that gave me joy, an unusual commodity in academic research, was the children. Working with them and experiencing their delight at the music and rhymes was the reason for my desire to embark on this project. It is so important to foster this joy in education and find ways to make learning exciting and meaningful. This period of study has been a family affair, and certainly could not have taken place without their support. The long distance between the North and South of England could not have been overcome without the happy accident of my sister moving to Huntingdon. Dorothy and Gerry have provided a second home for my wife and I, especially when I was completing the MEd and needed a base every week. My wife, Margaret, of course has gone through all of the ups and downs associated with trying to complete a PhD when one is a little older than most – and her love and support have been of paramount importance.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Literacy Policy
    LITERACY POLICY SCHOOL INFORMATION ST GEORGE’S LOWER SCHOOL August 1, 2016 Authored by: Mr. T Edwards, Assistant Head Teacher RUTH MISKIN AND OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS HAS SELECTED ST GEORGE’S LOWER SCHOOL AS ONE OF A SMALL GROUP OF MODEL SCHOOLS. WE WERE CHOSEN BECAUSE OUR CHILDREN CONSISTENTLY MAKE OUTSTANDING PROGRESS THROUGH OUTSTANDING TEACHING. TEACHERS FROM ACROSS THE COUNTRY VISIT TO LEARN FROM US. ANDREW SELOUS, MP, TWEETED, “VISITED ST GEORGE’S LOWER SCHOOL IN LEIGHTON BUZZARD & SAW FANTASTIC PHONICS TEACHING, HELPING THE CHILDREN READ.” READ, WRITE, INC. Read, Write, Inc. Phonics is an inclusive literacy programme for all children learning to read. It is aimed at children reading at Year 2 Emerging or below and teaches synthetic phonics. Children learn the 44 common sounds in the English language and how to blend them to read and spell. The scheme includes both a reading and a writing focus. Reading is the key that unlocks the whole curriculum so the ability to efficiently decode is essential. The R.W.I sessions are expected to occur each day with no exceptions, as the continuity and pace of the programme is key to accelerating the progress of children’s reading development. Physical Education and Sport Activities Policy 15/16 1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To teach children to: apply the skill of blending phonemes in order to read words. segment words into their constituent phonemes in order to spell words. learn that blending and segmenting words are reversible processes. read high frequency words that do not conform to regular phonic patterns. read texts and words that are within their phonic capabilities as early as possible.
    [Show full text]
  • The Synthetic Phonics Teaching Principles June 2015
    The Synthetic Phonics Teaching Principles June 2015 Teach the relationship between sounds and letters by systematically introducing the letter/s-sound correspondences of the English alphabetic code (e.g. between three and five correspondences per week at first, including vowels and consonants). Start with mainly one spelling for each of the 42+ sounds (phonemes) identifiable in English speech before broadening out to focus on further spelling and pronunciation variations. (Initial teaching takes 2 to 3 years to teach a comprehensive level of alphabetic code; continue to build on this as required for phonics for spelling.) Model how to put the letter/s-sound correspondences introduced (the alphabetic code knowledge) to immediate use teaching the three skills of: Reading/decoding: synthesise (sound out and blend) all-through-the-printed-word to ‘hear’ the target word. Modify the pronunciation of the word where necessary. Spelling/encoding: orally segment (split up) all-through-the-spoken-word to identify the single sounds (phonemes) and know which letters and letter groups (graphemes) are code for the identified sounds. Handwriting: write the lower case, then the upper case, letters of the alphabet correctly. Hold the pencil with a tripod grip. Practise regular dictation exercises from letter level to text level (as appropriate). Provide cumulative, decodable words, sentences and texts which match the level of alphabetic code knowledge and blending skills taught to date, when asking the learner to read independently. Emphasise letter sounds at first and not letter names. (Learn letter names in the first instance by chanting the alphabet or singing an alphabet song.) Do not teach an initial sight vocabulary where learners are expected to memorise words as whole shapes.
    [Show full text]
  • Letter-Sound Knowledge (Phonics) 1 Anne Bayetto, Flinders University
    Letter-sound Knowledge (Phonics) 1 Anne Bayetto, Flinders University What is letter-sound knowledge and why efficient then that students be taught how to spell the is it important? words they are learning to decode. There is an additional challenge faced by teachers of Phonics instruction is an essential component of a students who are learning English, and in English, as comprehensive literacy program because it is a high- there may be differences in letter-sound yield strategy to draw upon when attempting to name correspondence between English and their first words that are not immediately known. All students language. With this being the case phonics instruction need to be taught how to develop increasingly is especially important as it “unlocks a large sophisticated and independent decoding skills. proportion of the system of English orthography” The English orthography is based on an alphabetic (Mesmer & Griffith, 2006, p. 367). Teachers would system of 26 letters and approximately 44 sounds/ understandably make wide use of visuals and other (phonemes) and because the language is opaque multisensory approaches while also encouraging “there are not enough letters of the alphabet to students to talk about, and question, similarities and represent all the sounds of our speech” (Garcia & differences. Cain, 2013, p. 49). However, while learning letter- sound correspondence using a synthetic phonics There is strong research support for the efficacy of approach (introduction to single letter sounds and explicitly teaching alphabet letters because it is moving onto blending the letter sounds) can present deemed to be one of the best predictors of later challenges, there is a high level of predictability for reading achievement (Diamond & Baroody, 2013; how to pronounce sounds in words.
    [Show full text]
  • Thinking Russian Literature Mythopoetically
    The Superstitious Muse: Thinking Russian Literature Mythopoetically Studies in Russian and Slavic Literatures, Cultures and History Series Editor: Lazar Fleishman The Superstitious Muse: Thinking Russian Literature Mythopoetically DAVID MM.. BETHEA Boston 2009 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bethea, David M., 1948- The superstitious muse: thinking Russian literature mythopoetically / David M. Bethea. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-934843-17-8 (hardback) 1. Russian literature — History and criticism. 2. Mythology in literature. 3. Superstition in literature. I. Title. PG2950.B48 2009 891.709—dc22 2009039325 Copyright © 2009 Academic Studies Press All rights reserved ISBN 978-1-934843-17-8 Book design and typefaces by Konstantin Lukjanov© Photo on the cover by Benson Kua Published by Academic Studies Press in 2009 28 Montfern Avenue Brighton, MA 02135, USA [email protected] www.academicstudiespress.com Effective December 12th, 2017, this book will be subject to a CC-BY-NC license. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/. Other than as provided by these licenses, no part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted, or displayed by any electronic or mechanical means without permission from the publisher or as permitted by law. The open access publication of this volume is made possible by: This open access publication is part of a project supported by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book initiative, which includes the open access release of several Academic Studies Press volumes. To view more titles available as free ebooks and to learn more about this project, please visit borderlinesfoundation.org/open.
    [Show full text]
  • Synthetic Phonics and the Teaching of Reading: the Debate Surrounding England’S ‘Rose Report’ Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles
    Literacy Volume 41 Number 1 April 2007 35 Synthetic phonics and the teaching of reading: the debate surrounding England’s ‘Rose Report’ Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles Abstract of words (i.e., onsets, rimes, phonogrammes, spelling patterns) as well as phonemes. The Rose Report, commissioned by the Secretary of State for Education for England, recommended in During the 1980s and early 1990s in the United March 2006 that early reading instruction must include Kingdom, influential ideas about English teaching synthetic phonics. This paper evaluates the extent to came from intellectual teachers and scholars, whose which research evidence supports this recommenda- work had vision as well as professional and academic tion. In particular, a review of international research into the teaching of early reading shows that the Rose credibility. These intellectuals included Margaret Meek Report’s main recommendation on synthetic phonics (1982), Connie Rosen and Harold Rosen (1973), James contradicts the powerful body of evidence accumu- Britton (1970), Douglas Barnes (1976) and Brian Street lated over the last 30 years. In this paper it is argued (1984). The influence of American socio-cultural that action already taken by the UK government theorists such as Shirley Brice Heath (1983) was also to change the National Curriculum in line with the strong. Rose Report’s recommendations represents a change in pedagogy not justified by research. 1997 marked the introduction of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) Framework for Teaching (Department for Key words: literacy policy, literacy research, phonics, Education and Employment (DfEE), 1998). The Frame- reading teaching, synthetic phonics work was a comprehensive document that specified the detailed objectives of literacy teaching for primary classes in England, together with a set format for Background lessons.
    [Show full text]
  • English Literacy Dossier
    English Literacy Dossier Myriam Cherro Samper Javier Fernández Molina Manuel Sánchez Quero 1 ISBN: 978-84-09-19463-6 ENGLISH PHONETICS. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH AND THEIR REPRESENTATION. 1. ENGLISH PHONETICS. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH AND THEIR REPRESENTATION. ... 4 1.1 Definition of Language. ................................................................................................................... 4 1.1.1 Roman Jakobson’s Function of Language Theory .......................................................................... 6 1.2 What Is Linguistics?................................................................................................................................ 7 1.2.1 Linguistic Branches ........................................................................................................................ 8 1.2.2 Phonemes vs. Allophones .............................................................................................................. 8 1.2.3 Phonetics vs. Phonology ................................................................................................................ 9 1.2.4 Minimal Pairs ............................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.5 Homophone vs. Homographs ....................................................................................................... 10 1.3 The English Alphabet. .........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Structured Synthetic Phonics... a Guide for Teachers and Parents
    LIAN RA FE T DE S R U A A T E I O H N T O F S N S P I O E T supporting people with learning disabilities L I A D A S S O C Structured Synthetic Phonics... A Guide for Teachers and Parents Learning to read is essentially learning a code. The letters we use are simply symbols or written code for the speech sounds of English. Learning about the relationship between the letters of the alphabet and the speech sounds they represent allows us to “crack the code” and learn to both read (decode) and spell (encode). Synthetic Phonics is a way of teaching children to read. It has been identified both here and overseas as the most successful approach to the teaching of reading and spelling. The ‘synthetic’ component reflects the practice of ‘synthesising’, or blending together. The ‘phonic’ part reflects the process of linking individual speech sounds (phonemes) to written symbols (graphemes). Essentially, when a child learns to read using Synthetic Phonics they learn to link letters to speech sounds and then blend these sounds together to read words. They also learn to separate (segment) words into their constituent sounds and link these sounds to letters in order to spell them. The term ‘Synthetic Phonics’ began to be widely used after the publication of a study carried out in Clackmannanshire, in Scotland. Researchers from St Andrew’s University found that one method of learning to read produced much better results than the other methods they looked at. This method was called Synthetic Phonics.
    [Show full text]
  • Scope and Sequence: Phonological Awareness, Phonics and Spelling
    Scope and Sequence: Phonological Awareness, Phonics and Spelling Kindergarten Pre-Primary Year 1 Phonological awareness: Revise: Phonological awareness Re-teach: Phonemic awareness skills from PP * Orally Segment, blend, delete and manipulate the 44 General sounds discrimination Phonemic awareness: phonemes to make words • Environmental (animals, nature etc) • Instrumental sounds (body percussion rhythm, Explicitly teach and play with all 44 phonemes (sounds) Phonics: voice sounds & musical instruments) orally, using the sequence below, using 3-6 sounds at a • Revise sound-symbol relationship sequence from time (eg. s a t p i n to begin) pre-primary Working with words • Identify/count sounds in words (nap = 3 sounds) • Teach the following digraphs: • Identify when words end, count words in • Blend sounds in words (/b/ /a/ /t/ = bat) ‘sh’ (ship), ‘ch’(chop), ’th’ (thin), ‘ck’ (kick), sentences, jump in hoops to signal words, • Segment sounds in words (pig = /p/ /i/ /g/) ‘wh’ (what), ‘ng’ (king), ‘qu’* (queen), ‘ee’ (week) • Identify and compare long words and short • Manipulate/delete sounds (dig without the /d/ ‘oo’ (food), words (orally) sound makes ‘ig’) • Provide opportunities to make words using these and other known graphemes through games and Syllables Phonics: play • Clap syllables and count syllables • Teach the relationship between sound and • Segment words into syllables symbol (phonemes to graphemes) in a Read and spell: • Blend syllables to make words (teacher says sequential order: • Revise CV & VC words ( on, us) the syllables
    [Show full text]
  • Intervention for Struggling Readers
    Optimalpath Consulting Limited, UK INTERVENTION FOR STRUGGLING READERS (Jolly Buddies Pilot Project in Winneba, Ghana) February – May 2016 BY DR. OLUBUSOLA ESHIET Acknowledgement First, I would like to thank the Director for Curriculum, Research, and Development Division, Ghana Education Service, Cynthia Bosumtwi-Sam; and the Winneba District Director, Hilda Eghan, for permission to carry out this study in Winneba District schools. I am particularly grateful to Head Teachers for their support of the pilot; to teachers for their openness to learning new skills, and their commitment to seeing it work. A very special thanks to all the pupils who participated for being great Buddies. Thanks also to the Winneba District Education Officers for their support. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to Roberta E. A. Abanyie for her meticulous dedication to the training and monitoring plan, and Alexandra Ferrier for her support with the design, data analysis and reporting. Project Team Project Leader: Olubusola I. Eshiet Project Mentor: Roberta E A. Abanyie Project Support: Alexandra Ferrier 1 Background Synthetic phonics has long been recognised as an effective way to teach young children to read and write. It has been included in the UK’s national curriculum since 2007 and research into reading progress using synthetic phonics has been largely positive. The process involves breaking language down into the sounds required to pronounce words. Those sounds are then taught to children with the corresponding letter or combination of letters. The children learn to sound out each part of the word, or to “decode” the letters into sounds. For example, the word “desk” is broken down into four distinct sounds: d – e – s – k.
    [Show full text]
  • Fundamentals of Effective Systematic Synthetic Phonics Practice
    Fundamentals of effective Systematic Synthetic Phonics practice A high-quality systematic synthetic phonics programme of proven effectiveness is followed with rigour and fidelity and children are taught consistently to use phonics as the route to reading unknown words. Teaching to include: grapheme/phoneme (letter/sound) correspondences (the alphabetic principle) in a clearly defined, incremental sequence; a defined initial group of consonants and vowels, enabling children, early on, to read and spell many simple CVC words. highly important skill of blending (synthesising) phonemes, in order, all through a word to read it; the application of the skills of segmenting words into their constituent phonemes to spell; and that blending and segmenting are reversible processes. the introduction of a defined initial group of consonants and vowels, enabling children, early on, to read and spell many simple CVC words. The knowledge that phonemes should be blended, in order, from left to right, ‘all through the word’ for reading demonstrations of how words can be segmented into their constituent phonemes for spelling and that this is the reverse of blending Multi-sensory activities. They should be interesting and engaging but firmly focused on intensifying the learning associated with its phonic goal. The programme. The programme is begun almost immediately children enter Reception; with the expectation that they will be fluent readers having secured word recognition skills by the end of key stage one. The pace of the programme is maintained. Enough time and priority are given to fully implement the programme; teaching of the programme is not necessarily limited to former NLS ’20 minutes’.
    [Show full text]
  • Development of English Pronunciation with Phonics
    Development of English Pronunciation with Phonics Kamonnate Iadkert Department of English for International Communication, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] Abstract— Phonics instruction is to teach students including phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, reading correspondence between graphemes in written language and comprehension, and vocabulary. phonemes in spoken language and how to use these Educators are always looking for valid and reliable correspondences to read and spell words. Thai students’ ability of predictors of educational achievement. One reason why English speaking and listening are, in general, still minimal. On educators are so interested in phonemic awareness is that the other hand, they have been forced to learn grammar instead. To improve their English command and learning achievement, research indicates that it is the best predictor of the ease of the phonics instruction should be taught in class. This current early reading acquisition (Stanovich, 1993-94), better even study aimed to evaluate English consonants pronunciation than IQ, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. With little competence of students (N=20) majoring in English for or no direct instruction, almost all non-native English learners International Communication, Faculty of Science and develop the ability to understand spoken language. They do Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, not know that spoken language is made up of discrete words, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand. The participants which are made up of syllables, which themselves are made up were taught pronunciation with phonics approach of 10 exercises. of the smallest units of sound, called "phonemes." This After that they were asked to read aloud a 30-word list for a awareness that spoken language is made up of discrete sounds pretest and a posttest.
    [Show full text]
  • Long-Term Effects of Synthetic Versus Analytic Phonics Teaching on the Reading and Spelling Ability of 10 Year Old Boys and Girls
    Long-term effects of synthetic versus analytic phonics teaching on the reading and spelling ability of 10 year old boys and girls Rhona S. Johnston, Sarah McGeown, Joyce E. Watson Abstract A comparison was made of 10-year-old boys and girls who had learnt to read by analytic or synthetic phonics methods as part of their early literacy programmes. The boys taught by the synthetic phonics method had better word reading than the girls in their classes, and their spelling and reading comprehension was as good. In contrast, with analytic phonics teaching, although the boys performed as well as the girls in word reading, they had inferior spelling and reading comprehension. Overall, the group taught by synthetic phonics had better word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. There was no evidence that the synthetic phonics approach, which early on teaches children to blend letter sounds in order to read unfamiliar words, led to any impairment in the reading of irregular words. Keywords Synthetic phonicsAnalytic phonicsOpaque orthography The English spelling system has an opaque orthography; although it is an alphabetic system, some spellings have inconsistent grapheme- phoneme connections, e.g., ‘aisle’. This inconsistency in English spelling has led to models of adult reading such as the dual route model, where the pathways envisaged for the reading of words with irregular versus regular spelling-sound correspondences are seen as largely independent (Coltheart, Rastle, Perry, Langdon, & Ziegler, 2001). A substantial literature has examined whether individuals take a phonological approach to reading English, determined by whether their responses to irregular words are slower and less accurate than to regular words; it has been found that these effects are shown in both children and adults (e.g., Waters, Seidenberg, & Bruck, 1984).
    [Show full text]