i
Four Cardinalities: Alvar Aalto’s Industrial Architecture 1929-1951
Andrew Metcalf
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture
University of Canberra 2019 iii
Abstract
This thesis examines the interwar industrial work of the renown Finnish architect and designer Alvar Aalto (1898–1976) and its significance in an interpretation of his work. Despite their number, size and importance to the Aalto corpus, the industrial buildings and their relationship with the other well-known works in his design portfolio, have received limited treatment in architectural scholarship despite their obvious relevance. Set against the historical backdrop of modern industrial architecture, this thesis examines a selection of eight different interwar Alvar Aalto industrial buildings in the context of the architect’s coeval, well-documented non-industrial work and the development of his mature architectural style. The study posits that four cardinal architectural design tropes in Aalto’s architecture are observable in the 1930s industrial works often before they were evident in his architecture more broadly. Each of these four cardinalities adds extra material to the interpretation of Aalto’s work. Another inference is that Aalto’s factory architecture is important to the general history of modern industrial architecture through its contribution to an architectural aesthetic wherein industrial buildings manifested architectural tendencies beyond the merely utilitarian. The thesis comprises five chapters which sequentially introduce and problematise the study, and then position Aalto with reference to the extant literature including his own writing. This is followed by a contextualisation of his industrial work in relation to the history of modern industrial architecture in the century from the 1830s. The penultimate chapter includes an analytical discourse accounting for the eight included Aalto industrial works and their historical and critical implications as foreshadowed above. The final chapter then is a more detailed consideration of each of the four Aalto cardinalities that have been distilled during the course of this research. Accordingly, the thesis argues that a compound rubrication of Biomorphism, Materialism, Unitary Tectonics and Technological Anxiety is discernible in Aalto’s interwar industrial architecture, and in his architecture broadly. Collectively, these four cardinalities, emerging from the industrial works differentiate the form, the materiality, the constructional aesthetic and the background philosophical disquiet manifested by the architect in the interwar period. vii
Table of Contents
Abstract iii Certificate of Authorship v List of illustrations ix Acknowledgements xvii 1 Introduction 1
2 Positioning Alvar Aalto 11 2.1 The Twentieth-Century 12 2.2 Göran Schildt 17 2.3 An Expanded Critical Field 20 2.4 Aalto Viewed Otherwise 30 2.5 The Aalto Centenary 33 2.6 The Twenty-First Century 36 2.7 Conclusion and Prospect 39
3 Industrial Architecture 1835–1939 43 3.1 Brick and Iron Archetypes 45 3.2 The Third Archetype; Reinforced Concrete 53 3.3 Structural Form and Material 60 3.4 Maillart to Aalto; a Concrete Aesthetic 65 3.5 Behrens and Gropius; Architecture and Industry 67 3.6 Anabranch 75 3.7 Albert Kahn 80 3.8 Interwar Factory Design Comparators 84 3.9 In Finland 91
4 Alvar Aalto; Industrial Architecture 1929–1951 97 4.1 Turun Sanomat Building 1927–29 100 4.2 Toppila Cellulose Pulp Mill 1930–31 112 4.3 Sunila Cellulose Pulp Mill 1935–39 120 4.4 Technical Factory Form; Two Factories and a Warehouse 127 4.5 Protean Biomorphic Form and the Varkaus Sawmill Extension 133 4.6 The Aalto Architecture Office 1927-51 145
5 Four Aalto Cardinalities 149 5.1 Biomorphism 149 5.2 Materialism 165 5.3 Unitary Tectonic 172 5.4 Technological Disquiet 177
Archival Sources 185 Bibliography 191 ix
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1. Chronology of industrial and other architectural works, Alvar Aalto 1929-51. Table: © A Metcalf, 2018.
Figure 2. Alvar Aalto industrial works and the Four Cardinalities. Table: © Andrew Metcalf, 2018.
Chapter 3
Figure 1. Charles Taylor (Architect) Hungerford Fish Market, London, 1835. Architect’s Drawing: From Taylor Monuments of Commerce 1968, Plate 16, p.28.
Figure 2. Finlayson Factory, Tampere, in 1890. Photo: CC BY-SA 4.0 https://www.finna.fi/Cover/Show?id=musketti.M012%3AHK10000%3A4852&index=0&size=large
Figure 3. Finlayson Factory, Tampere. Interior in the early 2000s. Photo: Martti Jokinen.
Figure 4. K.F. Schinkel, Warehouses, Manchester, 1826. Reproduction from Reinhold Wegner Die Reise nach Frankreich England im Jahre 1826, Karl Friedrich Schinkel Lebenswerk Band 16. (Berlin 1990),Fig. 161, p.62.
Figure 5. Murray’s Old Mill and Decker Mill, Manchester, early 19th century. Photo: Chris Allen CC BY-SA 2.0.
Figure 6. Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace London,1851, 1852-4. Photo: Frank Yerbury 1926. AA Photo Library reference: BREX1 1C – public.
Figure 7. G.T. Greene (Engineer) Boat Store Royal Navy Dockyard, Sheerness UK, 1856–60. Photo: https://www.kentonline.co.uk/_media/img/750x0/X825K37WZWQQCEB6Y16D.jpg
Figure 8. Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Architect) Bauakademie, Berlin, 1836. Photo: © Bildarchiv Foto Marburg Bilddatei-Nr. fm620753.
Figure 9 William LeBaron Jenny (Architect/Engineer) Home Insurance Building, Chicago, 1885. Period photo: published in the Chicago Tribune on June 23, 1907. Public Domain: https://chicagology.com/goldenage/goldenage076/
Figure 10. Baumwollspinnerei Cotton Mill, Leipzig,1884-1909. Photo: regentaucher.com
Figure 11. H.B. Creswell (Architect) Boiler Factory, Queensferry, Wales,1905. Photo: RIBA Collections.
Figure 12. Ernest Ransome (Engineer) 2nd Pacific Coast Borax Factory, NJ, USA, 1903. Photo: Reyner Banham (Architectural Association Photo Library).
Figure 13. Daimler Factory complex, Untertürkheim, Stuttgart, c.1912. (Workshops, Upper RHS). Photo: Daimler Global Media (https://media.daimler.com/marsMediaSite/en/)
Figure 14. Daimler Workshops Building 1903 in construction. Photo: Mörsch Der Eisenbetonbau 1908, Fig. 212.
Figure 15. Daimler Workshops Building 1903 in operation. Photo: Daimler Global Media https://media.daimler.com/marsMediaSite/en/)
Figure 16. Albert Kahn (Architect) Packard Company Building 10 Detroit,1906. Photo: Albert Kahn Associates, From https://ilovedetroitmichigan.com/detroit-architecture/albert- kahn-400-buildings-in-metro-detroit/ x
Figure 17. Albert Kahn (Architect) Packard Company Building 10 Detroit, interior. Photo: Trussed Concrete Steel Co. - Truscon handbook. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Packard_plants_1910.jpg
Figure 18. Spinning Factory Tampere, Finland, 1905–08. Photo: Mörsch Der Eisenbetonbau 1908 Fig. 206.
Figure 19. Vladimir Shukhov (Engineer) Steel lattice shell, Vyksa, Russia. 1897. Photo: Public Domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double_curvature_steel_lattice_Shell_by_Shukhov_in_ Vyksa_1897_shell.jpg
Figure 20. Steiff Toy Company Works, Giengen, Germany,1903. Photo: Ignacio Fernández Solla http://facadesconfidential.blogspot.com/search?q=Steiff ‘The Steiff factory and the birth of curtain walling’.
Figure 21. R.J. Redpath & Sons (Architects) Alling & Cory Warehouse, Cincinnati, 1911. From ‘Die Kunst in Industrie und Handel’ Jahrbuch Des Deutschen Werkbundes, 1913 p. 27 top.
Figure 22. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Architect) Textile Factory, Krefeld,1935. Photo: © MAI Timo Klippstein.
Figure 23. Robert Maillart (Engineer) Pirelli Cable Factory, Villanueva, Spain,1914. Photo: © ETH-Bibliothek Zürich, Bildarchiv.
Figure 24. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1929; flat slab construction. Photo: Aino Aalto? AAM 62-005-035.
Figure 25. Peter Behrens (Architect) AEG Turbine Factory, Moabit, Berlin, 1909. Photo: © Bildarchiv Foto Marburg – Foto: unbekannt.
Figure 26. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Cellulose Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Drying Hall, Roof Trusses. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 27. Gropius and Meyer (Architects) Fagus Factory Alfeld, Germany 1911-25. Photo: © Bildarchiv Foto Marburg – Christian Stein.
Figure 28. Peter Behrens (Architect) Aircraft Hanger, Hannover, 1919. Photo: From Alan Windsor, Peter Behrens; Architect and Designer 1868-1940 (London, 1981), p. 144.
Figure 29. Peter Behrens (Architect) Aircraft Hanger, Hannover, 1919. Oblique view. Photo: © Bildarchiv Foto, Marburg – Foto: unbekannt.
Figure 30. Hans Poelzig (Architect) Superphosphate Chemical Factory, Luban, Poland, 1911-12. Photo: © Technical University Berlin Architecture Museum, Inv. No. F1503.
Figure 31. Erich Mendelsohn (Architect) Hat Factory, Luckenwalde, Germany, 1922-23. Photo: © Niels Lehmann & Christoph Rauhut.
Figure 32. Erich Mendelsohn (Architect) Hat Factory interior Luckenwalde 1922-23. Photo: © d. teil (www.flickr.com).
Figure 33. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Ahlström Factory Warehouse, Kotka, 1949.Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 101275.
Figure 34. Hugo Häring (Architect) Gut Garkau Farm, near Lubeck, 1926. Photo: Seier CC BY-SA-2.
Figure 35. Albert Kahn (Architect) Glass Plant, Ford Rouge River Plant, Dearborn, Michigan,1922. Photo: From Brian Carter (ed) Albert Kahn Inspiration for the Modern (Ann Arbor, 2001), p. 16.
Figure 36. Albert Kahn (Architect) Glass Plant, Ford Rouge River Plant, interior (photo c.2010). Photo: © 339638_JdBAgUzyyojoausMEDMqAZ4ji.
Figure 37. Albert Kahn (Architect) Hudson Motor Car Factory, Detroit, Michigan, in construction 1925. Photo: Detroit Public Library Digital Collections - https://digitalcollections.detroitpubliclibrary.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A213607 xi
Figure 38. Max Taut (Architect) German Printers Association Building, Berlin, 1926. Photo: From Schwartz, Frederic J. "Form Follows Fetish: Adolf Behne and the Problem of "Sachlichkeit". Oxford Art Journal 21, no. 2 (1998): Fig.4.
Figure 39. Fritz Schupp and Martin Kremmer (Architects) Zollverein Pit Shaft XII, Essen, 1932. Axonometric drawing from Bauwelt 1931, No.6, p.1.
Figure 40. Fritz Schupp and Martin Kremmer (Architects) Zollverein Pit Shaft XII, Essen, 1932. Façade detail. Photo: ©-Hendrik-Bohle-1. https://thelink.berlin/2017/11/urbanana-zeche-zollverein-pact-zollverein-industrial-heritage-trail
Figure 41. Theodor Merrill (Architect) Königsgrube Mine Works, Bochum, 1930. Photo: From Hitchcock and Johnson, The International Style (New York 1966), p. 179.
Figure 42. Kellermüller and Hofmann (Architects) Jakob Kolb Soap Factory, Zürich, 1930. Photo: From Hitchcock and Johnson, The International Style (New York 1966), p. 161.
Figure 43. Dominikus Böhm (Architect) Zanders Paper Factory, Bergisch Gladbach, 1931. Photo: Elke Wetzig CC BY-SA 3.0 2014 https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanders_Papierfabrik#/media/Datei:Papierfabrik_Zanders_Kraftwerks halle_Dominikus_B%C3%B6hm.jpg
Figure 44. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory, Inkeroinen, 1937-38. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 45 Herbert Rimpl (Architect) Heinkel Aircraft Factory, Oranienburg, Germany 1938. From: Hermann Mäckle, Die Heinkel Werke Oranienburg (Berlin 1938).
Figure 46. Albert Kahn (Architect) Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant, Detroit 1937, exterior. Photo: Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, Quebec. https://www.cca.qc.ca/img/flequXbX6-jRVIIssLt7AUk8Nh4=/1400x0/6418/5786/PH2000_0215.jpg
Figure 47. Albert Kahn (Architect) Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant, Detroit 1937, interior. Photo: Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, Quebec. https://www.cca.qc.ca/img/C68dD24iTILApqP9oisK56oVLc4=/1920x0/6419/5787/PH2000_0218.jpg
Figure 48. Väino Vähäkallio (Architect) Kaukopää Pulp Mill, Imatra 1935. Photo: http://www.elka.fi/aikakone/wp-content/gallery/15kaukopaa/00294_000173.jpg
Figure 49. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Cellulose Pulp Mill, Kotka 1939. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM 70-003-029.
Figure 50. Erkki Huttunen (Architect) Polttimorakennus Alcohol Factory 1936. Photo: From Arkkitehti 5/1936, 163.
Figure 51. Erkki Huttunen (Architect) Rajamäen Alcohol Factory 1935. Photo: ©Kari Jokinen CC BY-SA 3.0.
Chapter 4
Figure 1. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1927-29. Machine Hall. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 62-005-103.
Figure 2. Le Corbusier (Architect) Villa Savoye, Poissy, 1931 Living room column. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 3. Le Corbusier (Architect), Villa Savoye, Poissy, 1931. Bathroom. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 4. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1927-29. Machine Hall haunched column. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 5. Le Corbusier (Architect) Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1945-52. Pilotis. Photo: Vincent Desjardins CC BY SA 3.0.
Figure 6. M.H. Baillie-Scott (Architect) Heather Cottage, Surrey, 1906. Hall. Drawing: Baillie-Scott, 1906, p. 290. xii
Figure 7. François Hennebique (Engineer, constructor) System of reinforced concrete construction, 1892. Illustrated in 1902 by Paul Christophe. From Billington 1979, Fig. 2-2, p. 10,
Figure 8. Robert Maillart (Engineer) Giesshübel Warehouse, Zurich, 1910. Photo: © ETH Image Archive, GHs_1085-1910-3-363. (http://doi.org/10.3932/ethz-a-000052743).
Figure 9. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1927-29, Paper Cellar. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 62-005-104.
Figure 10. Erich Mendelsohn (Architect) Hermann Hat Factory, Luckenwalde, 1923. Production Hall. Photo: From Benton, Tim The New Objectivity (Milton Keynes, 1975), plate 105.
Figure 11. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Sulphate Factory, Kotka, 1937. Sulphate Warehouse. Photo: AAM 70-003-204.
Figure 12. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Sulphate Factory, Kotka, 1937. From: AAM 70-003-126
Figure 13. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Helsinki Stadium Competition, 1933. From: Schildt 1986, Fig. 263, p. 254.
Figure 14. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Helsinki Fair Hall Competition, 1934. From: Schildt 1986, Fig. 267, p. 257.
Figure 15. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Tampere Railway Station Competition, 1934. From: Schildt 1994, Fig 296, p158.
Figure 16. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1927-29. Printing Hall. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 62-005-104.
Figure 17. Alvar Aalto (Designer) Experimental Wood Relief c1937. Photo: seier+seier licensed under CC BY 2.0
Figure 18. Alvar Aalto (Designer) Detail, Model 60 Stacking Stool 1933. Photo: Artek (www.artek.fi/en/).
Figure 19. Alvar Aalto (Designer) Front cover design, Arkkitehti 1-2, 1948.
Figure 20. Andreas Vesalius - From Book 1, De humani corporis fabrica libri septen, 1543. Human femur. Source: University of Toronto Anatomia Collection https://iiif.library.utoronto.ca/presentation/v2/anatomia:RBAI035/manifest
Figure 21. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1929. Print Hall cupola skylights from below. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 62-005-134.
Figure 22. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku, 1929. Cupola skylights from above. From: Fleig and Aalto 1983, p. 25.
Figure 23. Le Corbusier (Architect) Villa Savoye, Poissy, 1928-31. Roof Skylights. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 24. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu, 1931. Boiler Room (lhs) and Drying Hall section (rhs), Drawing: AAA 70-55.
Figure 25. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu. Drying Hall (lhs) and Chip Container (rhs), Drawing: AAA 70-70
Figure 26. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu, 1931. Photo: AAM 100547.
Figure 27. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu. Chip Container, 1931/2013. Photo: Estormiz CC0 1.0 Public Domain (taken 2013).
Figure 28. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu. Boiler/Digester Building, 1931. Photo: Estormiz CC0 1.0 Public Domain (taken 2013).
Figure 29. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu, 1931. Drying Room. Photo: Estormiz CC0 1.0 Public Domain (taken 1992). xiii
Figure 30. Robert Maillart (Engineer), Magazini Generali, Chiasso-Ticino, 1925. Photo: Chriusha/Wikimedia Commons. https://structurae.info/photos/232712-hangar-des-magazzini-generali-de-chiasso
Figure 31. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Toppila Pulp Mill, Oulu, 1931. Water Tower and Chip Conveyor. Photo: Lazlo Moholy-Nagy. Photo: Schildt,1986, Fig. 68, p. 74.
Figure 32. Alvar and Aino Aalto (Architects), Architects’ House, Helsinki, 1935-36. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 33. Alvar and Aino Aalto (Architect) Savoy Restaurant, Helsinki, 1937. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 34. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Drying Plant. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 35. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Power Plant, West Elevation. Drawing: AAA 70-234.
Figure 36. Väinö Vähäkallio (Architect) Cellulose Pulp Mill, Kaukopää, 1934-5. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 37. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka in operation, 1930s. Photo: © Veljekset Karumäki, AAM 70-003-233.
Figure 38. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Site Plan. From Fleig and Aalto 1983 [1963], p. 88.
Figure 39. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Town Hall, Säynätsalo.1950-52. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 40. Alvar Aalto (Architect) National Pensions Institute, Helsinki. 1952-56. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 41. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Administration Building (l) & Power Plant (r). Photo: AAM 70-003-053.
Figure 42. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Power Station and Soda Plant. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 43. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Power Station Glazing detail. Drawing: AAA 70-246.
Figure 44. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Power Station interior. Photo: © serin.blogspot.com.
Figure 45. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Glauber Salt Warehouse. Drawing: AAA 70-308.
Figure 46. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1935-39. Sulphate Warehouse. Photo: AAM 70-003-117
Figure 47. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory, Inkeroinen. 1937-38. Photo: Veljekset Karumäki Oy, SE. From Korvenmaa 2004 p.18, fig. 16.
Figure 48. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory, Inkeroinen, 1937-38. Elevation. Drawing: AAA 70-961.
Figure 49. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Enso-Gutzeit Paper Factory, Kotka. 1951. Drawing: AAA 70-2358.
Figure 50. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Enso-Gutzeit Paper Factory, Kotka. 1951. Drawing: AAA 70-2349.
Figure 51. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Enso-Gutzeit Paper Factory, Kotka. 1951.Drawing: AAA 70-2354.
Figure 52. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Ahlström Glassworks Warehouse, Karhula 1949. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 53. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Ahlström Glassworks Warehouse, Karhula 1949. Elevations and Section. Drawing: Neuenschwander, 1954 p. 76. xiv
Figure 54. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Turun Sanomat Building, Turku 1927-29. Machine Hall. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 62-005-103.
Figure 55. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Library, Viipuri (now Viborg), 1930-35. Lecture Hall. Photo: Nina from Helsinki CC BY SA 2.0.
Figure 56. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Tuberculosis Sanatorium, Paimio 1929-33, Roof Terrace. Photo: Gustaf Welin, AAM 50-003-265
Figure 57. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Tuberculosis Sanatorium, Paimio.1929-33, Armchair 41. Photo: Vitra Design Museum. From Eisenbrand et al 2014, Fig 342, p.564.
Figure 58. Alvar Aalto (Designer) Savoy Vase, 1936. Alexander von Vegesack Collection. Photo: Vitra Design Museum. From Eisenbrand et al 2014, Fig 87, p.518.
Figure 59. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Lapua Pavilion, Lapua. 1938. Drawing: © Alvar Aalto Museum.
Figure 60. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Finnish Pavilion, New York World’s Fair, New York, 1939. Photo: © Ezra Stoller. From www.ArchitectureWeek.com.
Figure 61. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory, Inkeroinen, 1937-38. Debarking Plant detail. From AAA 70.629
Figure 62. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Stromberg Warehouse, Vaasa, 1945. Elevation. Drawing: Schildt 1994, p.155, fig. 285.
Figure 63. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Finnish Pavilion, Paris World’s Fair, 1937. Photo: © Dell & Wainright, 17107 RIBA Collections.
Figure 64. Alvar and Aino Aalto (Architects) Sunila Mill Manager’s Residence, 1937. Stair Hall. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 65. Alvar and Aino Aalto (Architects) Sunila Mill Office Building, 1937. Reception Area Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 66. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Tehtaanmäki Elementary School, Inkeroinen, 1939. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 67. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Villa Mairea, Munkkiniemi (Aalto) House and Tehtaanmäki School, 1936-39. Plans at uniform scale and orientation. Drawing: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 68. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sawmill Extension, Varkaus, 1939. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM 101223
Figure 69. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sawmill Extension, Varkaus, 1939. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM.
Figure 70. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sawmill Extension, Varkaus, 1939. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM 101227
Figure 71. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Staff/Projects ratios, 1932-40
Chapter 5
Figure 1. Alvar and Aino Aalto (Architects) Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, 1938. Photo: Ninara CC BY 2.0.
Figure 2. Frank Lloyd Wright (Architect) Fallingwater, Bear Run, PA, 1936. Photo: © FamiliesGo.com.
Figure 3. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Finnish Pavilion, New York World Fair, 1939. Photo: © Ezra Stoller.
Figure 4. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Municipal Library, Viipuri, 1935.Lecture Room ceiling. Photo: www.dezeen.com/2014/10/31/alvar-aalto-viipuri-library-restoration-wins-2014-modernism-prize/
Figure 5. Jean Arp (Hans Arp); Constellation According to the Laws of Chance. c1930.Painted Wood Relief. © Tate Modern. Photo: Wmpearl CC BY SA 1.0. xv
Figure 6. Erich Mendelsohn (Architect) Einstein Tower, Potsdam, 1921. Photo: Alice Popkorn CC BY SA 2.0.
Figure 7. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sawmill Extension, Varkaus, 1945. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM 101224.
Figure 8. Alvar Aalto (Architect) House of Culture, Helsinki, 1958. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 9. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Church of the Three Crosses, Imatra, 1959. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 10. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1939. Central Area. Photo: Heikki Havas, AAM. c1960s.
Figure 11. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Säynätsalo Town Hall. Säynätsalo, 1952. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 12. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Aalborg Museum, Denmark, 1952. Photo: © Kirsten Gress – arslonga.dk.
Figure 13. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1939. Screening/Drying Hall. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 14. Willem Dudok (Architect) Town Hall, Hilversum, Holland, 1931. PhotoXavier66 CC BY SA 3.0
Figure 15. Sigurd Frosterus (Architect) Hydro Plant, Inkeroinen, 1921. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 16. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Forest Pavilion. Lapua, 1938. Photo: Gustav Wilen, AAM.
Figure 17. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sawmill Extension, Varkaus, 1945. Photo: Foto Roos, AAM 101229.
Figure 18. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Ahlström Glassworks Warehouse, Karhula, 1949. Gable cladding. Drawing: Neuenschwander
Figure 19. Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (Architect) A Masonry and Iron Building, Project, 1863. From: Entretiens sur L’Architecture.
Figure 20. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe; (Architect) New National Gallery, Berlin, 1968. Interior. Photo: K Lee CC BY SA 3.0
Figure 21. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Town Hall, Säynätsalo, 1949-52. Council Chamber fan trusses. Photo: Ed. Neuenschwander.
Figure 22. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1939. Lime Tower. Photo: AAM. 70-003-087.
Figure 23. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Sunila Pulp Mill, Kotka, 1939 Drying Hall –cable support frame. Drawing 70-216, 1937.
Figure 24. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory. Inkeroinen, 1948. Railway Loading Dock. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf.
Figure 25. Alvar Aalto (Architect) Anjala Paper Factory. Inkeroinen, 1950. Concrete conveyor framework. Photo: © Andrew Metcalf. xvii
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank my supervisor, Gevork Hartoonian, for the subtle advice, management and encouragement he has provided for this thesis over the past four years. Secondly, I want to acknowledge the logistical and cultural advice I have received from a supportive group of people and organisations in Finland, during the site visitation and archival stages of the project; starting in Canberra with Anu Liukko for her translations and then in Finland, Risto Kaaria, who accompanied me in Jyväskylä. I also thank the Stora Enso and Turun Sanomat companies for access to their industrial sites and for the guidance provided by, Jenny Reitti (Kaukopää), Paivi Totterman (Sunila), Hanna Myllyntausta (Inkeroinen), and Christina Hamalainen (Turun Sanomat). My special thanks and appreciation go to Anu Vainio, who knowledgeably guided me around Inkeroinen and Harri Luiskari for providing access to the Tehtaanmäki School. In the archival stage, my gratitude goes to Timo Reklo and Maija Holma at the Alvar Aalto Archive in Jyväskylä. Over the course of the research, I also received encouragement from my colleagues Michael Jasper and John Ting. And I am also grateful to Andrew Leach and Jean Louis Cohen for their comments on aspects of my work and to my teacher and friend George Baird who, years ago, showed me the intellectual path I have followed. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank Ann Metcalf for her unflagging support and love during the past four years.