sign in sign up
<<
Home , Impeccability, Messiah, The Promise (musical)

’s Temptation John E. McKinley

nd he was in the wilderness for forty days, Jesus was tempted, Scripture says, “in all ways “A being tempted by ” (:13). as we are, yet without ” (Heb 4:15). This decla- Like many topics in theology, the temptation ration marks the closeness of Jesus’ experiences to of Jesus Christ requires that we think about sev- ours. The reminder is given to encourage us that eral doctrines simultaneously In this case, our he truly understands our situation from the inside. thinking about Jesus’ temptation involves us in Having endured temptations firsthand, as a true the doctrines of (can God be tempted or man, Jesus knows temptations that we suffer. That commit sin?), humanity (what is temptation to he is did not protect him from feeling sin for humans? how much was Jesus like us in his the strain of the pull to commit sin, or from any human life?), sanctification (how is Jesus a model of the suffering he endured. Instead, these suffer- for withstanding temptation to ings were his training to learn obedience through John E. McKinley is Associate sin and obeying God as a man?), suffering (Heb 5:8-9) and to become perfected to Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies at Biola University. and, of course, the complicated function as a sympathetic priest who reconciles us reality of the . This to God (Heb 2:17-18). Dr. McKinley has served on the staff inter-doctrinal situation makes Jesus was tempted for our sakes. This means of Campus Crusade for Christ, where he worked in urban ministry in Los matters messy when we seek for both that he withstood the pressure by his tri- Angeles. He has also served as youth easy answers. Unfortunately, the umph over sin for us (where we have all failed), minister in Floyds Knobs, Indiana, theological tradition is little help and that he was credibly tempted so that we and currently leads an AWANA to resolve the issues on this ques- would believe he is truly a fellow sufferer with us class in his local church. In addition, he is the author of Tempted for Us: tion, having supplied us with in temptation. We are told that he is compassion- Theological Models and the Practical many different explanations and ate and ready to lend us the help we need when we Relevance of Christ’s Impeccability and not provided us with the broad are caught in temptation’s thrall. Hebrews 4:16 Temptation (Paternoster, 2009). consensus we might wish for.1 urges us to approach Jesus for the help that he is

56 SBJT 16.2 (2012): 56-71. uniquely qualified to offer as the only one who has life, including temptation to sin. Thus, Jesus was been tempted as we are, has succeeded against it, tempted as a man, that is, he could not be tempted and possesses the ability to assist us in our battle. apart from the Incarnation, and he was tempted This is good for us, since the temptation to sin is for us as an example and true model of the the battle of the human condition. God the Son human life. The many exhortations that Jesus is made this human fight his own when he invaded the pattern for us to imitate only make sense if his his hostile creation to rescue it from sin. Accord- experience corresponds closely to ours.3 ingly, I will address the topic of Jesus’ temptations One difference of Jesus’ temptation experiences by laying out two questions of practical relevance: is that he is God Incarnate, which means that, What was temptation for Jesus (as compared with since God cannot sin, he cannot sin.4 The early us); and, how did he succeed against temptation church condemned one prominent theologian, (as compared with how we can succeed against Theodore of Mopsuestia (ca. 350-428), for claim- it, with him as our example)? I will argue that ing that Jesus was not impeccable until after the Jesus was tempted for us in a variety of ways that resurrection.5 More recently, some scholars have equipped him to be our reasonable human model argued that Jesus could sin (peccability), whether in resisting temptation, and our sympathetic ally because of his true humanity, or because the real- in the fight. ity of a true temptation requires that he was able to commit evil (but he never did so).6 This pecca- WHAT WAS TEMPTATION FOR bility proposal assumes definitions of humanity JESUS (AS COMPARED WITH US)? and temptation that are unwarranted; we would Jesus was tempted as a man, in his human do better to start with Jesus’ experience and nature. The humanness of his temptation experi- define from there the meaning of temptation (see ences warrants the truth of Hebrews 4:15 and the below). By contrast with peccability, most teach- similarity to our temptations. This is in contrast ers throughout the tradition have held tightly to to the false notion that he was tempted as God, the unity of the Incarnation and denied that Jesus according to his deity, since, as James 1:13 affirms, could have sinned because of his deity (impecca- God cannot be tempted by evil. This divine immu- bility). The hypostatic union of the to nity to temptation follows from God’s transcen- his deity and humanity requires that being eternal dence, , and (among God, Jesus could not sin even as a man. According other attributes) by which God cannot be threat- to Chalcedonian , the natures cannot ened with harm (he cannot be harmed), lured to be separated in a way to allow such contradiction obtain something that he lacks (he owns every- of his deity at the level of his moral action.7 Thus, thing), or deceived by evil as a means to accom- everything that Jesus does as a man must be con- plishing some good (he knows the truth). For sistent with his impeccability as God. Were this Jesus, then, temptation must come through his not so, if Jesus ever sinned, this would mean that humanity. The Chalcedonian definition helps here God had sinned, a self-violation and failure of his to remind us that the divine and human natures omnipotence, goodness, and (among are not mixed with each other (“inconfusedly, other attributes). unchangeably”), and the properties of each nature Another way of understanding Jesus’ impec- are preserved in their union to the person, God cability (because he is fully God) and temptation the Word.2 This distinction and conservation of as a man is by considering the virtual impeccabil- each nature means that his human nature is not ity that many people experience with reference to divinized in any sense. As a man, the Son became a particular action. The ability to do something, fully vulnerable to the pains and strains of human abstractly considered, is not possible in some cases

57 because of the agent who possesses the capacity which were true of Jesus and ourselves. Fourth, I for action. For example, to illustrate the difference want to think through five basic kinds of tempta- between potential capacities and actual powers, tions that we all have which will help us explain consider how I possess the physical capacities to how Jesus was truly tempted in all ways as we are. strangle my dog, Lilly, a five-pound Chihuahua. Let us now turn to these four areas. Being who I am, with strong commitments to the well being of my dog, and my relationships with JESUS’ TEMPTATIONS AND HIS my wife, my children, and God, I will never use KNOWLEDGE my capacities to strangle the dog. Indeed, I cannot When we consider the reality of Jesus’ temp- do so because of who I am.8 Thus, I am function- tations, several proposals have been offered to ally impeccable with regard to this evil act. Even make sense of this difficulty. Scripture does not so, I can be tempted to strangle the dog in a weak explain an answer for us, so we are left to formulate moment, though I remain never fully able to carry the options and ponder how to understand it all through with it. Similarly, Jesus is impeccable with (which may make us feel dizzy). Several theolo- regard to every act because, while he possesses gians have agreed in recent years that Jesus could the created capacities to commit evil as a man, so be truly tempted to sin while remaining impec- long as these capacities belong to him, the eternal cable just so long as he was uncertain or unaware Son, he will never use his human abilities to com- of his impeccability.10 That is, he was uncertain mit sin.9 Being who he is, with the strong commit- in his human mind, just as he learns things as a ments he maintains to his Father and the program developing creature (Luke 2:40, 52), and he claims of , he will never sin (despite our ability not to know the time of his return (:32). to consider his abilities in abstraction from who he While affirming the absolute impossibility of sin, is as the agent of the Incarnation). Being God the uncertainty at the level of Jesus’ beliefs about his Son, he is impeccable even in his life as a true man. capacities as a man would be sufficient for him to That Jesus cannot sin need not dismay us in suffer the strain of temptation alongside the rest view of the report that he was truly tempted. We of us. need only to see that the possibility of failure (sin) A thought experiment can help us to see Jesus’ is not a necessary condition for a true experience situation.11 Consider that you are told there will of struggle and the praiseworthy accomplishment be a cash prize for you if you can remain in your of sinlessness. Indeed, Jesus clearly struggled in house for a full day, a voluntary house arrest. There the reported temptations, and his sympathy with may be many reasons why you are tempted to leave us is based on the severity of his combat with the house, but you consider the prize to be more temptation to sin. But the apparent problem of his worthwhile, so you resolve to stay indoors. At impeccability and temptation remains. It is still the end of the time you are duly rewarded. Then, legitimate to ask: How can Jesus be tempted with- to your surprise, you are told that the doors and out the ability to sin? windows had all been sealed shut—your depar- I want to address this important question in a ture during the test had been impossible! Does bit more depth in four steps. First, I want to con- this impossibility of leaving the house invalidate sider recent proposals of several theologians who your struggle and the accomplishment of choos- suggest that Jesus could be truly tempted to sin if ing to remain inside? No, you should be rewarded, we link his temptation to his knowledge. Second, since you truly weighed the options and you freely I want to discuss how we should best understand chose to fulfill the test. Likewise, the temptation how Jesus was tempted in “all ways” like us. Third, remained valid for Jesus to consider that, being I want to consider two features of all temptations God the Son, he was most likely unable to sin

58 while he felt the strong pull of his temptations. He help (as provided through the ’s appear- could not be so certain in his human mind about ance to strengthen him). I think it is implausible the inference to his impeccability from knowing to consider that theological reflection about his his identity as the Son of God that the temptations deity would have shielded him against the devil’s made no appeal to him.12 Certainty in human allures and the attraction to take the easy way pre- knowledge normally requires a test of the theory sented in the temptation. He was not experiencing (or divine revelation). Without such an experi- his humanity in the abstract, but in the concrete of mental test of his ability to sin, Jesus had probabi- feeling pulled by the attraction of sin (the goods listic knowledge about himself, but no more. This offered by sinful means of attainment). He was uncertainty, because untested, provides for the not sure that he cannot sin, but he focused on the temptation to pull at Jesus as a real option just as strain and met it within the frame of his human we are tempted. life (as helped by the , just as he was He cannot have brushed off the temptations as filled with the Spirit when he entered and returned nonsense for him simply because they were impos- from the wilderness temptations). Thus, Jesus was sible. He was not play-acting (indeed, hypocrisy truly tempted for us as a man, despite his being deeply angered him whenever he saw it in oth- unchangeably impeccable as God the Son. ers!). Instead, Jesus truly and painfully felt the pull to flee the cross and he prayed desperately THE MEANING OF JESUS BEING for a way out while praying in (with TEMPTED IN “ALL WAYS” loud sobs and tears, Heb 5:7). When contemplat- In order to grasp how Jesus could be tempted ing the imminent betrayal and the pain of hell like us, we must pause for a moment and reflect that would follow, he was intensely distressed to on what it means for the Scripture to declare that the point of feeling that he was going to die (John Jesus was tempted in all ways as we are (Heb 4:15), 13:21). A short time later, Jesus needed an angel leaving us to discover the explanations for how a to strengthen him while he prayed to surrender God-man can be tempted as the reasonable pattern his human will to God’s will (Luke 22:41-44).13 for others who are sinners saved by grace. At first The reality of his true human mind and human glance, the claim that he was tempted “in all ways will means he did not know all things and wres- as we are” seems impossible because of the his- tled with his conflicting creaturely desire for self- torical particularity of Jesus’ life. “All ways” need protection (in Gethsemane, he wanted to flee the not mean that Jesus was tempted to rob banks, use cross) and the desire for self-surrender to God’s performance-enhancing drugs as an athlete, or purposes (he also wanted to obey his Father). plagiarize a research paper. The main idea is that, This real experience in struggle was plausibly pre- somehow, as a true man, God the Son experienced served by his human cognitive uncertainty, and the pull of temptation in ways that compare closely the uncertainty seems to fulfill what we can pro- with the ways we feel tempted. His experiences pose as the necessary and sufficient condition for are a real basis for empathy with our experiences. Jesus to be tempted as a man: he must be uncer- What he lived by to fight against his temptations tain about sin as an impossibility for himself, and are the transferable methods that we may live by, by his imagination he must be able to perceive the following his example and receiving special help desirable state of affairs should he follow through from him. and commit the sin (he evades the punishment of hell in the cross).14 Like the rest of us, Jesus FEATURES COMMON TO ALL suffered the temptation in the fierce battle of the TEMPTATION moment and fought against it as a man with God’s Let us now consider two features that are com-

59 mon to all temptation before we turn to think tions. His empathy is not a function of his omni- through basic kinds of temptations all human science, but is from his human experiences of a beings, including Jesus, experience thus provid- variety of temptations throughout his life. ing a more grounded explanation on how Jesus A second feature common to all temptation can was truly tempted in all ways as we are. The first be approached by rejecting what some have tried feature that is common to all temptation is the fact to say marked Jesus’ unique temptation. Let me that all temptation is subject to person-variability, explain. Some have tried to mark Jesus’ unique- which is just to say that the ways we experience ness in ways that are not helpful by arguing that temptation partly depends on us—temptation normal temptations should be distinguished into varies from one person to the next.15 The person- internal and external kinds, and Jesus only expe- variability of temptations implies that no one can rienced the external sort.16 To be sure, if internal feel another person’s temptation in the sense of temptation means sinful desires, then Jesus can- an identity of experience (“I feel your pain”). But not have experienced internal temptation (usu- Jesus, because he experienced hundreds (or hun- ally, external temptation means the circumstances, dreds of thousands?) of enticements to sin that whether by threat of pain or loss, or by the possible come naturally with a human life, can say, “I have gain of some needed thing such as bread).17 I doubt felt temptation that is like your temptation.” He this distinction is an accurate account of tempta- knows firsthand the temptations that come with tion, since it seems that all temptation involves poverty, social and political oppression, betrayal, a combination of external circumstances that physical suffering, ridicule and public shame, dan- appeal to one’s internal beliefs, desires, and imagi- ger, want of food and physical comforts, the sense nation.18 We can deny that Jesus was plagued by of abandonment by God and close friends—a sinful desires (such as lust or greed) while affirm- whole range of things that come to people in the ing that he internally believed he was the , normal settings of life common to all. Therefore, desired strongly to flee from the pain of the cross, when Hebrews 4:15 affirms that Jesus was tempted and imagined the possibilities of avoiding pain in all ways as we are, I take this to mean that he has through disobeying his Father. In this way, we can been tempted in all the ways that are common to see that he truly was tempted just as the rest of us humanity. That he was male and unmarried does are, by struggling with internal desires that relate not count against his abilities to empathize and to external circumstances. Like us, he was not offer real help to women and men who experience shielded by his deity or sinlessness from suffering particular varieties of temptations that are based the deeply internal pull of temptation as an attack on their person-variability. For example, Jesus did to be resisted from the inside. not need to become a heroin user and feel those particular temptations for him to be able to empa- BASIC TEMPTATIONS JESUS AND ALL thize with heroin users. Jesus has his own intense HUMANS FACE temptations to draw from for relating to other In thinking through how Jesus was truly people. Christ’s particularity (even his being the tempted in all ways as we are, it is important to God-man and sinless) does not count against his consider that Jesus’ experience in temptation ability to empathize with any other human being closely corresponds to ours in that he was tempted suffering temptations. What matters most is that naturally and normally as a function of his human Jesus was thoroughly tempted in the variety of life. Being a true human being, Jesus was vulner- occurrences in the setting of his human life. These able to temptation in at least five dimensions or are sufficient to constitute him empathetic and a spheres of human life. What are these spheres? reasonable pattern for all others in their tempta- They are his relationships to God, the created

60 world, other people, the self, and suffering. In con- heart. Without the combination of freedom and trast to God, who cannot be tempted (Jas 1:13), imagination that allows individuals to consider human beings are temptable because of their crea- and be tempted by attractive possibilities, people turely weakness, finitude, contingency, and liabil- would not see the opportunity to turn away from ity to suffering. People want to meet their needs, God. However, being endowed with freedom and aggrandize themselves, and avoid pain by sinful imagination to transcend their divinely ordained avenues of escape. Normally, sin is corruptive in a limitations, people may consider the untested way that weakens the sinner to be more suscepti- prospect of another way of life apart from God ble to further , and sometimes through corrupt (that is, their independence from the Creator). desires (not simply innocent desires for things met They are tempted to add to themselves and seek through sinful means). Jesus’ difference in this to enlarge themselves beyond the constraints of respect is that, being sinless (he possessed no guilt finitude. Thus, finite human beings can imagine or corruption from original or personal sin) he was their personal as the temptation not subject to the original depravity (no corrupt to become great and move beyond their divinely desires) common to the rest of us. The point is that ordered status (which is a departure from God to human temptability is not from sinfulness (just self-destruction). As contingent creatures with an as , Eve, and Jesus were each tempted with- acute sense of their dependence on God, the temp- out prior sin), but from the factors explained here tation to turn away from the Creator by a rebel- in relation to being a human, which Jesus fully lious grasp at independence appeals to the desire shared. This share in human life includes the nor- for autonomy.20 The desire may be inexplicable as mal matrix of a person’s real and imagined needs the dream for life apart from God, the source of all and desires that correspond to real and imagined goodness and life. At least we can say the desire for satisfaction in relationships with God, the external autonomy is irrational, just as all sin is fundamen- world, other people, and the self. These areas of an tally irrational and self-destructive. These tempta- individual’s relationships are spheres of human tions to independence from God may take both existence that allow different sorts of temptations the direct form of forsaking God for independence to afflict people. Even for the monk in seclusion, and autonomy through idolatry, and the indirect temptation is intrinsically relational because the form of violating the limits that God has estab- mechanics of temptation are an interaction of rela- lished for his creatures’ relationships within the tional factors (or, one’s relatedness to life). In addi- natural order. tion, another avenue of temptation is opened when The human condition, then, includes a paradox suffering touches us. Let us look at each of these of glory and temptation because of our special, five areas in turn. image-bearing relationship to God. If this is right, First, with respect to God, every temptation we should remember that, as a true human being, to sin is an enticement to be torn away from God. Jesus shared in this human situation and was Moreover, every sin has an ultimate setting within tempted as a man in relationship with God. The a person’s creaturely relationship to God as Cre- wilderness temptations seem to have highlighted ator and Judge. The prospect of turning against this relationship and would not have worked oth- God by following a temptation to sin arises from erwise (i.e., he only felt tempted because he had the human condition as finite beings with free- certain obligations to obey God). He had to strug- dom and imagination (but this is no excuse for gle to surrender to God’s will instead of depart sin).19 We may guess that human beings can be from it (Matt 26:39). Thus, if we are right to think tempted because creaturely finitude and free- that some of our temptations occur with reference dom seem to form a tension within the person’s to our special relatedness to God, then we can see

61 that Christ’s exemplifying this sort of temptation he did not possess lust).22 may be one aspect of the meaning of Hebrews As noted above, the variety of temptations in 4:15 (i.e., relationship to God is one of the ways in this relationship exists because God has set bounds which he was tempted in all ways as we are). and prescriptions for human conduct in relation to A second sphere of human relatedness is that the natural world of stuff (animals, plants, trees, people are created with needs for material support land, etc.). For example, bestiality, gluttony, and in the created world. All people are inescapably greed are prohibited (even the exploitation of the frail creatures requiring the perpetual, externally animals is limited in Exod 23:12, as part of Sab- supplied life support of food, drink, oxygen, cloth- bath regulations). While the world is a habitation ing, shelter, sunlight, and more. The temptations designed for humans in a way that corresponds that correspond to bodily needs and desires in perfectly to their embodiment, the divinely relationship to the external world afflict humanity ordered relationship for the ways human beings constantly, despite the original goodness of both use the world is also the setting for a multitude of the created world and the human creatures inhab- temptations to violate that order. Being a real man, iting it. The severe lack of some needed thing, such Jesus was also tempted as an embodied being in as food, brings about suffering and pain for the relationship to the created world, just as others are. individual (e.g., weakness, starvation, death). This Satan’s urging that Jesus provide food for himself need for life-support corresponds to the promise after fasting for forty days depends upon Christ’s of relief, comfort, and well-being that is possible basic need for nutritional sustenance of his body. only when eating food, clothing the body, or what- The category of temptations in relation to the cre- ever, satisfies the needs. ated world is another way of temptation that Jesus The temptations in this relationship to stuff in experienced in likeness to us. the world can be divided in two sorts. Legitimate In addition to the relationships to God and the desires are an internal touch point for the temp- created world, a third area of temptation involves tation to satisfy a legitimate desire in the wrong the social setting of person-to-person relationships way (e.g., hunger satisfied by stolen bread). These which constitute an array of human temptations. desires are sinless and natural just as part of being People have the relational needs for the interper- a human. They are the desires that God created sonal realities of love, affection, respect, honor, humans to experience. By contrast, corrupt desires friendship, companionship, nurture, protection, are an internal touch point for the temptation encouragement, and more. People are tempted to to satisfy a corrupt, sinful, and self-destructive sin in the sphere of their relationships with oth- desire (e.g., greed satisfied by excessive wealth, or ers both by seeking the wrong means of satisfying gluttony, the desire for more food than what one legitimate, appropriate interpersonal desires (e.g., needs). Corrupt desires are the result of sin that the desire for respect by lying about one’s experi- disorders the body and heart because the person ences), and by trying to get satisfaction for their is alienated from God.21 Both the corrupt and corrupt interpersonal desires (e.g., the desire for legitimate desires in temptation seem to occur as revenge satisfied by attacking an enemy through internal experiences of a struggle in relation things gossip or violence). Much of the social, interper- in the world environment. Notice that these two sonal evil to which people are tempted combines sorts of desires form the normative temptations both relationships of human-to-things and of for fallen humanity. We can affirm that Jesus was humans-to-humans. Examples include coveting, only susceptible to legitimate or innocent desires greed, theft, slander, deception, property dam- because he did not possess the corrupt desires of age, sexual misconduct, persecution, extortion, fallen humanity (i.e., he was not fallen or sinful, so and assault. These combinations make for misus-

62 ing things of the natural world in harmful ways referential temptations are based on the problem against other people. Thus, the needs that people of seeking to satisfy appropriate desires using the have for other people draw them into interdepen- wrong means (e.g., the desire for happiness satis- dent relationships with others by God’s design, but fied through manipulating others to meet one’s this social setting is also the arena for many temp- needs). Other self-referential temptations arise tations to sin against that design in relationship to from sinful desires (e.g., the desire to feel supe- others. People are inescapably oriented towards rior to others satisfied by manipulating others to one another, and yet it is in these relationships make one feel powerful). The issue of temptation that so many virulent temptations arise because in relationship to the self is to see oneself wrongly, of interpersonal needs. according to some false image that is other than Jesus experienced many temptations in his God’s making, order, and specific call.23 Human relationships with people. For example, he under- beings face multiform temptations to autonomy stands the distrust, rejection, slander, betrayal, for the self, sinful pride, and delusions of power assault, and malice by others that may have and self-importance by which they violate the tempted him to revenge. Jesus knows the tempta- proper order of their relationships to God, the tion to do and say the things that could make him world, and other people. While this relationship of well liked by others. He understands the tempta- the outer self and inner self or self-consciousness tion of a growing boy to disobey his parents when always has a setting in another of the three rela- they wrongly blamed him for negligence and tionships above, the questions of personal identity pulled him away from enjoying the presence of his and significance make for powerful temptations at Father and theological discourse in the Temple this relational level because these have to do with courts (Luke 2:41-52). Jesus experienced close a person’s self-awareness. relationships with men, women, and children Was Jesus tempted in this way? Satan’s sugges- from among the powerful, weak, disgraceful out- tions in the wilderness pressed especially at this casts, and the most highly honored of society. They point of Jesus’ desire for confirmation of his special responded to him with the full range of emotions: identity. Jesus, just having been publicly declared adoration, honor, open and concealed disdain, from heaven as God’s Son (at the Jordan baptism), skepticism, insistence, and malicious provocation. quickly found himself in the peril of starvation. Whatever temptations we experience in relation This situation possibly made him susceptible to to other people, Hebrews 4:15 seems abundantly the wonder if his dawning consciousness of being truthful that Jesus authentically experienced this the Son of God and Messiah was mistaken.24 Satan third way of temptations just as we do. These soci- suggested that Jesus should force God’s hand to etal temptations were as inescapable for him as confirm his identity as God’s Son (“If you are the for us. Son of God”). Even if Jesus had no other tempta- Fourth, in one’s relationship to oneself, people tions in relation to himself, these two alone are have the habitual dynamics of character, moods, sufficient to constitute his firsthand empathy for emotions, self-concept, and self-awareness. There others who face temptations that have to do with is opportunity for temptations to pride, distorted one’s self-understanding. body image, despair, happiness, safety, power, Thus, in every sphere of human life, for Jesus achievement, comfort, worth, various illusions, as for us, temptation is that pull on people to act and more. Many of these reflexive, self-oriented against God and his order for human existence. temptations are simply the appeals to repeat the Hebrews 4:15 tells that there is a comprehensive first human sin of clamoring for one’s indepen- correspondence between the ways that we are dence from God (as in Eden). Often these self- tempted and the ways Jesus was tempted. I do not

63 mean that the writer of Hebrews had these four God, come what may. ways in mind, but that these four categories help In summary of these five ways or settings for us to see comprehensiveness of the temptations temptation, we have seen that Jesus experienced that we suffer and that Jesus experienced for us (to all the sorts of temptation that we do. I suggest empathize with us and give help to us in following that these are a helpful picture of the meaning in his pattern of obedience). George Painter’s obser- Hebrews 4:15 that Jesus was tempted in all ways vation is apt: “The realm of possible temptation, as we are. His differences from the rest of human- therefore, is almost infinite, and the impulse to ity (being an eternal person, fully God, and sin- anything whatever, outside the sphere of the right, less) did not protect him from experiencing the may lead to evil.”25 basic modes of temptation. The authentic corre- Alongside these four aspects of human life is a spondence of his experience of temptation to ours fifth and more general category of human tempt- cannot be denied. His experience is properly the ability: the susceptibility to suffer pain that ranges basis of his empathy and his example for us, and from moderate discomfort and deprivation to the ground of his encouragement to us that he is intense, excruciating pain. The prospect of suffer- able and ready to help us when we are tempted ing in a fallen world creates this avenue of temp- (Heb 4:16). tation for the promise of relief from pain (or the possible evasion of suffering).26 Human beings are SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS vulnerable to suffering of many sorts (emotional Some conclusions follow at this point in answer and physical pain) because of their creaturely to our question of what was temptation for Jesus contingency and frailty. People are thus open to as compared with ours. First, to experience temp- being tempted to sin by avoiding pain through the tation is not itself a sin (since Jesus was tempted wrong means of satisfying their desire for comfort sinlessly) and sometimes these afflict us because or self-preservation (e.g. stealing bread to escape God is testing us to advance us in salvation (but the pain of hunger; turning away from Christ to some temptations are truly our fault, as in a boy escape persecution).27 who feels tempted to lie because he stole some- The temptations occasioned by present or thing and wants to avoid getting caught). On the imminent suffering are really the pull to sin as contrary, to feel tempted can be the backside of the a means of relief, which seems truly good to the positive opportunity to respond to God’s work of sufferer (e.g., the legitimate desire to avoid pun- sanctification through difficulties that provoke the ishment by telling a lie). The one who is tempted believer to cling all the more closely to God and to only resists sin by renouncing the reasonable, nat- repudiate sinful ways of thinking or living. ural desire to escape from suffering. Thus, trials I propose that all temptation (for Jesus and of all kinds strain people specifically because of for all others) is intensely internal and external embodiment and the relational contingency upon to bring about this basic inward conflict among life-support and other needs. the opposing desires in the heart, some leading As a true human being who suffered emotion- to sin and some leading to . Tempta- ally and physically (e.g., Heb 5:7-8), Jesus was tion is the internal struggle among a person’s beliefs also temptable because of his vulnerability to and desires, within a particular setting of attractive pain. This is most clear when he was tempted to external circumstances, and it pulls the person to sin avoid his drinking the cup of God’s wrath (Mark as its target. The advantage of this comprehensive 14:36). Christ’s achievement against temptation definition allows us to draw direct lines of corre- is supreme in this event; he overcame his desire spondence between Jesus’ temptations and the to avoid pain and chose instead the desire to obey temptation experiences of all people, according

64 to the claim of Hebrews 4:15 that Jesus’ empathy request for a non-sinful escape is not granted, he is based on the direct similarity of his experience. chooses the only remaining desire that still leads This advantage also allows us to draw a direct line to righteousness (through suffering). His refusal between Jesus’ resistance to temptation and the to choose a sinful path of self-preservation is the possibilities for believers to follow Christ’s pattern, difficult model for all of us.28 according to the claims of Hebrews 12:1-3 and 1 Scripture is clear that Jesus’ temptations were Peter 2:21-25 that Jesus is a reasonable model for real in the full range of experiences that were suf- human sinlessness. Thus, the definition allows ficient for him to empathize with all others who a reasonable explanation of the biblical data for are tempted, and he is the reasonable human tem- Jesus’ relevance in terms of the commonality of plate of sinlessness for to resist sin as human temptation. he did. Jesus experienced legitimate desires and According to the definition of temptation given sinless temptations in relation to desires for sinful above, we can trace one experience of Jesus imagi- satisfactions. Jesus had to respond by overcoming natively as follows: in Gethsemane, Jesus desires his desires without intending or choosing to sin. to avoid the punishment for sin (which is a desire Jesus’ differences of having no corrupt desires or that leads to sin) and he desires to obey God (a a fallen will do not preclude him from sharing in desire leading to righteousness). Despite his high the common temptation experience of humanity. priority for self-preservation and the belief that Temptations related to corrupt desires are per- evading pain may be possible, he chooses to obey son-variable, and do not constitute a distinct set or God according to his highest value and desires category of temptations in which Jesus could not to please his Father and accomplish redemption. share (e.g., the aforementioned internal tempta- Jesus wants to obey God more than he wants to tions). Thus, Jesus was tempted for us, in all ways dodge the pain of being cursed by God in the as we are. cross. This internal choice occurred dynamically in relation to specific external factors. Jesus’ cir- HOW DID JESUS SUCCEED AGAINST cumstances—with the imminent prospect of suf- TEMPTATION? fering the cup of wrath (hell)—are countered by Now to the second question, how did Jesus the imaginable state of affairs in which he does resist temptation and achieve a perfect, sinless not drink the cup of wrath. The temptation with human life? In answering this question, as with its sinful prospect of disobeying God out of a jus- the first, we must keep near to the biblical exhor- tifiable desire to avoid pain is uniquely fitted (his tations that Jesus is an example for us. Whatever person-variability) to his particular experience answers we consider must be weighed for how and beliefs. No one else could have felt this temp- they work as transferable from Jesus’ experience to tation, or experienced the intensity the way he did ours, that is, the question of his practical relevance because the factors that constituted a temptation as the model for our victory over temptation, since for him were both internal and external, and par- that is the emphasis of the most important temp- ticular to his relationship to God, his special role tation passages. The basic idea is that Jesus was as the Messiah, and his special awareness of the tempted for us to demonstrate how we can succeed prospect of his substitutionary suffering of the as he did (in addition to living a perfect human life punishment of hell (cf. :45). He suffers in our place, Romans 10:4). the pull of temptation and the fear internally as he We have two options for answering the question pleads again and again for a way out (three times). of how Jesus resisted sin. The first option is that His struggle to obey truly is a fierce fight that Jesus relied on his divine powers to achieve his sin- involves his deepest beliefs and desires. When his less, perfect obedience to God. The second option is

65 that Jesus, a divine person incarnate, did not live his would be void. I will argue that Scripture reveals human existence by his deity, but he took up his life that Jesus relied upon the very same provisions as a man fully within the frame of our limitations of empowering grace that are repeatedly com- (Heb 2:14-18), helped only by the same empower- mended throughout the for the rest of us. ing grace that God provides for his people. First, the evidence for the presence and action The first option has at least two problems. First, of the Holy Spirit in Jesus’ life and ministry are to say Jesus resisted sin by his deity cuts off Jesus’ best explained as fulfilling a real need to him in his relevance for the rest of us who are not God as weak humanity, and this includes assisting him to he is. Second, the appeal to divine powers as the repel sin when he was tempted. We are told that means of his success against sin cuts him off from Jesus, being full of the Holy Spirit, was led into experiencing any temptation, since God cannot the wilderness by the Spirit to be tempted by the be tempted (Jas 1:13). Once the divine nature devil (Luke 4:1-2), after which test he returned to was involved as causal in his human experience, Galilee in the power of the Spirit (Luke 4:14). This temptation cannot pull at him in any sense. More- report suggests that the presence and action of the over, Scripture never hints that Jesus responded Holy Spirit in Jesus’ life is relevant to his success to temptations with divine power. The emphasis is against temptation. Luke’s emphasis on the Spir- always on his resistance through human means of it’s closeness to Jesus should not surprise us since reliance on God’s word, praying for aid, and seek- the prophecies of the Spirit’s involvement in the ing the support of his friends. Messiah’s life and ministry predicted a spectacu- Instead of explaining his sinlessness by an lar kingship and prophetic ministry for Israel and escape through his divine power, the second the nations. In the tradition of the judges, kings, option seems to fit much better with the relevance and prophets of Israel, prophecies of Jesus as tempted for us, and the pervasive role of tell that the Messiah would be closely assisted the Holy Spirit in his life.29 Scripture emphasizes by the Spirit of God to fulfill his tasks. The pri- a strong continuity of the Holy Spirit’s active pres- mary emphasis is on the of ruling Israel and ence in the life and work of Israel’s prophets, Jesus, the world, as in Isaiah 11:1-10, 42:1-9, 50:4-11, and disciples who followed him. Without detract- 59:16-21, and 61:1-11. Within these prophecies ing from Jesus’ eternal deity as the Son of God, we is the repeated dependence of the Messiah upon may read Scripture as highlighting his promised the Spirit’s support for his ethical development human life as the Messiah, the man of the Spirit as a wise and righteous king under God. This who lived by and provides the Holy Spirit so that righteousness resembles as the man after many would be like him in a new relationship God’s own heart, and sharply contrasts with moral to God that manifested in the new operation of failures of , , David, , and the righteous human life in the world. The Spirit is many subsequent kings of Israel and Judah. The not an add-on to God the Son, but a necessary ally Messiah to come would be equipped by the Spirit to Jesus in his humanity. He never faced tempta- as to his “knowledge and fear of ” (Isa tion alone, and he proved the way of success for 11:2) so that his delight would be in the fear of us that neither should we face temptation alone. Yahweh (Isa 11:3), resulting in the total righteous- The indwelling presence of God to us by the Spirit ness and faithfulness of his reign (Isa 11:5) that is the same help offered as the “grace to help in extends for establishing shalom for the entire cre- time of need” (Heb 4:16) that Jesus relied upon ation (Isa 11:6-10). He would be strengthened by in his battles. Were this not so, then all the rele- God through the Spirit upon him (Isa 42:1), expe- vance of his human life as an example and basis for rienced as Yahweh’s promise to hold him by the his empathy with others who are merely human hand (Isa 42:6). Moreover, the Servant-Messiah

66 tells that Yahweh opened his ear to instruct him Holy Spirit to them as the Spirit helped him, Jesus (Isa 50:4-5) and helped him in his mission (Isa is a realistic model to imitate. Obviously, this is 50:7, 9). These details are selected for how they not to say that Christians ever succeed in the full relate to the ethical formation of the Messiah and way of sinless perfection as Jesus did, but that he his active faithfulness as a man, which is necessary is so near to us in having to fight through tempta- to his jobs as the prophet, priest, and king accom- tion as we do, that we can be truly inspired by his plishing divine salvation. example, employ the same means that helped him, Jesus applied these prophecies to himself by and be encouraged to persevere even though we quoting :1-2 as fulfilled in his life and still sin daily. ministry.30 He also attributed his exorcisms to Second, in addition to the basic provision of the Spirit’s empowerment (Matt 12:28, cf. Luke the Holy Spirit to indwell Christians and aid us in 11:20), which Matthew has preceded with the the mission of righteousness by following Jesus, quotation of Isaiah 42:1-4 to show the messianic Scripture specifies that Jesus actively relied upon fulfillment in Jesus (Matt 12:9-21) as the one several modes of the empowering grace of God empowered to bring release from sin’s thrall. Simi- to help him as a man. These reports are Jesus’ lar is Luke’s later summary of Jesus’ entire minis- demonstration of how to fight temptation that we try through Peter’s statement in Acts 10:38. The may repeat, and by such means of grace we may entire range of Jesus’ works of power to do good find the help that he promises to provide when we and deliver from the devil is under the enable- are tempted (Heb 4:16). Briefly recounted, these ment of the Holy Spirit’s , alternately are ways Jesus’ received help from God when he described by Peter that God was with Jesus. This was tempted, and we find that the same are com- statement is odd if we are thinking merely of the mended to us abundantly as the basic support for Father and the Spirit being “with” God the Son, triumph as a Christian. but the fit is natural when we consider that the Jesus was a man of prayer at all times (e.g., Luke Son is the Messiah according to his human life, 5:16; 6:12; 9:18, 28; 11:1; 22:32, 41), with a focused for which he needed divine empowerment to sup- appeal for help when he struggled with temptation port his perfect accomplishments. in Gethsemane. Prayer was for Jesus a real grasp of We are also told that the Holy Spirit was con- God to receive strength in his time of need, when stantly involved in Jesus’ development from his he felt weak in the face of a terribly fierce tempta- miraculous conception (:35), to his boy- tion. We can only guess, but it makes good sense hood development with increasing wisdom and to assume that Jesus normally reached for help relationship with God (Luke 2:40, 52), through- through prayer when temptations assaulted him. out his ministry (Luke 4:1-14), and culminating in Likewise, Christians are urged to pray constantly the cross (Heb 9:14) and resurrection (Rom 1:4; about everything (1 Thess 5:17), being assured 8:11). 31 We may conclude from this evidence that that God can rescue them especially from tempta- the best explanation for the emphasis on the pre- tion (2 Pet 2:9), about which they should pray to diction, fulfillment, and continuity of the Spirit’s God for deliverance (Matt 6:13). Jesus urged his work in Jesus and Christians is that just as he was friends to pray for aid in Gethsemane, where resis- aided by the Spirit, so would they be. His example tance to temptation is specifically in view (Luke as a man of the Spirit to faithfully resist sin and 22:40, 46). The reminder to pray for help when courageously pursue righteousness is reasonable suffering temptation is also the single exhortation for Christians who follow him. Since he worked of Hebrews 4:16, with the assurance that Jesus’ within the limitations they (we) have to work with, sympathy from having been tempted himself and he provided the same operative power of the should encourage us that he will be ready and able

67 to help us directly in our time of need. the two natures, not as of union to each other, but as Jesus also rebuffed some of his temptations by each united to the person. Each nature is fully pos- reliance upon the word of God. When in the wil- sessed by the person, God the Son, and so the two derness being tempted by the devil, Jesus routed natures remain unmixed and distinct from each other the lies with truth as his guard from sin. This is while they are inseparable in the incarnational union. what Eve should have done, and constant trust in 3Jesus is presented as the example for people to follow God’s word is the basic method for all believers to in many ways throughout the (e.g., we are to parry deception-laden temptations. God’s revela- take up our cross and follow his cross-bearing steps, tion is the antidote that dismantles the lie that oth- Luke 9:23), and his model life is specifically urged erwise makes sin seem attractive in temptations upon us in Heb 12:1-3, 1 Pet 2:21-25, Phil 2:5-11, 1 (cf. Ps 119:9-11). Cor 11:1, and Rom 8:17 and 15:1-7. Finally, Jesus not only fought through his temp- 4Divine impeccability is sometimes disputed by a few tations by living close to God through receptive- philosophers of , such as Nelson Pike, Vin- ness to the Spirit, prayer to his Father, and reliance cent Brümmer, Bruce Reichenbach, and Stephen T. upon his Father’s word of truth, but he also called Davis. For a recent defense of the doctrine, see John his closest friends alongside to support him when S. Feinberg, No One Like Him: The Doctrine of God he knew the battle was upon him. Too often, Chris- (Wheaton: Crossway, 2001), 288-92. tians withdraw, but true friendship is a real sup- 5The Fifth Ecumenical Council (Constantinople II, port that Jesus leaned upon in Gethsemane, even 553). The council anathematizes anyone who defends though they failed him. Like Jesus, Christians have Theodore’s doctrine that Jesus progressed by means divine and human help available to them, even the of the grace of the Holy Spirit to become impeccable help of the Spirit present through other believers. after the resurrection, which means Theodore taught Because Jesus was tempted for us, when we rely that Jesus was peccable before that point. on all he has provided, he will bring us to triumph 6For example, those who argue for peccability as a with him.32 conjunct of Jesus’ true humanity: Philip Schaff,The In reflecting on the temptations of Jesus and its Person of Christ: His Perfect Humanity a Proof of His relationship to our temptation, we are reminded of Divinity (New York: Doran, 1913), 35-36; Charles our glorious and all that he has done for Hodge, Systematic Theology (New York: Scrib- us. In every way he is utterly unique, but in becom- ner, Armstrong, and Co., 1873; reprint, New York: ing one with us, he has also set the pattern to how Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1898), 2:457. For those who we are to deal with temptation in our lives as we argue for peccability as a necessary condition of true seek to trust, follow, and obey our Lord and Savior temptation, see T. A. Hart, “Sinlessness and Moral Jesus Christ. Responsibility: A Problem in Christology,” Scottish Journal of Theology 48 (1995): 38; Robert H. Stein, ENDNOTES Jesus the Messiah (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1For the story of the church’s reflection on the tempta- 1996), 110-111; Millard J. Erickson, The Word Became tion and impeccability of Jesus, see chapters 4-9 of Flesh (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991), 562-64. John E. McKinley, Tempted for Us: Theological Models 7Here we can distinguish between paradox and contra- and the Practical Relevance of Christ’s Impeccability diction. Certainly there are paradoxical experiences and Temptation (Colorado Springs, CO: Paternoster, by which the Son of God knows all things as God, and 2009). I summarize the evidence in nine models that simultaneously he is limited in his knowledge as man have been formulated to explain Jesus’ temptation. (or, he is simultaneously immortal and able to die, 2The patristic theological idea of the hypostatic union omnipotent and weak, eternal and temporal, uncre- explains the union in this way as a personal union of ated and created, etc.). These paradoxes are pos-

68 sible by virtue of his possession of two natures. All Logic of God Incarnate, 146-52. the paradoxes are proper as part of being human or 12Some have objected at this point about epistemic the greater purpose of accomplishing redemption; uncertainty as a necessary and sufficient condition for the ability to commit sin is not proper and uniquely temptation. For example, John S. Feinberg, “The Incar- would involve the Son rebelling as a man from him- nation,” in In Defense of Miracles (ed. Gary R. Haber- self as God. Unlike these paradoxes, sin (moral evil) mas and R. Douglas Geivett; Downers Grove, IL: is a contradiction. The Son of God’s moral actions are InterVarsity, 1997), 241-44. Feinberg argues that Jesus personal actions whether he commits them as God or would have known he was impeccable, but this would as man, so the doer of the action, even in his human not have prevented him from experiencing temptation. nature, would be a sinner. Since Jesus is impeccable 13Luke’s mention of the sweat as like great drops of as God, he must be impeccable as man. This may be blood, however interpreted as metaphorical for understood also because morality is a dimension profuse sweating or actual blood coming from the of reality that is common to God and humanity, so capillaries and through the pores of his skin, shows a simply paradox cannot allow sin; any evil act is a extremely intense physical and spiritual exertion of direct self-violation. God the Son cannot act in his his wrestling with the temptation that is upon him. humanity that is inconsistent with his moral nature This cannot be an act as God. 14Again, Morris and others formulate this as the belief 8By comparison, many people own guns and will never that there may be a possibility of committing the be able to use their guns to harm the people they love. sin, which I do not think is helpful or necessary for Guns, like physical or spiritual capacities, do not kill explaining temptation. I think it opens further prob- other people; people do, that is, the agent who wick- lems to suggest that Jesus believed lies about himself edly uses a gun to kill another human being. If an (that he could sin, when he was impeccable). Were agent is not wicked, or if he is sufficiently committed this true, what else was he mistaken about that we to the well being of other people, then he will never should not trust? misuse a gun to harm those other people; indeed, he 15This concept of person-variability is my adaptation is unable to do so, being who he is with the commit- from George I. Mavrodes, Belief in God (New York: ments that he lives by. Random House, 1970), 40, where he uses the concept 9It is important to remember that natures (whether of person variability for the subjective value of argu- divine or human) do not do anything, but only per- ments for the existence of God. He notes (rightly) sons do. So we would be wrong to say that Jesus’ that certain arguments may function as proofs for human nature could sin. Instead, we are saying that some people (they are convinced the argument is Jesus will not act according to his human nature in true) but not for others. An argument is only a proof if any way that is evil. it works to convince the person of the truth. Likewise, 10Thomas V. Morris seems to be the first to formulate a circumstance can only be a temptation if a person this proposal in The Logic of God Incarnate (Ithaca, feels pulled to sin. NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), chapter 6. Don- 16E.g., Donald G. Bloesch writes in Essentials of Evan- ald Macleod, Gerald O’Collins, Richard Swinburne, gelical Theology (San Francisco: Harper & Row, and William Lane Craig echo similar ideas. I pre- 1978), 1:96, that internal temptation presupposes sin, fer the formulations by Macleod and O’Collins to indicating that temptation has roots within the man specify that Jesus would not have believed a lie that himself. Bloesch represents a common view that was he could sin (as Morris argues), only that Jesus need also voiced by John Calvin based on an interpretation be unsure whether he was impeccable or not. See of without sin in Heb 4:15 to mean that Jesus’ tempta- Tempted For Us, 227-43. tions did not originate from internal sin (see Tempted 11I have adapted the locked room account from Morris, for Us, 21, n.23).

69 17While the devil appears in some temptation accounts for Us, 10, 202-205. I think Rom 8:3 is clear that his in , it would be wrong to say the devil’s likeness to sinful flesh marks the similarity, not the involvement is a necessary condition for temptation. identity that he was sinful. He is just a factor in some temptations, since surely 23Rom 12:3 warns Christians not to think of them- most temptations occur without the devil or another selves more highly; some people are excessively self- demon’s involvement. That Jesus had to contend with abasing and face the temptation to think too lowly of the devil increases the intensity of his struggle, and themselves, forgetting to count the all-sufficiency of the consequent worthiness of his example for us as God’s power, such as Barak in Judges 4:8. one who knows our suffering. 24I do not here claim that Jesus only became aware of 18For example, a state of affairs can only be experi- his divine identity at the Jordan baptism, but that enced as a temptation for someone if she believes the there was some advance and public acknowledgment act may be possible for her, if she can imagine how by God to be challenged by the devil in the wilder- the state of affairs would change if she pursued the ness. Jesus seems to have had knowledge of his divine temptation (such as to avoid pain), and if she desires identity as early as age twelve, when he claimed to the imagined state of affairs for herself in the sense have a unique relationship with God as his Father that she wants it. By contrast, Jane cannot be tempted (Luke 2:41-52). if she does not want the outcome proposed to her, or 25George S. Painter, The Philosophy of Christ’s Tempta- does not believe it is possible for her to attain. In this tion (Boston: Sherman, French, and Co., 1914), 136. way, no one is tempted to fly to the moon or spontane- 26The conjunction of suffering and temptation is also ously combust because such states of affairs are not noted by Marguerite Shuster, “The Temptation, Sin- desirable or credible as possible realities to choose. lessness, and Sympathy of Jesus: Another Look at the 19Reinhold Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man: Dilemma of Hebrews 4:15”, in Perspectives on Chris- A Christian Interpretation (New York: Charles Scrib- tology: Essays in Honor of Paul K. Jewett (ed. Margue- ner’s Sons, 1941), 1:180-81. rite Shuster and Richard A. Muller; Grand Rapids: 20Cf. the emphasis on the desire for autonomy in the Zondervan, 1991), 205: “Temptation comes when the description of temptation given by Wayne E. Oates, possibility presents itself of escaping or avoiding suf- Temptation: A Biblical and Psychological Approach fering (albeit temporarily) in the wrong way and with (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1991), 103: the knowledge that refusing evil will often lead to the “Temptation is the testing ground between the striv- increase of earthly suffering.” ings of the image of God in us and the strivings of our 27Dietrich Bonhoeffer,Creation and Fall: Temptation desires to be the masters of our fate, the captains of (trans. Kathleen Downham; ed. Eberhard Bethge; our souls.” New York: Touchstone, 1997), 134. Bonhoeffer, well- 21By comparison, we can think of affection as a legiti- acquainted with suffering under the Nazi regime, mate desire for another’s care for or attention to writes that the temptation that is precipitated by suf- oneself, the corruption of affection is lust. Lust is fering (whether serious sickness, poverty, pain, or the self-focused desire for gratification of oneselfas various deprivations and tortures) is the temptation an impersonal object by the use of another person as by a desire for relief from suffering, albeit relief by an impersonal object of illicit desire. Lust rises as a sinful means of abandoning God or committing some self-destructive desire for the use of other people as other crime to alleviate one’s troubles. objects, which degrades both their personhood and 28Bolstered by his example, the apostles Peter, James, the order that sexual affection is ordered within the and John willingly turned down the same path of suf- committed love of marriage. fering and martyrdom, having been preceded by the 22On the question of whether Jesus took up a sinless boldness of Stephen, who even prays for the forgive- or sinful humanity, see my discussion in Tempted ness of his assailants as Jesus did from the cross.

70 29The argument in this section is a condensed form of departure of the devil did not mean the temptations chapters 3 and 12 in Tempted for Us. I am indebted instigated by him had ended. More clearly is Luke’s to Gerald F. Hawthorne, The Presence and the Power: account of Gethsemane, where, in response to Jesus’ The Significance of the Holy Spirit in the Life of Jesus prayer, an angel appeared to strengthen him (Luke (Dallas: Word, 1991). The attribution of miracu- 22:43-44). After the angel comes, Jesus seems to have lous power in Jesus’ ministry to the Holy Spirit is found his resolve. Some copyists have omitted verses not detraction from the deity of God the Son (as in 43-44, but I am persuaded that the account is authen- ). The claim is that while God the Son tic. This extreme provision for an extreme need com- remained fully God (divine), as a man he could only pares to the angelic appearances in Daniel and Acts, do divine works by the empowerment of the Holy where men who were imprisoned or being tortured Spirit, in parallel with the prophets and kings before receive angelic visitations as a visible manifestation him, and the apostles and other Christians who fol- of divine presence and aid. lowed him. With the exception of forgiving sin and making atonement (both of which are works tied to his divine authority and not power per se), all of Jesus’ works were repeated by others through the power of the Spirit, including healings, provision of food, raising the dead, knowing others’ thoughts, know- ing special revelation from God, casting out demons, and walking on water. The difference is that others did these things in Jesus’ name, but he did them as the Son of God, from his own authority, though as a man of the Spirit nonetheless. In this way, Jesus truly functions within the limitations of a human life, tran- scending the bounds only by the Spirit’s enablement that are now extended to Christians who follow in Jesus’ steps. 30Isa 61:1-10 is important for the way the foregoing and messiah testimonies are brought together to say that the Servant is the Messiah. By defining himself according to this passage, Jesus (and Luke) identifies himself with then entire pneumato- logical pattern of servant-messiah prophecies in Isaiah. 31Luke’s presentation of Jesus’ conception and develop- ment alongside John the Baptizer suggests to several interpreters that we should assume Jesus was filled with the Spirit while in the womb, just as John was (Luke 1:15, 41). 32One additional mode of divine aid that is evident in Jesus’ temptations is unusual so I have left it out. In Mark’s account of the wilderness temptations, appeared immediately after the devil departed. Perhaps this means that the visible manifestation of divine help was needed for Jesus, since the mere

71