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Index

A 'business motive' in supply of abnonnal susceptibility to injury 31, products see Consumer 35-6 Protection Act 1987 see also 'thin skull' rule 'but for' test see causation account of profits 3, 54 action on the case 2 C Agent Orange litigation 112-13 Caparo principles 20 amends for , offer cattle 145 of 276-8 causation 10-2, 50, 62, 107-19, 121, amenities, loss of, damages 176, 178 for 314--15 act of plaintiff 75,85,115,117-18 animals, liability for 145-6, 147 acts of third parties 76-8, 79, 86, see also ; 115-19 action 'but for' test 107-9, 110 Anns v. Merton causation in fact 107-15 'retreat from Anns' 19-20 cumulative causation 110 two-stage test in 18-19, 32 indetenninate plaintiffs and ante-natal injury 84, 86-8 defendants 112-15 199-201 legal causation 115-19 see also ; false imprisonment loss of a chance 113-14 auditors, liability of 54, 62-4 multiple causation 109-12 Australia, no fault compensation novus actus interveniens 116-19, in 148, 152 121 'occasioning' hann 76, 77, 116 overtaken or pre-empted B causes 110 battery 197-9 proof of causation 112-15 benefits, collateral 327-9 quantification of damages Bolam test 92, 103 and Ill, 113-14 breach of statutory duty 180ff successive injuries 110-12 alternative method of children enforcement 183, 185-7 of 209-10 ambit of discretion 187-8 damages for 318-19, 322, 335 elements of the tort 190-1 juvenile courts reporting 252 'indicators' 182-3 standards expected of 99 insurance and 189 as trespassers 160-1 industrial safety legislation 188 chronic fatigue syndrome 31,34 nominate tort 180 civil and criminal wrongs 1-2 parliamentary intention 181 common interest, defamation, particular class, benefit of 183-5 qualified privilege 272-6 presumption approach 182 common practice, as evidence of public right 189-90 negligence 102-3 refonn 191-2 compensation 13-15, 147-53 regulatory statutes 188-9 see also damages; economic loss; 'business liability' see Unfair injuries; workers' Contract Tenns Act 1977 compensation schemes 350 Index compensation orders in criminal damages 150-1, 298-339 courts 2 aggravated 303-4 'complex structures' see economic as compensation 298 loss collateral benefits 327-9 confidence, breach of 2, 252 contemptuous 298-9 congenital disability see ante-natal damages for death see death injury empirical research 310-11 consent 128,207-10,246 exemplary 299-303 see also volenti non fit iniuria future prospects 322-3 4, 5 in defamation 278-9 consumer protection 52,65, 169-71, indemnity principle 298 173-4 inflation 319 Consumer Protection Act injury itself 315 1987 170-8 interest 327 consumer expectations test 172-4 interim 307-8 'defect' meaning of 172-4 for economic loss 338-9 defences 176--8 for non-pecuniary loss 312-15 'development risks' defence 171, for pecuniary loss 315-27 177-8 loss of amenities 314-15 'producer', meaning of 174 loss of earnings 316--21 'product', meaning of 171-2 'lost years' 321-2 processed goods 174-5 medical expenses 323-6 'state of the art' defence 171, 'multiplier'method 317-21 177-8 nominal 299 waste products 177 other expenses 326--7 contract 3, 74, 130, 169 pain and suffering 313-14 concurrent liability in contract and personal injury, assessment of tort 58-9, 60, 69-70 damages for 317-21 consideration, doctrine of 59, 70 provisional 307 contract-tort boundary 52, 53, 55, in private nuisance 58-9,68-71 for property damage 336--7 defective products see economic recoverable only once 306 loss; products liability restitutionary 305-6 privity of contract 9, 52, 59, 69, social security benefits 70-1, 131, 169 and 327-8 see also exclusions special and general 310 contribution to damages between structured settlements 308-10 tortfeastors 294-5 for trespass to the person 206 62, 78, 84, tax 316,321,332 85, 87, 118, 128, 132, 134, 137-8, see also compensation; 178,237 contribution; illegality; loss; 'control' test see 'occupier' 145 death corrective justice 13, 145 damages for apportionment costs 299 between dependants 335 Criminal Injuries Compensation deductions in dependency Scheme 14 cases 335-6 1-2, 132 Fatal Accidents Act 330-6 Crown Prosecution Service, liability loss of dependency, assessment of of 96 damages for 332-5 Law Reform (Miscellaneous D Provisions) Act 329-30 damage, proof of in slander see effect on existing causes of defamation action 329-30 Index 351 deceit 54, 122 see also ante-natal injury; economic defamation 255 ff loss; fairness, justice and absolute privilege 269 reasonableness; legal construction of language 257 profession; nervous shock; amends, offer of 276-8 omissions; police; proximity; damages for 278-9 public bodies; rescuers definition 255 distinction between libel and slander 263--4 E fair comment 266-9 earnings, loss of see damages group defamation 262-3 economic analysis of tort law 15, 28, high executive 62, 149 communications 271 economic loss 19,24,47-71, 237 innuendo 257-9 assumption of judicial proceedings 270 responsibility 56-62, 64, 65, justification 264--6 66, 68, 69, 70, 71 libel, definition of 263 'complex structures' 49, 51-2, malice 276 176 meaning of 'defamatory' 255-6 dangerous defects 49-51, 52, 53 parliamentary defective products 48-53, 55, 176 proceedings 269-70 'equivalence to contract' 56, 57-9, publication 259-61 70 qualified privilege 272-6 exclusionary (no recovery) re-publication 260 rule 47-8, 49, 52, 54, 71 reference to plaintiff 261-3 Hedley Byrne liability 53-71 reports, privilege of 271,275 indirect reliance 56, 62-5 'right-thinking person 256-7 mutuality 57-8, 71 rumour doctrine 260 preventative damages 49-51, 52, slander, definition of 263 53 special damage 264 pure and consequential economic truth see justification loss 47-8 unintentional defamation 260---1, reasonable reliance 56, 61-2, 66, 276-8 67 defective premises see economic special relationships 54, 56, 57-9, loss; occupiers' liability 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 defective products see economic special skill 56, 59-61 loss; products liability 'three party' cases 62-8 defences 128--41 4, 5, 122 see also consent; contributory employees, injuries to 188 negligence; exclusion of employers' liability 41-3, 55, 58, liability; illegality; ; 59-60 volenti non fit iniuria; see also employer and employee voluntary assumption of relationship risk employment, course of see vicarious dependancy, loss of 114 liability deterrence 15-16,149,152-3 environment, harm to see nuisance 'development risks' defence see equitable wrongs 2-3 Consumer Protection Act 1987 equity 2-3, 54 see exclusion of fusion of common law and liability equity 3 discovery of documents 103 executive privilege see defamation discretion, excess of 91,92-3 exclusion of liability 54, 64-5, 68, duty, non-delegable 292-3 70, 128-31, 132, 133, 163--4, duty of care 9-12, 17-29, 121,238 167,178 352 Index

F indeterminate liability see fair comment see defamation floodgates argument fairness, justice and indeterminate plaintiffs and reasonableness 20,23,24,25-9, defendants see causation 84, 131 inflation, in assessment of see also duty of care damages see damages false imprisonment 201-4 injunctions 339-41 fault-based liability see strict damages in lieu 340-1 liability innuendo see defamation fire 247 interlocutory 340 fireman's rule 161-2 mandatory 339-40 'floodgates' argument 19, 26-7, 30, prohibitory 339 43-5,47-8,52,57,62,66,88 quia timet 340 foreseeability 19,20,21-3, 32-5, 37, insurance 26-7, 55, 58, 59,62,69, 63-4, 84 87,99, 100 see also duty of care; remoteness assessment of damages and 311 forms of action 2, 4 breach of statutory duty and 189 abolition 4 in structured settlements 308-10 'free will' defences see voluntary intentional interference with the person see trespass to person, frolic see vicarious liability battery, false imprisonment, assault G interest on damages, award of see goods, wrongful interference damages with 145 interference with use and enjoyment government servants, and exemplary of land see nuisance damages see damages interlocutory injunction see group defamation see defamation injunctions intimidation 4, 5 H Herald of Free Enterprise 30 J highway joint and several liability 109, 293-4 nuisances emanating from 233-4 judicial proceedings, privilege of see obstruction of 219, 237 defamation structures adjacent to 235, 237-8 jury, in defamation actions 278 Hillsborough disaster 31,36-41,45 justiciability 88, 90-3 hypersensitive activities see justification, in defamation see abnormal sensitivity; nuisance defamation

I K illegality 138-41 King's Cross fire 30 impecuniosity, as cause of loss 126 incremental approach 24,32-3,66, 67 L independent contractors 291-3 land, interference with see nuisance collateral negligence 293 Law Commission 38,44-5,53,156, employees, distinction 244, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, from 286-8 307 308,309, 313, 315, 320, extra-hazardous activities 324, 326, 327 and 292 Learned Hand formula 100-1 liability for 291-3 legal profession, liability of 84,95-6 non-delegable duties and 292 Lewisham railway disaster 40 reform 292 libel see defamation Index 353 life expectancy, reduced, effect on proximity of perception 35, 38-9 damages see damages, 'lost proximity of relationship 35, years' 36-8,39 limitation of action 53,69, 70, 195-6 rescuers 33, 34-5, 39-41 Lloyd's of London 27,55,69 unwitting agents 34-5, 39 'locality principle' see nuisance witness cases 33, 34, 35--9, 44-5 New Zealand, 'no-fault' compensation in 148, 152-3 M 'no fault' compensation 15, 148, malice see nuisance, defamation 15~3 mandatory injunction see non-natural use of land see Rylands injunctions v. Fletcher, rule in master and servant relationship see novus actus interveniens see vicarious liability causation 'master's tort' theory see vicarious nuisance 79,219-20,222-40,242 liability act of plaintiff 237 ME see chronic fatigue syndrome acts of third parties 220, 234 meaning of words, in amenity interests 223-5 defamation see defamation defences 235--7 medical cases, consent in 209-10 fault element 23~2, 238-9 medical expenses see damages hypersensitive activities 229-30 mentally handicapped persons landlords, liability of 235 and consent 210 'locality' principle 227-9, 236, misrepresentation, negligent 27, 54, 237 55,58,62 malice 231-2 'mixed system' of accident natural hazards 220, 226, 234-5 compensation 148-9 natural rights, 226, 231, 238 negligence and 220, 238-40 potential defendants 233-5 N private 219--20, 222-40 name, unauthorised use of 252-3 prescription 235-6 National House Building prospect, right of 223 Council 52-3 public 219, 222, 228 237 'natural rights' see nuisance right to sue 232-3 necessity 211-13, 246 statutory 219-20 negligence 4, 5,9-141, 145--7, unlawful interference 225--32 169-70, 173-4 water rights 226, 231, 238 breach of duty 10, 11, 17,80, see also Rylands v. Fletcher, rule in 98-105, 122-3, 129-30, 133 moral culpability and 98-9 nuisance and 220, 238-40 o objectives of negligence occupier's liability liability 13-16 'activity' duties 156 objective standard of care 98-100, child entrants 159-60 138-9 , 151, 235 common duty of care 1~3 see also duty of care defences and 163-4 'neighbour' principle 9-10, 17,73, exclusion of liability 163-4, 167 170 fireman's rule 161-2 nervous shock 21,22,23,30-45, implied license 158-60 123-4 'occupancy'duties 156 employees 41-3 occupier, defmition of 156-7 primary victims 33-5, 39 premises, definition of 155 proximity in time and space 35, private right of way 158 38,39 public right of way 158 354 Index occupier's liability (cant.) premises, definition of see occupiers' : defences 166; liability definition of 164-5; duty privacy, protection of 252, 253 arising in respect of 165--6; privilege see defamation duty owed to 166 products liability 9-10,48-53, 103, visitor, definition of 157--60 147, 151, 169-78 warning 162-3 see also Consumer Protection Act omissions, liability for 19,23, 73-82 1987 control 75-7, 81 profits made by wrongdoer see creation of source of danger 77-8, damages, restitutionary 80,81 prohibited conduct see vicarious exclusionary (no liability) liability rule 73--4, 80 prohibitory injunction see in nuisance 234-5 injunction landowners 78-80 'proximity' 12, 18, 20, 23--4, 25 police non-feasance 93-5 see also duty of care statutory powers and duties 80-2 psychiatric illness 14, 30--45 voluntary assumption of see also nervous shock responsibility 74-5, 81 public bodies, liability of 80-2, 84, vulnerable persons 75 88-93 out-of-court settlements 112, 137-8, public interest, in defamation 310-11 cases see defamation 'overkill' argument 26, 27-9, 60, 62, public officials, privilege of see 88, 89-90, 94 defamation public rights created by see p breach of statutory duty pain and suffering, damages for see publication of defamatory damages statement see defamation Parliamentary privilege see defamation Q passing off 4, 5 quia timet injunction see injunctions payments into court 138,311 Pearson Commission 148-52,314 R personality, interference with 251--4 remoteness of damage 10-12, 21, 59, photographs, unauthorised taking 121--6, 176, 230, 239, 244-5 of 253 reports, privilege of see defamation pictures, use of 253 reputation, interference with see Piper Alpha disaster 37,40 defamation plaintiff, reference to, in res ipsa loquitur 103-5 defamation see defamation rescuers 33,34-5,39--41, 74-5, 84-6, police 116 liability of 76-7, 84, 93-5 'right thinking person' see powers of arrest 207 defamation policy rights of way see occupiers' liability in breach of statutory duty see road traffic legislation, civil action for breach of statutory duty breach of see breach of in negligence 11-12, 13-16, statutory duty 18-19,22,25 Rylands v. Fletcher, rule in 220,242-7 see also floodgates argument; defences 242, 245. 246 overkill argument escape, requirement of 242, 244, policy-operational dichotomy 91-2, 247 93 non-natural use 243--4, 247 Post-Traumatic Stress parties 245--6 Disorder 30-1,36-7,40,43,44 see also fire Index 355

S false imprisonment, definition safety legislation, civil actions for of 201 breach of see breach of force feeding 212-13 statutory duty hostility requirement 198 scienter action 145-7 intention, meaning of 197 secondary victims 22, 26, 33, 34-9, necessity, incompetent patient 42-3 and 213 self-defence 210--11 intentional infliction of emotional 'several concurrent' distress, tort, 206 tortfeasters 293--4 'mere' words 199 sic utere tuo maxim 225 necessity, defence of 211-13 slander, distinction from libel see negligence and 194-6 defamation private necessity 212 social security 13-14, 147-52, provocation 210 328-9 public necessity 212 'special damage' see defamation psychological harm 199 stalking 94 reasonable condition for 'state of the art' defence see exit 201-3 Consumer Protection Act 1987 self defence 210 statutory authority see nuisance 197 Statutory Sick Pay 152, 329 Wilkinson v. Downton, tort stress-related illness 34, 42-3 of 204-6 strict liability 145-7, 151, 172, Wilkinson v. Downton, relationship 238-9, 242, 243--4, 245, 256 with trespassory torts 205--6 striking-out applications 11, 89, 92, trespass to goods 145 93 211,219-21,223, surveyors, liability of 54, 108-9 224 trespass to the person see trespass trusts, law of 2 T truth, in actions for defamation see tax payable on damages see defamation damages television interference, liability U for 224,229 ultra vires 91 Thalidomide 148, 170 unborn child, injury to see 'thin skull' rule 115, 125 ante-natal injury tort, definition and unconscious person classification 1-5 consent of 210 trespass damages for 313, 314 actionability per se 206 necessity and 212-13 arrest powers 207 Unfair Contract Terms Act assault, definition of 196,199--201 1977 135-57 battery, definition of 196, 197-9 unjust enrichment 3, 305 imprisonment within unwanted birth see prison 203--4 children, consent and 209 conditional threats 200 V consent, defence of 207-10 vaccine damage payments 151 damages for 206 vicarious liability discipline, defence of 207 contract for services 28fr-7 defences to 20fr-13 contract of service 28fr-7 defence of others 210--11 control test 287 directness, requirement of 198-9 course of employment 288-91 ejection from land 211 definition of 285 356 Index vicarious liability (cant.) W employer and employee Wagon Mound test of relationship 286-8 remoteness 121--6, 176, 230, frolic, detour and incidental 239, 245 duties 289-90 waivers of liability see exclusions of intentional misconduct 291 liability justifications for 286 water rights see nuisance prohibited conduct 290-1 Wednesbury unreasonableness 91, view, blocking of see nuisance 92 visitors, liability to see occupiers' workers' compensation schemes 147 liability wrongful birth 19, 87-8 valenti non fit iniuria 62, 128-35, 87 176, 178 voluntary assumption of Y responsibility 24, 96 Yorkshire Ripper 77,93-4 see also economic loss voluntary assumption of risk 50-85, 128-35, 138, 237 Z see also valenti non fit iniuria Zeebrugge ferry disaster 30