Table of Contents *All contributions to this issue have und-gone blind, external peer-review.

Confucian-Deweyan Transactions: Keeping Faith in Creative Democracy and Educational Experience by Sustaining Intercultural Philosophical Conversations in the Present Age 2 Joseph Harroff & Kyle Greenwalt

John Dewey and Confucius in Dialogue: 1919-2019 9 Leonard J. Waks

Diversity, Harmony (he ), and the “Melting Pot” 21 Jim Behuniak

Confucianism, Moral Education, and the Harmonious Development of Persons 34 Besse Lina Zhang ()

The Symbolic Economy of the Hanfeizi 40 Brandon King

The Influence of John Dewey on the Chinese Literary Revolution: Hu Shih’s Synthesis of Confucian Learning and John Dewey’s Pragmatism 55 James Z. Yang

Dewey in China: A Historical Look at His Message of Peace and Understanding 69 Charles F. Howlett, Audrey Cohan, & Mariola Krol

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Confucian-Deweyan Dewey in China

Transactions: It was in California, then, that John Dewey was said to have told his wife, Alice, that, “we may Keeping Faith in Creative never again get as near Japan as we are now and that as the years are passing, it is now or never Democracy and Educa- with us.”1 And, so, Dewey set sail for Japan, tional Experience by Sus- where he would spend approximately three months writing and lecturing. During this time, taining Intercultural Philo- he became increasingly concerned about the Japanese government’s approach to interna- sophical Conversations in tional affairs. It was therefore, perhaps, with a sense of the Present Age some relief and happy contingency that Dewey received an invitation from his former student, Joseph Harroff Hu Shih (1891-1962), to teach for a year Temple University at National University in Beijing. Dewey ac- cepted this invitation, and ended up staying for over two years in China, during which time he Kyle Greenwalt was treated as an intellectual "rock star," travel- Michigan State University ling throughout the country as he gave talks at various venues. Dewey arrived in China in May of 1919—a In fall of 1918, John Dewey was on leave from moment of great national renewal. And it was Columbia University, enjoying a visiting ap- no doubt the May Fourth Movement, a nation- pointment at the University of California in wide student-led protest movement against Jap- Berkeley. This was a time, no doubt, for the anese imperialism and Western colonialism in American sage of democracy, education, and China, that resulted in Dewey's warm welcome. experience to rethink familiar habits. He was, in this way, viewed as a harbinger of a The “Great War” was nearly over— more enlightened future for the Chinese public. hostilities had ceased, and a peace treaty was Indeed, Dewey was perhaps treated as a kind of being negotiated in Paris. At this point Dewey convenient stand-in for the values he supposed- was regretting his initial support for Wilson’s ly personified: as “Mr. Science” and “Mr. De- prosecution of the war. And as it became ever mocracy.” clearer to him that the peace deal being negoti- Dewey was enthralled by what he experi- ated would do little or nothing in terms of enced in China, as he taught and lectured across achieving a more just, peaceful, and democratic the country. Jane, Dewey’s daughter, would lat- new world order, his sense of regret would only er say that: grow.

1 Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1991), 240.

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China is the country nearest his heart after social intelligence. his own . . . The change from the United States to an environment of the oldest cul- Themes That Emerge From ture in the world struggling to adjust itself to new conditions was so great as to act as a This Issue rebirth of intellectual enthusiasms.2 This issue—and the next—of the Journal of Dewey, himself, would say about the May School & Society are devoted to critical issues of Fourth Movement: “To think of kids in our comparative philosophy. In particular, as we country from fourteen on, taking the lead in remember Dewey’s trip to China, we need to starting a big cleanup reform politics movement inquire into what an embodied practical wis- and shaming merchants and professional men dom might look like. We can do so by joining to join them. This is sure some country.”3 the best of the relatively young tradition of Clearly, Dewey’s trip to China was im- American pragmatism with the time-tested wis- portant in expanding his thinking about com- dom of the Chinese philosophical traditions.5 munity, democracy, and the possibility of inter- All of the articles in this issue approach the- national peace. Increasingly, he would employ a se vital questions in one way or another, from a more dynamic and robust conception of social diverse array of theoretical and historical per- intelligence as he sought to bring about a more spectives. And it is in this context of appreciat- optimal reality. This is best seen in one of his ing pluralism, that we feel the following three most important books on democratic social focal issues can be productively foregrounded theory, The Public and its Problems, published in in order to facilitate an inter-cultural conversa- 1927, soon after his return to the States. tion that concerned educators might wish to We might wish to reconsider Dewey’s trip attend to in reflecting upon the educational to China as opening up into a world beyond the scene in the present: interest of merely historical particulars. In this Democratic Experience and Relational Metaphys- special issue, we are of course seeking to learn ics. Ordinary human experience6 and “heavenly from history, but are simultaneously also hop- values”7 are always thought of as being deeply ing to revisit and reimagine the fecund possi- continuous and correlational within Confucian bilities of transformative philosophical dialogue traditions. that could happen across cultures and epochs in The non-dualistic mantra of “the heavenly the interstitial encounters and entanglements and human are everywhere continuous” (tianren opening up between Confucianism4 and Dew- heyi ) can be found animating the eyan thinking about democracy, education, and Confucian tradition. For example, early in the experience as all-encompassing ways of life best tradition, there is the Zhou dynasty invention approached with a working faith in creative 5 With a particular focus on the historical and “corporate- ly” imagined Confucius in the context of living Confu- 2 Westbrook, John Dewey, 240-241. cian traditions. 3 Westbrook, John Dewey, 243. 6 4 Confucianism is here broadly construed as an intergen- ren as an ethical-aesthetic achievement concept from erational project of optimizing human experience via a the relatively anonymous and ambiguously swarming thoroughly relational conception of persons rooted in multitude of min . family dynamics—gerundively understood as an ideal 7 tian as a “sky-like” set of natural transformations process for cultivating creative social intelligence. with ordered growth in intergenerational significance.

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of a non-coercive governing regime of “Cultur- ) is the only viable (re)source that al China” or “focal state” (zhongguo ) at the we have from which to develop critically in- heart of a cosmopolitan “all-under-heavens” formed conversations and democratically effi- (tianxia ) way of thinking about a shared cacious action. We can't step outside of our world order. A more recent example is the skins to realize a philosopher's dream of an ob- manifold of modern Confucian voices of jective “View from Nowhere,” nor can we dis- reformation and revolution calling out emer- encumber ourselves from our lived family and gent publics to address post-colonial projects of social roles, a nexus of relationships that consti- the ethico-political order by thinking outside of, tutes our very identity as unique persons, in or- or “otherwise” than, the still dominant Western der to realize our quotient of creative potential ideologies of possessive individualism and ex- to transform this world as we find it. ceptional sovereignty. We might consider ways in which the cur- Dewey, Confucius, and the Work rent set of problems and predicaments we are facing as a fragile planetary public could be re- of Teaching imagined and redressed in such a philosophical conversation, if not resolved, in light of the cre- As Henry Rosemont and Roger Ames have ative thinking that can come into view regard- called our attention to, there is practically no ing the deep relationality and creative intelli- way for those reared exclusively in the environs gence found in both Deweyan and Confucian of Western culture (viz., European philosophi- conceptions of collaborative democratic agency cal grammatology as a melding of Platonic met- and the concomitant hopes for a more robust aphysics and Abrahamic monotheism) to make world of shared human flourishing and plane- sense of the Chinese conception of tian , tary sustainability most often translated into English as “heav- Pragmatic Fallibilism and Communal Moral In- en.”8 quiry. Solutions to any problem are best However, by engaging in responsible philo- thought of as temporary adjustments to ongo- sophical generalizations in order to better con- ing changes in the natural and human environ- textualize our understandings of this and other ment—concrete adjustments in response to concepts in early Chinese philosophies, those emergent conditions. And as such we need to most deeply entrenched in the ideology of indi- situate our collective energies and collaborative vidualism and absolute sovereignty might have inquiries of a broadly moral nature within hori- a fighting chance to think otherwise with the zons of traditional intelligibility and affective help of Confucian texts and a ritual-social signification. For the Confucian tradition, this is grammar of intelligibility (li ). In the standard evinced in the abjuring of both atomized indi- textbook-version of Chinese history, so often vidualism and the myth of totally personal re- derived from a rather (politically) conservative sponsibility. If we want to “help ourselves, then Christianized understanding of the “mandate of we help others, and if we want to get ahead, we heaven,” we are taught a political theology help others get ahead.” Critically Reflexive Cultural Hermeneutics. So it follows that a return to tradition (“warming up 8 Henry Rosemont, Jr. & Roger T. Ames, The Chinese the old to realize the new” wengu er zhixin Classic of Family Reverence: A Philosophical Translation of the Xiaojing (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009).

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wherein the divine Sovereign always stands inhering, emergent order negotiated out of ready to make a decision as to who is a the dispositioning of the particulars that are friend/enemy in an exclusive politics of polic- constitutive of it. But tian is not just ing boundaries and guarding supposedly sacro- “things”; it is a living culture—crafted, sanct identarian modes of association. transmitted, and now resident in a human Such readings of the Confucian basis for community ... In the absence of some assessing political legitimacy and the viability of transcendent creator deity as the repository ethical-educational aims seems similar to West- of truth, beauty, and goodness, tian would ern notions of the divine right of the mon- seem to stand for a cumulative and continu- arch—i.e. God’s blessing upon the rule of “his” ing cultural legacy focused in the spirits of representative “dominions” on this Earth. In those who have come before.9 this way of thinking, authority stands above and beyond individual authors as a transcendent For educators, this means that there is no sense source of self-justifying and self-authorizing ex in appealing to some super-ordinately ideal no- nihilo sovereign power. tion of what a student, a family, a classroom, or This model of imposing an order on a cha- a community should be. Rather, emergent or- otic nothingness mirrors the pedagogical logic der—or transactionally realized “optimizing found in far too many disciplinary classrooms, relationality” (he )—always arises spontane- wherein a teacher’s sense of purpose and sup- ously via the concerted efforts of all involved. posed license to act is thought to derive from a Such order cannot be imposed from the purportedly extra-experiential or transcendental outside upon a supposedly discrete set of atom- source of pre-existent fact or dogma. Students ized personalities, interests, and problems that are made to suffer the whims of such institu- inhabit any classroom. Coercive rules, laws, and tional sovereignty at their wits’ end. This op- punitive actions that are imposed from without pressive model of education as indoctrination, rob the vital and relational dynamics animating we believe, is a recipe for existential alienation, a creative democratic classroom—an ideal or worse, as it cannot possibly call forth the marked in our ethical imaginations by a critical- optimally creative participation of students and ly nuanced Confucian sense of deferential rev- educators in a transactional experience of col- erence for the truly meritocratic and intergener- laborative learning. A sense that one’s purpose ational legitimate hierarchies of optimizing rela- is never quite one’s own thereby haunts any tionships. Understood as intergenerationally transcendentally imposing sovereign model of reciprocal and operating in a logic of caring, it coercive classroom dynamics. is then and only then, that we can hope to real- By way of contrast, in the Chinese tradition, ize the emergence of a class dynamic wherein human experience and heavenly values operate situations conducive to learning will spontane- on a continuous register of dynamic and ously and sustainably arise.10 reciprocal information:

Tian is both what our world is and how it is ... 9 Roger T. Ames & Henry Rosemont, Jr., The Analects of Tian is both the creator and the field of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (New York: Ballantine creatures. There is no apparent distinction Books, 1998), 47. 10 between the order itself, and what orders it Henry Rosemont has clarified the sense of legitimate “hierarchy” in role-focused relationships by translating ... On this basis, tian can be described as an shang and xia as "benefactor and beneficiary" rather

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Yet, ordered harmony can be realized only them, if but for realizing a creative moment of through attending to emergent possibilities. For ameliorative transition in the educational expe- Confucius, and for Dewey, it was concrete situ- rience as a whole. ations that mattered most for thinking. Abstract Good teachers, then, are always seeking principles in ethics tend to be much less helpful emergent harmonies as they creatively draw for making decisions than appeal to exemplary upon the live traditions at hand. They do so as role models and affective dispositions to act they seek to develop what is unique and best compassionately and intelligently as a matter of within each pupil, so that they may wholeheart- habit. But, even in this context of a logic of sit- edly share of it with the communities in which uations, imagining just how to help this child, to they live. mediate this interpersonal conflict among This is our sense of what an exemplary classmates, or how to reassure this anxious par- teacher working in the Confucian wisdom tradi- ent, as an educator, requires an attention to the tion ought to be energetically and imaginatively emergent order of the whole push and pull of seeking to realize. It is also, we believe, a very the historically and politically inflected cosmos. Deweyan view of the nature of a teacher’s work Such situational intelligence and moral im- working out their social salvation in a common agination requires skillful ways of relating and faith of democratic meliorism. communicating as the role-encumbered teach- 11 er. This holistic understanding of the role of Contents of This Issue teacher in educational experience, in turn, also opens up onto the need to advertise the im- In this first of two issues devoted to revisiting portance of cultivating a keen attention to the an ongoing and ever new Deweyan-Confucian always potentially discordant elements that in- dialogue, we are very pleased to be sharing five here in any educational situation as well. articles that go deeply to the heart of the matter This emergent order can be realized in rela- regarding the urgent ethical, political and ulti- tionship to the teacher’s understanding of the mately educational issues that we've adumbrat- cultural legacy. This cultural legacy, in this day ed upon here. in age, is, ideally, global in scope. It includes a From Leonard Waks, we learn what an al- living embodiment of the ways of being of the ways freshly reconstructed notion of a globally- local communities from which the students aware, learner-centered progressive education come. But, perhaps even more importantly, it might entail through a sustained historical dia- involves a teacher’s sense of what is most op- logue between the best of the Deweyan prag- timally appropriate or relationally significant (yi matist tradition of thinking about education and ) in the living traditions that are animating experience and the Confucian approach to the student's lifeworlds for the moment at learning for oneself (weijizhi xue ). hand. Drawing upon such resources, an effec- Waks skillfully interweaves themes in Deweyan tive educator seeks to exemplarily embody and Confucian thinking about educational po- tentials in an immanent situational logic in- than a top-down coercive model of “superior” and “infe- rior: in any role-focused relationship. formed by an urgent need to reconceptualize 11 We prefer the language of role encumberment follow- the old to revitalize the new. In this essay, we ing the late Henry Rosemont, since the effective teacher get a sense that the time is now ripe for a true can never just “play” their role as a matter of mere dra- encounter between the “educator of ten- matic performance.

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thousand generations” (wanshizhi shi ) Zhang draws upon contemporary case studies and the philosophical persona that Cai Yuan- in the People's Republic of China and a creative Pei honorifically called the “second Confucius” reading of Confucian classics, with special at- when Dewey was invited to give a talk at Pe- tention paid to the Analects, to develop her plea king University in 1919. for taking into account the whole person when From Jim Behuniak, we learn how the thinking about the aims of education in an in- Chinese conception of harmony (he ) might creasingly complex and globalized present. be helpful for thinking through the urgent is- From Brandon King, we are offered criti- sues of national identity, assimilation, and cul- cal balance in our admittedly “rosy” conception tural pluralism in the United States. Behuniak’s of Confucian cultures of learning. King pre- essay makes a plea for appreciating diversity sents the philosophical importance and peda- and deep cultural pluralism by exploring the gogical insights of the Legalist tradition that semantic and metaphorical dimensions of he revolves around the works attributed to or as- sociated with the teachings of Shang Yang and as a trope for thinking about unity in heteroge- Han Feizi. This essay reminds us how critical it neous historical and cultural conditions. Mov- is to “think like an institution” in the context of ing away from the problematic “melting pot” managing large scale populations and recalci- model of cultural assimilation, we can see clear- trant student bodies. Without coming to facile ly the vital importance of thinking with the conclusions, King’s essay leads us into new ho- Confucians regarding an ethical-political ideal rizons of comparative thinking about pedagogi- of “optimizing harmony without reducing to cal practice wherein any ethical aspirations to homogenizing sameness” (he er bu tong creative democracy and non-coercive harmony ). Such an ideal can serve as a work- must be tempered with the realist considera- ing ideal for democratic faith because it is so tions of a body politic marked with dissensus deeply resonant with our natural inclinations and factionalism. The importance of thinking (grounded in family-born feeling) and our cul- about fa as not being entirely reliant upon turally refined aesthetic sensibilities. There is much to be further contemplated in this essay “good or exemplary persons” (ren ) and “rit- that covers so much ground in recent discursive ual practice” (li ) should be all the more evi- strategies in American democracy alongside of dent for us in the present moment, as we wit- profound metaphysical ruminations from a ness the rapid erosion of respect for the rule of leading thinker in the relatively nascent field of law and civic-mindedness. inter-cultural comparative philosophy. From James Yang, we learn how Dewey’s From Lina Zhang, we learn how “the philosophy historically entered into the Chinese great unity of heaven and human” as a working scene, from his Chinese student and host, Hu Confucian faith in the potentials of educational Shih. Yang interprets the way in which Dewey’s experience might be able to give us a healthier influence allowed Shih to better appropriate his picture of holistic childhood development—at own Confucian tradition in a time of great cul- a time when national educational systems seem tural upheaval. Revisiting Hu Shih’s thinking in to increasingly be relying on narrowly con- the present is timely as we attempt to carry out ceived biometrics that stress standardized tests a more nuanced inter-cultural encounter that with quantifiable outcomes and a neoliberal reverses the asymmetry of philosophical dia- conception of the “efficient use of resources.” logues that operate within an Orientalist preju-

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dice. Just how much Hu Shih's historicist and in the ethical hope attributed to Confucius by speculative thinking about Chinese philosophy an unnamed gatekeeper, in countenancing what was influenced by his Deweyan education is a was witnessed to be a declining ritual order of matter of considerable debate. Professor Yang's the Zhou li : provocative essay goes a long way toward providing a responsible historical and philo- Zilu spent the night at Stone Gate. The sophical context that we might have such a de- morning gatekeeper asked him, “Where are bate. you from?” “From the residence of Confu- And, finally, in the collaborative work from cius,” replied Zilu. “Isn't he the one who Charles Howlett, Audrey Cohan, & Mariola keeps trying although he knows that it is in Krol, we see how Dewey’s China mission vain?” asked the gatekeeper.12 served as a turning point in his own thinking about war, peace, and the possibility of Outlaw- In any event, both Dewey and Confucius would ry at a moment wherein he was re-imagining surely agree with us in this issue that democracy what participatory democracy might mean in an as experience-based education and education as era of intensifying globalism in economic, polit- creative democracy provide the only grounds ical, and cultural modes of production. The we have for continuing to hope against hope “peace angle” presented in this essay emerges for realizing a more sustainable, just, and peace- for us as a consummatory ethical and political ful world together in this all-too-fragile moment end-in-view by which to go forward from this in our planetary history. energizing constellation of essays adventuring into the educational potentials inherent in any democratic experience—especially when fully recognizing the many different cultural “masks” that creative democracy can take as a working faith in the relational dynamics of associated living together in family, school, and society. We would like to thank here our readers for their interest in this issue. In line with the col- laborative and experimental nature of the Jour- nal of School & Society, and perhaps even more so in the unique context of this inter-cultural comparative issue as so focally aware of the vi- tal importance of relational deference and communicative virtuosity, we welcome further comments and contributions going forward together as concerned educators. Both John Dewey and Confucius were tireless educators who professed a working faith in creative social intelligence. As we face an overwhelming and dispiriting array of prob- lems and predicaments in these trying times, 12 Roger T. Ames & Henry Rosemont, Jr., The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (New York: Ballantine perhaps we can find some edifying consolation Books, 1998), 181.

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The aim of education is to inculcate John Dewey and Confucius ren (humanity) through li (normative 1 behaviours) so that learners could in Dialogue: 1919-2019 realise and broaden dao (Way). To achieve this aim, the curriculum Leonard J. Waks should be holistic, broad-based and Hangzhou Normal University integrated where students constant- ly practise what they have learnt through self-cultivation and social interaction.3 In April 1919, when John Dewey arrived in China, the time was not ripe for a dialogue—on Unfortunately, as the educational program pre- fair and equal terms—between his philosophi- scribed by Zhu Xi became institutionalized, cal standpoint and the Confucian tradition. students took up the study of the classic Con- Dewey’s reputation as philosopher and ed- fucian works primarily to compete in the rigid ucator was sharply on the rise. He had just, examination system. The ideal aim of Confu- three years earlier, published his magisterial cian education eroded, and the orthodox cur- Democracy and Education. In this work, he built riculum impeded the introduction of educa- on his theory, advanced in The School and Society, tional arrangements more suited to modern of active learning through school occupations, conditions. and offered a new vision of democratic educa- At the time of Dewey’s arrival, leading Chi- tion for inter-ethnic understanding and world nese scholars including Cal Yuanpei, Chen peace. As World War One came to an end, Duxiu, and Hu Shih were denouncing the Con- both he and this groundbreaking book had fucian past and calling for a new forward- gained worldwide attention. looking Chinese culture shaped by Western ide- By contrast, the Confucian tradition, which as. “Democracy” and “Science” were their had dominated Chinese education for more watchwords. They demanded the rejection of than 2000 years, was in sharp decline. This tra- hierarchical and paternalist structures, the re- dition had developed directly from the works of placement of traditional Chinese with an acces- Confucius, and became frozen in orthodoxy sible vernacular language, mass education, and after the revival of the Confucian tradition by the liberation of women. “Down with Confu- the Song period philosopher Zhu Xi (1130- cius and Sons!” was the popular slogan of the 1200), whose work became regarded as the day.4 benchmark in further Confucian discourses.2 The educational ideals expressed in this tra- dition have recently been elegantly synthesized 3 C. Tan, “Confucianism and education,” in G. Noblit by Charlene Tan (2017) as follows: (Ed.), Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 1-18. Draft retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326412668_C 1 An earlier version of this paper appeared in the Journal onfucianism_and_Education. of East China Normal University 2 (2019), 59-66. 4 Ho Hsin-chuan & Prof. Axel Schneider, “Workshop 2 John H. Berthrong, “Neo-Confucian Philosophy,” In- Report” (paper presented at Confucianism and Modern ternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (n.d.), available at Society, Leiden, Netherlands, May 28-29, 2009), available https://www.iep.utm.edu/neo-conf/. at http://www.doc88.com/p-9743327692163.html.

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The challenge to Confucian orthodoxy was By the time of Dewey’s visit in 1919, the not unprecedented. In the Ming period, the humiliating defeats in the Sino-Japanese War great philosopher-poet Wang Yangming (1472- (1905) and the First World War proved that 1529) offered an opposing account of self- importing science and technology as mere cultivation of the xin, or mind-heart, which im- “function”—cut off from its cultural roots in plied a different pattern of education.5 From the scientific revolution and Enlightenment— the 17th century, when Chinese scholars were could not protect China from Japan and the introduced to Western ideas by Jesuit mission- West. ary Matteo Ricci and others, the Confucianism The table was thus set for Dewey’s arrival. cultural monopoly was itself eroding. New China was calling for help from “Mr. Science” trends of skepticism and empiricism converged and “Mr. Democracy” and Dewey exemplified in the School of Evidential Learning, which both. subjected Confucian classics to philological crit- icism, and adapted the slogan “seek truth from Dewey in China facts.”

By the mid-19th century, even traditional Among the young intellectuals who greeted Confucian scholars were aware of the vulnera- Dewey upon his arrival in China, many had bility of China to foreign military and industrial studied abroad; seeing China from a distance, powers. Recognizing that the long- standing they appreciated it as one nation among others Confucian aversion to technical arts had con- in the modern world and asked: In what direc- tributed to China’s military weakness, they tion should the new China advance? They now sought to import Western science and technol- sought in modern science, technology, and de- ogy.6 But the attitude of Confucian elites was mocracy new cultural ideals for China. deeply ambivalent. They wanted to import sci- While in China, Dewey gave almost 200 lec- ence and technology, but also to contain them tures in eleven provinces. He was welcomed as mere add-ons to Confucian culture. They everywhere—his audiences frequently num- tolerated Western technology as “function,” but 7 bered in the thousands. He spent the majority sought to retain Confucian “substance.” of his time, however, in two provinces (Jiangsu and Zhejiang), homes of the dynamic industrial 5 Significantly, Wang’s position on the sequence of and commercial cities of Nanjing and Hang- thought and action in learning opposed that of both Confucius and Zhu Xi. For the latter, investigating the zhou. It was there that he had the most lasting 8 classic works was the preliminary stepping stone to action influence. as a wise person. Wang, like Dewey, conceived on the Two series of Dewey’s lectures were trans- contrary that thought grew directly out of action situa- lated into Chinese and widely circulated during tions, and that thought and action were always discrete Dewey’s visit. These have been re-translated facets of one complex action-thought-action complex. As 9 a result, my account of Confucian educational theory into English. He also gave many lectures on does not fit Wang and his followers. 6 Jessica Ching-Sze Wang, John Dewey in China: To Teach 8 Zou Zhenhuan, “The ‘Dewey Fever’ in Jiangsu and and to Learn, (Albany: State University of New York Zhejiang During the May Fourth Movement and Its Re- Press, SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture, lation to the Cultural Tradition in Jiangnan,” Chinese Stud- 2007). ies in History 43, no. 4, (Summer 2010), 43–62. 7 James Yang, When Confucius “Encounters” John Dewey: A 9 Robert W. Clopton & Tsuin-Chen Ou, John Dewey, Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Dewey's Visit to China, Lectures in China, 1919-20, (Honolulu: University Press of PhD dissertation, (University of Oklahoma, 2016). Hawai, 1975).

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educational topics—ranging from popular edu- persisted through the Republican period.13 Lat- cation, student self-motivation, and the im- er, China adopted a model for higher secondary provement of teaching materials—all of which and tertiary education with many American fea- were widely reported in the Chinese press.10 tures, though one far from Dewey’s ideal vi- Most of these have not yet been translated into sion. In the wake of the “Four Modernizations” English. movement, science and technology have now Dewey’s primary message in his published replaced Confucianism as the basis for Chinese lectures was that the conception of “science” higher education. Indeed, unless today’s Chi- had failed to penetrate China—Chinese intellec- nese students major in Chinese studies, they tuals, in the wake of the Boxer rebellion, had may complete their entire period of university been interested not in science, but only on its study without even coming into contact with technological payoff. Dewey stated that “Orien- classical Confucian texts or ideas.14 tal people . . . do not really grasp the signifi- Contemporary Chinese scholars are, how- cance of the development of science; they con- ever, now reconsidering the Chinese intellectual fuse the results of science—the development of tradition. The term “New Confucianism” is technology—with science itself, and conse- currently used to refer to a movement to revive quently fail to develop a scientific attitude.”11 elements of the Confucian tradition and bring This “scientific attitude” implied, for Dew- them into conversation with Western ideas. ey, not just the acceptance of science as the best New Confucianism holds that China must learn method for understanding the natural world, from the West’s modern science and democra- but also the wholehearted embrace of an empir- cy, while the West must learn from China’s ical mindset in addressing problems of everyday Wisdom traditions.15 The time for a dialogue on social life. He condemned the “predisposition equal terms between the Deweyan and Confu- to obey the ancients”—to treat knowledge as cian traditions has arrived. already fixed and transmitted through memori- zation, recitation, and examination. In 1921 he Dewey’s Contribution to the Dia- wrote that, for China to adapt to prevailing world conditions, “a new mind must be creat- logue ed.”12 In the immediate aftermath of Dewey’s vis- What does Dewey bring to the table for this it, new experimental schools were established— dialogue? We can understand Dewey’s vision of especially in Nanjing and Hangzhou. These education only by setting it within his theory of the individual in society, and the relations 10 Zhenhuan, “The ‘Dewey Fever.’” 11 Robert Clopton and Tsuin-Chen Ou, John Dewey, Lec- tures in China, 238. 12 Sor-hoon Tan, “The Pragmatic Confucian Approach 13 Zhenhuan, “The ‘Dewey Fever.’” to Tradition in Modernizing China,” History and Theory 51 14 Wm. Theodore De Bary, “Confucian Education and (December 2012), 23-44. See also John Dewey, the ‘Point of Democracy’” in Wm. Theodore de Bary MW13:95, in Jo Ann Boydston (Ed.), The Collected Works (Ed.), Confucian Tradition and Global Education, with contri- of John Dewey, 1882-1953, (Carbondale and Edwardsville: butions by Cheung Chan Fai and Kwan Tze-wan, (New Southern Illinois University Press, 1967-1991). All subse- York: Columbia University Press, 2007): 18ff. quent citations to the collected works will be cited in 15 See Umberto Bresciani, Reinventing Confucianism: The notes, with EW standing for Early Works, MW for Middle New Confucian Movement (Taipei: Taipei Ricci Institute, Works, and LW for Late Works. 2001).

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among individual action, learning, and simply fail to achieve their desired ends. In knowledge.16 both cases, individuals then sense frustration The Individual in Society. Dewey shared and the hesitation of doubt. This hesitation with classical Chinese thought the idea that in- marks the terminus of “primary” experience. dividual human beings are thrown into histori- For Dewey, the first response to doubt is cal society between past and future.17 Through “thinking”—considering possible alternative early cultural conditioning grounded in cultural means to the desired ends. This may involve tradition, human infants acquire the ways of the the utilization of available knowledge, and when group, which filter down into habit. Individuals it does, it enters the realm of “secondary expe- are thus thoroughly saturated by society and rience.”20 If individual thinking, even when as- inconceivable apart from their social relations. sisted by available knowledge, fails to resolve Dewey wrote, “men are not isolated non-social doubt, individuals can seek further insight from atoms, but are men only when in intrinsic rela- others, including peers and elders through tions to one another.”18 Indeed, humans only communication. When informal knowledge become “individuals” through social habitua- sharing still fails to resolve problems, individu- tion and social relationships. als and groups must then resort to more me- Acting, Thinking, and Learning. Habits thodical inquiry. Contemporary industrial and acquired through social experience can guide post-industrial societies establish research uni- individuals through qualitative feeling and versities as the primary homes for systematic spontaneous thought-in-action as they act to inquiry. 21 satisfy needs and ends.19 By “experience,” Dew- A good society for Dewey is a democratic ey meant the complex of acting and undergoing society, characterized by rich communication the consequences that result. By “primary expe- within and across all social groups, so that each rience,” Dewey meant action undertaken with- individual gains access to the best ideas for out the guidance of explicit knowledge. Some- solving individual and collective problems. For times such acts prompted by habit fail qualita- Dewey, individuals develop democratic disposi- tively to fit emerging situations; action impulses tions and thus become moral agents by acting may not feel quite appropriate. Or acts may cooperatively and openly exchanging ideas. Schools and universities conduce to democracy 16 In this section I draw on materials from my article by building learning experiences around coop- “Thinking in Dewey’s Experimentalist Education: The erative inquiry and ameliorative social action. Contribution of the Internet and Digital Tools,” ECNU Dewey’s Critique of Conventional Class- Review of Education 1, no. 2, (2018), 1–22. Retrieved from http://www.roe.ecnu.edu.cn/_upload/article/files/87/d room Education. On the basis of these ideas, b/4437d47342a0acc3f0b7cbc39152/e4dd08e5-3e41- Dewey offered a sharp critique of conventional 4554-8d84-3782a4dba555.pdf education. By the late-19th century, a conven- 17 Dewey lays out this picture of human action in his first tional model for top-down classroom learning China lecture, Dewey, “Lectures in China,” 45ff, and many other places. For Confucian parallels, see Geir Sigurds- son, Confucian Propriety and Ritual Learning, (Albany: SUNY 20 Dewey drew this distinction between primary and Press): 19-38. secondary experience in John Dewey, Experience and Na- 18 John Dewey, “The Ethics of Democracy,” in ture, in LW1. EW1:231-2. 21 For further elaboration of this point, see Leonard J. 19 Dewey discussed the role of qualitative awareness and Waks, “John Dewey’s Conception of the University,” in the non-cognitive background of action in John Dewey, Steven Fesmire (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Dewey, “Qualitative Thought,” in LW5: 243–262. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).

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prevailed in the United States. By the 20th cen- nipulated, rather than as genuine realities, intel- tury, this model has been extended throughout ligently appreciated.”23 the world—from Albania to Zimbabwe. Learning by Doing. In Dewey’s alterna- In picture after picture of classrooms, stu- tive model, student thinking about their own dents sit facing forward, pencil poised, note- issues and concerns replaces rote memorization books opened, listening to their teachers and and shallow understanding. Learners learn by taking notes, trying to understand and memo- acting and getting feedback from the world. rize their lessons. The lesson content is pre- They face difficulties and are forced to think. scribed and pre-organized. Learners have no Thinking does not take place in the students’ input. Teachers give tests to assure that lessons heads. Their thinking is not something distinct have been learned. This conventional approach from their doing. Consider a schoolgirl growing has been called the “factory” model of educa- tomatoes in the school garden. Expressing her tion because it uses an assembly line approach. expansive personality, she sets out to grow the In The School and Society, Dewey demonstrat- biggest tomatoes. To achieve this end, she will ed his total rejection of this conventional mod- have to think—for example, by researching dif- el: ferent tomato varieties, testing her soil for nec- essary nutrients, perhaps experimenting with If we put before the mind’s eye the ordinary different varieties under varying soil conditions. schoolroom, with its rows of ugly desks She has to make observations, gather data, rec- placed in geometrical order, crowded to- ord and analyze results. gether so that there shall be as little moving Learning by Communicating. In addi- room as possible, desks almost all of the tion to learning by doing, which implies learn- same size, with just space enough to hold ing by thinking, we also learn by communicating. books, pencils and paper, and add a table, To listen and to speak to another, a learner some chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a must think about points of contact with others, few pictures, we can reconstruct the only trying and testing so as gradually to receive other’s educational activity that can possibly go on way of experiencing and being, and responding to in such a place. It is all made “for listening” contribute to a meaningful exchange. Pictures ... passivity, absorption; there are certain of students in schools influenced by Dewey ready-made materials . . . which the child is show images of students growing gardens, to take in as much as possible in the least building sheds, taking care of farm animals, ex- possible time.22 perimenting with robots, sharing in groups, and making presentations. The contrast with pic- The subject matter, he added, “remains unas- tures pf conventional classrooms is stark. similated, unorganized, not really understood. It Learning from Teachers and Other stands on a dead level, hostile to the selective Adults. Teachers and other adults help to bring arrangements characteristic of thinking; matter young people along by designing settings and for memorizing, rather than for judgment; ex- activities which stimulate acting in pursuit of isting as verbal symbols to be mechanically ma- ends made specific by the learners. They con-

23 Dewey, MW7:269. Dewey also spoke of the “the traits which are characteristic of° thinking, namely, uncertainty, ambiguity, alternatives, inquiring, search, selection, exper- 22 Dewey, MW1:22. imental reshaping of external conditions,” in LW1:63.

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sult with and coach the learners. They think with The survival of such practices—top-down, the learners about how the ends may be teacher-centered learning aimed at memoriza- achieved; through these consultations the learn- tion for test preparation—is seen in contempo- ers acquire moral dispositions and thinking rary China as a problem to be overcome by habits and skills in these areas of activity. They school reform. When we place Dewey and learn to think as gardeners, builders, athletes, or Confucius in dialogue in the context of school writers. Teachers eventually gather together the reform, we seek to stimulate new ideas that lessons that their students learn by doing and might be useful—in different ways—for educa- thinking and communicating, summarizing tional renewal, in both East and West. them, and eventually connecting them to the What, then, can Confucian educators offer stream of organized knowledge as may be in dialogue with Dewey?25 found in textbooks. Confucian and Deweyan educators have What is most important is the sequence in the important common starting points. They both presentation of subject matter. First, action in see individuals as historically and culturally situ- pursuit of learner ends—like growing the big- ated, and existing only in their social-cultural gest tomatoes. Action on the environment gen- relationships. In both traditions, individuals are erates feedback, including setbacks and difficul- seen not as distinct from the socio-cultural or ties, giving rise to thinking. Second, informal natural environments, but saturated with both.26 communication with peers and teachers and Through language learning and early cultural other adults. Third, instruction that combines conditioning, the brute human individual be- what has already been learned in the first two comes a member of the group and a morally stages with pre-existing, already organized considerable person. Both traditions share the knowledge, in a form that guide and enrich fur- explicit goal of harmonious living for “all under ther action. heaven.” Both also offer a view of knowledge as inherently practical, existing for the sake of The Confucian Contribution to action for harmony and peace. From these common starting points, the traditions diverge. the Dialogue Theory, Practice, Production. I borrow some conceptual distinctions from ancient The Confucian education tradition, as has been Western philosophy to explain this divergence. suggested above, is diverse. Confucian philoso- For Aristotle, there were three basic activities of phers over the centuries have developed differ- ent—and in some cases conflicting— 25 In this section I draw on materials from my article educational ideas. These ideas, nonetheless, “Democracy and the Research University: Confucian have been adapted by educational officials Tradition and John Dewey’s Pragmatist Ideal,” (Proceed- throughout East Asia in school practices aimed ings of the Conference Fudan University, December at obedience and conformity.24 2017) | ”. 26 For the Confucian view of the relational self, see David 24 T. Kim, “Confucianism, Modernities and Knowledge: L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, Thinking Through Confucius China, South Korea and Japan,” in R. Cowen & A.M. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), and Kazamias (Eds.), International Handbook of Comparative Sor-hoon Tan, Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Reconstruc- Education, (Dordrecht: Springer International Handbooks tion, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), of Education, vol. 22, 2009). 18-61.

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humans: theoria (thinking), praxis (doing), and For Aristotle, therefore, technical education poiesis (making, producing). was a contradiction in terms. Education aims at Theory, θεωρία, signified “looking at” or knowledge, but making does not use “beholding,” and in philosophy, came to mean knowledge—it relies on imitation and repeti- contemplative beholding, as in Plato’s theory of tion. He thus argued that the life as an artisan contemplation of the Forms. Theory was in- craftsperson is ignoble and inimical to virtue, cluded in education in the four classical liberal and that it is impossible for craftsmen even to arts—geometry, astronomy, arithmetic and mu- engage in virtuous pursuits; the craftsperson sical harmony—in which mathematical objects only attains excellence as a craftsperson in pro- are treated as pure forms. Even today, deep portion as he or she becomes a slave. Indeed, thinking is considered to exist “in the mind”— so slavish was making that Aristotle in his Poli- as illustrated by Rodin’s The Thinker. tics refused even to admit makers as citizens of Aristotle sharply distinguished practice, a well-governed city.29 πρᾶξις, or doing—from theory. Even general Aristotle accepts that craft products may ideas used to guide action were not theory, be- have some basis in knowledge, e.g., of geometry cause theory was self-sufficient—involving no or physics. But makers merely go through mo- doing, apart from itself. Theoretical thinking is tions prescribed by those who possess such passionate contemplation. Those engaged in knowledge. In this, he agrees with Confucius praxis were doers—e.g., government officials, that officials do not need to know how to make military officers. Making, ποίησις, signified ac- or produce, but only how to make use of those tivities in which people bring something into who do, and that just learning how actually to 30 being.27 For Aristotle, all making is a form of make or produce is servile. imitation of nature or mechanical repetition of Thinking and Doing in Confucian Edu- ideas formed by others. Aristotle thus had a low cation. For Confucian educators, the aim is the opinion of making, as an activity suitable for self-cultivation of learners, leading to their eventu- slaves, and of makers—craftspersons—whose al moral transformation. Confucian education aims repetitive, other-directed motions makes them to make learners junzi—superior persons. Like like slaves.28 Dewey’s model, the Confucian model has a normative sequence.31 It begins by initiating

29 Aristotle, Politics, 1277b, 1278a, 1260b, 1328. 27 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics: Book 6, chapter 4, 1140a 30 Confucius, Analects, 13.4. Aristotle, Politics, 1277a. 1-23: “making is different from doing ...All Art deals 31 As note 5 indicates, this sequence was challenged in with bringing something into existence; and to pursue an the 15th century by the Ming philosopher Wang Yang- art means to study how to bring into existence a thing ming. “Despite the emphasis on the need for knowledge which may either exist or not, and the efficient cause of to be put into practice, the traditional position presup- which lies in the maker and not in the thing made; for posed two possibilities: first, that one can have Art does not deal with things that exist or come into ex- knowledge without/prior to corresponding action; and istence of necessity, or according to nature, since these second, that one can know what is the proper action, but have their efficient cause in themselves. But as doing and still fail to act. Because of these two possibilities, the tra- making are distinct, it follows that Art, being concerned ditional position left open the possibility of separating with making, is not concerned with doing.” knowledge and action, but called for the overcoming of 28 The discussion of Aristotle here and in the next para- this separation. However, Wang denied both possibilities. graph cites Aristotle, Politics, translated with Introduction These two denials constitute the essence of Wang’s theo- and Notes by C.D.C. Reeve, (Indianapolis/Cambridge: ry of the unity of knowledge and action. First, according Hackett Publishing Company, 1998). to Wang, it is only through simultaneous action that one

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individuals, along with their peers, into ritual The concern is to be able to understand, practice and study of classical Confucian texts, for anything one might confront ... how it under the guidance of a Confucian scholar- fits with humanity in the big picture of eve- teacher. rything under Heaven. Having such a place For Dewey, text-based learning is last in the means having a use, a “function” (), a sequence. For Confucians, canonical texts come right, correct, best way of being handled. first—they are the initial focus of learning, and That is what the investigation of principle students are expected to master them. But the investigates.33 aim of study is not merely to memorize them or grasp their literal meaning, but rather to absorb Knowledge in this sense in inherently moral. through discussions about them the ancient Knowledge attained through self-cultivation is wisdom they depict. As Barry Allen puts this thus not merely abstract, or, as we may say, point, in Confucian education, “classical learn- “theoretical,” but inherently practical ing is a school of experience ... The Classics are knowledge. the works of ancient sages and a record of their In sharp contrast with Aristotle, then, Con- experience. The study of this material is a fucian thought, like Dewey’s pragmatism, method for establishing an intuitive continuity makes no sharp distinction between thinking 32 between that experience and our own.” and doing, theoria and praxis. As Elliot and Tsai While this form of education is said to en- put it: courage the “investigation of all things,” this investigation entails reflection upon, and dis- For Confucius, “pursuing knowledge” or cussion of, canonical classics so as to generate “knowing” refers to a dynamic process of moral knowledge. As Allen explains, investigat- becoming intelligent, of “realizing” new ing all things, as understood by Zhu Xi, signi- possibilities for action within a specific set fied investigating principle: not the truth but the of circumstances of which he is a participant right use of things, the right way to handle them. . . . Knowledge is not determined inde- pendently of action in the circumstances of everyday life; the relationship between knowledge and action is a non-instrumental can obtain knowledge: “If you want to know bitterness, one. Knowledge is only fully achieved in ac- you have to eat a bitter melon yourself.” Wang denied 34 any other possible routes to obtain knowledge. Accord- tion. ing to Wang, it is not possible for one to put something into practice after acquiring knowledge. This is because The aim of learning is effectiveness in these ac- knowledge and action are unified already, from beginning tions. “You can recite the 300 poems from the to end. We cannot unify knowledge and action because Book of Odes, but when you try to use them in they are already unified.” Youngmin Kim, “Wang Yang- ming,” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (n.d.), retrieved administration, they are not effective, and in from https://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/. See also, handling the outlying regions, you cannot apply Bryan Van Norden, “Wang Yangming.” Stanford Encyclo- pedia of Philosophy (2014), retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/. 32 Barry Allen, “Pragmatism and Confucian Empiricism,” 33 Allen, “Pragmatism and Confucian Empiricism,” 262. (Proceedings of the Conference Fudan University, De- 34 John Elliott and Ching tien Tsai, “What Might Confu- cember 2017), | cius Have to Say about Action Research?” Educational ”. Action Research 16, (2008), 569–578.

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them, then even though you know a lot, what gone out, the Master said, “A small man good is it?”35 (xiao ren), indeed, is Fan Xu!”37 This insistence on the practical point of learning and knowledge became a special em- Chinese devaluation of technical arts persisted phasis in the Neo-Confucian school of Wang through the Qing dynasty. While government Yangming. For Wang, as for Dewey, learners officials had to complete a classical education can gain knowledge only in and through action; and pass a daunting exam, medical practice was knowledge acquired in isolation from action for centuries unregulated and devalued.38 Even and then put into action—applied to situations— after examinations for medical practice were in- will always provide a false or misleading guide troduced in the Song period, medical doctors to action.36 still retained relatively low status. In mainstream Confucian education, how- Confucius characteristically asserts that if a ever, the “investigation of things” in the acad- superior man loves propriety and righteousness, emy does not involve active interventions in his influence will be immediately felt: “the people problematic situations. Thus, a thought-action from all quarters will come to him, bearing their gap between study and real-world action per- children on their backs—what need has he of a sists in Confucian education. knowledge of husbandry?”39 The superior man Doing and Making in Confucian Educa- relies on ordinary men (xiao ren) for technical tion. Unlike the theory practice distinction, tasks appropriate to their status. The superior however, that between practice and poesis, doing man, for example, would never work the land or and making/producing, is as strong in Confu- advise farmers. That would be “servile.” cius as in Aristotle. What kind of action is ap- propriate for the superior person? In the Ana- What Can Deweyans and Confu- lects, the actions appropriate for junzi are typical- ly consulting and advising leaders on policy de- cians Learn from One Another in cisions and regulations—actions appropriate for Dialogue? officials.

But like Aristotle, Confucius urges the junzi While Dewey agrees with the Confucian tradi- to stand away from technical arts, from making tion on the intimate relationship between or producing. The technical arts are denounced knowledge and action, his approach starts by as mean and petty: situating school learners directly in engaging social and technical action. Technical arts are not deval- When Fan Chi requested that he be taught ued, but honored. There is no place in Dewey’s animal husbandry, the Master said “I am not system of ideas for either moral self-cultivation so good for that as an old husbandman.” or textual study outside of the scene of cooper- He requested also to be taught gardening, ative action. and was answered, “I am not so good for that as an old gardener.” Fan Chi having

37 Confucius, Analects, 13.4. 38 Asaf Moshe Goldschmidt, The Evolution of Chinese Medi- cine: Song Dynasty, 960–1200, (New York: Routledge, 35 Confucius, Analects, 13.5. 2009): 19. 36 Van Norden, “Wang Yangming.” 39 Confucius, Analects, 13.4.

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Given these differences, can we find oppor- moral fact. Their presence makes itself felt; oth- tunities for fruitful dialogue? ers cannot help but bring themselves into align- I argue that we can. Confucians can gain ment. useful insight from Deweyan experimentalists The problem here is that in today’s techno- about education in technical arts, while experi- logical society, moral knowledge and virtuous mentalists can gain equally useful insights from character, while necessary, are not sufficient for Confucian educators about moral self- leadership in any sphere of life—especially in cultivation. technical areas. Leadership demands flexible We may start with the distinction between scientific and technical knowledge as well as social practice/doing and technical ac- moral judgement. Wise action requires open tion/making. In the Confucian tradition, this exchange between leaders and technicians: une- has been the distinction between virtuous prac- qual statuses of wind and grass must be aban- tical arts requiring knowledge and judgment— doned. The superior person in scientific or those suitable for superior persons—and petty technical fields must be both a technical spe- arts requiring mere technical skill—those suita- cialist and a wise moral judge, and must com- ble for ordinary, servile underlings. municate with scientists and technologists on This distinction might have been appropri- equal terms. ate for Chinese society in the 6th Century BCE Paul Goodman, a great American philoso- (or Greek society in the 4th century BCE). pher and essayist profoundly influenced by Farming and artisan crafts were governed by Dewey, insisted “technology is a branch of unchanging traditional norms. Ordinary people moral philosophy, not of science. It aims at (xiao ren) absorbed such norms by osmosis as prudent goods for the commonweal.”41 Tradi- they grew up. They were expected to demon- tionally, the education of technical specialists— strate conformity with convention and obedi- makers or producers—was not a concern for ence to officials in applying them. As Confucius Confucian scholars, and the devaluation of proclaimed, “The relation between superiors technical arts contributed to China’s technical and inferiors is like that between the wind and “backwardness.” Since the “Four Moderniza- the grass. The grass must bend, when the wind tions,” the Chinese have developed scientific blows across it.”40 and technical knowledge in the Western mode, This passage in the Analects may be read in but scrapped Confucian moral education. The two ways. We may take Confucius here as say- task today is to bring Confucian moral insights ing that officials and their advisers possess such to bear on science and technology education sufficient power and authority that ordinary and development. Imagine the following: people wouldn’t dare to disobey. This meaning, however, is not consistent with the main ideas Fan Chi requested that he be taught animal in the Analects, as it suggests that superior per- husbandry. The Master said, “I am not so sons rule by force. We should instead be taking good for that as an old husbandman.” He Confucius as telling us that when rulers have requested also to be taught gardening, and undergone moral self-transformation, their was answered, “I am not so good for that as worlds—inner and outer—are in proper order. an old gardener.” Fan Chi responded that Their integration can be felt by others as a

41 Paul Goodman, New Reformation: Notes of a Neolithic 40 Confucius, Analects, 12.19. Conservative, (Oakland: PM Press, 2010): p. 40.

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old husbandmen no longer exist. Animals through classical study would have no place in are now manufactured in factories like so his educational framework. many industrial parts. They suffer greatly. The idea of self-cultivation through study is Old gardeners also no longer exist. Plant- discussed only in one place in the Dewey cor- based foods are now produced by factory pus, where Dewey expresses a caution about methods using genetic engineering. People literary education. He says that traditionalists are greatly and deeply concerned about the urge classical studies as a means of strengthen- safety and nutritional value of their food. ing moral and mental discipline merely to The order of nature is being undermined. screen them from “intellectual criticism and This is why I request that the Master teaches needed revisions.” But he adds: me animal husbandry and gardening. Fan Chi having gone out, the Master said, “A The past just as past is no longer our affair. wise man (junzi), indeed, is Fan Chi!” If it were wholly gone and done with, there would be only one reasonable attitude to- In this project of unifying moral and technical ward it. Let the dead bury their dead. But education, Confucian educators may thus have knowledge of the past is the key to under- much to learn in a dialogue with Dewey. standing the present. History deals with the past, but this past is the history of the pre- 42 Dewey and Self Cultivation sent.

In holding that “knowledge of the past is the The more difficult question is whether Dew- key to understanding the present,” however, eyan experimentalists can embrace anything Dewey is in complete agreement with Confu- akin to Confucian moral self-cultivation as an cian educators. Dewey, however, offers three element of education. qualifications. In the Confucian tradition, self-cultivation First, he emphasizes economic and indus- progresses through study of canonical Confu- trial history as more valuable for moral purpos- cian texts. One opening for discussion is that es than political and military history. The fun- neither Confucius nor Neo-Confucians in the damental fact is that humans have to work—to traditions of Zhu Xi or Wang Yangming re- coordinate their actions with forces of nature— garded textual study as valuable for its own sa- to make their living. The historical texts that ke, much less for enhanced social prestige or inform the present must be expanded to in- exam success. They saw the study of literary clude documentary records of occupational texts—rich with practical lessons—as only one life—from invention and architecture, to medi- element in a broad program of moral education cine and law. And we might well add agricul- that included reflection, dialogue, and fulfill- ture—gardening and animal husbandry. ment in action. Second, humane historical studies must be But what place can moral self-cultivation connected in concrete ways to social action. As play in Dewey’s action-based learning? Dewey Dewey labors this point: “A topic becomes a sees the growth of morality—empathy and matter of study—that is, of inquiry and reflec- practical efficacy—as growing directly out of coopera- tion—when it figures as a factor to be reckoned tive activity through action and reflection. Peri- ods of learning set aside for self-cultivation 42 Dewey, MW9:222.

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with in the completion of a course of events in which one is engaged and by whose outcome Conclusion one is affected.”43 Humanities study in schools and colleges should not merely investigate social Despite their differences, Confucian and Dew- and technical action, but actually engage in real eyan scholars and educators can engage in fruit- world action. ful dialogue regarding educational renewal. Third, Dewey draws back from the very idea New models emerging from such dialogues of classical study in moral self-cultivation. can include study of selected canonical texts “What is termed spiritual culture has usually from Confucian and other ancient wisdom tra- been futile, with something rotten about it,” ditions. Confucian educational classics have because spiritual culture is conceived as “a much to offer. What is wanted, however, is not thing which a man might have internally—and 44 mere study of these texts for cultural apprecia- therefore exclusively.” This is problematic be- tion, but moral and spiritual guidance in social cause the self-cultivation Dewey attacks is the and technical practice. Here, the contributions opposite of Confucian self-cultivation, which is a of Dewey-oriented philosopher-educators may social practice aimed at social action for a har- offer useful insight. monious community: “this cultivation brings about continuity when people’s purposes are Leonard J. Waks is Professor Emeritus of Educational engaged with things and events, as they partici- Leadership and Policy Studies at Hangzhou Normal pate in the world together.”45 This aim is one University in China, and at Temple University in the with Dewey’s ideal of the democratic commu- United States. Waks has earned doctorates in philoso- nity. phy and organizational studies. He is co-founder of the A Confucian-influenced conception of self- National Technological Literacy Conferences, and au- cultivation can enrich Dewey’s educational thor of the books, Education 2.0, The Evolution model. A period of moral self-cultivation and Evaluation of Massive Open Online grounded in canonical texts from ancient wis- Courses, and Technology's School, as well as dom traditions, prior to specialist scientific and more than 100 scholarly articles and book chapters. He technical studies, has already been proposed by is currently the Immediate Past President of the John the Dewey-influenced psychologist Abraham Dewey Society. Maslow. In his John Dewey Lectures, The Psy- chology of Science,46 Maslow argued that scientists and technologists today require heightened moral self-awareness precisely because their knowledge grants them potentially limitless power over humanity.

43 Dewey, MW9:142. 44 Dewey, MW9:129-130. 45 Haiming Wen, Confucian Pragmatism as the Art of Contex- tualizing Personal Experience and World, (Lanham, MD: Lex- ington Books, 2009): 64. 46 Abraham Harold Maslow, Psychology of Science: A Recon- naissance, (Chicago: Gateway Editions, 1969).

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earth. Comparative philosophers David L. Hall Diversity, Harmony (he and Roger T. Ames, however, help to dispel what they call the “myth” of Han identity as ), and the “Melting Pot” a unifying factor in the Chinese experience. While it is unlikely that China will ever be the Jim Behuniak robustly multi-racial society that America is, it is Colby College not as homogenous as it might seem. The Han people are indeed the principle ethnic group in China, comprising over 92% of On Columbus Day in 1915, President Theo- the population. What remains are some fifty- dore Roosevelt gave a speech before a largely odd minority ethnic groups. Despite this ethnic Irish-Catholic group belonging to the fraternal imbalance, however, several demographic forc- organization, the Knights of Columbus, at Car- es—regional, cultural, linguistic, and econom- negie Hall in New York City. The topic was the ic—conspire to “create strains on the presumed emergence of so-called “hyphenated American- harmony of the Han Chinese.”1 Generated ism.” within this tension is a rather fervent need to The phrase referred to Americans who had define and retain “Chinese-ness” as a pervasive immigrated to the United States but who still quality in the face of an inexorable and multi- identified with their own cultural backgrounds, scalar dynamism. e.g. those who might call themselves Irish- Such dynamism is a feature of most natural American, Mexican-American, or Chinese- systems, and it is nothing new. For two and a American, meaning to retain some continuity half millennia, Chinese thinkers have been re- with the former term. “There is no room in this flecting on how best to sustain order in the country for hyphenated Americanism,” midst of such dynamism. The concept of har- boomed Roosevelt. “There is no such thing as a mony (he) is at the center of such reflections. hyphenated American who is a good American. Juxtaposing this ancient Chinese ideal with clas- The only man who is a good American is the sical American thinking enables us to appreciate man who is an American and nothing else.” how the ideals that operate in each tradition are This speech was delivered over a century ago, connected—and how such ideals offer an alter- but it sounds like one that could be delivered by native to homogenization as a desirable social an American President today. end. At issue is how American diversity works. America has a tendency to regard homoge- Is “America” one thing or many things? How nization as a social end. Six years prior to deliv- are its parts related to the whole? This piece will ering his “hyphenated Americanism” speech, argue that John Dewey and William James have Roosevelt was in Washington, D.C. for the city resources to address such questions. In what premier of Israel Zangwill’s play, The Melting Pot follows, these resources will be recalled and (1905). The play, which was dedicated to Presi- bolstered alongside the classical Chinese con- dent Roosevelt, portrayed itself as “The Great cept of harmony (he ). American Drama,” an adaptation of Romeo and It might strike readers as odd that Chinese thought should be evoked in a discussion about 1 David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, The Democracy of the American diversity. China is normally regarded Dead: Dewey, Confucius, and the Hope for Democracy in China as one of the most homogenous societies on (Chicago: Open Court, 1999), 49.

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Juliet set in contemporary New York City. Da- Ford Motor Company was established in 1914 vid, an immigrant Russian Jew, falls in love with to facilitate their assimilation into American life. Vera, an immigrant Russian Christian. Togeth- Through the “Ford English School,” immi- er, they unite as Americans to overcome the grants learned to speak English and to practice Old World prejudices that challenge their love. “proper” American habits in areas such as food Naturally, they succeed. Watching as the preparation, etiquette, hygiene, and manners. setting sun gilds the (originally) copper flame of Upon graduation from the Ford English the torch on the Statue of Liberty, the protago- School, a ceremony was held in which the stu- nist declares: “It is the Fires of God around his dents would wear costumes reflecting their na- Crucible! There she lays, the great Melting tive lands and, one-by-one, descend into an Pot—Listen! Can’t you hear the roaring and the enormous stage-prop “Melting Pot,” only to bubbling? There gapes her mouth, the harbor emerge in Western suits waving little American where a thousand mammoth feeders come flags. The “Melting Pot” idea thus fit hand-in- from the ends of the world to pour in their hand with industrialization in the United States. human freight.” As David proclaims, “America The Ford Motor Company were not only mass- is God’s Crucible, the great Melting-Pot where producing automobiles, they were mass- all the races of Europe are melting and reform- producing “Americans.” Ford’s demographic ing . . . God is making the American!”2 David proclivities as well as his racial and ethnic pref- and Vera embrace as the curtain falls, and a erences did not go unnoticed on the world burly Teddy Roosevelt could be seen protrud- stage. He would be the only American deemed ing from his loge shouting to the playwright, worthy of praise in Hitler’s Mein Kampf. “That’s a great play, Mr. Zangwill. That’s a John Dewey never liked the “Melting Pot” great play!”3 idea. “The theory of the Melting Pot always Indeed, there is something beautiful and gave me rather a pang,” he remarked.4 It grated moving about Zangwill’s storyline. It reminds against his aesthetic sensibilities. The idea, one that parochial differences between particu- however, had become central in American po- lar cultures can be overcome and deeper loyal- litical discourse and Dewey had to contend with ties realized. Really—what is there not to like? it. Henceforth, the image of America as a “Melt- In the years surrounding the First World ing Pot” would be used to represent to our- War, questions about democracy and ethnicity selves our social ideal. loomed large in the United States, as did con- Not, however, without some disturbing cerns about national loyalty. Dewey was critical- manifestations. The “Melting Pot,” for in- ly engaged in these discussions. Having “lulled stance, became one of Henry Ford’s favorites ourselves to sleep with the word ‘Melting-Pot,’” ideas. Three years after Zangwill’s play premi- he observed, “we have now turned to the word ered, Ford revolutionized American industry ‘hyphenate’ as denoting the last thing in scares with the Ford Model T. Immigrants began with a thrill.” Some were advocating compulso- flocking to Detroit for jobs on the assembly ry military service as a means of forging a lines. The “Sociological Department” of the common national identity among disparate groups in the United States. 2 Israel Zangwill, The Melting Pot: Drama in Four Acts (New York: Macmillan Company, 1932), 33, 184-185. 3 Guy Szuberla, “Zangwill's The Melting Pot Plays Chi- 4 “The Principle of Nationality,” Middle Works of John cago,” Melus 20, no. 3 (1995), 3. Dewey, 10, 289, capitalization added.

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Dewey rejected that idea. “My recognition America’s original seer here is Walt Whitman. of the need of agencies for creating a potent As Americans, we turn to him to reconnect sense of a national ideal and of achieving habits with our national spirit. 1855’s Leaves of Grass is which will make this sense a controlling power a quintessentially “American” document. In- in action is not ungrudging,” Dewey allows. stantly and almost unnervingly intimate, the “But the primary question is what is the nation- poet cuddles up against the reader to recite a al ideal, and to what kind of national service love song to the human race—a stream of un- does it stand related?” To use military training varnished particulars, each human being a po- to foster a national identity among diverse em inside a poem. The teeming diversity of groups would only “reduce them to an anony- Whitman’s New York City is delivered una- mous and drilled homogeneity,” he submits, bridged. “I speak the password primeval . . . I “an amalgam whose uniformity would hardly give the sign of democracy,” he exclaims. “By go deeper than the uniforms of the soldiers.”5 God! I will accept nothing which all cannot The intelligent approach to the problem, have their counterpart of on the same terms.”8 according to Dewey, would be to address to- This is an elusive ideal, however, and even gether the means-and-end of forging a national Whitman wavers.9 American diversity is a puz- identity. As Dewey says, “We must ask what a zle because it evokes the age-old problems of real nationalism, a real Americanism, is like. For “Whole/Part” and “One/Many.” As a poem, unless we know our own character and purpose America embraces the entirety of the human we are not likely to be intelligent in our selec- race: “I am large . . . I contain multitudes.”10 tion of the means to further them.”6 The first question to ask then is what is the distinct charac- 8 Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass (Mineola: Dover Publica- ter of America as we find it? tions, 2007), 39. 9 It is not the “legalistic individualism” that While Whitman the poet sang the song of America, Whitman the man had mixed feelings about New York informs our founding documents—for as City’s swelling immigrant populations. Between 1845- Dewey reminds us, “[this] is not indigenous; it 1855, three million foreigners came to American shores. is borrowed from a foreign tradition.” Moreo- Culturally speaking, the American ethos was never exact- ver, as the shortcomings of classical liberalism ly “pro-foreigner”—and Whitman was nothing if not an become increasingly apparent, “many of us are American. Responses to the cultural influx in Whitman’s day ranged from the jingoistic nativism of the “Know- consciously weaned from it.” So again—what is Nothings” to the “outreach” of Tammany Hall, which it that makes the American experience distinct? “We leveraged welfare assistance to new arrivals to bolster its need a new and more political Emerson,” sug- own voter rolls. In Whitman’s prose writings, his nativist gests Dewey, to alert to us to our national char- sympathies come through, and he was not without his acter.7 prejudices. However, “if he was a nativist,” biographer David Reynolds writes, “he was one with a difference.” As a poet, Whitman remained wholly beyond ethnic * * * prejudice: “Pleased with the native and pleased with the foreign . . . pleased with the old, and pleased with the new.” As a person, however, he identified as someone born and raised in the United States. The resulting para- dox is one that lies at the heart of the American experi- 5 “Universal Service as Education,” Middle Works of John ence. See: David S. Reynolds, Walt Whitman’s America: A Dewey, 10, 183-185, 188, italics added. Cultural Biography (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 98- 6 “Nationalizing Education,” Middle Works of John Dewey, 99, 150-153. 10, 204. 7 “Universal Service as Education,” 188-189. 10 Whitman, Leaves of Grass, 67.

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Among its multitudinous parts, however, each the flavor by adding whatever is deficient has its own character and biases in tension with and reducing whatever is in excess. It is on- its counterparts. Ideally, such an arrangement ly by mixing together ingredients of differ- works. As one Whitman scholar understands it, ent flavors that one is able to create a bal- “the first edition of Leaves of Grass was a utopi- anced, harmonized taste.14 an document,” one in which cultural differ- ences are preserved in the social landscape Flavorful soup is constituted by the ratio of its while also “dissolved by affirmation of the raw ingredients. Its harmony is measured by the cross-fertilization” of its varied parts.11 degree to which it succeeds in incorporating It is here, whereby unity is obtained, in- those ingredients in a good (shan ) way. formed, and enhanced by cross-fertilization, Onion, for instance, is wonderful in soup; that the Chinese ideal of harmony (he) speaks to but one does not therefore add all the onion our current situation and connects with Ameri- that one can find. That would disrupt the can philosophy in important ways. In a recent unique contributions of the other ingredients study of the concept, Chenyang Li argues that and result in disharmony. The most harmoni- “harmony” is a term that is both central to ous soup effectively showcases the unique qual- Chinese philosophy and one that is routinely ity (zhi ) of the onion—it balances its flavor misunderstood by commentators. As Li ex- with other ingredients, thereby tempering its plains, the most prevalent error in both West- otherwise pungent and over-bearing taste. The ern and Chinese scholarship is that harmony is norm of harmony (he) thus entails that there are understood as “presupposing a fixed grand “raw” elements in things that are ideally pre- scheme of things that pre-exists in the world to 12 served and thus expressed in ways that temper which humanity has to conform.” In contrast their excesses and augment their values through to such a misunderstanding, Li argues that the cross-fertilization with other ingredients, thus ideal of harmony in Chinese thought is “deep” rendering a thing’s native qualities communica- in nature; it is “without a pre-set order” and ble and appreciated. thus “opposed to the kind of harmony [e.g. the One does not need to remain in the War- Pythagorean] seen as conforming to a pre- 13 ring States period to find illustrations of how existing structure in the world.” harmony (he) works in a culinary context. One In the early Chinese corpus, the concept is recent example of this ancient norm is the once commonly understood through aesthetic analo- popular (now legendary) Japanese television gies. It is often illustrated through its associa- program, Iron Chef. Here, master chefs are chal- tion with the culinary arts, particularly with lenged to prepare five dishes that showcase a making soup. As the Zuozhuan explains: single “theme” ingredient that is announced Harmony (he) is similar to soup. Soup is only at the time of taping. They have one hour made by adding various kinds of seasoning to bring the uniqueness of this theme ingredi- to water and then cooking fish and meat in ent into harmony with whatever else is at hand, it. One mixes them all together and adjusts and they are judged in three categories: taste, creativity, and presentation.

11 Reynolds, Walt Whitman’s America, 309. 12 Chenyang Li, The Confucian Philosophy of Harmony (New York: Routledge Press, 2014), 1. 14 James Legge, The Chinese Classics, Vol. 1-5 (Taipei: 13 Li, The Confucian Philosophy of Harmony, 23-34. SMC Publishing Inc., 2000), vol. 5, 684.

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In order to win, chefs must foreground the (zhongxin ) are capable of becoming edu- distinct quality of this ingredient in a variety of cated through ritual-custom (li).”17 15 combinations. Just as Confucius is concerned Just as raw sweetness precedes the dish in with “bringing out what is aesthetically best (mei which it is preserved and surface quality pre- ) in a person,”16 the Iron Chef needs to bring cedes the object that is fashioned upon it, what out what is aesthetically best in an ingredient. is most genuine in a person precedes and be- For Confucius, what is best in a person is comes ingredient in the harmonies that result brought out through social relations; for the from ritual forms—in other words, they contrib- Iron Chef, what is best in an ingredient is ute to the orders that eventually emerge. Facili- brought out thought culinary relations. In each tating such expression is what ritual-customs case, what is unique is rendered communicable are intended to do. As Master You says in the and becomes value-added in a larger harmony. Confucian Analects: “Achieving harmony (he) is Soup and ritual-custom, then, each function to the most important function of ritual-custom enable the expression, register the worth, and (li).”18 temper the idiosyncrasy/excess of their constit- In the Chinese tradition, each harmony uents. Each promotes the healthy expression of emerges directly from the constituents that suc- some rough quality (zhi), giving it outlet and ceed in making it up. Thus, with respect to rendering its palatable in some refined form wholes, it is not governed by any pre- (wen ). determined order or super-ordinate pattern. That such harmonies do not correspond to With respect to parts, it is distinct from Aristo- pre-ordained patterns is suggested in the “Ritu- tle’s concept of “just proportion” among con- al Instruments” (Liqi ) chapter of the Ritu- stituents, which amounts to “equality of ratios” according to strictly mathematical measures in als. Here, we are told that the unique taste of 19 raw sugar and the unique texture of unpainted the Nicomachean Ethics. For Chinese thinkers, surfaces possess their raw qualities (zhi) prior to harmony has to do instead with “equity” becoming ingredient in the aesthetic wholes (gedeqisuo ): “extending to each its that subsequently showcase those qualities. The proper due” given the circumstances that ob- same holds true, we are told, for the person tain and the results that follow. who studies ritual-custom (li ). “What is This is a distinct approach, and Chenyang sweet can be brought into harmony (he), and Li’s work is helpful in distinguishing the ele- what is bare can be brought into vibrant color. mental decisions that go into sustaining such Likewise, persons who are genuine and sincere harmonies in the social realm. As he explains, “harmony presupposes differences.” This does not mean, however, that all differences are to be included. Rather, they fall into three classes: differences that we accept, differences that we 15 The original “Iron Chef” ( Ryōri no Tet- sujin) was launched in 1993 and immediately became a hit in Japan. It stopped production in 1999. It became 17 James Legge, Li Chi: Book of Rites, Vol. 1 and 2 (New popular internationally, distributed via the Food Net- Hyde Park: University Books, 1967), vol. 1, 414. 18 work, and soon inspired other programs of its kind. Analects, 1.12, 74. 19 See: Nicomachean Ethics 1131a.33, Aristotle and Richard 16 Analects, 12.16, Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont McKeon, The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Modern Jr., The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation Library, 2001), 1007 and Li, The Confucian Philosophy of (New York: Ballantine Books, 1998), 157. Harmony, 122.

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reject, and differences that we tolerate. Such des- Wanting metaphysical guidance in this area, ignations need to be made with respect to the one naturally turns to William James. James’ dynamic coherence (li ) of the whole. In the pluralism emerges in tension with the “One” optimal scenario, we “embrace difference of the that was popular as the “Absolute” in the mo- first kind,” “cautiously examine and, when war- nistic idealism of his day. James’ key insight, ranted, accept the third kind,” and “strive to which is radical in Western philosophy but ra- eliminate or minimize the second kind.”20 ther unremarkable from an East Asian point of This is what “equity” means as a Chinese view, is that the “Whole/Part” and value—extending to each its “proper due.” The “One/Many” problems that result from monis- Chinese tradition tends to approach such mat- tic idealism are intractable so long as reality is ters differently than they are approached in the regarded in static terms. “Time keeps budding Greek-medieval tradition. In the Chinese tradi- into new moments,” James writes, “every one tion, the stress is on “weighing things up” (quan of which presents a content which in its indi- viduality never was before and will never be ) in particular circumstances, whereas in the 22 latter tradition the stress is on apprehending again.” With this as the starting point, ratios that track onto fixed objects of “wholeness” becomes modal. It becomes a re- knowledge.21 current feature of reality the character of which constantly changes. * * * This is easier to envision in Daoist terms. For the Daoism, dao is constantly giving By its very nature, harmony (he) is frustrated by birth to novelty; the moment one designates the insistence that some single denominator everything here (you ) as a “whole” it has al- characterize the resulting whole. ready changed because something new has ar- rived. Now it is a different whole, and now it is

20 Li, The Confucian Philosophy of Harmony, 143-147. another. Wholeness is thus never static. Given 21 Early on in Plato’s Republic, Socrates asks how one the steady influx of novelty, things change with- gives “justice to things” (dikaiosunê) and who is qualified in relations of “coherence” (li) such that “one- to give each thing its “proper due.” Such moments in the ness” is a dynamic way of being. philosophical corpus mark with unusual clarity the histor- There are numberless ways of being “one.” ical divergence of the Greek and Chinese approaches. Plato’s answer is that it is the expert in the relevant art For James, “Things are ‘with’ one another in (technē) who is best suited to adjudicate “the right” wher- many ways, but nothing includes everything, or ever the principles of that art obtain. Knowing (episteme) dominates over everything. The word ‘and’ such principles and applying them case-by-case is what trails along after every sentence.”23 In such a judiciousness comes to mean. The kind of dao -activity world, “there are innumerable modes of un- prioritized in the Chinese tradition, however, more close- ion,” James notes. There is “neither absolute ly resembles a knack (empeiria) than an art. It is not a form of casuistry commensurate with what we commonly find oneness nor absolute manyness,” but rather “a in the Greek-medieval tradition. Rather, it involves the mixture of well-definable modes of both.” ability to weigh (quan ) situations in a discretionary sense so as to get the optimal result out of them. This 22 “Some Problems of Philosophy,” William James and renders rightness (yi ) a relational rather than a static Bruce Kuklick, William James: Writings, 1902-1910 (New term. See: Republic 332a-e, Plato and John M. Cooper, York: The Library of America, 1987), 1057. 23 Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishers, “A Pluralistic Universe,” William James and Bruce 1997), 976-977. Kuklick, William James: Writings, 1902-1910 (New York: The Library of America, 1987), 776.

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One-and-many are thus bound in togetherness: At the present time there is no dominant “co-ordinate features of the natural world.”24 American mind. Our spirit is inarticulate, These are core ideas in the American philo- not a voice, but a chorus of many voices sophical tradition, and they are highly original each singing a rather different tune. How to in Western thought. In fact, for all practical get order out of this cacophony is the ques- purposes, William James single-handedly invents tion for all those who are concerned about the modern term “pluralism”—which is re- those things which alone justify wealth and markable to consider. Given the illustrious ca- power, concerned about justice, the arts, lit- reer of this term in contemporary discourse, it erature, philosophy, science. What must, is surprising that James’ insights are not more what shall this cacophony become—a often evoked. Perhaps such neglect is due to unison or a harmony? As in an orchestra, the fact that his reflections on pluralism were every type of instrument has its specific primarily confined to metaphysics and episte- timbre and tonality, founded in its sub- mology. James never got around to applying the stance and form; as every type has its ap- notion to issues in the social and political realm. propriate theme and melody in the whole He had students, however, who did. symphony, so in a society each ethnic group Horace Kallen, in his 1915 article in The is the natural instrument, its spirit and cul- Nation, “Democracy vs. the Melting Pot: A ture are its theme and melody, and the Study of American Nationality,” formulates a harmony and dissonances and discords of truly American, pluralistic alternative to the er- them all make civilization . . . within the satz “Melting Pot” ideal. One century later, his limits set by nature they may vary at will, argument still holds up remarkably well. Kallen and the range and the variety of the harmo- begins by providing a broad overview of Amer- nies may become wider and richer and ican immigration: the economic forces that more beautiful. But the question is, do the drive it, the stratification that it introduces, and dominant classes in America want such a how “Americanization” as the adaptation of society?25 Anglo-Saxon attitudes by other ethnic groups factors into it. His conclusion is that “Ameri- Dewey read Kallen’s article with great inter- canization,” understood as the widespread est and immediately wrote to him hoping to adoption of Anglo-Saxon attitudes, is never go- arrange a time to meet to discuss its thesis. In a ing to happen—the situation is simply too rare personal aside, Dewey shares with Kallen complex and variable. reflections on his own ethnic heritage in rela Thus, as it stands, suggests Kallen, “Ameri- tion to the national debate: ca” has yet to occur. “America is a word: as a historic fact, a democratic ideal of life, it is not To put it personally: My forbears on both realized at all.” The practical question then, sides are Americans for over two hundred Kallen asks, is what kind of society does the fifty years: they were I suppose partly Eng- dominant classes in the United States really lish and partly Flemish in the beginning. I want? He writes: have some sentimental interest in the Flem- ish part, next to none in the English. And I

25 Horace Kallen, “Democracy Versus the Melting Pot,” The Nation 100, 2590, Feb. 18, 25 (1915), 194, 217. 24 “Some Problems in Philosophy,” 1046-1047.

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cannot remember the time when I had any plains. “It remains to [be seen],” Dewey writes, interest in the Anglo-Saxon talk. I want to “whether we have the courage to face this fact see this country American and that means and the wisdom to think out the plan of action the English tradition reduced to a strain which it indicates.”29 along with others. It is convenient for These are profound statements. In order to “Americans” to put the blame of things fully appreciate them, one must overcome pre- they don’t like on the “foreigners,” but I vailing Eurocentric conceptions of the Ameri- don’t believe that goes very deep; it is most- can experience and assume a broader view. ly irritation at some things they don’t like Human history in North America began with and an unwillingness to go below the sur- Eurasian migrations 30,000 years ago, resulting face. I quite agree with your orchestra idea, in the evolution of a patchwork of cultural but upon condition we really get a sympho- groups with diverse languages and customs. ny and not a lot of different instruments The arrival of Europeans is often treated as the playing simultaneously. I never did care for “beginning” of the American experience—such the Melting Pot metaphor, but genuine that we imagine that the American character assimilation to one another—not to Anglo- was forged in a mythical, stark encounter be- Saxondom—seems to be essential to an tween “humans” (i.e. Europeans) and an un- America. That each cultural section should tamed “wilderness.” maintain its distinctive literary and artistic This narrative is entirely false. North Amer- traditions seems to me most desirable, but ica possessed a rich cultural history prior to the in order that it might have the more to con- arrival of Europeans, and the latter’s experience tribute to others.26 was shaped through its encounter with the former. While Native American cultures were “Genuine assimilation to one another”—this is nearly annihilated by European-borne diseases the touchstone for Dewey’s vision of a plural- (populations declined by as much as 90% be- istic, multi-ethnic, culturally diverse America. tween 1492 and 1650), there was a sophisticated “To maintain that all the constituent elements, cultural matrix in place along the eastern sea- geographical, racial, cultural, in the United board when the Europeans landed. They were States should be put in the same pot and turned greeted by existing territorial claims, trade net- into a uniform and unchanging product,” Dew- works, multiple languages, material technolo- ey writes, “is distasteful.” We must rather “re- gies, tribal identities, arts and customs, animosi- spect those elements of diversification in cul- ties and alliances, and so on. The “New World” tural traits which differentiate our national was hardly a blank slate. As Scott L. Pratt ar- life.”27 gues, the “problem of origins” in American The true nature of the American character philosophy has yet to fully recognize the con- now comes into view—“the peculiarity of our text in which the American mind actually took nationalism,” Dewey writes, “is its internation- shape. alism.”28 “In our internal constitution we are American thinkers, most famously Ralph actually interracial and international,” he ex- Waldo Emerson in his “American Scholar,” sought to distinguish themselves from Europe- 26 Correspondence of John Dewey (03222), John Dewey to Horace M. Kallen, March 31, 1915. 27 “The Principle of Nationality,” 10:289. 29 “German Philosophy and Politics,” Middle Works of 28 “Nationalizing Education,” 206. John Dewey, 8, 03.

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an thinkers and to express something uniquely values native to the continent. “Welcoming “American.” But what was this thing? Strangers” is the original American ideal. Pratt traces this indigenous “something” back to Roger Williams (1603-1683), our most * * * famous exponent of religious liberty and de- fender of Native American land claims against Dewey understood, as well as anyone, that the British colonial charters. Williams learned to most important agency for sustaining and communicate with Native Americans and pub- transmitting such a welcoming character is a lished a phrasebook, A Key Into the Language of robust public education system—one that America in 1643. He established relationships of transmits America’s immigrant heritage and its trust and respect with indigenous peoples, es- significance. Such liberal education is the first pecially with the Narragansett tribe. Against the line of defense against those who would be en- colonial attitude of those like Cotton Mather, emies to America. for whom Native Americans were future Chris- Dewey refers to such agents as “the enemy tians at best, Williams’ intra-cultural experience within.” These are “the misleaders who attempt involved assimilating the Narragansett custom to create disunity and hatred among Ameri- of wunnégin (“Welcoming Strangers”) into his cans,” those who “preach hatred and discrimi- own Christian outlook, resulting in a concept of nation against Americans who happen to be acceptance, friendliness, and civility unique to darker skinned, speak with an accent, or share a the American character. minority faith.” Such enemies “work untiringly Accordingly, as Pratt demonstrates, “Wil- to exaggerate racial and religious differences” liams’s ideal of a plural community stands in and thus “do not grasp the uniqueness of strong contrast to Locke’s notion of toleration America.”31 As Dewey warns, “Skillful politi- on a number of points.” Ideals that would cians and other self-seekers have always known eventually become the “common core of classi- how to play cleverly upon patriotism, and upon cal pragmatism,” which Pratt identifies as “in- ignorance of other peoples, to identify national- teraction, pluralism, community, and growth,” ism with latent hatred of other nations.”32 resonate more strongly with the Native Ameri- Liberal education ideally liberates the student can concept of wunnégin than with anything in from the limitation of the group biases into classical European liberalism.30 which she is born and prepares her for the While this ideal becomes diffuse in its influ- “broader environment” of America and the ence and fails historically to prevent the emer- world. By necessity, in order to ensure continui- gence of the “colonial attitude” and the en- ty and core learning standards, subject matter in shrinement of classical liberalism in the United public education must remain relatively uni- States Constitution, its spirit ought still to be form. “The intermingling in the school of recognized as the indigenous spirit of America. youth of different races, differing religions, and Anyone who identifies as “American,” in any unlike customs,” however, “creates for all a case, should understand this heritage and the new and broader environment. Common sub- ject matter accustoms all to a unity of outlook

30 Scott Pratt, Native Pragmatism: Rethinking the Roots of 31 Correspondence of John Dewey (15121), John Dewey to American Philosophy (Bloomington: Indiana University Catherine B. Wurster on behalf of the “Common Coun- Press, 2002), 19-20, 103-106, 124. cil for American Unity,” April 4, 1949. 32 “Nationalizing Education,” 202.

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upon a broader horizon than is visible to the I find that many who talk the loudest members of any group while it is isolated.”33 about the need of a supreme and unified Given recent events in American politics, it Americanism of spirit really mean some is worth hearing from Dewey at length about special code or tradition to which they hap- the role that public education plays in relation pen to be attached. They have some pet to “American nationalism.” Hardly a more co- tradition which they would impose upon all. gent and relevant statement could be desired: In thus measuring the scope of American- ism by some single element which enters in- I want to mention only two elements in the to it they are themselves false to the spirit nationalism which our education should of America. Neither Englandism nor New- cultivate. The first is that the American Englandism, neither Puritan nor Cavalier nation is itself complex and compound. any more than Teuton or Slav, can do any- Strictly speaking it is interracial and interna- thing but furnish one note in a vast sym- tional in its make-up. It is composed of a phony. multitude of peoples speaking different The way to deal with hyphenism, in tongues, inheriting diverse traditions, cher- other words, is to welcome it, but to wel- ishing varying ideals of life. This fact is come it in the sense of extracting from each basic to our nationalism as distinct from that people its special good, so that it shall sur- of other peoples. Our national motto, “One render into a common fund of wisdom and from Many,” cuts deep and extends far. It experience what it especially has to contrib- denotes a fact which doubtless adds to the ute. All of these surrenders and contribu- difficulty of getting a genuine unity. But it tions taken together create the national spir- also immensely enriches the possibilities of it of America. The dangerous thing is for the result to be attained. No matter how each factor to isolate itself, to try to live off loudly any one proclaims his Americanism, its past, and then to attempt to impose itself if he assumes that any one racial strain, any upon other elements, or, at least, to keep it- one component culture, no matter how ear- self intact and thus refuse to accept what ly settled it was in our territory, or how ef- other cultures have to offer, so as thereby fective it has proved in its own land, is to to be transmuted into authentic American- furnish a pattern to which all other strains ism. and cultures are to conform, he is a traitor In what is rightly objected to as hyphen- to an American nationalism. Our unity can- ism the hyphen has become something not be a homogeneous thing like that of which separates one people from other the separate states of Europe from peoples—and thereby prevents American which our population is drawn; it must be a nationalism. Such terms as Irish-American unity created by drawing out and compos- or Hebrew-American or German-American ing into a harmonious whole the best, the are false terms because they seem to assume most characteristic which each contrib- something which is already in existence uting race and people has to offer. called America to which the other factor may be externally hitched on. The fact is the genuine American, the typical Ameri- can, is himself a hyphenated character. This 33 Democracy and Education, Middle Works of John Dewey, 9, 26. does not mean that he is part American,

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and that some foreign ingredient is then Hook replies. “You can announce it from the added. It means that, as I have said, he is in- housetops on my authority.”35 ternational and interracial in his make-up. He is not American plus Pole or German. * * * But the American is himself Pole-German- English-French-Spanish-Italian-Greek- As Dewey observes, America’s (now un- Irish-Scandinavian-Bohemian-Jew-and so official) national motto, “From the Many, One” on. The point is to see to it that the hyphen (E Pluribus Unum),36 “cuts deep and extends connects instead of separates. And this far.” means at least that our public schools shall The notion that the “one” emerges from teach each factor to respect every other, the “many” without usurping the integrity of and shall take pains to enlighten all as to the “each” is difficult to conceptualize without the great past contributions of every strain in kind of process-driven and aesthetic-oriented our composite make-up. I wish our teach- assumptions that early Chinese thinkers exhibit. ing of American history in the schools In this respect, the Chinese notion of harmony would take more account of the great waves (he) provides a conceptual tool that helps us to of migration by which our land for over conceptualize the dynamic interplay between three centuries has been continuously built unity and diversity. It illustrates how in natural up, and make every pupil conscious of the systems each constituent ingredient can con- rich breadth of our national make-up. tribute to a novel order the worth of which is When every pupil recognizes all the factors greater than the sum of its parts. which have gone into our being, he will E Pluribus Unum is a similar ideal. Emerging continue to prize and reverence that com- alongside process-oriented thinking in the ing from his own past, but he will think of West, the phrase traces back to the Latin trans- it as honored in being simply one factor lation of Heraclitus’ “Tenth Fragment,” which in forming a whole, nobler and finer than reads: “Out of many there comes one, and out itself.34 of one, many.”37Its more direct classical source, however, is Virgil. The poet uses the phrase in Such a statement leaves no question about his “Moretum,” a poem in honor of the herb- where Dewey stands on questions of “Ameri- cheese salad favored by the Romans. Moretum can nationalism.” Over the years, some have misunderstood his approach to public educa- 35 Correspondence of John Deweyc(21234), Sidney Hook to J. tion as endorsing “Americanization” in a more Christopher Eisele, May 15, 1974. 36 th uniform sense. Sidney Hook was once asked In 1956, the 84 Congress of the United States adopt- ed “In God We Trust” as the official U.S. motto, in vio- about this, and he effectively put such readings lation (one would assume) of the Establishment Clause to rest. The “whole spirit of Dewey’s theory of of the First Amendment. Its constitutionality was first democracy and education requires a commit- challenged in Aronow vs. United States in 1970, but the ment to the philosophy of cultural pluralism,” motto was upheld by the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Given this precedent, subsequent challenges have not gone very far. E Pluribus Unum remains our “un- official” motto. 37 “Tenth Fragment,” Reginald E. Allen, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Aristotle, Third Edition (New York: The Free Press, 1966), 41. 34 “Nationalizing Education,” 204-206.

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brings together the “many” (garlic, parsley, rue, product. “The institutions of the Republic,” he onions, cheese, salt, coriander, vinegar, and oil) writes, “have become the liberating cause and and mixes them into “one”—E Pluribus Unum. the background for the rise of the cultural con- Thus, “Round all the mortar doth he go at last and sciousness and social autonomy” of cultural into one coherent ball doth bring, the different portions, groups. “On the whole,” he argues, “American- that it may name and likeness of a finished salad fit.”38 ization has not repressed nationality. American- The culinary association behind our motto ization has liberated nationality.”41 calls to mind the soup analogy that informs The truth of this remains an empirical ques- harmony (he) in the Chinese tradition. This cul- tion. Surely there is a vast difference between inary ideal, again, is that the raw qualities (zhi) first and third generation Americans, with the of various ingredients are showcased in the fin- dilution of cultural difference plain to see. ished whole, just as music brings together dif- Americanization thus requires, as Dewey says, a ferent instruments in a symphonic harmony. robust public commitment to its own multicul- When this is done well (shan), the process of tural heritage. The social, economic, and indus- bringing things together forms a coherence (li) trial forces that drive homogenization in Amer- in which each constituent is appreciated. For ica are not uniquely “American” forces—or so Confucians, family is ideally such an order. It I would submit. Global capitalism threatens facilitates the meaningful inclusion of its mem- local cultures everywhere, including in the United bers and gives expression to their unique roles States. in the process.39The concept of “nation as a The best hope for America, I believe, is to family” (guojia ) is founded on such an ide- reconnect with its own national spirit. To re- al—even to the extent that the distinction be- gard E Pluribus Unum as a process of homoge- tween the “nation” and the “family” often be- nization violates America’s history as well as its comes unclear in the Confucian tradition, as deepest philosophical heritage. Harmony (he) Sor-hoon Tan demonstrates.40 serves as an important corrective to such mis- With respect to American nationhood, the perceptions—an ancient Chinese ideal that, odd challenge is to forge a truly multiethnic, interna- as it may sound, has the potential to remind tional “family” within its borders. This involves America of what it means to achieve a more calling forth and preserving differences. Horace perfect union. Kallen sees the American nation not as a “Melt- ing Pot” but as a “Cooking Pot” in which the Jim Behuniak is Associate Professor and Chair of the mixing actually draws out different strains of Philosophy department at Colby College. He received human culture for inclusion in the finished his Ph.D. from the University of Hawai`i in 2002. His work focuses in the areas of classical Chinese phi- losophy and American philosophy. He is the author of 38 “Moretum,” Virgil and John Augustine Wilstach, The two forthcoming books: John Dewey and Daoist Works of Virgil, vol. 1, translated by John Augustine Thought: Experiments in Intra-Cultural Philos- Wilstach (New York: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1884), 123. ophy, Vol. 1 and John Dewey and Confucian 39 The objection that “dysfunctional families” exist only Thought: Experiments in Intra-Cultural Philos- begs the question. Families become dysfunctional pre- cisely when they fail to realize the normative measure of 41 Horace Kallen, “Democracy Versus the Melting Pot,” harmony (he ). 219. 40 Sor-hoon Tan, Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Recon- struction (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003), 60.

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ophy, Vol. 2 (SUNY Press, 2019). He is also the author of Mencius on Becoming Human (SUNY Press, 2005). He is editor of Appreciating the Chinese Difference: Engaging Roger T. Ames on Methods, Issues, and Roles (SUNY Press, 2018) and co-editor with Roger T. Ames of Studies of Mencius on Feel- ings and Nature (Social Sciences Academic Press, Beijing, 2004).

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self-cultivation, management of family affairs, Confucianism, Moral Edu- government of the state, and keeping of the cation, and the Harmoni- world in peace and harmony—the basic project of the Great Learning (Daxue, another ous Development of central text that would soon become canonized in the Four Books. And throughout Chinese Persons history and today, it has been read as such a practical, we might even say pragmatic, philo- sophical text. Lina Zhang As we now can approach it, the Analects is a HuBei University of Science and Technology most representative book of Confucianism, as it best accumulates the thinking of Confucius— especially with regards to his teaching methods, Confucius (551-479 BCE) was a great thinker, and his approach to public affairs in a life of educating. Those who endeavor to read it in its educator, and center of philosophical gravity entirety in a linear fashion might feel that it has for the progressive development of the Ru ( ) no tight logical coherence, while others will de- school of thought in ancient China. He is also tect a subtle interrelationship between parallel recognized as a major contributor to the passages of text that deal with evocative philo- world’s wisdom traditions. It is not a stretch to sophical conceptual clusters regarding personal suggest that Confucian thinking about educa- development, education, social harmony, and tion can be considered a touchstone for the cosmic flourishing. In any event, the Analects entire dynamic of classical Chinese culture. has been deeply loved and revered by people of While the Lunyu (), “Gathered Sayings insight throughout the world for more than two of Confucius and his Disciples,” or the Analects, thousand years. was compiled in its present form during the As the foundational text of Confucianism, Han dynasty, its subject matter deals with the the Analects were first introduced into Korea life and teachings of Confucius and some of his and Vietnam as early as between the Qin and closest entourage in their educational projects Han dynasties (roughly 200 BCE). Since the th and political adventures. Perhaps though it 16 century, it has gradually spread to the West wasn't until the Song dynasty (9-11) when Zhao and has been published across Europe and Pu, a prime minister, established the Analects of America. The Analects can therefore be called a Confucius as the most revered classical Confucian precious treasure in the treasury of world cul- work. tures, its splendors enduring to the present day. Because it supposedly recorded Confucius’ What is the text’s practical meaning to our living thoughts, words and actions, it would contemporary life and society? What attitude make sense that a newly re-emergent Confucian does the Analects want to transmit? What is the educational and political ideology would pro- ideal plane for a cultivated person? These ques- mote this text to get a clear idea about the tions are worthy of attention by both scholars “teacher of ten-thousand generations” and policy-makers. Therefore, this paper will attempt to “arouse a new vision” of these ques- (wanshizhi shi ). Prime Minister Zhao tions in the context of modern social relations argued that it was—and is—a treasured text for in a quickly-evolving China.

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The Harmonious Development of commands, the ideal state of unity of person and heaven is achieved. Person: The Great Unity of Heav- The Analects advertises the importance of en and Man integrating oneself with natural and social nor- mative patterns and promotes internalizing (tian ren he yi ) heaven’s mandate into the heart-mind of per- sons. This is Confucian “way-making” (dao ) The conception of the “Great Unity of Heaven that integrates heaven, earth, and the person and Man” originates from the Daoist school of into a perfect unity. The moral strength thus thought originating during the Spring and Au- obtained is astonishing, in that a person can tumn and Warring States periods (770-221 resolutely face any obstacle, in any context. BCE) and was subsequently taken up and de- Confucius’ views on education can be veloped by Confucian thinkers as well. It repre- summed up via a correct understanding of this sents a key part of classical Chinese culture. ideal of the “Great Unity of Heaven and Man.” In the Daoist view, heaven [tian] and man The morality of the people is given by heaven, are both part of nature, being intimately con- so the right relationship of heaven and man is nected with each other in all kinds of essential one of harmony. However, people can be de- ways. Heaven represents a law and ethical truth ceived by fame, wealth and other egotistical of nature; therefore, the ideal ways of the world pursuits, thereby losing their vital principles of should therefore conform to these commands morality. Therefore, the aim of cultivating their of heaven (tianming ). This existential unity characters is to get rid of self-deceit and selfish is supposed to be natural and spontaneous. So, desire for the external world, and identify more Confucius said, “Exemplary persons hold three with an internalized spiritual world of ancestral things in awe: the propensities of tian [heaven], veneration and cultural inheritance—viz. persons in high station, and the words of the “heaven” (tian ). sages. Petty persons, knowing nothing of the So, Confucius said, “From fifteen, my propensities of tian [heaven], do not hold it in heart-and-mind was set upon learning; from awe; they are unduly familiar with person in thirty I took my stance; from forty I was no high station, and ridicule the words of the sag- 1 longer doubtful; from fifty I realized the pro- es.” pensities of tian [heaven]; from sixty my ear was In this way, Confucius first explores the attuned; from seventy I could give my heart- laws and truths of heaven, noting that the sage and-mind free rein without overstepping the will obey and behave accordingly, manifesting boundaries.”2 In the end, he enjoyed doing the kindheartedness, justice, morality, etiquette, things that he preferred without caring about credibility and integrity. This is the path of self- others because he had finally reconciled himself cultivation. By aligning one's self with heaven’s to the mandate of heaven. This passage exemplifies the significance of harmony (he ) as an ideal achieved through self-cultivation. The ultimate achievement of 1 Analects 16.8. All quotations from the Analects are taken personal self-cultivation is the realization of from: Roger T. Ames, and Henry Rosemont, Jr., The sagehood. How to become a sage? This is a dif- Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (New York: Ballantine Publishing Group, 1998). 2 Analects 2.4.

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ficult question to address on an abstract con- not only can help people understand the gen- ceptual level, but in the context of Confucian eral laws of physiology and psychology, but can practices of self-cultivation it is the ultimate also recognize the need for special accommoda- educational aim. tions due to unique needs. A person’s psycho- We can at least be sure that a sage is a per- logical and physical nature will vary due to pe- son who should pursue personal and communal riodicity, sequentiality, individuality, and imbal- flourishing (le ) without concern for either ance. From this angle, vital education requires poverty or wealth. The key to the happy life is that we study and adapt ourselves so as to op- complete freedom of heart and ease of spirit. It timize a student’s potential for comprehensive is a deep state of heart-mind satisfaction. development. We might assert with confidence that an important task for educators in this century is Education and Harmonious assimilating the best of Confucian views on the Development harmonious development of persons and na- ture in a lifelong process of learning for one's Harmonious development primarily refers to a self (wei ji zhi xue ). It should also be harmonious relationship between people and noted that harmonious development also refers nature. to a non-coercive order between individual val- Today, the pollution of air, water, and land ues and the interests of society. Our current has threatened people’s living conditions. Non- social life is mainly determined by economic, renewable energy and mineral resources are al- cultural, political, and scientific discursive for- most exhausted, and our lives are becoming mations. Wealth and esteemed social status are increasingly precarious. Harmonious develop- what everyone seemingly desires. ment between nature and people presupposes a Confucius did not object to any of this— deep consensus or mutual accommodation. The they are all achievable within heaven’s mandate. human being as a living being obeys and under- But he did say that an exemplary person should stands the basic natural laws and, in this way, obtain these things only in a proper way—that seeks to live and grow sustainably. is, a way in accord with the commands of heav- In Confucian thought, the human being is en. the most important living being in nature. To some degree, a person’s development is also a Wealth and honor are what people want, part of nature’s movement. Comparatively but if they are the consequence of deviating speaking, a person’s physical life has its own from the way, I would have no part in special laws, and these laws are in accord with them. Poverty and disgrace are what people the basic laws of nature: fetal development, deplore, but if they are the consequence of birth, childhood, growing old, and death. These staying on the way, I would not avoid them. are not only stages of life's narrative, but also Wherein do the exemplary persons who part of the natural order as ineluctable biologi- would abandon their authoritative conduct cal processes. warrant that name? Exemplary persons do How then can we achieve a harmonious not take leave of their authoritative conduct development between persons and nature? even for the space of a meal. When they are Confucian education as self-cultivation is a medium that connects people with nature. It

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troubled, they certainly turn to it, as they do some reluctance and resistance to such a rigid in facing difficulties.3 system. What, then, is the proper scope of the ex- Harmonious Development is In- am? How to use the ways of the exam? Social scientists have turned to theories of compatible with Certain Trends curriculum reform. Scholars such as Mingyuan in Contemporary Chinese Com- Gu, President of the College of Education and Management in Beijing Normal University, and pulsory Education Qiquan Zhong, Lifetime Professor of East China Normal University, have pointed out that The aims of education as the development of a a person is a complete and comprehensive unit, child’s cognitive and non-cognitive capacities as including both cognitive and non-cognitive fac- a kind of comprehensive empowering for fu- tors. And, they argue, the non-cognitive factors ture growth might feasibly be agreed upon in are the key for promoting the success of the both Eastern and Western cultural paradigms. person. However, with the rapid transitioning in politi- Classroom teaching in an age of compulso- cal, cultural, and economic fields in Chinese ry schooling must be distinguished from tradi- society, conflicts and contradictions with such tional Chinese educational culture—as repre- an educational ideal are ubiquitous. sented by the Confucian legacy. In China, as in These contradictions can be represented by the rest of the world, classroom teaching is too the fetishization of the standardized test often devoted to memorization, and the func- score—whether to admit students to university tion of the teacher is to transmit content to or as a way to understand the progress of a stu- students. Students are expected to passively ac- dent’s learning. To that end, social scientists cept this information. Studying is thereby sub- have theorized the existence of an exam orien- stituted for learning. tation, one that perniciously affects the values Therefore, a new movement for curriculum at the very heart of the Chinese educational sys- reform is needed to aim at making processes of tem and its origins in Confucian traditions. active learning and interactive dialogue more In the last decade, an exam orientation has central to teaching practices. In other words, been on the rise as the official Chinese assess- teachers should be aiming to help students ment system has become increasingly reduc- learn how to dialogue with the objective world tionistic and distorted—ignoring the compre- through active and collaborative social inquiry. hensive development of students and their aspi- In this way, it can be formed to a style of learn- rations to become holistically integrated per- ing that stresses activeness, cooperation, and sons in their families and in society. The stand- profound contemplation. Such comprehensive ard exam is fetishized as a kind of magic device, pedagogy would highlight the practical aspects wherein the supposedly meritorious selection of of learning within any overarching theory or the most talented and worthy people can be framework of knowledge. Any narrowing of achieved from a large student population. Such interests or over-emphasis upon teaching con- testing practices and culture is seemingly sup- tent for standardized testing damages the har- ported by the entire society, although there is monious development of students and fore- closes possibilities for self-realization within

3 Analects 4.5.

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society—this is what John Dewey meant by ference to student well-being or, even worse, “individuality.”4 carrying out acts of violence. Such practices as a Nowadays, the present situation of Chinese tragic parody or empty shell of educational val- education is one of anxiety. The main cause is ues have very adverse consequences for mental that the student assessment system is too nar- health and societal well-being, but we don't row and limited, the achievement within any need utilitarian reasons for rejecting such com- subject is only dependent on the score rather pulsory pedagogy. than the cumulative processes and personal ex- If we focus emphasis on knowledge itself periences that led to it. And little regard is given rather than its potential value, the harmonious towards students’ feelings and the enjoyment of development of the student is only a dream. the subjects themselves. Moral imagination and Comprehensive development is the basic aim intellectual creativity are smothered as students of education. However, even the elementary are forced to adjust themselves to this compul- school has become pre-occupied with standard sory model. Teachers care more about the examinations, disregarding the comprehensive score. In this way, education has become the development of students and paying little atten- machine of the exam. It corrodes the ability of tion to, and sometimes even canceling, subjects independent acting and thinking, and the origi- like gym, art, music, and morality in order to nal aim of developing the student now runs in pursue higher enrollment rates (which come as the opposite direction. a result of achieving higher test scores). Some Confucius said, “I do not open the way for have even advocated that subject matter must students who are not driven with eagerness; I be brought into correspondence with the exam, do not supply a vocabulary for students who causing schools to arbitrarily cancel subjects are not trying desperately to find the language which are not directly part of the exams. for their ideas. If on showing students one cor- Too many teachers agree that subject- ner they do not come back to me with the oth- matter should be memorized mechanically ra- er three, I will not repeat myself.”5 Teachers ther than understood so as to expand the vision should focus on encouraging optimal relation- of knowledge; consequently, we risk narrowing ships between students, subject-matter, and and stunting the range of knowledge and the teaching methods, rather than on merely eco- sense of culture of students. As Confucius said, nomic interests and the maximization of quanti- “Learning without due reflection leads to per- tative test scores. plexity; reflection without learning leads to peri- If such reforms are not carried out, the lous circumstances.”6 quality of teaching will continue to degrade as In this rigid process of learning, some stu- teachers more easily adopt extreme ways of dents have become so frightened of examina- treating students, such as corporal and psycho- tions that they have lost their interest in learn- logical punishments that are more and more ing—having been forced to stay in the class- common in the schools. At present, schools are room for a long time, putting up a desperate persisting within an atmosphere of cold indif- fight with the score. Confucius, a teacher for ten-thousand generations (wanshi zhi shi 4 See John Dewey, Individualism: Old and New, in Jo Ann ) would not approve, and neither Boydston (Ed.), The Collected Works of John Dewey, 1882- should we. 1953, (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967-1991), Later Works, volume 5. 5 Analects, 7.8. 6 Analects, 2.15.

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Harmonious Development of ality as an emergent achievement of vitally ap- preciating social relationships, we are working Persons and Cultural Continuity in a Confucian tradition that seeks to optimize in China interpersonal experience by seeking common ground while reserving difference—or “harmo- The culture of China has long upheld the har- ny without conformity” (he er bu tong monious development of the person—harmony ). (he ) being a keynote of Chinese classical cul- ture. Lina Zhangwas born in China’s Hubei Peace is a foundational aim of every moral Province. She received her B.A. (2004) and M.A. development in the cosmos; all things exist in a (2007) in English Language Education from Central creative unity of opposites. Peace and coopera- China Normal University in Wuhan. After gradua- tion are the essence of moral culture. As Master tion, she was an Assistant Professor in the College of You said in The Analects, “Achieving harmony is Education in Tong Ren University (Guizhou Province), the most valuable function of observing ritual before later joining the faculty at Hu Bei Science and propriety. In the ways of the Former Kings, this Technology University in 2013 as an Assistant Profes- achievement of harmony made them elegant, sor in the College of Education. She teaches courses and was a guiding standard in all things large about the Pedagogy of Preschool Education, Survey Re- and small.”7 Chinese classical culture advocates search Methods in Education, Management of Preschool peace, working together with one heart, and Education, and Education Policy. She also supervises absorbing anything that is good for a person. undergraduate students in their practical fieldwork. She Harmonious development is an educational has published over ten articles, a book, and maintains aim wherein we integrate the emergent devel- three research projects in Hu Bei Science and Technology opment of the person within the emergent or- University. She wishes to acknowledge HuBei Provin- der of society. It is the unity of an emergent cial Education Science Planning Project self. In China, more scholars are coming to (2015GB123). recognize the shortcomings of a merely exam- oriented education. They emphasize that Chi- nese education must develop students’ capabili- ties as part of a comprehensive education for holistic development. Concretely speaking, this education must focus on self-cultivation through the external and internal development of the person. A revitalized reform movement in Chinese education for a more holistic development of persons can find ample resources in classical Confucian notions of harmonious development and self-cultivation. In other words, by paying more attention to social diversity and individu-

7 Analects, 1.12.

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ual efforts to cultivate virtue as the primary so- The Symbolic Economy of lution for the state’s most significant political, economic, and military challenges, Legalist the Hanfeizi thought was arguably more congruent with the bellicose and highly competitive political cli- Brandon King mate of its time. University of Pennsylvania This exceptional suitability most famously culminated in Legalism becoming the official state ideology of the Qin dynasty (221-207 B.C.), which unified the Chinese empire for the first The term “Legalism” has been generally used time. Even after the collapse of the Qin dynas- to refer to a group of Chinese thinkers who ty, however, the legacy of Legalist thought car- achieved some prominence during the Warring ried on. Although the Han dynasty adopted States period (481-222 B.C.). This group of Confucianism as its official state ideology, it thinkers typically includes, but is not necessarily nevertheless maintained much of the Qin em- limited to, Guan Zhong,1 Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shen pire’s governing infrastructure. Perhaps more Dao, Shen Buhai, Shang Yang, Li Si, and Han importantly was the ongoing legacy of structur- Fei. These figures and their contributions to al competition, along with a merit-based hierar- statecraft represented an opposing political vi- chical ranking system meant to reflect the re- sion from other competing schools of thought sults of this competition, being used as a meth- at the time—schools such as Confucianism, od of organizing the empire—a legacy that last- Mohism, and Daoism. ed throughout imperial Chinese history. My use of the term “Legalism,” however, is In this paper however, I will focus on Le- different. I use it to refer to a group of extant galist thought as revealed in the Hanfeizi texts that possess distinctly shared characteris- (HFZ)3—a text traditionally attributed to Legal- tics. More specifically, I use the term to refer to ist founder, “Master Han Fei.”4 In particular, the political visions expressed in Book of Lord much of the analysis in this piece comes from Shang, the “Shen Buhai fragments,” the “Shen the “Outer Compendium of Explanations, Dao fragments,” the Han Feizi, and even select 2 chapters in the Guanzi. 3 OCELL 33 uses Confucians (Ru ) and their behav- Regardless of how the term is used, the re- ioral rituals to illustrate a unique aspect of the HFZ’s markable success of the political philosophy political vision: a pedagogical mission. For a deeper dis- associated with it is impossible to ignore. cussion of the pedagogical quality of the Legalist political Known especially for its harsh criticisms of ear- vision, see: Brandon King, “The [Not So] Hidden Cur- riculum of the Legalist State in the Book of Lord Shang ly Confucian thought that championed individ- and the Han-Fei-Zi,” Comparative Philosophy 9, no. 2 (2018): 69-92. 4 The authorship of OCELL has been a subject of de- 1 It is important to note that Guan Zhong is the only bate, but the possibility of Han Fei’s authorship has not figure that is thought to have lived during the Spring and been ruled out. In fact, Lundahl saw enough justification Autumn period (770-482 B.C.). to consider the inner and outer “Compendium of Expla- 2 A longer discussion of the textual core, or distinctly nations” chapters “authentic.” See: Bertil Lundahl. Han shared characteristics, of Legalist texts can be found in Fei Zi: The Man and the Work.(Stockholm: Institute of Brandon King, Adapting with the Times: Fajia Law and State Oriental Languages, Stockholm University, 1992), 146- Development (Dissertation, Chinese University of Hong 153. Kong, 2015).

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Lower Left” (OCELL),1 which is a subdivision and disadvantages of their promoted statecraft, within a larger unit of chapters in the Hanfeizi approaching Legalist governance as pedagogy (HFZ). Each subdivision begins with assertions requires more exploration of the shared experi- and advice about governance, followed by sto- ence of state subjects. Grounding itself on the ries or excerpts meant to illustrate them. distinctly shared conception of law found in Throughout, I will explore how rewards and Legalist texts, this methodology concentrates its state organization accomplish a state objective attention on rewards and what their associated beyond coordinating the interests of the ruler state institutions communicate to the populace. and his subjects.5 So, while there is an appreciation for the im- Typically, examinations of pedagogy are re- portance of punishment and its deterring ef- served for texts associated with the Confucian fects, I am most interested in the aspects of tradition. In contrast, Legalist texts,6 such as the statecraft that facilitate positive action common HFZ, the Book of Lord Shang (BLS), the “Shenzi amongst the populace. Fragments,” the “Shen Buhai Fragments,” and Additionally, I also appreciate the Legalist the Guanzi, are considered either anti- view of history—perhaps best articulated in the pedagogical or unconcerned with populace BLS and HFZ. In other words, Legalist peda- learning. gogy should be understood as context- Indeed, we can find passages in the BLS dependent, or responding to the problems of that specifically criticize Confucian moral culti- its time through requiring the subject’s contri- vation and education. However, if we reex- bution to state wealth and strength. amine Legalist texts with a broader, sociological In short: The ruler creates laws that are in- conception of pedagogy, one that recognizes fused with values suitable for the times and cir- how learning and education can take place be- cumstances. Laws then facilitate a social prac- yond the context of individual cultivation, then tice through rewarding contributions to collec- it becomes apparent that the Legalist political tive survival and prosperity that are in accord- vision does facilitate a distinctly shared collec- ance with state values, while punishing the sub- tive culture through specific state practices. ject’s pursuits of profit and fame that occur at While much of the analysis of Legalist texts the state’s expense. In this sense, the law and its focuses on the ruler, methods for creating and reinforcements fundamentally shape individual maintaining social order, and the advantages identity according to what the ruler defines as collective need.

5 Schneider argued that the HFZ ideal state possesses a public “justice” (gong yi ), one of “order giving and Precedent for Treating Legalist order taking” (Schneider 2014: 30), that aligns the ruler’s interests with those of his ministers and the rest of his Thought as Pedagogical populace. See: Henrique Schneider, “Han Fei and Jus- tice,” Cambridge Journal of China Studies, 9, no.4 (2014): 20- It should be noted that this study would not be 37. the first to suggest that there is a pedagogical 6 I will not engage in a discussion over the ways the term “Legalist” has been problematized. An extended discus- quality to Legalist governance. sion of this can be found in Paul R. Goldin, “Persistent Xu argued that the HFZ’s law can be con- Misconceptions about Chinese ‘Legalism’,” Journal of Chi- ceptualized as moral education. Since the HFZ nese Philosophy 38, no. 1 (2011): 88-104. Generally, I will insists that there are only a few people who can follow the argument in favor of the use of the term “Le- be relied upon to engage in goodness on their galist” found in King (2015).

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own accord, the law primarily educates by He suggested, given the objectives of the ideal blocking the pathways that would allow sub- state in the HFZ, that Legalist statecraft en- jects to engage in malfeasance, while causing courages behavioral conformity with a non- subjects to conform to what the state architec- moral normativity.10 Pines likewise noted that ture of governance encourages and discourages. the BLS does not speak of any “active dissemi- Xu also asserted that law is made public and nation of ideas or ideals amongst the popu- clear, accommodates the natural inclinations of lace.”11 human beings, and generally employs subjects Zhou, however, pointed out how some according to their respective talents. Through parts of the HFZ refer to Confucius approving- these aspects, the HFZ’s law teaches and trans- ly or as an authoritative source. This, according forms subjects on a social level rather than rely- to Zhou, is evidence of a general reverence for ing on them to do so on an individual basis.7 Confucius and his ideas about legal reinforce- Xie described the HFZ’s method of educa- ment, the reliability of the state apparatus, fair- tion through five aspects of his own. The quali- ness, balance, and the division between the rul- ty of education is rigid and non-accommodative er and ministers.12 Regardless of one’s position, to the love found in interpersonal relationships. it is clear that discourse about the moral and In addition, the HFZ’s law is used as a primary educational concern in Legalist text challenges source of teaching. As a result, the people will how they are traditionally interpreted.13 learn qualities and behavior the state considers So, whether or not HFZ’s reference to desirable from the good faith and mutual trust Confucians represents an appeal to authority or demonstrated by the implementation of the law merely a mouthpiece through which it com- and the ruler-subject relationship. Xie also ar- municates its own ideas, the text nevertheless gued that the ruler himself should exemplify the depicts a culture within which economic and aforementioned desirable character traits and symbolic capital are accumulated through the behaviors to further reinforce the teachings in enforcement of state law—that is, they are the law.8 Shi has asserted that the Legalist notion of law uses morality to assist in the implementa- 10 Eirik Lang Harris, “Han Fei on the Problem of Morali- tion of the legal system by praising those who ty,” in Paul R. Goldin (Ed.), Dao Companion to the Philoso- earn rewards and eliminating those who deserve phy of Han Fei, (New York: Springer, 2013), 126. 9 punishment. By way of contrast, Harris put 11 Yuri Pines, The Book of Lord Shang: Apologetics of State forth an argument that would bring into ques- Power in Early China (New York: Columbia University tion the moral nature of Legalist governance. Press, 2017), 95. 12 Zhou Chi Cheng. “Lun Hanfeizi Dui Kongzi Jiqi Sixiang De Renshi He Taidu” 7 Xu Jianliang , Xian Qin Fajia De Daode Shijie , Zhexue Yan- (Beijing : Renmin Chu- jiu no. 11 (2014): 31-32. banshe , 2012), 345-369. 13 Zhao asserted that Legalist government was mainly 8 Xie Yun Fei . Hanfeizi Xilin (Taibei: about enhancing the power of the ruler and making the waging of war more efficient. This, according to Zhao, Dong Da Tushu Youxiangongsi , partly explains how absolutism remained in China while 1989), 104-105. the Europeans experienced the emergence of liberalism 9 Shi Xianqun . Fajia “yifazhiguo” sixiang yanjiu and socialism much sooner. See: Zhao Dingxin. The Con- “” (Beijing : Renmin fucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History (New chubanshe , 2010), 175. York: Oxford University Press, 2015).

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meant to inculcate and reinforce state-based State Work Ethic valuation14 of the subject’s worth.15

I have previously argued that the state ap- The HFZ imagines proper administration of paratus described in Legalist texts inherently the law to subtly teach subjects what is some- possesses the pedagogical quality of Philip Jack- 16 times referred to today as the “myth of person- son’s “hidden curriculum.” Focusing on one al responsibility,” a phenomenon associated aspect of it, this study will elaborate on the with conservative politics seeking to legitimize HFZ’s “symbolic economy,” how it works, and the influence of market forces on social out- what function it serves. Drawing from the 17 18 comes. thought of Bourdieu and Goffman, this Subjects are supposed to internalize the idea study ultimately hopes to show that deep un- that they are the makers of their own fate, with derstanding of the ideal state found in HFZ and their material circumstances and social prestige other so-called Legalist texts requires a socio- being solely authored by their own efforts.19 logical or institutional approach to state values This explains why the HFZ conceptualizes the and pedagogy. rewarded as feeling no indebtedness to the rul-

er, because they understand that they deserve the reward, and the punished as feeling no resent-

14 ment, because they understand that they deserve My use of “values” here follows that found in King 20 (2018: 3). My conception of “values” refers to the activi- the punishment. This attitude is also illustrat- ties that state law most positively reinforces. In other ed in HFZ by the amputee who explains why words, I am considering the pursuit of one’s personal he did not seek vengeance against Zi Gao.21 gain through what the state considers a recognizable con- In addition to the so-called “myth of per- tribution to its wealth and strength as behavior that nec- 22 essarily upholds state values. sonal responsibility,” “Prominent Teachings” 15 In fact, Yi went so far as to assert that the idea of a adds that when a state lacks a culture of merit, ruler informing the law with norms and standards that it not only encourages free-riding but creates an define social practice, determine individual fortune, and impoverishing welfare state. The chapter says: facilitate the state’s economic development through the encouragement and restraint of specific behaviors origi- nates with Pre-Qin Confucian thought. Yi Xian Rong, The learned men-of-service of the present “Xian Qin Rujia Zhidu Sixiang Ji Xiandai Zhuandai—Yu generation speak of order a lot saying: Xiangdai Zhidu Jingji Xue Bijiao Yanjiu” “Give the poor and destitute land in order —, Qi Lu to enrich those who lack resources.” Now Xue Kan no. 5 (1995): 22. Yi even mentioned suppose there is a person [in] similar [con- that “Outer Compendium of Explanations, Upper Left” ditions] to others that does not experience chapter quotes Confucius in an effort to describe how a bumper-harvest year and is without the the ruler acts as the embodiment of the political system: “When the basin is square, the water in it will also be benefit of a side (additional) income; yet, square. When it is round, the water in it will be round.” (Yi 1995: 22) 19 This can be found in the “Five Vermin” (Wu Du) 16 King, 2018. [49] chapter. See: Chen Qiyou , Hanfeizi Xin 17 Pierre Bourdieu, The State Nobility: Elite Schools in the Field of Power, translated by Loïc Wacquant, (Cambridge: Jiaozhu (Shanghai : Shang Hai Gu Ji Polity Press, 1996). Chu ban she, 2000), 19.49.1111-1112. 18 Erving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of 20 Ibid., 16.38.906. Mental Patients and Other Inmates, (Garden City, N.Y.: 21 Ibid., 12.33.722. Doubleday, 1961). 22 xian xue [50].

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by himself, he is able to become self- ly, discourages a work ethic that is central to its sufficient. If it is not due to his diligence, it sociopolitical project. is due to his frugality. Now suppose there is a person [in] similar [conditions] to oth- The Symbolic Economy ers that did not suffer famine, major illness,

significant calamity, and committed crimes. Reinforcing subjects’ cultivation of a work ethic Yet, by himself, he has become poor and and personal responsibility for their material destitute. If it’s not due to his extravagance, and social conditions, the state’s architecture of it is due to his laziness. The extravagant governance in HMZ creates what this study is and lazy are poor. The diligent and frugal calling a “symbolic economy.”24 are wealthy. Now, when the ruler levies Assuming a natural inclination towards taxes in order to give to poor households, profit and fame and an aversion to danger and this is to steal from the diligent and frugal loss,25 wealth and social privilege serve as moti- and give to the extravagant and lazy. Under vating forces. The more extraordinary a sub- these conditions, it is impossible to desire ject’s performance in state-promoted pursuits, and demand the people to endure suffering the more merit she accumulates. This results in (making great effort in agriculture) and be 23 higher rank, office, wealth, and social status. frugal. Through these causal relationships, the state

correlates individual performance of state val- This judgment against the poor indicates an ues with their material conditions and prestige. ideological commitment to establishing a cul- OCELL 33 begins to depict the ritualistic ture of personal responsibility. Not only are the foundation for such a sociopolitical project poor described as extravagant and lazy, but the when it assigns greater value to that which is in act of levying taxes and providing assistance to a higher spatial position. It states: the poor is called stealing (duo) from the wealthy whose riches are assumed to be a Viscount Jian of Zhao said to his attend- product of diligence and frugality (jian). The ants: “The mat in the carriage is too beauti- wealthy are therefore more deserving of greater ful. Indeed, the crown, however humble [in material welfare and social privilege. appearance], must be worn on the head. Moreover, material conditions are actually Shoes, however noble [in appearance] must indicators of the presence of certain virtues or be worn on the feet. Now, the carriage mat character flaws. The state credits the wealthy is extraordinarily beautiful. What shoes can with possessing the virtues of diligence and fru- I wear [on it]? Wearing the beautiful below gality, while disparaging the poor for their ex- and the humble above is to harm the foun- travagance and laziness. The wealthy earned dation of righteousness.”26 their privilege while the poor deserve to suffer for their depravity. This explains why taxing the The above passage’s promoted form of right- wealthy to give to the poor interrupts what the eousness (yi ) does not have the same mean- HFZ views as an already distributively just out- ing as what we find in the Analects. come. This kind of tax policy, just as important-

24 Inspired by Bourdieu (1996). 25 Chen, Hanfeizi Xin Jiaozhu, 4.14.279. 23 Ibid., 19.50.1134. 26 Ibid., 12.33.736.

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For instance, the Analects says: “With regard Our chapter of focus then connects this to the world, the gentleman has no predisposi- anatomy of symbolic organization to the ritual- tions for or against any person. He merely asso- istic behavior of the Confucians. One story in ciates with those he considers right.”27 Slinger- OCELL 33 says: land notes that this passage is often understood metaphorically. It describes how a Princely Man King Xuan of Qi asked Kuang Qian: “Do (junzi), the embodiment of correct Confu- the Confucians (Ru) shoot dice?” Kuang cian practice, “relies upon his internal moral Qian replied: “No.” The King asked: sense” of right, along with his “situational re- “Why?” Kuang Qian says: “Those who sponsiveness.”28 To put it another way, an in- shoot dice attach great importance to the ternal sense of righteousness guides the morally owl. The winner must discard the dice [ef- excellent man to the most appropriate behavior fectively doing so to the engraved owl]. To even when there is no external set of standards discard the dice is to discard that which is coercing him. esteemed. The Confucians consider this On the other hand, righteousness in our harmful to righteousness. Therefore, they OCELL 33 passage refers to what is organiza- do not shoot dice.” The King again asked: tionally right, or just, based on an assignment of “Do the Confucians shoot [birds] with values to spatial position external to the self. stringed arrows?” Kuang Qian replied: Fundamentally, it contains no reference to spe- “No, because to do so is to shoot from be- cific ruler-approved channels for the subject’s low harming what is above. This is like a pursuit of personal gain. Instead, it represents a subject harming his Prince from below. general symbolic expression of assigned spatial The Confucians consider this harmful to values. righteousness. Therefore, they do not What is spatially higher should represent shoot [birds] with stringed arrows.”30 greater value than that which is spatially lower. More specifically, our passage insists on two The beginning of the passage makes clear that correlative relationships. The beauty of one’s what this study is calling “spatial position” clothing or accessories should reflect their val- should not be interpreted too literally. In other ue; while their value should correspond with their spatial position. This explains why the car- must use his worthiness in service to his superior, the riage mat being so beautiful presented a prob- ruler. If a minister allows his own fame and reputation to lem. The Viscount requested the mat’s removal undermine the ruler’s authority, this will bring chaos to because he lacked shoes, which would be posi- all under Heaven and should therefore be punished. See: tioned above the mat, which had greater beau- Luo Shi Lie, “Ruhe Renshi Ru Fa Liang Jia De ty.29 Sixiang—Jing Da Li Jin QuanTongzhi” ——, Si- chuan Daxue Xuebao: Zhexue Shehui 27 Edward Slingerland, Confucius: Analects: With Selections Kexueban no. 3 from Traditional Commentaries (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett (1982): 50-57. Publishing, 2003), 32. 28 Ibid., 32. 30 Chen, Hanfeizi Xin Jiaozhu, 12.33.737-738. Chen Qiyou 29 Luo metaphorically interpreted a similar passage from explained that there is an owl engraved on the dice. The OCELL 33 that asserts how the crown, regardless of its objective is to land on the owl, but when this occurs the relative beauty, should always be spatially higher than dice must be discarded. When one rolls and the dice do shoes. This, according to Luo, explains how a minister not land on the owl, then they can remain.

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words, the Confucians (Ru) didn’t shoot dice ennobling them by making them officers because of the conceptual value of the engraved and chiefs. Those who were unworthy they owl on them. To discard an object with an im- curbed and demoted, impoverishing and age of a living organism that is generally associ- debasing them by making them followers ated with a higher spatial position than Confu- and servants. In this way, the people were cians offended their sensibilities about what is all encouraged by their rewards and intimi- organizationally right. Not only is the engraved dated by their punishments, and followed owl not a living organism, but its spatial posi- each other in becoming worthy. In this tion is not necessarily above the Confucian way, the worthy were numerous and the shooting dice. Nevertheless, the conceptual unworthy few. This was spoken of as “ex- value of what the engraved owl represented alting worthiness.”31 required deferential behavior. Yet the passage does specifically connect In the Mozi, merit is primarily defined by virtue. the spatial position and value generally associat- The above passage argues that creating social ed with a bird to state organization. The text hierarchy according to this ideal has two main considers shooting birds flying above from a benefits. lower spatial position analogous to regicide or First, it harmonizes social relations. This harming one’s ruler. This is not necessarily as- form of social organization prevents factional- serting that birds generally have more value ism, partiality, and favoritism. Since all three of than human beings. However, it is worth noting these phenomena spring from people prioritiz- that the ritual of showing reverence to that ing their pursuit of personal gain at the state’s which is spatially higher corresponds with a rit- expense, we can say that this form of statecraft ual of showing deference to those in positions seeks to shape how its countrymen conceptual- of greater cultural value. The spatial ritual is not ize their self-interest. about recognizing a superiority of the birds Second, if we define a “worthy” as a person themselves relative to humans. Rather, it is who ideally exemplifies state values, then pro- meant to inculcate and reinforce a norm that moting the most virtuous helps to maximize recognizes the value of position and, by exten- the population of these individuals. This occurs sion, social station through ritual practice. in at least three ways. When a person’s actions Extrapolating this value system to the state lack worthiness, or they pursue their personal level creates a hierarchy of state worth based on gain and violate the law, they are impoverished, individual achievement of merit. Of course, this debased, and made into servants and followers. idea can also be found in the Mozi. In “Exalting This necessarily results in the experience of Worthiness II” we read: deprivation relative to other countrymen with more privilege, wealth, and status. Thus, supe- Therefore, the sage kings of old particularly riors effectively serve as extensions of the law followed exalting worthiness and employed that embody the relatively better material and utilizing ability and there were no factions social fates that await inferiors upon more suc- with fathers and older brothers, no partiali- cessful performance of state values. As a result, ty towards the noble and rich, and no fa- voritism towards those of fine appearance. They selected those who were worthy and 31 shang xian zhong [9], Mozi 9:1, Ian Johnston. The Mozi: A Complete Translation. (New York: Columbia Uni- gave them high positions, enriching and versity Press, 2010), 63.

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inferiors become even more motivated to redi- ence relative to base people. When nobility rect their pursuits of personal gain to be in ac- does not signify greater stature or power, this cordance with state rewards. Recognizing that undermines the state’s attempt to instill certain personal gain can only be achieved by obtaining values and traits within its populace. state rewards, subjects will concentrate their Yet OCELL 33 extends its vision for a hi- time and energy toward activities that develop erarchy of wealth and privilege further. It also the state. explains how its ideal state develops character Similarly, OCELL 33 promotes a form of traits within individual subjects through state state organization in which those with greater practice and its notion of what is organization- state worth are given more wealth and social ally right. To more concretely accentuate this privilege. Our chapter of focus immediately point, the text demonstrates how excessive in- follows its earlier examination of Confucians dulgence in virtue can weaken the state’s peda- ritual saying: gogical mission: “If ministers engage in modes- ty and frugality, then rank will be insufficient to The King [Xuan of Qi] again asked: “Do encourage and reward them.”33 the Confucians play the Se harp?” Kuang Recall how “Prominent Teachings” pro- Qian said: “No. Now, the Se harp uses moted frugality as an admirable trait that was small strings to make large sounds and associated with individual wealth relative to the large strings to make small sounds. This in- laziness or extravagance of the poor. In this terchangeability of large and small is akin chapter however, frugality is discouraged as a to the [social positions of] noble and base harmful virtue. Immoralist, amoralist, or anti- being interchangeable. The Confucians pedagogical readings of these passages may at- consider this harmful to righteousness. tribute the discrepancy to a logical inconsisten- Therefore, they do not play the instru- cy in the HFZ, the two chapters having differ- ment.”32 ent authors, or Han Fei himself pandering to two different audiences. Besides assigning value to spatial relation like Song however argued that the assertion high and low, the above passage treats relative that the HFZ rejects morality is misguided. He size the same way. The text indirectly but ex- insisted that we must view passages that seem- plicitly tells us that big strings should make big- ingly reject virtue within the context of the pub- ger sounds than relatively smaller strings, be- lic-private dichotomy running throughout the cause size should not simply describe physicali- text. When this occurs, the reader will find that ty. when the HFZ rejects virtue, it is speaking of Size should also signify quantity and stature. private virtue that can enable emotion to harm- Hence, the Confucians considered the inter- fully affect public working relationships. changeability of big and small on the Se harp as He additionally argued that the HFZ explic- analogous to the interchangeability of noble itly illustrates an ethical consciousness that and base. Big strings should signify greater and champions the promotion of those who engage more powerful sounds relative to smaller in good deeds and punishing those who com- strings, the same way nobility should indicate mit evil, like in chapters “Having Standards”34 greater wealth and more social prestige or influ-

33 Ibid., 12.33.720. 32 Chen, Hanfeizi Xin Jiaozhu, 12.33.738. 34 you du [6].

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and “The Way to Maintain a State.”35 Accord- cial privilege, they fail to act as extensions of ing to Song, this perspective even challenges the law that has rewarded them. They shirk the notion that Han Fei’s thought represents a their responsibility to produce the necessary form of despotism.36 envy and relative deprivation within their fellow With slight disagreement, this study argues countrymen—envy and deprivation that will the difference in attitudes toward frugality re- encourage them to perform better. flect the public-private (gong si ) conflict,37 If subjects are not adequately motivated to where the public’s welfare depends on complic- obtain personal gain within state-promoted ity within the symbolic economy. On the one channels, this threatens the state rewards sys- hand, the frugality present in “Prominent tem itself. To illustrate this point, OCELL 33 Teachings” was law-abiding and contributed to provides two stories: the public, consistent with production within ruler-approved channels. On the other hand, Meng Xian Bo was the chief minister in the OCELL 33’s notion of frugality hinders the state of Lu. Below his hall, he grew pulses pedagogical effects of the symbolic economy. and lamb’s quarters (weeds) and outside of In other words, frugality, especially com- his gate grew thistles and thorns. He did not bined with modesty (bei ), can result in social have two dishes (or more) in a meal and did and political superiors, who are theoretically the not sit on extraordinarily thick place mats. most high-achieving and should therefore be His concubines did not wear silk, and, at amongst the wealthiest subjects, failing to re- home, he did not feed his horses. When go- flect their state worth with beautiful clothing, ing out, he did not ride his carriages. Shu rare accessories, or any other markers to distin- Xiang heard this and told Miao Ben Huang. guish themselves from their relatively inferior Ben Huang disapprovingly said: “This to countrymen. When social and political superi- cast out and use the lord’s rank and emolu- ors do not show their enviable wealth and so- ments in order to [individually] gain favor with subordinates.” 35 shou dao [26]. According to a different source: Meng 36 Song Hong Bing. “Hanfeizi De Beju Mingyun Jiqi Xian Bo was appointed to High Official and Sixiang Tezhi” , Wen Shu Xiang went to congratulate him. By the Shi Zhi Shi no. 6 (2015): 39. gate, there was a horse not eating grain and 37 It should be noted that Goldin has challenged the in- Meng Xian Bo asked: “Why don’t you have terpretation of gong as “public”. He has argued that the two horses and two carriages?” Xian Bo re- HFZ presents a doctrine of self-interest in which gong plied saying: “I saw countrymen still having merely refers to the ruler’s self-interest. See: Paul R. looks of hunger. Because of this I do not Goldin, “Han Fei’s Doctrine of Self-Interest,” in After Confucius: Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy, (Honolulu: feed my horses. As for the elderly, many University of Hawaii Press, 2005), 58-65. Brindley has walk on foot. Therefore, I do not use two opposed Goldin’s view, however. She interpreted the carriages.” Xiang said: “I first came to con- notion of the gong as a notion of the “public” which acted gratulate your appointment to High Official. as a “transcendent ideal” that kept “royal power in Now I congratulate your frugality.” Shu check” in the late Warring States period (481-222 B.C.). For more elaborate discussion of this, see: Erica Brindley, Xiang then went to Miao Ben and said: “The Polarization of the Concepts Si (Private Interest) “Join me in congratulating the frugality of and Gong (Public Interest) in Early Chinese Thought,” Xian Bo.” However, Miao Zi said: “Con- Asia Major 26, no. 2, (2013): 1-31. gratulate what? Rank, emoluments, flags,

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and banners are what is used to differentiate harmful to the state. Why? The second story merit and demerit and distinguish the wor- most directly explains how behavior exemplify- thy from the unworthy. Therefore, the law ing frugality can be harmful. of the state of Jin holds that High Grand Meng Xian Bo exemplifies a frugality based Masters have two carriages and two har- on his own individual assessment of state wel- nesses. Middle Grand Masters have two car- fare and needs. Despite his good intentions, riages and one harness. Lower Grand Mas- this kind of frugality treats the obtainment of ters have one harness. This is to clarify rank rank, emolument, and other social privileges as and grade. Moreover, High Officials must solely an individual matter. Shu Xiang takes engage in military matters. For this reason, note of Meng Xian Bo’s admirable intentions they must engage in maintenance for their and commends him for them. Therefore, he carriages and horses, train foot soldiers, and augments the problem by providing social prepare chariots for waging war. Upon war- recognition and positive reinforcement for time, they prepare contingencies. If there is Meng Xian Bo’s expression of frugality based peacetime, they provide service to the court. on his personal evaluation and objectives. Now, he is bringing chaos to the govern- Miao Ben enters the situation as the voice ment of the state of Jin and lacks the prepa- of reason and champion of state objectives. He ration for contingencies in order to achieve highlights the importance of prioritizing the some conception of moral integrity and use public welfare and order above private interests it to glorify his own private reputation. in two main ways. First, he points out how What can we commend about Xian Bo’s Meng Xian Bo’s behavior produced effects di- frugality? Again, congratulate what?”38 ametrically opposed to his intentions. Choosing not to feed his horses, Meng Xian Bo failed to Notice how the first story doesn’t mention the properly maintain them and make them war- virtue frugality at all. However, it does describe time-ready. This shirks his responsibilities to many acts that would be described as frugal, adequately prepare for battle. Such instances of namely not having two dishes (or more) in a frugality deleteriously affect the state’s ability to meal, not sitting on extraordinarily thick place defend itself, thereby weakening the state more mats, not feeding horses, and concubines not than it saves it wealth. wearing silk. Second, and most importantly, Meng Xian This suggests that the text’s critique targets Bo refusing to use the two horses and two car- specific behaviors rather than engaging in a riages to which he is entitled harms the efficacy general attack on virtue. Nevertheless, our pas- of the symbolic economy and impedes the sage expresses substantial disagreement with state’s pedagogical mission. Miao Ben shows Meng Xian Bo’s behavior, which is called fru- that Meng Xian Bo’s behavior was not only out gality in the second story. Ben Huang accuses of step with the spirit of the law because he was Meng Xian Bo of attempting to curry populist not distinguishing himself as he should, but it favor amongst subordinates. Essentially, Meng also demonstrated little to no awareness that Xian Bo is characterized like other evil minis- rewards are a collective enterprise. When the ters who are described throughout the HFZ: state bestows rewards on Meng Xian Bo, he displaying a frugality that is self-interested and becomes a pedagogical force himself, acting as an extension of the law for others who want to

38 Chen, Hanfeizi Xin Jiaozhu, 12.33.745-746. strive for similar material circumstances and

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social privilege. His wealth and status signal to First, the state teaches through institutional other subjects an enhanced quality of life upon conditions and arrangements. In other words, upward mobility. values and human development are primarily Instead, Meng Xian Bo’s frugality presents taught through the conditions under which a him to the rest of the state as though he is base subject lives in the state as opposed to a specif- or less esteemed. Such a public appearance fails ic and overt content.41 Second, due to its estab- to motivate others to invest in the state’s larger lishment of state hierarchy on the basis of per- sociopolitical project. Effectively ignoring the formance merit, law in the state creates the organizational ideal (or what earlier passages foundation of symbolic capital or the legitimat- referred to as righteousness), Meng Xian Bo’s ed recognition of wealth and social privilege. frugality shirks his duty to reflect his state The HFZ’s ideal subject enjoys more re- worth with the markers the state provides. sources—like privilege, wealth, and power—the Therefore, Meng Xian Bo’s frugality repre- more she increases her performance merit. sented a prioritization of his own “private” There is also an increase in the value or worth evaluation of state conditions or even a self- within state culture that she represents in the centered desire to accrue more social adoration eyes of his ruler, fellow subjects, and, most im- above the preservation of the public’s symbolic portantly, herself.42 economy. This should at least partially explain to us why the HFZ consistently rejects any condition Law and the Creation of Social in which subjects who lack merit receive re- wards. It destroys the symbolic organization of Groups the entire state system and flies in the face of the work ethic it attempts to cultivate. We can say that the wealthiest and noblest sub- Exclusion from symbolic capital and cultur- jects are not supposed to just abide by the letter al worth is meant to teach non-elite subjects of the law, but also embody the spirit of the law. character traits that are associated with the cul- Their behavior’s association with material wel- tural worth or value of a social superior. Mak- fare and upward mobility legitimizes state prac- ing visible the juxtaposition of the exemplary tice. embodiment of state values and the failure to Hence, the HFZ’s ideal state compares well cultivate them, symbolic capital is what sustains with what Pierre Bourdieu called the “rite of the pedagogical value of rewards as a rein- institution,” producing a separate group of forcement for the law. It also is revealing of those with rank and merit, while ritually exclud- why the HFZ, in “Five Vermin,” envisions the ing those outside of it through wealth and so- law as the only teaching and officers as the only cial privilege.39 In other words, law provides the teachers.43 Social superiors are necessarily the “rational justification” for social groupings, es- most qualified to act as “teachers” to inferiors. pecially explaining why the elite deserve their This is the case for two reasons. status, privilege, wealth, and power.40 How it accomplishes this is complex. 41 Ibid., 84. 42 For more detail see: King, 2018.

39 Pierre Bourdieu, The State Nobility: Elite Schools in the 43 Chen, Hanfeizi Xin Jiaozhu, 19.49.1112. These exact Field of Power, 73. phrases can also be found in the Book of Lord Shang’s last 40 Ibid., 73. chapter, “Fixing Divisions” [55].

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The mere existence of those with member- On the whole, the administration of the ship in the more privileged social ranks legiti- OCELL 33’s ideal state facilitates “many acts of mizes state values to those who have less privi- separation and aggregation” within the popu- lege, status, power, wealth, and no rank. From lace.45 The acts are both the “cause and effect”46 this pedagogical perspective, social superiors of the progression of state development. Ex- are even more than embodiments of the vari- ceptional behavior or performance within ruler- ous fates associated with extraordinary perfor- approved boundaries results in the obtainment mance within the confines of the law. They of- of the reward (effect) for an individual subject. fer a range of social performances, cognitive Once rewards (recognition) are obtained, this frameworks, and collective habits, all of which only serves to perpetuate the subject’s appetite are associated with greater personal gain. for rewards even more, causing them to engage At the same time, social superiors also rep- in the same category (within ruler-approved resent greater competence, character develop- channels) of behavior and performance that ment, and discipline. They represent those who earned them rewards in the first place (cause). have more successfully obtained objects of val- Interestingly, this same phenomenon occurs ue (profit and fame) within the established so- with punishments as well. It is exceptional be- cial environment. This is what enables the sym- havior or performance outside those bounda- bolic to communicate with what the HFZ con- ries that results in the suffering of punishment ceptualizes as human nature. Indirectly, higher or deprivation (effect). Once punishments or social groupings communicate the range of deprivation (sanction) are meted out, this moti- possibilities that lower groupings can explore if vates a subject to never engage in the same cat- they wish to achieve greater material and social egory (outside ruler-approved channels) of be- outcomes. havior and performance that cause them to suf- To be clear, this symbolic economy does fer punishment in the first place (cause). not seek to eliminate an individual’s sense of As a result, OCELL 33’s ideal state pos- self-interest. Rather, the state is exercising its sesses the duality of what Pierre Bourdieu has most direct pedagogical influence by regulating called the “unending” processes of “circular how subjects display their personal success. reinforcement.”47 Through this aspect of active governance, the conferring of rank and emolument does not Conclusion merely change the way inferiors view superiors.

It also changes the way the superiors view Examining our chapter of focus within the themselves. HMZ with a sociological lens provides insight Bourdieu explains that this has the “social into the subject’s experience of a “Legalist” force of a collective representation,” not just state. getting those who are excluded to view those of Primarily teaching behaviors through the status, wealth, and privilege as “different,” “de- distribution of wealth and nobility, the law in serving,” or “worthy,” but to get those who are OCELL 33 cultivates compliant patterns of be- included to recognize their own “difference” havior that create and reinforce a collective uni- and “worthiness.”44

45 Ibid., 104. 44 Pierre Bourdieu, The State Nobility: Elite Schools in the 46 Ibid., 104. Field of Power, 104. 47 Ibid., 104.

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ty and key cultural distinctions within it. It re- Goffman describes this ward system as a fers to a condition in which social practice suc- “resocialization chamber” in which the promo- cessfully corresponds with internalized values— tions and demotions are “officially interpreted all of which are state-approved. Therefore, as psychiatric relapses or moral backsliding.”55 comprehensive understanding of the ideal state What also occurs is a reconceptualization of in the HFZ mandates an institutional approach the self. Upon a demotion in living arrange- to pedagogy. This leads us to conceptualizing ment, the self also loses significant status within the ideal state in the HFZ much like Erving the institutional complex. In other words, there Goffman’s “total institution”: “a place of resi- is a positive correlation between how one val- dence and work where a large number of like- ues herself and how others value her, on the situated individuals ... together lead an enclosed, one hand, and the institution’s decisions to formally administered round of life.”48 promote and demote, on the other. Researching the experience of patients in In this sense, institutional arrangements do mental hospitals, Goffman described how they not really support the self as much as they con- implemented a “ward system,”49 in which there stitute it.56 Therefore, we fail to comprehensive- are “a series of graded living arrangements.”50 ly engage the experienced self when it is as- The worst level was characterized by depriva- sumed to be “a property of the person to tion, or a living situation with little material whom it is attributed.”57 Instead, with an insti- comforts, consisting of “nothing but wooden tutional approach, we can conceptualize the self benches to sit on,” “quite indifferent food,” as a product of social forces and relationships and “a small piece of room to sleep in.”51 that resides in “the pattern of social control” This is contrasted with the “best level.”52 and prevailing arrangements within a regulated Patients in these living circumstances are given space.58 “a room of one’s own, ground and town privi- Therefore, moral concern in the HFZ leges, contact with staff that are relatively un- should be thought of in the way Goffman con- damaging, and what is seen as good food and ceived of the “moral career.”59 He described it ample recreational facilities.”53 These graded as the “sequence of changes” in the way an in- living arrangements are directly correlated with dividual conceives of “selves,” including “his the rules for the patients in the mental hospital. own” and others.60 Punishments often result in a loss of privileges OCELL 33’s symbolic economy not only and downgrades in one’s living arrangement, challenges our current understanding of the while steadfast obedience allows for possible political vision found in the HFZ and other Le- upward mobility into better living arrange- galist texts, but it also urges us to think about ments.54 state action today, on at least two levels. First, it reminds us of the power and influ- ence state institutions can and do have on citi- zen behavior. Mechanisms of economic and 48 Erving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates, 11. 49 Ibid., 137. 55 Ibid., 150. 50 Ibid., 138. 56 Ibid., 154. 51 Ibid., 138. 57 Ibid., 154. 52 Ibid., 138. 58 Ibid., 154. 53 Ibid., 138. 59 Ibid., 154. 54 Ibid., 138. 60 Ibid., 154.

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political control do not merely incentivize or “personal attitudes,”65 my analysis of OCELL deter. They impose and distribute values and 33 suggests that we must consider the extent to meaning to such an extent that we cannot fully which institutional arrangements create and understand ourselves without taking into ac- shape our character traits and how we measure count the social forces and relationships they their worth. facilitate. Ignoring the hegemonic forces at Instead of getting “rid of the habit of think- work in the definition of valuable production, ing of democracy as something institutional and legitimate knowledge, and useful habits results external,” perhaps we should heighten our in the reproduction of an already established awareness of how democracy is both internal— sociopolitical order. An investment in a sym- acculturated as “a moral ideal” and “way of bolic economy by those with political and eco- personal life”—and external—functioning as nomic power can play a very important role institutional power capable of constituting the fortifying such an outcome. self, facilitating or hindering self-determination, Second, adequately recognizing the stakes and shaping intelligence and its value through involved in defining culture requires the estab- prevailing arrangements and a variety of social lishment of counteracting forces against state forces.66 hegemony. Such a move requires us to unlearn Dewey’s thought still inspires us to utilize institutional ways of being and the habits they our “inventive effort and creative activity”67 to promote. Given this, the turn to John Dewey is develop democratic spaces and institutions that more than appropriate. are critical, encourage social engagements that Dewey insisted that the “task before us” imagine greater possibilities, and work toward was to develop a “creative democracy.”61 On the realization of much needed change. How- the one hand, this idea reminds us of our agen- ever just as the HFZ and other Legalist texts cy in authoring our “personal way of individual advocated for a contextually-defined and sym- life”62 while also warning about the dangers of bolically-reinforcing pedagogy that responded conceptualizing democracy as a political mech- to the conditions and problems of their histori- anism that perpetuates itself “automatically.”63 cal period, so too must our democratic spaces On the other hand, Dewey’s conception of and institutions today respond to the tensions, democracy relied heavily on a “working faith” struggles, and symbols that pervade our social, in the human capacity for intelligent judgment political, and economic reality. and cooperative action along with the potential to cultivate personal attitudes and working rela- Brandon King is a postdoctoral fellow at the University tionships that can combat the enemies of equal- of Pennsylvania. He has taught several courses on Chi- ity, justice, and freedom.64 Rather than thinking na and East Asia that explored religion, history, phi- of our “dispositions and habits” as mere “ex- losophy, law, politics, and international relations. His pressions, projections, and extensions” of our research focuses on ancient Chinese philosophy, particu- larly the political thought of the Legalist tradition dur-

61 John Dewey, “Creative Democracy—The Task Before ing the Warring States period. Most recently, he pub- Us,” in Jo Ann Boydston and Larry A. Hickman (Eds.), lished “The [Not So] Hidden Curriculum of the Legal- John Dewey: The Later Works, vol. 14, (Charlottesville, VA.: InteLex Corporation, 1996), 224. 62 Ibid., 226. 65 Ibid., 226. 63 Ibid., 225. 66 Ibid, 228. 64 Ibid., 226-227. 67 Ibid., 225.

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ist State in the Book of Lord Shang and the Han-Fei- Zi” in the journal, Comparative Philosophy. He can be contacted for further engagement about his re- search at: [email protected]

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ey’s Chinese students, Hu Shih was perhaps The Influence of John the most influential representative of Dewey’s pragmatism during the Chinese Republican Dewey on the Chinese Lit- period (1912-1949). One of the key contribu- erary Revolution: Hu tors to Chinese literary reform, Hu Shih claimed that, starting in 1915, Dewey’s prag- Shih’s Synthesis of Confu- matism became the guide of his life and think- ing, as well as the foundation of his philoso- cian Learning and John phy. He furthermore asserted that his idea of Chinese literary revolution was a reflection of Dewey’s Pragmatism pragmatist thought.2 The May Fourth Movement period intro- James Z. Yang duced Western learning (i.e., the ideas of sci- ence and democracy) while attacking Confu- Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Bap- cian tradition. As a student of Dewey and of tist University, United International College pragmatism, Hu Shih supported the group of Chinese Language and Cultural Center Chinese iconoclasts who advocated the slogan “Down with Confucius and sons.”3 In 1919, in his lecture titled, “Dewey’s Experimentalism One of the most fascinating and least publi- (Pragmatism),” Hu Shih publicly criticized the Confucian principles of “Three Cardinal cized aspects of John Dewey’s scholarly work 4 is his influence on Chinese society. Dewey’s Bonds and Five Constant Virtues,” which he claimed obstructed China’s transformation to sojourn to China from 1919 to 1921 provided 5 modern Chinese intellectuals with an unparal- democracy and modern civilization. leled opportunity to disseminate Dewey’s From Hu Shih’s perspective, Dewey’s phi- pragmatism throughout Chinese society. losophy contradicted Confucianism. Never- Throughout the May Fourth/New Cultur- theless, before studying in the United States, al Movement period,1 a group of Chinese edu- cators, most of whom had studied with Dew- 2 Hu Shih, “Self-Introduction,” in Hu Shih’s Diary of ey at Columbia University, strived to apply Studying Abroad (), (Beijing, China: Tong Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy to Chinese so- Xin Press, 2012). cial and cultural reformations. Among Dew- 3 Tse-tsung Chow, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China, (Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 307. 1 The May Fourth Movement was an anti-imperialist and 4 In Confucianism, the “Three Cardinal Bonds” are as political movement growing out of student protests in follows: “the emperor was the master of his subjects, Beijing on May 4, 1919, against the Treaty of Versailles, the father the master of his sons, and the husband and which allowed Japan to receive territories in Shan- master of his wife.” “The Five Constant Virtues” in- dong from Germany after World War I. Although the clude benevolence, righteousness, propriety, knowledge, movement generated strong political appeal by sparking and sincerity. the sense of a modern nation-state across China, its in- fluence greatly expanded from a mere political appeal to 5 Hu Shih, “Dewey’s Experimentalism a cultural reformation. Thus, by extension, the May (),” in Ou-Yang Zhesheng (Ed.), in Col- Fourth Movement is also called the New Cultural lected Works of Hu Shih, 2, (Beijing: Beijing Universi- Movement, which refers to the period 1919-1928. ty Press, 1998), 223.

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Hu Shih’s education had been steeped in the This philosophy evolved from orthodox Confucian tradition. It therefore seems unlike- Confucianism, which was developed during the ly that Confucian thought would remain en- periods of the Spring and Autumn (770 BCE- tirely absent from Hu Shih’s later work (after 476 BCE) and the Warring States (476 BCE- his time at Columbia). After all, as Dewey’s 221 BCE). During the Song dynasty (960-1279), philosophy suggests that educational experi- Buddhism and Taoism challenged Confucian- ences embody the characteristics of continuity, ism’s privilege, and Neo-Confucianism can be which run through all stages of a person’s life.6 seen as an evolutionary response to this con- In this paper, I illuminate the cross- flict. When elaborating on Confucian ideas, cultural philosophical dynamics that took Neo-Confucians chose to change their scholarly place during the May Fourth period by explor- rhetoric by introducing Buddhist and Taoist ing the ways in which Hu Shih’s literary revo- elements. Historically, the leading figures of lution synthesizes his Confucian educational Neo-Confucianism treated Confucius’s thought experience with Dewey’s pragmatism. In other as the root of their philosophies. As a philo- words, this work seeks to answer a crucial sophical school, Neo-Confucianism is thus a question: How did Hu Shih fuse his Confucian product of the reformation of orthodox Confu- education and his Deweyan learning to bring cianism within China’s changing historical and about a Chinese literary revolution? philosophical circumstances. My inquiry begins with the exploration of After the Song period, two intellectual what Hu Shih learned from his Confu- threads emerged from Neo-Confucianism: the cian/New Confucian educational experience. “School of Principle” and the “School of Next, I will turn to the question of how Hu Mind.” Both schools hold that everything in the Shih bridged the gap between his Confucian universe is a manifestation of the concept education and his Deweyan learning. Last, I “principle” (li), an idea that comes from the analyze how he applied Dewey’s pragmatic Confucian view of cosmology. “Principle” re- philosophy to Chinese literary revolution. fers to the underlying reason and order of na- ture as reflected in its organic forms. More im- New Confucian Father Figure portantly, “principle” in Neo-Confucianism denotes a pattern or order to the whole of the Hu Shih was born in 1891, when China was in cosmos, and this pattern serves as the basis of developing Confucianism’s ethical codes re- the very late stages of the imperial period. His father, Hu Chuan, was a lower ranking official garding hierarchical relationships. and a faithful Neo-Confucian scholar. Hu During the Ming and Qing periods (1368- Shih’s educational journey thus began with a 1644 and 1644-1911, respectively), the School of Principle enjoyed a prestigious position in Neo-Confucian education instilled by his fa- ther. Before analyzing Hu Chuan’s influence official ideology. During this time, the School on Hu Shih, it is worth providing a brief dis- of Principle was represented by the Cheng-Zhu cussion of the historical roots of Neo- school, founded by the Neo-Confucian scholars Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi during the Song period Confucianism. (960-1279), which stressed the significance of the “investigation of things and extension of knowledge” in leading students of Confucian- 6 John Dewey, Experience and Education, (New York: Macmillan, 1938).

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ism to an understanding of the essence of prin- downplay the role of religion in human life, alt- ciple.7 hough the philosophical thought absorbed Although Confucian civilization was under- some elements from Taoism and Buddhism. going unprecedented challenges from the West For instance, one of the leading figures of during the late imperial period (1840-1911), the Cheng-Zhu school, Zhu Xi (1130-1200), did Cheng-Zhu school of Neo-Confucianism as an not highly promote the worship of spirits or official ideology still exerted a strong influence offerings to images. Neo-Confucian rites gener- on Chinese society and education. The Cheng- ally were secular, linking people to each other Zhu school enjoyed high popularity among lo- rather than to the divine. In other words, to cal residents of Hu Shih’s hometown in Anhui Neo-Confucians, the purpose of ritual practice Province.8 As a dedicated Neo-Confucian was to maintain an ethical code and hierarchical scholar in Anhui Province, Hu Chuan wrote relations within a human society.10 several books to educate Hu Shih. These works’ In the Analects, Confucius himself tended to primary goal was to teach Confucian ethical pay more attention to human problems than to codes and Neo-Confucian cosmology. metaphysical matters: “not yet being able to According to Hu Chuan’s writings, the uni- serve other people, how would you able to verse and world consist of two concepts from serve the spirit . . . Not yet understanding life, ancient cosmology, qi (vital force) and li (prin- how could you understand death?”11 The secu- ciple), instead of ghosts and devils, as claimed lar confusion people face in the real world is in popular understandings of Buddhist and Ta- always one of the most important concerns in oist teachings. The Neo-Confucian father be- Confucius’s philosophical thought. lieved that all things are brought into being by In their introduction to the Analects, Ames the union qi and li, meaning that it is impossible and Rosemont state that Confucianism’s “ab- for supernatural beings to exist at all. Because sence of an essential religious orientation to life of his firm standpoint on Neo-Confucianism, rendered secular education, as a form of human Hu Chuan not only strongly objected to any effort toward the achievement of the aims of form of religious activities in his family, but al- life, that much more imperative.”12 For in- so formulated strict family regulations to sepa- stance, in the Analects, the Master further said, rate his family from the influence of Buddhism “the expression ‘sacrifices as though present’ is and Taoism.9 taken to mean ‘sacrifice to the spirit as though Hu Chuan’s deeds and writings truly em- the spirits are present’ ... if I myself do not par- bodied Neo-Confucianism’s view of religion. In ticipate in the sacrifice, it is as though I have fact, Neo-Confucianism’s founders tended to not sacrificed at all.”13 In other words, Confu- cius’s philosophy did not center at all on a study of religion. Overall, both Confucian and 7 Tianyu Feng, Jiming Zhou, and Xiaoming He, The His- Neo-Confucian scholars held the view that an tory of Chinese Culture (), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Press, 1990). ethical practice would produce correct action 8 Zhaojun Zhang, Neo-Confucianism and Classic Learnings between Late Qing and Early Republican Period 10 Feng, Zhou, & He, History. (), (Beijing: Shang Wu Press, 11 Confucius, The Analects of Confucius, translated by 2006). Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr., (New York: Ballantine Books, 1999), 144. 9 Hu Shih, Autobiography of My Forty Years (), 12 Confucius, Analects, 85. (Beijing: Zhuo Guo Hua Qiao Press, 1994). 13 Confucius, Analects, 85.

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irrespective of belief, and this eventually devel- to leave their hometown to make a living. While oped into an atheistic stance. fulfilling the custom of shou jie, Hu Shih’s Hu Chuan’s Neo-Confucian ideas had a mother actively participated in domestic wom- deep influence on Hu Shih’s thinking. Although en’s practice of Chinese Buddhism. Therefore, Hu Shih criticized Confucianism’s ethical codes Hu Shih was exposed to the religious activities during the period of the May Fourth/New Cul- of his mother and other females. Although he tural Movement, he embraced his father’s rejec- had already learned from his father the basic tion of the worship of supernatural beings, a teachings of Neo-Confucian atheistic thought, stance that stemmed from his Neo-Confucian he was still frequently terrified by Chinese Bud- perspective: dhism’s many ghosts and demons, which the women of his family discussed.16 My father had no chance to be exposed to However, Hu Shih’s classical education the influence of modern natural science. eventually unyoked him from the shackles of However, his emphasis upon the ideas of li superstition. One day at the age of eleven, Hu and qi from Neo-Confucianism was helpful Shih had a meaningful encounter with the writ- to get rid of many ideas of superstition. ings of Sima Guang (1019-1086). Sima Guang Furthermore, the Cheng-Zhu school always was one of the pioneers of Neo-Confucianism advocated gewu qiongli (the investigation of during the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). things and extension of knowledge), which He is best remembered as a key contributor to somewhat matches the spirit of modern sci- the historical masterwork Comprehensive Mirror to ence.14 Aid in Government (zi zhi tong jian). In his autobiography, Hu Shih clearly doc- Hu Shih obviously recognized his father’s Neo- uments how Sima Guang’s sayings enlightened Confucian atheism as a cultural asset in classic him as he read a paragraph of family precepts Chinese learning, and it is clear that this was written in this work: conducive to his intellectual growth. According to Sima Guang, the spirit was The Way to Atheism, and gone away once the human body died. As a result, it is useless to pay any sacrifice and Dewey’s Pragmatism memorial ritual to a ghost and spirit…. [A]fter repeatedly reviewing this passage, I Even though Hu Shih’s father made great ef- suddenly jumped with a great happiness!17 forts to create a Neo-Confucian atheistic at- mosphere for his family, the family members After that revelation, Hu Shih was no longer influenced by his thought were mainly the afraid of evil spirits, and he began to question males, because Chinese women’s observance of the existence of hell in Chinese Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism was typically limited to His writings further recorded a historical maintaining a chaste widowhood (shou jie).15 moment during his educational journey: After Hu Chuan died, when Hu Shih was still a little boy, all adult males in the family had

14 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 136. 16 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 40 15 Zhang, Neo-Confucianism and Classic Learnings. 17 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 40.

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One day I read a famous paragraph from the story of devils and ghosts in hell.”21 During On the Annihilation of the Soul (shen mie lun) by the May Fourth Period, as a young professor at Fan Zhen18 (450-515), which was cited Beijing University, Hu Shih further decried from Sima Guang in Comprehensive Mirror to Christianity as a cultural liability with a perni- Aid in Government. “The body is the sub- cious effect on Chinese education.22 stance of the soul; the soul is the effect of Hu Shih’s Neo-Confucian learning laid a the body. That means the body refers to the solid psychological and cultural foundation on substance. The soul to the substance is like which he constructed his lifelong and unfavor- sharpness to a blade; the body to the effect able view of religion, a perspective that colored is like a blade to its sharpness. However, his approach to educational reform. It is im- there is no blade without its sharpness, and portant to realize that in Hu Shih’s view, Dew- no sharpness without blade ...”19 ey’s outlook on religion became a key factor linking Hu Shih with Deweyan pragmatism: Fan Zhen’s argument eventually led Hu Shih to become an atheist. He recalled that “these thir- The reason that I became obsessive in ty-five Chinese words from Fan Zhen, cited by [Dewey’s] philosophy was perhaps because Sima Guang, completely drove out all ghosts his view of religion was the most moderate and spirits in my mind. Since then I became a in contrast with other pragmatists. Dewey person disbelieving any supernatural beings.” sharply criticized William James. To be He further concluded: “it was very surprising honest, I never enjoyed reading James’s The that Sima Guang’s Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Will to Believe. I per se was one of the per- Government had a great impact on my religious sons who lacked “the will to believe.” belief, so that I was completely converted to be Therefore, Dewey’s instrumentalism-related atheist.”20 thought, more based on science instead of Evidently, the atheistic aspect of Neo- religion, greatly attracted me.23 Confucianism was of great benefit in develop- ing Hu Shih’s view of religion. During his life- Indeed, Dewey’s From Absolutism to Experi- time, Hu Shih took a very critical view of Chi- mentalism indicates his reluctant attitude toward nese Buddhism. After studying in the United religion: States, he even criticized Christianity based on his experiences with Chinese Buddhism. For I do not mention this theological and intui- instance, in his diary on October 12, 1912, Hu tional phase because it had [no] lasting in- Shih wrote down his thoughts in response to a fluence upon my own development, except speech made by a Methodist minister: his “views were preposterous and confused, re- 21 sembling a Chinese village woman discussing Hu Shih, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad (), (Beijing: Tong Xin Press, 2012), 49.

22 Hu Shih, “The Difficulties that Church Schools in China Meet Today (),” in Col- 18 Fan Zhen was a Confucian pioneer who argued against lected Writings of Hu Shih, 14, (Taipei: Yuan Liu Press, Buddhism during the period of the Southern and North- 1986), 235. ern Dynasties (420-589). 23 Hu Shih, An Autobiography: As Told by Hu Shih 19 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 40. (), edited and translated by To Tekong, 20 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 41. (Taipei: Yuan Liu Press, 2010), 134.

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negatively. I learned the terminology of an ties between the two philosophical systems in- intuitional philosophy, but it did not go spired Hu Shih to approach and adopt his form deep, and in no way did it satisfy what I was of pragmatism. In short, Dewey’s view of reli- dimly reaching for.24 gion was quite compatible with Hu Shih’s cul- tural psychology stemming from Confucianism Moreover, in A Common Faith, Dewey made and Neo-Confucianism. Therefore, Hu Shih additional efforts to retain religious values while saw both Dewey’s perspective on religion and removing the indefensible belief in the super- Confucianism’s atheistic stance as cultural as- natural. In Dewey’s view, belief in the super- sets, although they came from different educa- natural clearly was not reasonable in the mod- tional traditions. When approaching Dewey’s ern world. A Common Faith showed that, for pragmatism, Hu Shih was wise enough to build Dewey, human intellectual life must progress a bridge between these two cultural assets of from traditional religious practice to the im- China and the West. provement of knowledge and understanding: Scientific Spirit and the Confu- It is this active relation between ideal and actual to which I would give the name cian School of Evidential “God.” I would not insist that the name Investigation must be given. There are those who hold

that the associations of the term with the In addition to exploring Neo-Confucianism’s supernatural are so numerous and close that atheistic worldview, it also worth examining any use of the word “God” is sure to give the role of Confucian School of Evidential rise to misconception and be taken as a 25 Investigation (pu xue) in Hu Shih’s approach concession to traditional ideas. to Dewey’s pragmatism. The School of Evi- dential Investigation originated during the Although his argument did not completely ex- Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Under Manchu press an atheistic stance, Dewey’s philosophy rule, the policy of literary inquisition by the tended to emphasize observing and understand- court forced Chinese scholars to avoid criti- ing human experience in an earthly society. cal inquiry into Confucian classic canons and In this respect, Confucianism and Dewey’s politics. Hence, most of them had to find a pragmatic philosophy share a similar common “safe” subject to study.26 ground. Because Confucianism evolved into During the period of the Qianglong Neo-Confucianism after the Northern Song (1711-1799) and the Jiaqing emperors (1760- dynasty, the ultimate concern of Neo- 1820), an increasing number of Chinese Confucian scholars was still closely associated scholars concentrated on the School of Evi- with human affairs. These significant similari- dential Investigation, which emphasized a concrete analysis of Confucian classic texts. 24 John Dewey, “From Absolutism to Experi- Through careful study of the classic books mentalism,” in George P. Adams and William and ancient relics, Confucian scholars inter- Pepperell Montague (Eds.), Contemporary Amer- ican Philosophy: Personal Statements, (New York: Macmillan, 1930), 13-27. 26 Benjamin A. Elman, From Philosophy to Philology: Intellec- 25 John Dewey, A Common Faith, (New Haven: Yale Uni- tual and Social Aspects of Change in Late Imperial China, versity Press, 1934), 28. (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1984).

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rogated their authenticity, interpolations, and More importantly, as Hu Shih came to exact meanings. adopt Dewey’s ideas, he began to consider The grand axiom of the School of Evi- the connection between the ancient School dential Investigation was to use evidence and of Evidential Investigation and the modern logical reasoning to determine the truth in scientific method. Hu Shih was inclined to the facts. The school embodied the classic regard Dewey’s thought as a practical meth- methodology of researching classic canons. od for useful leaning. For example, when During the Qing period, familiarity with the studying Dewey’s How We Think in the Unit- School of Evidential Investigation’s teach- ed States, Hu Shih tried to interpret the sci- ings was prevalent among the Chinese intel- entific features of the book from a pragmatic lectual class. Most members of the May perspective. To his understanding, this book Fourth generation received training in this aimed to expound how people can solve scholarship when growing up during the late puzzling problems using scientific thinking Qing period, and Hu Shih was no excep- by formulating hypotheses, gathering and tion.27 analyzing evidence, and using inductive rea- Before coming to the United States, Hu soning. Shih gradually developed a strong interest in Hu Shih thus believed that the Confucian the School of Evidential Investigation School of Evidential Investigation shared through his study of the Thirteen Classics of characteristics with Dewey’s ideas. When Chinese Literature ().28 Even dur- discussing the influence of How We Think on ing his seven years of study in the United his thought, Hu Shih writes: States, the young Chinese scholar spent con- siderable time writing essays focusing on the Dewey’s method of thinking helps me classic school. For instance, based on his understand the procedure of normal sci- training from the School of Evidential Inves- entific research. His idea also helps me tigation, Hu Shih wrote an excellent article understand the methodology of ancient examining the true meaning of certain words scholarship in China for the last three in the Classic of Songs, the earliest collection of hundred years, such as the fields of tex- ancient Chinese poetry, written between tology and exegetics. I translated the to- 1046 and 771 BCE. While studying in the tality of these classic learnings into Eng- United States, he examined many classic lish as “The School of Evidential Inves- works covering the canons of Daoism, Chi- tigation” ... I was the first one who found nese Legalism, Confucianism, and other tra- a common ground between modern sci- ditional approaches of the Pre-Qin period.29 entific law and ancient Chinese textology and exegetics. Dewey’s thought led to my 30 27 Ou-Yang Zhesheng, Historical Interpretation of the May conclusion. Fourth Movement (), (Taipei: Show- wei Information Co, Ltd, 2011). During the May Fourth/New Cultural peri- 28 A famous Qing dynasty collection of thirteen Confu- od, in his famous article titled. “The Re- cian canons edited by Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), together search Ways of the Scholars of Qing Peri- with Confucian scholars’ commentaries. 29 Ying-shih Yu, Hu Shih in Retrospect: Rethinking of Hu Shih’s Life and Thinking (), (Shanghai: San Lian Press, 2012). 30 Hu, An Autobiography, 138-139.

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od,”31 Hu Shih wrote that the strength of the with regard to theories about research methods. Qing scholars’ School of Evidential Investi- He regarded the School of Evidential Investiga- gation lies in the fact that they knew how to tion as a cultural asset of Confucian scholar- formulate a hypothesis and were aware of the ship, which led him to embrace the scientific importance of using evidence to prove their law of Dewey’s philosophy. Moreover, in con- hypotheses. Hu Shih therefore concluded trast with the classic academic school, Hu Shih that the classic school embraced modern sci- judged Dewey’s conception of scientific entific values. thought as more “useful” because it could re- Hu Shih expressed the Qing scholars’ solve all problems in human society. Following methodology in one sentence: “Bring up hy- this conviction, Hu Shih believed that only veri- pothesis bravely while proving it carefully.”32 fiable scientific methods could be applied into Interestingly, he made a similar comment Chinese social reality.35 about Dewey’s pragmatism: More to the point, Hu Shih preferred to view Dewey’s scientific insight with an eye to- John Dewey provided us with a philosophy ward Confucian education’s notion of “learning of thinking, treated thinking as an art, as of practical use to society.” This classic idea well as a skill . . . I found out that this skill emphasized the conviction that learning should was applicable to both natural science and serve the government’s interests by contrib- historical science . . . The substance of this uting to the resolution of social and political skill is located in the conviction to bring up problems. For instance, when talking about ed- hypothesis bravely while proving it careful- ucation in the arts of poetry, Confucius com- ly.33 mented:

During his later years, when discussing the gen- If people can recite all of the three hundred erality of scientific law, Hu Shih further stated: Songs and yet when given official responsi- bility, fail to perform effectively, or when During recent decades, I always simplified sent to distant quarters, are unable to act on scientific law as the formula of “Bring up their own initiatives, then even though they hypothesis bravely while proving it careful- have mastered so many of them, what good ly.” I acknowledged that my understanding are they to them?36 of all procedures of scientific law highly de- pended on Dewey’s instruction. In fact, Confucian education was not inclined to en- both the East (China) and the West share courage learning merely for the sake of learn- the same perspectives of research meth- ing. Instead, Confucian scholars believed that ods.34 education should serve political and social goals. Apparently, Hu Shih believed that there was a Most Confucian scholars, even if they were common ground between China and the West not government officials, focused on the good of the nation. They dedicated themselves to 31 The original title of this piece was “The Scientific Re- scholarship and moral teachings in order to search Way of the Scholars of Qing Period.” 32 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 303. 33 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 18. 35 Yu, Hu Shih in Retrospect, 197. 34 Hu, An Autobiography, 139-140. 36 Confucius, Analects, 58-78.

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benefit society. Consequently, as a pragmatic branch of Confucian education, the idea of Hu Shih’s Application of Dewey’s “learning of practical use to society” paid con- siderable attention to harmonizing and Pragmatism to the Literary strengthening the state by applying “useful” Revolution knowledge from the classic learning to Chinese 37 social reality. In particular, when China lost its On the surface, the central mission of the liter- sovereignty and territories to Western invasions ary revolution was to supplement the classic in the late 1800s, millions of Chinese scholars written literary style with Chinese spoken lan- were inspired by the idea of “learning of practi- guage (vernacular language) as a written medi- cal use to society” to discover “useful” um for scholarship and all communication pur- knowledge to achieve the goal of national salva- poses. In essence, as Hu Shih pointed out, tion. overthrowing the classic written language’s It is worth noting that the idea of “learning dominance over the Chinese people would be of practical use to society” also led Hu Shih to very useful to emancipate their thoughts from approach Deweyan learnings. Hu Shih ex- the restrictions of ancient culture, custom, and pressed his desire for discovering useful learn- character.39 ing in one of his diaries while studying in the In order to justify his advocacy of Chinese United States: vernacular language literature, Hu Shih con- nected his cause of literary reformation with Learning what my country urgently needs is Darwinian language. In his diary essay of July 6, not a novel theory or profound philosophy, 1916, titled “Making a Comparison between but a system of knowledge which can be Classical Writing and Vernacular Language,” practically useful for education, social cus- Hu Shih wrote that “for classical writing, the toms, and government method in China. In spreading of vernacular language is not the re- my view, there are three forms of learning sult of degeneration, but of evolution.”40 More which can be miraculous for Chinese socie- significantly, Hu Shih wisely realized a powerful ty: the method of induction, a historical 38 educational motivation behind the Chinese lit- horizon, and an evolutionary view. erary revolution movement. He saw the Chinese vernacular as more Here, the precept of “learning of practical use than an expedient instrument for communi- to society” became a philosophical driving cating with the semi-literate and teaching the force behind Hu Shih’s access to Western illiterate. Therefore, an important objective of learning. More interestingly, it turns out that the literary reformation was to democratize ed- Dewey’s philosophy embraces these three ucation. While still at Columbia University in forms of learning. Therefore, it is not surprising 1916, Hu Shih asserted that “literature should that Hu Shih became one of Dewey’s faithful not be the private possession of a few educated devotees. elites, but should be accessible to the great ma-

37 Tianyu Feng, The Essence of Classic Chinese Canons (), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Press, 1994). 39 Chow, The May Fourth Movement. 38 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Year, 167. 40 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 531.

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jority in a nation.41” During the period of the ical and governmental arrangement.44 In his May Fourth/New Cultural Movement, Hu Shih 1919 lecture in China on “Education in De- emphasized this point more explicitly: mocracy,” Dewey stated that education in the modern period should not be the privilege of a We have realized at last that certain things chosen few, but an indispensable right to which must be given up if Chinese is to live. If we every citizen is entitled.45 In other words, the really want education, general and universal purpose of education was to improve the education, we must first have a new lan- common people’s well-being.46 guage, a language which can be used and As Dewey’s educational ideas resonated in understood by tongue and ear and pen, and Hu Shih’s thoughts, his scientific wisdom also which will be a living language for the peo- contributed to his idea of the Chinese literary ple. For years and years we tried to have revolution. As discussed above, one of the education, but we feared to use the spoken most influential ideas that Hu Shih learned language.42 from Dewey was the notion that science is a useful method or instrument that can efficiently Clearly, Hu Shih’s promotion of Chinese ver- solve all problems in human lives. It therefore nacular reflected his advocacy of common edu- makes sense that Hu Shih attempted to extend cation in China. this idea to his Chinese vernacular movement, Furthermore, his view of education aligned inferring that Chinese literature can be exam- with his understanding of Dewey’s educational ined using the scientific method. thought. In one of his writings, Hu Shih re- When arguing with some of his Chinese marked, “a key contribution from Dewey’s ed- friends in the United States, who defended the ucational philosophy was to reform educational classic literary style, Hu Shih put forth this posi- system and theory, which was derived from tion: class society. His educational theory aimed to generate the men of talent for a civil society.”43 The history of Chinese literature is simply Indeed, the heart of Dewey’s philosophy of ed- the history of the slow substitution of out- ucation was the importance of preparing stu- moded forms by new literary forms (in- dents for democratic citizenship. struments) ... The vitality of literature de- In Democracy and Education, Dewey argued pends entirely upon its ability to express the that improving common education would lead sentiments and thoughts of given period all members of a society to embrace democracy with a living medium. When the medium as a mode of “associated living” and “conjoint has become ossified, a new and vital one communication experience,” not simply a polit- must be substituted for it: this is “literary

44 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, in Jo Ann Boydston (Ed.), The Middle Works of John Dewey, 9, (Car- 41 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 538. bondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981). 42 Hu Shih, “The Renaissance in China,” in Chou Chih- 45 John Dewey, “Education in Democracy,” in Yuan Ping (Ed.), English Writing of Hu Shih, (Beijing: Foreign Gang, Sun Jiaxiang, and Rn Bingang (Eds.), Democracy Language Teaching and Research Press, 2012), 28. and Modern Society: John Dewey’s Lecture in China 43 Hu Shih, “John Dewey’s Educational Idea,” in Zhang (), (Beijing: Baogui (Ed.), John Dewey and China, (Shi Jiazhuang: Hebei Beijing University Press, 2004), 354. People Press, 2012), 131. 46 Dewey, “Education in Democracy,” 353.

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revolution” ... Therefore, we can say that all vernacular can be used to write Chinese the literary revolutions in history have been prose by an experimental method or not.50 revolutions in literary instruments.47 In his diary on August 21 of the same year, To support his advocacy of literary refor- after listing the eight necessary prerequisites mation, Hu Shih therefore adopted Dewey’s for the literary revolution, Hu Shih made a claim that science, with its emphasis on ex- strong connection between the scientific perimentation and facts, could be applied to method and Chinese literature reformation, all aspects of social reality. again emphasizing that the “Chinese ver- His diaries from his time in the United nacular language will be my own laboratory States frequently displayed his efforts to ap- to examine the applicability of new Chinese ply the scientific method to reforming Chi- literature.”51 nese literature. On July 30, 1916, Hu Shih More than 20 years later, Hu Shih made articulated his idea of Chinese literary refor- this point clearer while explaining his mation: thoughts about Chinese literature refor- mation. As he recalled: The question of whether Chinese ver- nacular language can be used to create The reason why I made a decision to ex- poetry or not depends greatly upon our amine the feasibility of vernacular lan- efforts to find answers. It is impossible guage poetry is because of the triggering to find out the way of resolving this of the debates between I and my friends, problem from ancient Chinese scholars . as well as the influence of pragmatic phi- . . Instead, we need to examine it through losophy on me. Dewey’s pragmatism a scientific method. Why don’t we try for teaches us: any theory should be only a another time after the first failure? If we hypothesis before it is under scrutiny ... truly follow scientific spirit, we are not My thought about vernacular literature is supposed to give up our efforts if we on- indeed a hypothesis. One part of the hy- ly fail once.48 pothesis, such as traditional novel and opera, has already been examined by our Moreover, on August 4, 1916, Hu Shih wrote in history. Nevertheless, vernacular poetry his diary: ... still needs to be testified. Therefore, I am willing to apply the theory of pragma- Shi Nai’an and Cao Xueqing49 already tism into the verification of the feasibility proved the fact that Chinese vernacular lan- of Chinese vernacular poetry ... As a re- guage can be used to write novels. Nowa- sult, I call the book of my vernacular po- days we need to examine whether Chinese etry Tentative Proposal.52

47 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 105. During his later years, Hu Shih again recalled 48 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 555. the influence of Dewey’s pragmatism upon his 49 Shi Naian (1296-1372) is the author of The Story of Water Margin (), one of the four greatest classic novels of Chinese literature. Cao Xueqin (1715-1763) is 50 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 558. the author of Dream of the Red Chamber (), anoth- 51 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 558. er of the four greatest classic novels. 52 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 124-125.

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proposal of the Chinese literary revolution. In Hu Shih, the Chinese vernacular language his discussion of Tentative Proposal, he main- movement succeeded in revolutionizing all the tained that: school texts, and it also made the school life of millions of children easier than that of their this book [Tentative Proposal] obviously indi- fathers. Simultaneously, the spread of the Chi- cates the impact of John Dewey’s pragma- nese spoken language gave the nation’s youth tism on me, so that I tried to apply his a new channel for expressing their emotions pragmatism into Chinese literary revolu- and ideas.55 It is perhaps accurate to say that tion. According to this school, any theory the triumph of the Chinese vernacular lan- should be a hypothesis before we examine guage during the May Forth/New Cultural it. Only experiment is the sole criteria of period was a result of Hu Shih’s absorption of inspecting the truth.53 Dewey’s pragmatism.56 In Hu Shih’s view, Chinese literature is not Inspired by Dewey’s ideas, Hu Shih endeav- created for the sake of literature itself: “I be- ored in practice to bring Chinese literature into lieve that literature should be closely related to contact with modern scientific standards. For humans’ real life. Only literature that deeply Hu Shih, in Chinese history, the great writers, influences social reality and people’s minds the people, the street singers, the rustic lovers, can enjoy permanent honor.”57 Hu Shih em- and the tavern entertainers have all accepted phasizes that the rise of England, France, Italy, and used this living language to express their and Germany benefited from the emergence feelings and their aims, but there had been in of new literature and new values in those the past no conscious experimentation to countries. Likewise, the literary revolution was adopt the vernacular language, no conscious also conducive to the cause of national salva- experimentation to defend it.54 tion in China.58 Apparently, the ultimate goal Therefore, the leaders of the literary revo- of Hu Shih’s dedication to the Chinese literary lution, including Hu Shih, tried to meet this revolution was to strengthen and empower need by resolving never to write anything ex- China. cept in this new language. In addition, while writing Tentative Proposal, Hu Shih gradually extended his experiments to novels, prose, and opera. During the period of the May Fourth/New Cultural Movement, influenced by Hu Shih, an increasing number of young 55 Hu, “The Renaissance in China,” 29. writers succeeded in producing presentable 56 However, the literary reformation’s effect on progress specimens of literary experiment. in Chinese society was also a legacy left by earlier Confu- As a result, directed by scientific proce- cian scholars. For instance, within both the Tang and dure from Dewey’s pragmatism, the Literary Ming dynasties, Confucian literati made painstaking ef- forts to reform the literary style in order to purify Chi- Revolution Movement eventually established nese people’s character and strengthen Confucian codes. the legitimacy of the Chinese spoken language Literature’s duty to serve only instructive moral and polit- in all aspects of Chinese society. According to ical purposes was implemented by ancient scholars. In other words, Chinese literature embraced the idea of “learning of practical use to society.” 53 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 204. 57 Hu, Hu Shih’s Diary of Studying Abroad, 538. 54 Hu, “The Renaissance in China,” 29. 58 Hu, Autobiography of My Forty Years, 2012.

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Conclusion During his later years, Hu Shih again con-

firmed his practical perspective regarding By way of conclusion, it is appropriate here to Dewey’s thought: “My variety of works of remark on several significant implications. Chinese thought and history revolve around Dewey’s pragmatism, filtered by Hu Shih, ex- the idea of ‘method,’ which actually has domi- erted a strong impact on the May nated all of my writings for forty years. Basi- Fourth/New Cultural Movement period. As cally speaking, this idea definitely benefited my research demonstrates, Hu Shih’s dedica- 60 from John Dewey’s influence.” tion to Dewey’s pragmatism was not merely In light of this argument, Hu Shih simpli- the result of Western education’s influence. In fied Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy using the fact, his Confucian educational experiences notion of “instrument,” which can deal with a virtually forged a solid foundation on which diversity of problems. As a result, Hu Shih’s Chinese intellectuals and educators learned access to Dewey’s philosophy showed his per- from Dewey’s philosophy. Both Neo- spective of “philosophical instrumentalism.” Confucian atheistic ideals and the Confucian As noted above, during Dewey’s visit, the School of Evidential Investigation provided Confucian legacy and foreign ideas competed connections that enabled Hu Shih to approach and interacted in Chinese society. Consequent- Dewey’s philosophy. Simultaneously, the no- ly, it is not surprising that many Chinese intel- tion of “learning of practical use to society” in lectuals, including some who had attacked Confucianism became a driving force behind Confucian tradition, explored a pathway to- Hu Shih’s introduction of Dewey’s philosophy ward synthesizing their Confucian education to China. and Western learnings, whether intentionally Consequently, for Hu Shih, Western learn- or not. By examining the ways in which Hu ing, in particular Dewey’s philosophy, became Shih traversed between his Confucian and a useful method to holistically resolve social Deweyan learnings in order to transport Dew- and political crises in Chinese society. In this ey’s philosophy to Chinese literary refor- way, Hu Shih’s Confucian education and his mation, scholars may understand how Chinese Deweyan learning both serve a utilitarian goal. educators during the May Fourth period navi- He believed that the value of any form of edu- gated the relationship between their Confucian cation resided in its useful for China. past and their Deweyan learning in their ef- When Dewey departed China for the forts to reform Chinese society. United States in July 1921, Hu Shih wrote:

Dr. Dewey did not leave us some special James Z. Yang is an assistant professor of the Chinese ideas, such as Communism, Anarchism, Language and Culture Center at Beijing Normal the idea of free love, etc. The only thing University-Hong Kong Baptist University United he gave us is a way of philosophic think- ing, so that we can use this method to re- solve our specific problems. We call this ( ),” in Yuan Gang, Sun Jiaxiang, and 59 Ren Bingang (Eds.), Democracy and Modern Society: Dewey’s way pragmatism. Lecture in China (), (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 2004), 743. 59 Hu Shih, “Mr. Dewey and China 60 Hu, An Autobiography, 135.

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International College. James earned his Ph.D. from Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education at the Univer- sity of Oklahoma in 2016. Before pursuing his doc- toral studies, Dr. Yang received his master’s degree from the Department of Political Science at the same institution. His research interests focus on a compara- tive study between the educational philosophies of Con- fucius and John Dewey, Chinese intellectual history, and education and culture of the Chinese republican period. He is also very interested in studying how edu- cation can shape citizen’s national identity and the interaction of education and nationalism.

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disposition to insist that the war might Dewey in China: A Histori- strengthen American democracy at home and international progressivism abroad. He also cal Look at His Message of spoke of pragmatism’s help in enabling people Peace and Understanding to understand better the progressive social pos- sibilities of war.

Initially, he tied his pragmatism to the war Charles F. Howlett effort. He considered the war an expression of Molloy College a conflict in culture with the vital function of helping humankind understand social change. This was a war in which the use of creative in- Audrey Cohan telligence and the potentialities for growth of Molloy College the human mind through advances in science, technology, economic development, and social Mariola Krol organization could be transformed into estab- Molloy College lishing a permanent world peace. No lover of militarism or violence, his romantic support for Wilsonian internationalism was premised on the supposition that his pragmatic endorsement for Not long after he arrived in East Asia, a jour- this war would ultimately serve as an active ney he eagerly welcomed, John Dewey quickly process for reconstructing society through con- turned his thoughts to the past world war. It tinued experimentation. The war was to serve was a conflict that traversed the globe, ravaged as that process or means of experimentation in the European landscape beyond anyone’s com- order to bring about the end: peace and pro- prehension, led to almost seventeen million gress. deaths, and tumbled dynastic empires forever. But what he sadly miscalculated was the ir- As he began to pen an article for the liberal rational forces of war. The virulent war psy- journal, The New Republic, he kept abreast of de- chology and the consequences of the peace velopments at the Treaty of Versailles. He had treaty at Versailles caused him to offer up his hoped that the victorious Allies would find own apologia. From China, in the fall of 1919, common ground by putting aside partisan ha- he would now proclaim in The New Republic tred and bitterness in favor of lasting peace. that, “the defeat of idealistic aims has been, His wish was not granted. without exaggeration, enormous.” The fault, he In some respects, he only had himself to admitted, rested with him, as the intellectual blame. Although he would not admit that he spokesperson in support of American military was not entirely wrong for sacrificing his prag- intervention, and the “American people who matism to the call to arms, he did have his re- reveled in emotionalism and who groveled in grets. But not when the war first began. sacrifice of its liberties.”1 He had endorsed President Woodrow Wil- In many respects, his journey to China son’s call for an international peace-keeping marked a turning point in his thinking about organization, which also included recognition of territorial integrity, respect for all nationali- 1 ties, and freedom of the seas. It was his initial John Dewey, “The Discrediting of Idealism,” The New Republic 20 (October 8, 1919), 285.

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war and peace. It also served as an opportunity civil discourse can provide the knowledge and to reconstruct his philosophy and to test his means for peaceful reform.2 The lectures Dew- ideas and theories about democratic reform and ey presented in China promoted a form of edu- global cooperation with his Chinese counter- cational thinking that encouraged “a world pre- parts. pared for international understanding and co- operation.”3 According to scholar Barry Kee- A Valuable Case Study nan: “under world conditions of increasingly close contact among nations, it was Dewey’s

hope that teachers in different countries could At the same time, Dewey’s China excursion convey a clear understanding of other cultures, serves as an excellent case study of how he so that international contacts could increasingly sought to correct misleading political rhetoric be on the level of cultural exchange and replace for nationalistic purposes and to explain how 4 the past record of military conflicts.” democratic principles are far more than a gov- What is and should be the relationship be- ernmental system. tween public educators and statements for de- They are actually a way of social life, a form mocracy, we argue, can easily be understood of associated living—as he was fond of pro- from Dewey’s own experience in China. In- claiming. It was during his stay in China that he deed, “the encounter between Dewey and Chi- expanded upon his view of epistemological phi- na is one of the most fascinating episodes in the losophy, not as a static receptor or mental intellectual history of the twentieth century,” storehouse of past understandings (accepting 5 commented Dewey scholar Zhixin Su. things the way things are) but as part of a larger humanistic mission to make the world a safer and better place to inhabit through democratic Scholarly Significance of Dewey’s cooperation. Journey: A Brief Overview While considerable attention has been de- voted to Dewey’s contributions to Chinese ed- Prior to American military involvement in ucational practices and his social and political WWI, Dewey was determined to eradicate all philosophy, few scholars have examined how forms of racism.6 He strongly believed that so- this trip became a pivotal moment in his partic- ipation in the movement for world peace. Giv- 2 American Educational Research Association Statement, en that our current political climate is beset by (2018), 2. partisan debates and “alternate truths,” we de- 3 Barry Keenan, The Dewey Experiment in China: Educational cided to take a closer look at John Dewey’s Reform and Political Power in the Early Republic (Cambridge: journey to China through the lens of history. Harvard University Press, 1977), 43. 4 Ibid., 44. Our objective is to examine carefully Dew- 5 Zhixin Su, “A Critical Evaluation of John Dewey’s In- ey’s democratic message and assessment of fluence on Chinese Education,” American Journal of Educa- East Asian politics, especially China. In our tion (1995), 319. own era, where emotions and beliefs are 6 Dewey would later expand upon this sentiment in more “swayed by the fabricated facts of powerful forceful tones in the aftermath of the world war. On this score see, John Dewey, “Race Prejudice and Friction,” in leaders whose interests may or may not reflect Jo Ann Boydston (Ed.), John Dewey: The Middle Works, democratic principles,” Dewey’s intellectual 1899-1924, Vol. 13 (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois engagement in China illustrates perfectly how University Press, 1983), 242-254. This was first presented to the Chinese Social and Political Science Association in

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ciety had the power to unite its people into one journey first took him to the Imperial Universi- democratic nation. Borrowing on principles ty in Tokyo. He later received an invitation to from nineteenth-century American educational lecture at the National University in Peking dur- reformers Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, he ing the academic year beginning in June 1919 saw education as a means for inculcating this and ending in March 1920. The invitation came American ideal. from a group of Dewey’s former Chinese stu- In a 1916 address, “Nationalizing Educa- dents at Columbia, led by the Chinese pragma- tion,” Dewey spoke to the National Education tist and educator Hu Shih. That invitation was Association (NEA). He proclaimed that: later extended to encompass the academic year, 1920-1921. No matter how loudly any one proclaims Dewey’s stay in China was highlighted by his Americanism, if he assumes that any the fact that the country at that time was expe- one racial strain, any one component cul- riencing an internal social and political revolu- ture, no matter how early settled it was in tion. During the latter half of the nineteenth our territory, or how effective it has proved century, China was increasingly opened to for- in its own land, is to furnish a pattern to eign commercial exploitation. It was not until which all other strains and cultures are to 1911, however, that a revolution finally took conform, he is a traitor to an American na- place, which overthrew the feudalistic Manchu tionalism.7 dynasty and established in its place a republican form of government. Yet, despite this political Dewey carried this strong commitment with advance, little had been accomplished in the him to East Asia. way of replacing decaying and archaic social Dewey was the first Western philosopher institutions, which in turn hindered China’s with an official invitation to lecture at Chinese economic growth. universities and, although critiques of his visit Dewey encouraged Americans to assist in vary in hindsight, scholars agree that his pres- China’s rebuilding of its economic infrastruc- ence in China constituted an important first ture (one important component of moderniza- step introducing Western pragmatic interpreta- tion) in order to further her own prospects for tions into traditional Eastern thought.8 Dewey’s self-determination and called upon American investors to curb their own imperial appetites in 1922. He referred to race prejudice as a “widespread so- the interests of world peace and stability.9 Spe- cial disease.” He pointed out that “many observers report cifically, Dewey “assumed that China should a considerable revival of anti-foreign feeling in China at the present time. The strain of the late war created in the utilize all the best points of the industrialized United States a distinct hostility to immigrants. Jealousies West on its road to reconstruction, being care- and suspicions that had been comparatively dormant were roused to life, and this happened in spite of the fact that the country was never threatened with actual harm” (245-46). nese Education,” 302-325; and T. Berry, “Dewey’s Influ- 7 John Dewey, “Nationalizing Education,” in Joseph ence in China,” in John E. Blewett (Ed.), John Dewey: His Ratner (Ed.), Education Today (New York: Henry Holt & Thought and Influence (New York: Fordham University Co., 1940), 114-115. Press, 1960), 199-232. 8 Consult the following works: Robert W. Clopton and 9 For an overview on this score consult: Charles F. How- Tsuin-Chen Ou, John Dewey: Lectures in China, 1919-1920 lett and Audrey Cohan, John Dewey: America’s Peace-Minded (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1973); Su, “A Educator (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Critical Evaluation of John Dewey’s Influence on Chi- Press, 2016), esp., 89-98.

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ful to adapt them to native environmental con- methods of social improvement had to be de- ditions so they could flourish.”10 veloped. Moreover, China’s internal instability However, one of the first points that made her easy prey for more industrialized na- struck him after settling in was China’s inability tions like Japan. It was this issue that caused to overthrow her rigid adherence to past philo- Dewey to express his concern over China’s fate sophical conceptions. China is full of Columbia in the shadow of imperialistic predators. Such men,” he informed his children. presented a real danger to peace and stability in that part of the world. They have been idealizing their native land In addition, given the current political at the same time they have got American- instability, demands for immediate economic ized ... they have been told that they are the reform, and the young Chinese students enam- future savior of their country ... and they ored with Marxism, he worried whether or not can’t help making comparisons and realiz- his message of democratic hope would resonate ing the backwardness of China and its awful among educators and intellectuals alike. A re- problems. At the same time at the bottom port he provided to the American government of his heart probably every Chinese is con- on this issue was most revealing: vinced of the superiority of Chinese civiliza- tion—and maybe they are right—three The student body of the country is in the thousand years is quite a spell to hold on.”11 main much opposed to old institutions and existing political conditions in China. They The influences of feudalism and Confucianism are especially opposed to old institutions were deeply rooted in Chinese society. After and existing political condition in China. residing six months in China, furthermore, They are especially opposed to their old Dewey also quixotically remarked to his Co- family system. They are disgusted with poli- lumbia colleague, Jacob Coss, that “whether I tics, and while republican in belief have de- am accomplishing anything as well as getting a cided that the Revolution of 1911 was a great deal is another matter . . . I think Chinese failure. Hence they think that an intellectual civilization is so thick and self-centered that no change must come before democracy can foreign influence present via a foreigner even be firmly established politically ... All these scratches the surface.”12 things make the students much inclined to This dogmatic adherence to past cus- new ideas, and to projects of social and toms, Dewey reasoned, was a barrier toward economic change. They have little back- future reforms. He strongly believed that it ground of experience and are inclined to made it increasingly difficult for the Chinese welcome any idea ... They are practically all people to deal with Western ideas of moderni- socialists, and some call themselves com- zation. In order for democracy to become a munists. Many think the Russian revolution working ideal in China, Dewey judged, modern a very fine thing. All this may seem more or less Bolshevistic. But it has not been in- 10 Keenan, The Dewey Experiment, 44. spired from Russia at all. I have never been 11 John Dewey to Dewey children, June 20, 1919, The able though I have tried to run down all Correspondence of John Dewey, 1871-1952, Vol. 2, electronic edition (Charlottesville, VA: Intelex Corp., 1996). 12 John Dewey to John Jacob Coss, January 13, 1920, John Dewey Papers, Butler Library, Columbia University.

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rumors to hear of Bolshevist propagan- hand.”14 What Chinese thinkers must consider dists.13 is that “to cultivate unhindered, unreflective external activity is to foster enslavement, for it In light of these observations, Dewey’s lectures leaves the person at the mercy of appetite, were clearly organized to address China’s cur- sense, and circumstance.”15 Reflecting on his rent problems and to explain how his educa- shortcomings when he united a romantic na- tional views and his social and political philoso- tional idealism with a realistic progressivism in phy, premised on a democratic way of life, supporting World War I, Dewey believed that could be adapted for the benefit of the coun- people’s thinking became enslaved to circum- try’s peoples. stance as opposed to deliberative judgment. An examination of Dewey’s lectures in Nevertheless, there is a cautionary tale China, furthermore, makes it increasingly clear when judging Dewey’s impact against his call that his preoccupation with world peace was for reforms in China. Certainly, it is quite clear considerably influenced by his own misguided that “the assumption that education should re- and conflicting support for World War I. Con- main separate from politics was one of the ten- sidering China’s own cultural turmoil and ef- ets of Dewey’s followers.”16 That is undeniable. forts to enter the global scene, Dewey was ex- However, the issue remains that “his ideas suc- ploring ways to encourage social reformers to cessfully captured the teacher training institu- apply peaceful methodologies to their transition tions ... [yet] the connection between educa- into the modern world. He began re-evaluating tional improvements and democratic social re- his logical instrumentalism with that in mind, construction was not successfully made.”17 attempting to use his theories as a form of in- What accounts for this? tellectual freedom. The answer had to do with addressing the The trip itself was an intellectual awakening problem of political power in China. of sorts—one, which caused him to tie the no- Certainly, the lesson one can draw from tion of freedom to intellectual development. Dewey’s trip is that “education should have Dewey posited that if China were going to em- been the great solvent of social conflict. In- brace change, its educators and leaders must formed discussion of the origin and nature of understand that, “genuine freedom, in short, is conflicts of interest should lead to their resolu- intellectual; it rests in the trained power of thought, tion, rationally”18 At least, that is what he had in ability to “turn things over,” to look at mat- hoped. He believed that “the school would ters deliberately, to judge whether the amount continually influence society and politics to and kind of evidence requisite for decision is at bring the needed change.”19 Unfortunately, in China, “the links between school and society, 13 Dewey to Colonel Drysdale, December 1, 1920, service between attitude and change and political con- report on Bolshevism in China, National Archives, State duct, between professional non-partisanship Department; Dewey to Drysdale, December 1, 1920, The Correspondence of John Dewey, Vol. 2, electronic edition. The War Department’s response was as follows: “Exception- 14 John Dewey, How We Think (Chicago: Henry Regnery ally good judgment and knowledge of general affairs. & Co., 1971), 90. This is a reprint of his 1933 edition. Particularly well informed on student movement and 15 Ibid., 90. radical elements. A very careful and unemotional investi- 16 Keenan, The Dewey Experiment, 159. gator.” See, U.S. War Dept., May 31, 1921, The Corre- 17 Ibid., 159. spondence of John Dewey, 1871-1952, Vol. 2, electronic edi- 18 Ibid., 160. tion. 19 Ibid., 161.

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and social betterment were not present” be- impacting social development. It involves test- cause it was the militarists who dominated the ing values and applying them to real world situ- cultural, social, and political environment.20 It ations. Teaching students not to fall prey to was this realization that caused him to reassess sweeping generalizations through the practice his educational instrumentalism and his prag- of inquiry, gathering facts, and clarifying values matism when returning to the United States. should ultimately result in developing better moral judgments. Students need to think about Dewey’s Post-China Agenda how the idea of peace is a more positive hypo- thetical development when it comes to analyze Clearly, his China journey did have a profound the most pressing problem—war—plaguing civilization. Much of what Dewey wrote in impact on his efforts to reconstruct his philo- sophic thinking as he sought to make it relevant 1933 was based upon his time in China as he to the cause of world peace. sought to develop ways of thinking based on One can see this in terms of the evolution peace as an instrument of reform. An analysis of his lectures in China such as of his theories on logical instrumentalism when he finally unveiled his scientific model of think- “Nationalism and Internationalism,” “Intellec- ing or inquiry, which was first posited in his tual Freedom,” “The Cultural Heritage and So- revised work, How We Think.21 Dewey's experi- cial Reconstruction,” “Geography and Histo- ry,” and “Moral Education—Social Aspects” mentalism became an important aspect of his interest in teaching about peace. In terms of are perfect illustrations of Dewey’s evolving developing information-processing and think- postwar instrumentalism and progressive theo- ing skills, Dewey offered the following four ries detailing the disparity between two ends: war and peace. In terms of war, education steps: (1) define the problem; (2) suggest alter- native solutions or make hypotheses; (3) gather teaches people to accept selfish behavior, pro- data for supporting or negating these hypothe- motes authoritarian methods of rule, ignores ses; and (4) select or reject hypotheses. Prob- moralistic reasons for good behavior, encour- ages coercion in the name of patriotic conform- lems such as wars, militarism and disarmament, patriotic conformity, and social injustice were ity, and complies with patterns of structural vio- just some of the problems Dewey encouraged lence. In contrast, education for peace fosters educators to address in their classrooms. Alt- responsibility, openness, innovation, self- motivation, cooperative behavior, and barrier- hough no easy solution to solving the problem of war was at hand, Dewey called for a process free opportunities to pursue individual interests of inquiry as a learning tool. He encouraged for the common good. teachers to address the problem of war in terms To Dewey, education was a creative and self-developmental process—any form of strict of its destructive experience, which should not be divorced from values clarification. discipline ran counter to his views on progres- His classroom method of inquiry was de- sive education. Rigid uniformity was unac- signed to connect value analysis with problem ceptable to Dewey and a point he made quite clear in his lectures to Chinese educators and solving. Critical thinking in education, he ar- gued, must undertake an analysis of problems students. A sense of libertarian values plus a belief in a self-developmental form of educa- tion oriented toward a more moral way of 20 Ibid., 161. 21 The 1933 edition. thinking was necessary for peaceful reform.

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One of the distinct features in terms of how shall have fixed in them through the medium of people should think, Dewey believed, should be the schools, feelings of respect and friendliness based on the importance of moral thinking as for the other nations and peoples of the an essential character trait—certainly in re- world.”23 sponse to the world situation facing future gen- So, what are those rules he espoused in erations of students. “They are not the only “The Cultural Heritage and Social Reconstruc- attitudes that are important [open-mindedness, tion”? The first rule and basic aim of education whole-heartedness, responsibility] in order that was for the school to create good citizens. the habit of thinking in a reflective way may be When asked by the Chinese students to define developed,” he wrote. “But the other attitudes what he meant by “good citizen,” Dewey re- that might be set forth are also traits of charac- sponded by listing four qualifications of the ter, attitudes that, in the proper sense of the “good citizen”: (1) be a good neighbor and a word, are moral, since they are traits of personal good friend; (2) be able to contribute to others character that have to be cultivated.” In other as to benefit from other’s contributions; (3) be words, thinking should not be a mechanical one who produced rather than one who merely process but rather “how we should live our shared in the production of others, from an lives as moral agents if we are to think effec- economic standpoint; and lastly, (4) be a good tively.”22 consumer. According to Dewey’s humanitarian In his lecture, “The Cultural Heritage and and socially conscious outlook on life, a “good Social Reconstruction,” moreover, Dewey citizen” was a person who contributed to the promoted three ground rules, discussed below, well being of society. Above all, a “good citi- that were necessary if schools were to create a zen” was also one who appreciated the values feeling of democratic cooperation and world of peaceful living by contributing to and shar- citizenship. He applied those rules in a ground- ing with fellow citizens the fruits of society.24 breaking article he wrote in 1923 in The Journal Dewey’s second rule encouraged educators of Social Forces, which was based on this lecture. to create an atmosphere of harmony and In this particular article, he noted that, “as friendliness whereby a feeling of world citizen- we need a program and a platform for teaching ship could be generated through the schools by genuine patriotism and a real sense of the pub- making “students want to fulfill their duties to lic interests of our own community, so clearly society, not from compulsion, but by curiosity we need a program of international friendship, and willingness, and out of love for their fellow amity and good will.” “We need a curriculum in men.”25 history, literature and geography,” he vigorously But, perhaps, the most important rule was continued, “which will make the different racial his last one, which directed its attention to the elements in this country aware of what each has general desire to acquaint students with the na- contributed and will create a mental attitude ture of social life and to the needs of society, as towards other people which will make it more difficult for the flames of hatred and suspicion 23 John Dewey, “The Schools as a Means of Developing to sweep over this country in the future, which a Social Consciousness and Social Ideals in Children,” indeed will make this impossible, because when Journal of Social Forces 1 (September 1923), 512-518. children’s minds are in the formative period we 24 John Dewey, “The Cultural Heritage and Social Recon- struction,” in Clopton and Ou, John Dewey: Lectures in China, 210 & ff. 22 Ibid., 53. 25 Ibid., 211.

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well as to their preparation for meeting these ment is of such great urgency in China to- needs. A knowledge of one’s environment and day.27 a willingness to eliminate its unworthy features, Dewey reasoned, was the main source of educa- This quote summarizes, appropriately, Dewey’s tional inspiration for the student. Social recon- belief in the next generation, and is situated in struction, he believed, required more than sen- his perspective as an educator. It argues that timent. It demanded a general understanding of intercultural and global understanding will be the nature of the problem and a willingness to the pathway to the future. adapt to new ways of thinking. In each case, therefore, Dewey impressed Global Understanding upon his Chinese listeners the necessity for ed- ucation to enhance the social, political, eco- Perhaps more importantly, one of the least dis- nomic, and cultural institutions of a democratic cussed aspects of Dewey’s educational policy society. “The school is the instrument,” he and advice to Chinese educators was his contri- concluded, “by which a new society can be butions to a fuller understanding of compara- built, and through which the unworthy features 28 26 tive nationalism. of the existing society can be modified.” His extended visit to China provided him Dewey commented further: an opportunity to encourage dialogue between

the two nations as part of his mission to further It is perhaps true that up to now contact the ideals of global understanding. While in with the West has brought China more dis- China, he was embraced by educational leaders advantages than advantages, more ill than for his willingness to encourage Westerners to good. But it is also true that the chaos and be open-minded. There was an understated confusion in morality and economy have concern that Westerners would try and press reached a point in China at which it would their ideas upon Chinese institutions rather be ill advised, if not fatal, for China to iso- than to try and understand China’s historic cus- late herself from the influences of Western toms and institutions as part of its political psy- culture. The only method by which China chology. What Dewey did encourage was the can remedy the present state of affairs is to idea that schooling in China be adapted to speed up cultural exchange between East democratic ways of thinking while preserving and West, and to select from Western cul- long-established customs and ideals—ones ture for adaptation to Chinese conditions which had given Chinese education a strong those aspects which give promise of com- sense of community of life. pensating for the disadvantages which ac- What concerned him was how outside pres- crued from earlier contacts. This is a task sures attempted to subvert the principle of na- which calls for men and women of wide tionality in China. Hence, he envisioned Chi- knowledge and creative ability. The men nese schooling as an instrument for furthering a and women who will do this are now chil- sense of nationality that would understand the dren in our schools, and this is why the matter of broadening the child’s environ- 27 Ibid., 216. 28 For a worthwhile analysis of Dewey’s understanding of nationalism consult, Merle Curti, “John Dewey and Na- 26 Ibid., 213. tionalism,” Orbis X (Winter 1967), 1103-1119.

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values of a democratic way of life based upon fostering [these] future citizens.”30 Education, mutual understanding and cooperation. His for Dewey, like Confucius, was about “relation- views here were primarily an extension and ap- al co-existence.”31 plication of what he posited in his classic 1916 Ever the observer and reporter, Dewey work, Democracy and Education. sought to convey this message in a series of ar- In his appeals to Chinese educators and ticles he wrote for various periodicals, including students regarding global harmony and domes- Asia and The New Republic.32 Across the arti- tic stability, moreover, his lectures were filled cles—“China’s Nightmare,” “The Chinese Phi- with Confucian principles. Peace educators Lin losophy of Life,” “Chinese Social Habits,” and Wang wrote that Confucius observed that “The Growth of Chinese National Sentiment,” “people are born by nature to be kind; it is only “Conditions for China’s Nationhood,” “Justice the environment that makes people different.” and Law in China,” “Young China and Old,” This was a view Dewey clearly agreed with in “New Culture in China,” “Transforming the his philosophy on peace. They also note that Mind of China,” and “America and China”— the eminent Chinese thinker was fond of point- one theme persisted throughout: the future ing out that, “education is for creating social evolution of nationalism in China should not harmony ... [and] harmony enables the state and only look to China’s traditional past, but also society to coexist.” Harmony, in turn, is engage with Western democratic thought. “achieved through negotiations and proactive Such advice was certainly in keeping with actions and social interventions.”29 Dewey’s own longstanding respect for tradition Dewey could not have agreed more with and continuity when addressing the fundamen- their interpretation of Confucius. Confucian tal goal of a democratic way of life. He tied his “harmony” was akin to Dewey’s conjoint, understanding of nationalism to democracy, not communicated experience and associated living. as a political instrument, but, rather, as the This was a method, Lin and Wang argue, in means for seeking solutions to economic, polit- which Confucius choose conflict and coopera- ical, and social problems. Tradition and conti- tion over competition and domination. Such an nuity were important links in establishing the approach was clearly compatible with Dewey’s kind of peaceful democratic society he envi- philosophy. Ever mindful of Confucian influ- sioned for China—both could play an im- ence within Chinese educational circles, moreo- portant role in framing problems, seeking solu- ver, Dewey tailored his lectures to support the tions, and when encountering social unrest. venerated philosopher’s position that, as Lin Despite the distinctive aspects of Chinese and Wang write in praise of Confucius, “peace nationalism in terms of its historical roots and comes from respectful and compassionate hu- the question of “modernization,” Dewey urged man beings, and education is the vehicle for Chinese educators to preserve these differences while appreciating the essential similarities link- ing China to the rest of the world. What he 29 Jing Lin and Yingji Wang, “Confucius’ Teaching of Virtues and Implication on World Peace and Peace Edu- cation” in Jing Lin, John Miller, and Edward J. Brantmei- 30 Ibid., p. 14. er (Eds.), Spirituality, Religion, and Peace Education (Char- 31 Ibid., pp. 14-15. lotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2010), 3-17. For 32 These articles, a few with a different title in the edited quoted material here and following paragraph, as well as collection, were compiled in Joseph Ratner (Ed.), Charac- general interpretations of the authors’ views related to ters and Events (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1929), Vol. Confucius and peace, consult the article. 1.

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urged Chinese educators to contemplate was In Dewey’s estimation, the best and most that, “the real problem of the Pacific is the practical course for his educational model to problem of the transformation of the mind of work was to allow Chinese teachers to utilize China, of the capacity of the oldest and most “Western knowledge and Western methods complicated civilization of the globe to remake which they themselves can independently em- itself into the new forces required by the impact ploy to develop and sustain a China which is of immense alien forces.”33 itself and not a copy of something else.”37 What Distinctively, the impression that Dewey he heard most often from the lips of progres- came away with was how Chinese schools can sive reformers in China was “that education is be receptive to his ideas about democratic in- the sole means of reconstructing China.” He strumentalism. He stated, “human nature as continued: “There is an enormous interest in one meets it in China seems to be unusually making over the traditional family system, in human . . . There is more of it in quantity and it overthrowing militarism, in extension of local is open to view, not secreted.”34 Dewey sought self-government, but always the discussion to capitalize upon this notion in terms of trans- comes back to education, to teachers and stu- forming Chinese education into a vehicle for dents, as the central agency in promoting other democratic cooperation and global understand- reforms.”38 ing. During his stay, he witnessed first-hand “a Imperatively, as Dewey saw it, “this fact general intellectual ferment,” whereby Chinese makes the question of the quality and direction educators seemed open “western moral and of American influence in Chinese education a intellectual inspiration ... to get ideas, intellectu- matter of more than an academic concern.”39 al capital, with which to renovate her own insti- For democratic reforms in education to take tutions.”35 root in China, in the best interests of peaceful If the basis of American education rests cooperation and communal understanding, it upon a democratic foundation, promoting a was crucial to address the current reality that sense of nationality as community, then China there would be “no development of schools as is particularly suited to carry out its own mis- long as military men and corrupt officials divert sion in terms of nationality and cooperation. funds and oppose schools from motives of self- “The educated Chinese who dissects the institu- interest.”40 tions of his own country,” Dewey proclaimed, As democracy’s ambassador to East Asia, “does it with a calm objectivity which is unsur- Dewey called upon his own fellow citizens to passable. And the basic reason, I think, is the share their resources and knowledge—to “take same national pride . . . The faith of the Chi- an active interest in Chinese education ... [as] it nese in the final outcome of their country . . . would seem as if the time has come when there reminds an American of a similar faith abound- are some persons of means whose social and ing in his own country.36 Such faith rests upon human interest ... might show itself in upbuild- schools with a democratic model. ing native schools.”41 If there was a way to

37 John Dewey, “America and China,” in Ratner, Charac- 33 John Dewey, “Transforming the Mind of China” in ters and Events, Vol. 1, 306. Ratner, Characters and Events, Vol. 1, 286. 38 Ibid., 306. 34 Ibid., 290. 39 Ibid., 306. 35 Ibid., 288. 40 Ibid., 306. 36 Ibid., 289. 41 Ibid., 308.

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promote peace in East Asia, Dewey argued with intellectuals should address troubling social and vigor and passion, it would be contingent upon political issues even in our own time. those willing to “train not only students but What could be more troubling than the younger teachers who are not as yet thoroughly danger of war? In this instance, Dewey chal- equipped and who too often are suffering from lenged the experts on international relations by lack of intellectual contact.”42 encouraging them to consider public opinion Such mission, he implored, “will not be on the matter.44 Instead of having the politi- done for the sake of the prestige of the United cians and experts dictate the terms, Dewey used States.” Instead: Outlawry to call upon the public to exert pres- sure on elected officials as a means of achieving build up a China of men and women of world peace. trained independent thought and character, This crusade, largely financed by Yale- and there will be no Far Eastern “prob- educated, Chicago lawyer Salmon O. Levinson, lems” such as now vex us; there will be no resulted in over fifty nations signing a treaty— need of conference to discuss—and dis- the Kellogg-Briand Pact or Pact of Paris—in guise—the “Problems of the Pacific.” 1928, renouncing war as an instrument of na- American influence in Chinese education tional policy.45 Although the treaty failed to will then be wholly a real good instead of a prevent World War II, it did play a pivotal role mixed and dubious blessing.43 in the prosecution of Nazi leaders for crimes against humanity at the Nuremburg Trials. This would be the pathway to peace in the Pa- Dewey was the prime intellectual spokesperson cific and recognition of China’s democratic na- for Levinson’s campaign. The seeds for his in- tionality in the world community. It would be accomplished through inquiry, conversation, 44 In 1923 he published a very important article outlining and willingness to dialogue through coopera- the case for Outlawry. In this article he stated the follow- tion and compromise, not partisan bickering ing: “Education is limited also by range of contact and and rancor. intercourse, and at present the forces that educate into nationalistic patriotism are powerful and those that edu- cate into equal regard and esteem for aliens are weak.” Outlawry of War: A Pragmatic This view is largely based on his observation in East Asia where the militarists in both Japan and China viewed Solution when Returning from each other with suspicion and hostility. He realized that public opinion could be a powerful force for peace if China educated to find ways to achieve it without resort to mili- tary measures. See, John Dewey, “Ethics and Interna- A perfect illustration of Dewey’s desire to offer tional Relations,” in Boydston (Ed.), The Middle Works, solutions for peace, not just critical commen- Vol. 15, 53-64. 45 Consult the following historical analyses: Dona H. tary, was the vital role he played in the Outlaw- Hathaway and Scott J. Shapiro, The Internationalists: How a ry of War movement. This began shortly after Radical Plan to Outlaw War Remade the World (New York: his return from China. What is particularly rele- Simon & Schuster, 2017); Robert H. Ferrell, Peace in Their vant to our discussion is that it represents how Time: The Origins of the Kellogg-Briand Pact (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 1952); Charles F. Howlett, “John Dewey and the Crusade to Outlaw War,” World Affairs 138, no. 4 (Spring 1976), 336-55; and John E. 42 Ibid., 308. Stoner, S.O. Levinson and the Pact of Paris (Chicago: Univer- 43 Ibid., 308-309. sity of Chicago Press, 1943).

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volvement in this crusade were planted in his logue, exemplary conduct, and communication “Nationalism and Internationalism” lecture, during conflict, rather than political violence.”47 which he delivered at Nanking National Uni- Throughout most of the 1920s, Dewey versity. wrote and delivered speeches, insisting that In this lecture, he called for a higher order public support for peace was consistent with of thinking pertaining to our understanding of the values and assumptions widely accepted in a nationalism. His words are clear, direct, and democratic-liberal society. Intellectually, people forceful. His Chinese audience could sense his value peace more than they do war, since they convictions as he called for the public to con- live in a society where individual freedom of sider an alternative to the long-established and thought is considered a protected right and, passive acceptance of military strength. “I am politically, the people are capable of challenging not speaking of a peace that is merely the ab- elected officials who rely on emotional appeals sence of armed conflict—a passive conception in matters of foreign policy. The philosophical which we encounter all too frequently,” he stat- challenge, in Dewey’s opinion, was offering up ed. “Even unpatriotic men, cowards, and rich a concrete proposal that the public would ac- men who want to keep from losing their mon- cept because it would be based on inquiry ra- ey, can want this negative kind of peace,” he ther than emotion. He believed he had found it added in Outlawry of War. Instead, Dewey noted, “we must work for a Specifically, what was the philosophical positive peace, a peace built upon common reasoning he developed in support of Outlawry, constructive enterprises undertaken on an in- one consistent with our democratic values? The ternational scape. Just as a nation grows strong basic theoretical premise, as well as the by engaging its people in large-scale construc- pragmatic argument substantiating Dewey’s tive activities, the world will grow stronger and support for the Outlawry plan, therefore, rested the danger of war will disappear when the na- on his assumption that the means proposed to tions engage together in constructive enterpris- implement this new idea was an educated es that contribute to their common welfare.”46 public opinion—cognizant of morality as It was his belief, then, that the emotional and justice formulated through standards of societal political connotations of nationalism were re- consciousness and as part of the assumptions sponsible for holding the public back from a widely accepted in a democratic society. This greater appreciation for international coopera- public understanding would then recognize the tion. need for internationalism and cooperation His solution was to find a positive form of among nations. Such cooperation would also peacemaking—one that is based on action. In function as the means for making a treaty his mind, this meant not only adding a moral outlawing war, when signed by all participating dimension to his pragmatic methodology, but, nations. Relying on a proposed code of law also, as the peace historian Nigel Young has backed by the authority of a world Supreme noted, “a theory of conflict and a dialectic of Court would therefore become effective and action in a struggle that became an ‘experiment enduring instruments of international peace. with truth’; testing ideas through political dia-

47 Nigel Young, “Concepts of Peace From 1913 to the 46 John Dewey, “Nationalism and Internationalism,” in Present,” Ethics and International Affairs 27, no. 2 (2013), Clopton and Ou, John Dewey: Lectures, 163. 159-61.

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What does become quite clear in terms of developed through inquiry and in line with the Dewey’s philosophy is how he considered the nation’s widely accepted democratic principles. Outlawry principle a form of morality, an The fundamental truth is that societies can extension of ethical inquiry encouraging people only survive, in the end, through mutual to rely on reflective intelligence. In this fashion, cooperation and understanding—not violence. it would permit people to revise judgments in Accepting war because it has been part of light of consequences (the realities associated society’s knowledge base—epistemic with World War I) and then to act on them. knowledge—had to be challenged. Outlawry was an instrument for satisfactorily Therefore, refining Dewey’s argument for redirecting conduct when past habits proved Outlawry in terms of means and end: detrimental to society’s well-being. international law should be on the moral side of The way to test the peoples’ commitment the question of war. Unfortunately, in the past, to world peace was to put Outlawry into the law of nations had consistently been on the practice as an alternative value judgment—one wrong side of this question. However, once this that placed peaceable living backed by the rule is acknowledged, then it becomes possible to of law above the institutionalized acceptance of develop the appropriate means for realizing the armed conflict. For Dewey, Outlawry end in question, which could only be the moral represented moral progress: it might enable will or moral sentiment of civilized peoples to people to adopt new habits by reflectively make war illegal. That moral will or moral revising previous value judgments, which sentiment would be “progressively enlightened considered war the only way to achieve peace. and organized by understanding of that end War as an a priori, fixed principle that itself.”48 governments used to justify to their peoples the Clearly, Dewey considered the Outlawry of necessity for engaging in armed conflict in the War campaign to be an extension of his name of national honor would, in turn, be democratic social psychology. For Outlawry to replaced by the moral rightness of Outlawry on take hold, the right cultural conditions would behalf of international harmony. The benefit of have to be established to support behavior that declaring war itself a crime—an illegal act would integrate emotions, ideas, and desires contrary to moral principles—represented a into educated moral judgments—all disposed to positive step towards social progress in practice. peaceful coexistence. The cultural continuity At no time did Dewey contemplate the necessary for promoting those conditions for “chimerical possibility” of successfully global cooperation in support of Outlawry, outlawing war through a mere “juristic moreover, were highlighted in many of his declaration” or by “legal excommunication,” lectures, particularly those dealing with terms that he and other supporters were careful geographical and historical appreciation for to differentiate when promoting their cause. one’s own cultural traditions—traditions which, The function and effectiveness of a world if properly understood, could serve as useful Supreme Court, in Dewey’s opinion, rested not democratic instruments on behalf of upon enforcement of sanctions but upon international understanding. developing educated moral and ethical judgments—the means—of humankind. Achieving this end—a world Supreme Court to 48 This analysis is found in Joseph Ratner (Ed.), Intelligence in the Modern World: John Dewey’s Philosophy (New York: enforce the Outlawry principle—would be The Modern Library, 1939), 525-30.

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Describing a nation’s geography as by committing acts of blatant aggression, but something more than just the physical the immorality of doing so. If the international- landscape, Dewey focused on explaining how a ism of the modern world, in its economic, psy- society lives and works together. A nation’s chological, scientific, and artistic aspects, was to history should not be centered on either or and be truly realized, Outlawry was the most realis- military conquests—unthinkable if Outlawry tic, indeed the only realistic, means for firmly were to become aa reality—but as an account establishing “an international mind to function of social development. Geography and history effectively in the control of the world’s practical were, then, the moral mechanisms for affairs.”49 Outlawry’s success—something that would not Critics who charge that Dewey’s philosophy be imposed from the top down, but embraced failed to fulfill its promise as a guide to useful by reasoned judgment. It was while he stayed knowledge may very well want to reconsider in China that such ideas for a moral equivalent their position in light of Outlawry.50 Such critics to war, enforced through principles of have oftentimes failed to take into account how international law, percolated within his thought. Dewey sought to distinguish between pragma- Some of his lectures on education at this tism as a method for cultivating intelligence and time addressed the importance of correct moral the practice of intelligence itself. With respect behavior for individuals, and for society. to Outlawry, it is not a question of whether or Instead of perfecting the art of war, nations and not his philosophy worked. Rather, it was an their peoples needed to perfect the art of peace. expression of one way that Dewey believed his Outlawry could assist in establishing a proper philosophy could help society function intelli- image of the world as an interdependent whole, gently: addressing the problem of war by en- directed by political decisions, and aided by couraging Outlawry as an intelligent means to reasoned psychological, economic, and solve it. sociological knowledge of the probable In short, Outlawry was in keeping with the reactions of different political systems capable basic foundations of his philosophy of instru- of waging war. It would be binding upon mentalism. It was an outstanding example of nations through legal dictates, backed by the his conception of the method of intelligence as weight of moral public opinion. applied to social affairs. It was Dewey’s primary intention to see to it that reason and inquiry would take prece- Conclusion dence over unbridled emotion, passive ac- ceptance of knowledge as it currently existed, What this research reveals is that Dewey’s time and blind trust. Outlawry was just the first step in China came at a critical juncture in his philo- in the legal battle against war. The objective of the program was to influence the minds and dispositions of the public. If more people were 49 John Dewey, Outlawry of War: What It Is and Is Not (Chicago: American Committee for the Outlawry of War, taught—through inquiry—that war was a crime 1923), 16. against humanity, coercive measures to prevent 50 Regarding criticisms of Dewey’s philosophy consult, its recurrence would no longer be needed. Un- John Patrick Diggins, The Promise of American Pragmatism: derstanding would replace fear, and agreement Modernism and the Crisis of Knowledge and Authority (Chicago: would replace distrust. Quite clearly, the prob- University of Chicago Press, 1994) and Morton White, Social Thought in America: The Revolt Against Formalism lem was not what reprisals a nation must fear (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947).

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sophical reconstruction related to war and state, but, rather, to use traditional social pat- peace. terns as a means for protecting citizens while He arrived in China during a period of tur- establishing a democratic society. moil and uncertainty. He strived to serve as a Considering the bitter partisanship clouding bridge between China’s past, present, and fu- our political debates today, it remains instruc- ture. While in China, his educational and philo- tive as to how Dewey attempted to navigate sophical views were influenced by the existing between competing Chinese factions: the young environment and, at the same time, he em- Chinese influenced by Marxism and the tradi- ployed his pragmatic method to address tradi- tional Chinese whose moral convictions were tional schools of thought by advancing his own largely based on Confucianism. Those three views in the name of democracy and moral un- rules of “good citizenship:” appreciating the derstanding. Specifically, Dewey contemplated values of peaceful living by contributing to and the prevailing conflict in China between old and sharing with its fellow citizens the fruits of so- new cultures. When dealing with this conflict, ciety; creating an atmosphere of harmony and he encouraged Chinese educators to promote friendliness whereby a feeling of world citizen- purposiveness, appreciation, open-mindedness, ship could be generated through education; and and responsibility. directing attention to the general desire to ac- Equally important, his concern for global quaint students with the nature of social life understanding and peace was motivated by his and to the needs of society, remain valuable own misgivings regarding his World War I ex- instruments for mutual dialogue and consensus- perience. His lectures in China addressed building. emerging Marxist thinking among Chinese Following his trip to East Asia, Dewey be- youth and the growing militarization of Japan. lieved that he would need to work within edu- He worried how these influences would affect cational and policymaking circles to promote the peace and stability of China as it entered the his ideas for mutual understanding and world twentieth century. He used his views on history peace. His time in China had a direct impact on and nationalism as instruments for reassessing this global outlook. “After all,” he wrote, “de- “how we should think” when it came to current mocracy in international relations is not a mat- social, political, and economic issues. ter of agencies but of aims and consequences . . Of course, in the past, Dewey’s writing had . the task of the United States in the problems focused more on “how we think” as he spread of the Far East is not an easy one.” A number his philosophical ideas within his own national of steps needed to be taken: context—a focus which he believed to be con- crete, even though in reflection his foundational The first requisite is a definite and open arguments did shift. What he cared most about policy, openly arrived at by discussion at most during this journey, however, was assist- home and made known to the entire world. ing Chinese thinkers in grappling with the ideal Then we need to be prepared to back it up of democracy. In this regard, he took a middle- in action. Idealism without intelligence and of-the-road approach: encouraging Chinese without forceful willingness to act will soon leaders and educators to consider that it was make us negligible in the Far East—and not imperative to adapt the Western model of surrender its destinies to a militaristic impe- self-seeking individualism that would then seek rialism. to equalize society through the power of the

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When all is said and done, he concluded, “it problems in the post-war period, he did present may well be questioned whether the United a method of inquiry designed to revise those States has as yet awakened to the enormous ideas that were barriers for understanding and power which is now in her hands. That which address those problems which required thought most impresses a visitor to the Far East is the and action, particularly when addressing the extent of this power—accompanied by a query issue of war and peace. Dewey’s pragmatism whether this same power is not largely being thus favored a naturalistic, inquiry-based ap- thrown away by reason of stupidity and igno- proach—rather than an epistemological, rance.”51 knowledge-based approach. Inquiry, he insisted, The significance of Dewey’s trip to China, should not be understood as the mind passively especially in terms of how each viewed the oth- looking at the “world as it is” and obtaining er, should be used as a guide when related to ideas that, if true, correspond to reality. todays’ global events. One should consider Instead, he took his philosophy one step Dewey the interpreter and interlocutor—not further by maintaining that to achieve lasting the antagonist. He wanted to bring both sides peace it was essential to use our powers of in- together for mutual dialogue, cooperation, and quiry as a process for examining the problems respectful understanding. of war by challenging society’s current habits. Indeed, in examining the historical contri- In this way, it was then possible to modify ac- butions of Dewey’s journey to China as a path- cepted societal thinking with newer ideas—like way to global understanding, it becomes clear Outlawry—in the furtherance of human action why the late philosopher Richard Rorty insisted on behalf of global harmony. It was this form that Dewey’s pragmatism was an instrument for of inquiry Dewey developed after World War I, social hope—a means for connecting mind and which called for the reconstruction of a social nature to the world, through a process of in- mindset that leaned towards passive acceptance quiry and rigorous examination, and as a guide of war. He balanced these ideas by encouraging for peaceful behavior. The competing views activism in the call for peace. between the progressive left (providing alterna- As a progressive, a liberal, and socialist tives) and the cultural left (critical critiques), democrat, Dewey’s views on social and political which Rorty addressed in his writings, highlight issues still remain relevant in our search for the the need to appreciate the importance of Dew- “Great Community,” as well as global harmony. ey’s pragmatism as a guide for civic dialogue Enlightened and energized by his journey to and cultural critique.52 East Asia, Dewey’s commitment to global un- Although Dewey recognized that his phi- derstanding was an attempt to use his pragma- losophy could not solve all social and political tism to speak truth to power.

Charles F. Howlett is Professor of Education Emeritus 51 Dewey, “The International Duel in China,” The Middle at Molloy College, Rockville Centre, New York. He is Works, Vol. 11, 198. 52 For an analysis of Rorty’s resurrection of Dewey’s the recipient of the Molloy College Alumni Associa- pragmatism, consult, Achieving Our County: Leftist Thought tion's Distinguished Faculty Award, among other aca- in Twentieth Century America (Cambridge: Harvard Univer- demic honors. He is the author, co-author, and co-editor sity Press, 1998). Rorty trumpets Dewey as one of the of more than ten books in the fields of history and edu- prophets of postmodernism—one who championed cation. His 2005 book, History of the American democratic practice over the search for a general philo- sophical theory that would hamper social progress. Peace Movement, 1890-2000: The Emergence

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of a New Scholarly Discipline was awarded the American Library Association's (Choice) Outstanding Academic Title. In 1985, he co-authored the American Historical Association's Teaching Pamphlet, “The American Peace Movement: History and Historiog- raphy,” and, most recently, co-editor of "Peace History: Curricular Challenges and Innovative Opportunities" in the Textbooks and Teaching section of The Journal of American History (March 2019).

Audrey Cohan is Senior Dean for Research and Schol- arship and a Professor in the Division of Education at Molloy College. She is the recipient of Molloy College's Academic Research Award. With co-author, Charles F. Howlett, they published John Dewey: Ameri- ca's Peace-Minded Educator (SIU Press, 2016). She has also co-edited the popular five-book series, Breaking the Mold (Rowman and Littlefield. 2010-- 2013), on innovative practices, and the textbook, Serv- ing English Language Learners (Bridgepoint, 2016), which received the Textbook and Academic Authors Association Most Promising New Textbook Award. She has also co-authored articles for Educa- tion and Culture and Dewey Studies, among many others.

Mariola Krol, a native of Poland, teaches ESOL at H. Frank Carey High School in Long Island, New York. She is also a doctoral student at Molloy College and working on her dissertation, "Promoting a Positive School Climate through Peace Education and Cultural- ly Sustaining Pedagogy."