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Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Drinking-Water

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Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Drinking-Water WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/59 English only Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality ______________________ Originally published in Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd ed. Addendum to Vol. 2. Health criteria and other supporting information. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1998. © World Health Organization 2003 All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from Marketing and Dissemination, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel: +41 22 791 2476; fax: +41 22 791 4857; email: [email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications - whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution - should be addressed to Publications, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; email: [email protected]). The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. The World Health Organization does not warrant that the information contained in this publication is complete and correct and shall not be liable for any damages incurred as a result of its use Preface One of the primary goals of WHO and its member states is that “all people, whatever their stage of development and their social and economic conditions, have the right to have access to an adequate supply of safe drinking water.” A major WHO function to achieve such goals is the responsibility “to propose ... regulations, and to make recommendations with respect to international health matters ....” The first WHO document dealing specifically with public drinking-water quality was published in 1958 as International Standards for Drinking-Water. It was subsequently revised in 1963 and in 1971 under the same title. In 1984–1985, the first edition of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) was published in three volumes: Volume 1, Recommendations; Volume 2, Health criteria and other supporting information; and Volume 3, Surveillance and control of community supplies. Second editions of these volumes were published in 1993, 1996 and 1997, respectively. Addenda to Volumes 1 and 2 of the second edition were published in 1998, addressing selected chemicals. An addendum on microbiological aspects reviewing selected microorganisms was published in 2002. The GDWQ are subject to a rolling revision process. Through this process, microbial, chemical and radiological aspects of drinking-water are subject to periodic review, and documentation related to aspects of protection and control of public drinking- water quality is accordingly prepared/updated. Since the first edition of the GDWQ, WHO has published information on health criteria and other supporting information to the GDWQ, describing the approaches used in deriving guideline values and presenting critical reviews and evaluations of the effects on human health of the substances or contaminants examined in drinking- water. For each chemical contaminant or substance considered, a lead institution prepared a health criteria document evaluating the risks for human health from exposure to the particular chemical in drinking-water. Institutions from Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States of America prepared the requested health criteria documents. Under the responsibility of the coordinators for a group of chemicals considered in the guidelines, the draft health criteria documents were submitted to a number of scientific institutions and selected experts for peer review. Comments were taken into consideration by the coordinators and authors before the documents were submitted for final evaluation by the experts meetings. A “final task force” meeting reviewed the health risk assessments and public and peer review comments and, where appropriate, decided upon guideline values. During preparation of the third edition of the GDWQ, it was decided to include a public review via the world wide web in the process of development of the health criteria documents. During the preparation of health criteria documents and at experts meetings, careful consideration was given to information available in previous risk assessments carried out by the International Programme on Chemical Safety, in its Environmental Health 2 Criteria monographs and Concise International Chemical Assessment Documents, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, and the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (which evaluates contaminants such as lead, cadmium, nitrate and nitrite in addition to food additives). Further up-to-date information on the GDWQ and the process of their development is available on the WHO internet site and in the current edition of the GDWQ. 3 Acknowledgements The first draft of Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in Drinking-water, Background document for the development of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, was prepared by J. Kielhorn and A. Boehncke, Germany, to whom special thanks are due. The work of the following coordinators was crucial in the development of this document and others in the Addendum: P. Chambon, Health Environment Hygiene Laboratory of Lyon, Lyon, France (inorganic constituents) U. Lund, Water Quality Institute, Horsholm, Denmark, (organicconstituents) H. Galal-Gorchev, Urban Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (pesticides) E. Ohanian, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C, USA (disinfectants and disinfection by-products) The coordinators for the overall administrative and technical aspects of this document were, respectively, J. Kenny and H. Galal-Gorchev, Urban Environmental Health, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. Ms Marla Sheffer of Ottawa, Canada, was responsible for the scientific editing of the document. The efforts of all who helped in the preparation and finalization of this document, including those who drafted and peer reviewed drafts, are gratefully acknowledged. The preparation of this document was made possible by the financial support afforded to WHO by Canada, the European Commission, Japan and the USA. GENERAL DESCRIPTION PAHs are a class of diverse organic compounds containing two or more fused aromatic rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are ubiquitous pollutants formed from the combustion of fossil fuels and are always found as a mixture of individual compounds. Owing to their low solubility and high affinity for particulate matter, PAHs are not usually found in water in notable concentrations. Their presence in surface water or groundwater is an indication of a source of pollution. PAHs are only slowly biodegradable under aerobic conditions and are stable to hydrolysis. The relative concentrations of PAHs in air, water, and food are usually the same, although this can change depending on certain sources of pollution. In drinking- water, the PAHs detected in the highest concentrations are fluoranthene (FA), phenanthrene, pyrene (PY), and anthracene. Of the six PAHs usually measured in water for regulatory purposes, FA is the only PAH that is detected to any significant extent. Some PAHs are known carcinogens, but many of these have not been measured in drinking-water, have not been detected in drinking-water (e.g. dibenzo[a,e]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]pyrene, chrysene), or have been found in relatively low concentrations in drinking-water. BaP, a carcinogen, is the most extensively studied PAH (WHO, 1996). Chlorinated PAHs may be formed where residual chlorine is present in drinking-water (Shiraishi et al., 1985). Little is known about the toxicity of these compounds compared with that of their parent compounds (Bhatia et al., 1987). The PAHs discussed in this document were chosen on consideration of their solubility, their presence in surface water and drinking-water from water survey data, and their classification as known or suspected carcinogens. Identity CAS no. Molecular No. of Abbreviation Compound formula aromatic used rings Fluoranthene 206-44-0 C16H10 4FA Pyrene 129-00-0 C16H10 4PY Benz[a]anthracene 56-55-3 C18H12 4BaA Benzo[b]fluoranthene 205-99-2 C20H12 5BbFA Benzo[j]fluoranthene 205-82-3 C20H12 5BjFA Benzo[k]fluoranthene 207-08-9 C20H12 5BkFA Benzo[a]pyrene 50-32-8 C20H12 5BaP Dibenz[a,h]anthracene 53-70-3 C22H14 5DBahA Benzo[ghi]perylene 191-24-2 C22H12 6 BghiP Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene 193-39-5 C22H12 6IP Physicochemical properties (WHO, 1997) At ambient temperatures, PAHs are colourless to yellow solids. The general characteristics common to the class are high melting and boiling points, low vapour pressures, and low water solubilities; the latter tend to decrease with increasing molecular mass. PAHs are highly lipophilic. 1 Melting Boiling Vapour Water Henry's law n-Octanol– Organic carbon PAH point point (°C) pressure at solubility at constant at 25°C water partition normalized (°C) 25°C (kPa) 25°C (kPa·m3/ coefficient sorption (µg/litre) mol) (log Kow) coefficient (log c Koc) FA 108.8 375 1.2×10-6 260 6.5×10-4 5.22 4.0–6.4 PY 150.4 393 6.0×10-7 135 1.1×10-3 5.18 4.0–6.5 BaA 160.7 400 2.8×10-8 14 n.g.d 5.61 4.5–7.3 BbFA 168.3 481 6.7×10-8 1.2b 5.1×10-5 6.12 n.g. BjFA 165.4 480 2.0×10-9a 2.5b 4.4×10!5 6.12a n.g. BkFA 215.7 480 1.3×10-11 0.76 n.g. 6.84a 4.0–7.0 BaP 178.1 496 7.3×10-10 3.8 3.4×10-5 6.50 4.0–8.3 DBahA 266.6 524 1.3×10-11 0.5 (27°C) 7×10-6a 6.50 n.g.
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