Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 1(4): 1276-1293 (July 2010)

Lead Paper Plant genetic resources conservation and use in light of recent policy developments

K.S. Varaprasad and N. Sivaraj

Abstract: Plant genetic resources constitute our invaluable assets to meet the growing needs to increase crop production and productivity. Plant genetic resources constitute a unique global heritage and their conservation and utilization is of immediate concern. Over six million accessions of crop germplasm are currently being conserved worldwide in gene banks. Despite its overall advantage and promotion by the international community, in-situ conservation is still inadequate.

Various international conventions have addressed the topic of genetic erosion and declining use of agrobiodiversity in modern agriculture. Concern about the future vulnerability of agricultural production, food security and environmental stability has moved the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources to the top of the international development agenda. Implications and impact of global conventions/ treaties/ agreements such as Convention on Biological Diversity, Trade related intellectual property rights and Sanitary and phytosanitary agreements under WTO, International plant protection convention, Global plan of action, International treaty on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora, Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (ICGTK) was set up in 2001, International union for protection of plant varieties, Global crop diversity trust and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety on plant genetic resource activities are discussed. The changing national scenario in light of the above global developments particularly the provisions under Biological diversity Act and Protection of plant varieties and farmers’ rights act are discussed.

The status of PGR conservation, documentation and utilization at global and national level is briefly discussed. Measures to promote PGR utilization including core development, prebreeding, gene prospecting, allele mining, public private partnerships and safe transboundary movement are discussed. Major issues and future thrust areas in the field of plant genetic resources are listed.

Key words: Plant Genetic resources, conservation, documentation, utilization, global treaties

Introduction Plant genetic resources (PGR) constitute our that make up the total gene pool of the crop. Thus, invaluable assets to meet the growing demands to genetic materials, therefore, could be a gene and its increase crop production and productivity. Plant alleles, a series of loci, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), genetic resources are the genetic material of plant linked genes, an epistatic set of gene combinations, a which determines their characteristics including their combination of different genomes, an addition or lack ability to adapt and survive. The PGR profile of a of whole chromosomes (polyploidy and aneuploidy crop, therefore, includes its wild species, weedy series) and their combinations. PGR in the form of companion species, sub-species, botanical varieties, seeds and plants provide the raw materials that landraces, ancient and heirloom cultivars, genetic scientists use to address crop production challenges, stocks, inbred lines, obsolete and modern cultivars develop new crops, and identify new uses for existing crops. Scientists use these resources to develop knowledge or products valuable in coping with National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) inadequate water or nutrient supplies, diseases or Regional Station, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh insect pests, heat and cold tolerance, understand their Email: [email protected] nutritional properties, and for many other purposes.

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PGR provides the genomic variability and the Policy developments and their implications on essence of crop improvement programme. Without PGR management adequate germplasm, a plant breeder’s success will The major global issues impacting genetic resources be deficient. management include the recent international treaties, conventions, agreements; global climate change; use Though, about 30 plant species provide the major of biotechnology and other technological advances in food and energy sources, some 3000 species of agriculture; biosecurity and biosafety, which are cultivated plants are grown worldwide for various briefly summarized below: purposes. Besides, there is a rich genetic wealth of other economic plants located in different centres of • The CBD (Convention on biological diversity), diversity. Unfortunately, in view of the rapid pace of adopted in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, provides economic development, genetic diversity in such national sovereignty over genetic resources and areas is now highly threatened. All these genetic access conditions for other sovereign parties. resources of potential value for current and future Member countries including India brought new needs of humankind are increasingly being exploited acts establishing their sovereignty on biological and in danger of extinction due to habitat destruction. resources and associated knowledge occurring Thus, plant genetic resources constitute a unique within their geographical boundaries. USA is not global heritage and their conservation and utilization a signatory to CBD. is of immediate concern. There have been • CBD adopted the Bonn Guidelines on Access to tremendous efforts in ex-situ conservation of plant Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable genetic resources. Over six million accessions of crop Sharing of Benefits Arising out of their germplasm are currently being conserved worldwide Utilization. The objectives of the Bonn in gene banks (FAO 1998). Despite its overall guidelines in relation to academic research are: advantage and promotion by the international • to promote awareness of the implementation of community, in-situ conservation is still inadequate. relevant provisions of the CBD • to provide parties to the CBD and stake-holders Currently, a number of new approaches offer with a transparent framework to facilitate access advances in crop improvement. These include gene- to genetic resources and ensure fair and equitable transfer and the use of marker-assisted selection as sharing of benefits tools for managing ‘desired’ trait diversity and • to provide information about the practices and improving the efficiency and scope of both approaches to be adopted by users and providers conventional plant breeding and genetic engineering. in the context of access and benefit sharing An increasing range of techniques is available to • to promote capacity building and the transfer of facilitate wide crosses in order to access germplasm appropriate technology to providing parties in the secondary and tertiary genepools. There is sizeable investment in many of these approaches • The Conference of the Parties mandated the including Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode, Working Group on ABS to elaborate and although such investments are heavily biased towards negotiate an international regime on access to the agricultural systems of developed countries and genetic resources and benefit-sharing with the more export-oriented crops. aim to effectively implement the provisions in

Article 15 and 8(j) of the Convention and the Various international conventions have addressed the three objectives of the Convention. The resumed topic of genetic erosion and declining use of ninth meeting of the ad hoc open-ended working agrobiodiversity in modern agriculture. Concern group on access and benefit-sharing will be held about the future vulnerability of agricultural in July, 2010 in Montreal, Canada and the results production, food security and environmental stability expected are (i) final draft protocol on “Access has moved the conservation and sustainable use of to genetic resources and the fair and equitable plant genetic resources to the top of the international sharing of benefits arising from their utilization” development agenda. Opportunities and challenges in and (ii) “Adoption of the Nagoya protocol on view of the recent policy developments in PGR access to genetic resources and the fair and conservation and utilization are being discussed. equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization.”

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• The World trade organization (WTO) dealing broadening efforts’, ‘promoting sustainable with the rules of trade between nations helps agriculture through diversification of crop producers of goods and services, exporters, and production and broader diversity in crops’ and importers conduct their business. TRIPS (Trade ‘supporting on farm management and related intellectual property rights) and SPS improvement of PGRFA’. Food and agriculture (Sanitary and phytosanitary), the agreements organization (FAO) efforts in establishing under WTO that have direct impact on PGR national information sharing mechanisms in Asia activities. is towards implementing the spirit of GPA among the member countries. • TRIPS, adopted in Marrakesh in 1994, provide a minimum IP protection standard for biological • International treaty on plant genetic resources for matter such as plant varieties, microorganisms, food and agriculture (ITPGRFA) entered into and microbiological processes. Amendments to force in 2004. The Treaty’s objectives are “the the existing patent act and new act to protect conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic plant varieties to protect genetic resources resources for food and agriculture and the fair related rights in WTO member countries and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out including India are consequences to the adoption of their use, in harmony with the Convention on of TRIPS. Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security”. The Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that farmers and their • SPS is an agreement on how governments can communities have made and continue to make to apply food safety and animal and plant health the conservation and development of plant measures sets out the basic rules in the WTO. genetic resources. The WTO's SPS Agreement states that “to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures on as wide a basis as possible, members shall • ITPGRFA provides a multilateral system of base their sanitary or phytosanitary measures on access and benefit sharing under a revised international standards, guidelines or standard material transfer agreement (SMTA) in recommendations”. The SPS Agreement relation to some 35 defined crops that have identifies the IPPC as the reference organization relevance to food security. The fee collection on developing international standards for plant commercialization and its management is under health (phytosanitary) measures. debate.

• The International plant protection convention • Recipients shall not claim any intellectual (IPPC) is a multilateral treaty for international property or other rights that limit the facilitated cooperation in plant protection. The Convention access to the PGRFA or their genetic parts or makes provision for the application of measures components in the form received from the by governments to protect their plant resources Multilateral System. The term genetic parts and from harmful pests (phytosanitary measures) components would be subject to different which may be introduced through transboundary interpretations. movement. The IPPC entered into legal force on 2 October 2005 represents an updating of the Convention to reflect contemporary • Access shall be provided solely for the purpose phytosanitary concepts. WTO member countries of utilization and conservation for research, amended the acts related to plant quarantine in breeding and training for food and agriculture. facilitating exchange of PGR following IPPC The current MTA used in the context of guidelines. agreements between FAO and the centers allows access for direct production. Plant breeders may • The Global plan of action (GPA) adopted in acquire materials through the Multilateral 1996 for the conservation and sustainable use of System that they would want to release without plant genetic resources for food and agriculture any further research or breeding. Likewise, on (PGRFA) includes, among its priority activities, occasion, farmers, NGOs or small companies ‘increasing genetic enhancement and base-

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may also wish to acquire a landrace and use it global ex situ collections of germplasm of without further research or breeding. relevance for food and agriculture.

• Annex I list of crops was the subject of • The Cartagena protocol, adopted in Montreal in passionate debate and substantial input from 2000, provides rules for the transfer of experts genetically modified living organisms (GMOs) for transboundary movement. Several countries brought new regulations for safe exchange of • Centers are obliged to conserve and make GMOs. available designated accessions. Materials of non-Annex I crops that have been collected prior The Changing National Scenario to the entry into force of the Treaty, and are held Recognizing the values of plant genetic resources for by the centers are to be made available. food and agriculture and in harmony with several international treaties, Indian government has come up • The Convention on international trade in with the initiatives such as enactment and endangered species of wild fauna and flora implementation of the Biological diversity act (BDA) (CITES) is an international agreement between in line with CBD and Plant varieties protection and governments. CITES was drafted as a result of a farmers’ rights act (PVP&FRA), providing unique resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of rights to farmers on par with qualified breeders. members of IUCN (The World Conservation Patent Act was modified suitably ensuring prior Union) and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in approval of the National Biodiversity Authority for force. Its aim is to ensure that international trade all the patents involving biological resources. in specimens of wild animals and plants does not Provisions to protect and conserve threatened plant threaten their survival. Provision to notify species through notification is being implemented threatened species legally was initiated in several through BDA. A Plant quarantine order was issued member countries. under Destructive insect pests act facilitating safe import of plant material authorizing Director, • Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual NBPGR for plant genetic resources. New guidelines Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional issued by the Department of Biotechnology for safe Knowledge and Folklore (ICGTK) was set up in exchange of genetically modified plants. Inter- 2001 by World intellectual property organization ministerial committees such as Genetic engineering (WIPO) to discuss IP issues relating to access to approval committee are functioning to facilitate genetic resources and the protection of genetic transformation research and import of traditional knowledge, including disclosure genetically modified plants. requirements in patent applications. Traditional knowledge is legally protected in association Important provisions of BDA ( www.nbaindia.org ) with the biological resources. • Access to biological resources, associated knowledge and transfer of research results • International union for protection of plant need prior approval varieties (UPOV) provides legal protection for • Separate guidelines notified to access plant varieties fulfilling the DUS criteria biological resources for international (distinct, uniform, and stable), while including a collaborative research through government breeder’s exemption and farmer’s privilege. sponsored or government approved India is not a signatory to the latest UPOV. WTO institutions subject to overall policy member countries have brought new acts guidelines and approval of the Central including India with sui generis system to protect Government the plant varieties released. • In case of agriculture sector, benefit sharing may be more modest, but on high end commercial products (breakfast cereals, oil, • The Global Crop Diversity Trust, set up in 2002, syrups etc), benefit sharing may be is an attempt by the Food and Agriculture calculated differently than seed sales. Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and • Research and development work by the the World Bank to establish a trust fund for academic community would also require

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free access to resources even though results value. More than 1600 proposals have been screened of their research may have to be subject to by NBPGR for registration of germplasm. So far 603 some regulation for the purposes of potentially valuable germplasm belonging to 115 commercial exploitation, at least by people crops have been registered. The registration of outside India. genetic resources would help in protecting country’s • Prior approval of the State biodiversity genetic resources in the wake of IPR regime. board (SBB) is required for Submission of samples to National Genebank at commercialization. NBPGR, New Delhi with seed, cryo and tissue • Mechanisms for monitoring new taxa culture preservation facilities notified by NBA as one discovered and deposition of voucher of the national repositories is also a soft form of specimens in repositories developed. protection if the material is deposited with passport Fourteen repositories notified for and other relevant data. All varieties to be released conservation including National Genebank through Central Variety Release Committee also at NBPGR, New Delhi need to be deposited with parental lines in NBPGR • Benefit sharing mechanisms are currently along with relevant information. being discussed for inputs to the CBD working group. Currently NBA deals with Conservation such proposal on case to case basis. Since the 1970s, work on the conservation of crop • Necessary notifications released to genetic resources has increasingly become a large- effectively implement penalty provisions in scale independent activity detached from crop the act for violation of NBA or SBB orders. improvement efforts. A substantial germplasm Serious offenses under the act are collecting effort was launched in the 1970s in cognizable and nonbailable. response to concerns about genetic erosion and crop vulnerability. Over 1000 gene banks have been Important provisions of PPVFRA ( established, holding about 6 million accessions www.plantauthority.gov.in ) (FAO, 1998). The germplasm holdings in major • Thirty crops are listed for registration with international agricultural research centers are the authority provided in Table 1. • Plant Genetic Savior Community Recognition Award has been instituted by Much has been invested in characterization, the Authority evaluation and documentation, yet, for various • Breeding objectives now need to take care reasons, the use of many collections has actually been of DUS characters of the crop concerned rather limited (FAO, 1998). This situation has led to and evaluation of new varieties need to be criticism by some, including both plant breeders and done along with probable reference varieties non-governmental organizations, that the genetic for DUS testing resources maintained in gene banks could be more • Annual Maintenance and registration fee to usefully deployed in both plant breeding and farmers’ be provided by the breeder fields. The following are among the important • Passport data of parental lines/ Lawful international seed banking facilities: acquisition of genetic material (MTAs / Authorization from owners)/ source must be Seed Banks of Global Network of Agricultural declared Research Institutions • Maintenance of pure seed / propagating International agricultural research institutions, co- material by depositories (Institutions / ordinated by the Consultative Group on International Breeders) Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Washington, are • Evaluation in farmers fields (without focused on crops and have extensive seed collections commercialisation) to counter litigation by for such crops as rice, maize, wheat, barley, millets, farmer pulses, oil seeds, tuber crops, banana, tropical forage and fruits. The collections in these seed banks are Soft protection for genetic resources well documented and the institutions are networked Indian Council of Agricultural Research has among themselves and with several other institutions. instituted a mechanism for registration of experimentally developed germplasm of potential The Millennium Seed Bank Project

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The Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP) at the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, England, is one of the The Trust aims to ensure the conservation of the largest conservation projects. MSBP’s 47 partner diversity within all crops of importance to food organizations in 17 countries intend to store 25 per security. However, the Trust will give priority to the cent of the world's plant species by 2020. The Seed crops that are included in Annex 1, or referred to in Information Database (SID) at Kew is an ongoing Article 15, of the International Treaty on Plant compilation of seed characteristics and traits world Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. These wide, targeted at >24,000 species. are the crops that the international community has judged to be the most important for food security and The Svalbard Global Seed Vault interdependence. 0n February 26, 2008, the Svalbard Global Seed Vault (SGSV) opened near Longyearbyen (Norway), The crops listed in Annex 1 of the International 600 miles from the North Pole. SGSV is designed to Treaty include: breadfruit, asparagus, oat, beet, hold 4.5 billion batches of seeds of the world’s main brassicas (the cabbage family including broccoli and crops. The SGSV is a glazed cave-like structure, cauliflower), pigeon pea, chickpea, citrus, coconut, drilled 500 ft below permafrost, in the middle of a aroids (including taro and cocoyam), carrot, yams, frozen Arctic mountain topped with snow, with the finger millet, strawberry, sunflower, barley, sweet goal to store and protect samples from every seed potato, grass pea, lentil, apple, cassava, collection in the world, which will stay frozen. An banana/plantain, rice, pearl millet, beans, pea, rye, automated digital monitoring system controls potato, eggplant, sorghum, triticale, wheat, faba bean, temperature and humidity and provides high cowpea, maize and more than 80 forage species from security. The SGSV is an insurance against natural 30 different genera. disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis, or deliberate attacks like bomb blasts or human errors Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems such as nuclear disasters or failure of refrigeration (GIAHS) that may erase the seeds of any important species in GIAHS are defined as "Remarkable land use systems the other seed banks or in the wild, in the other and landscapes which are rich in globally significant countries. Such seed can be re-established using biological diversity evolving from the co-adaptation seeds from SGSV. NBPGR facilitated safe transfer of of a community with its environment and its needs about 40,000 accessions of ICRISAT mandate crops and aspirations for sustainable development". to SSGV during the past two years. Worldwide, specific agricultural systems and landscapes have been created, shaped and maintained Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT) by generations of farmers and herders based on Important collections of crop diversity face urgent diverse natural resources, using locally adapted and chronic funding shortages. These shortages can management practices. Building on local knowledge lead to loss of diversity, the very building blocks on and experience, these ingenious agricultural systems which adaptive and productive agriculture depends. reflect the evolution of humankind, the diversity of The sole global response to this threat is the Global its knowledge, and its profound relationship with Crop Diversity Trust. The Trust is a unique public- nature. GIAHS are important for their contribution to private partnership raising funds from individual, food security, health and nutrition of many poor, corporate and government donors to establish an helpless and isolated people; human kind and its agri- endowment fund that will provide complete and ”cultural” diversity; biodiversity and genetic continuous funding for key crop collections, in resources; agro-ecosystem and landscape diversity; eternity. ecosystem services through functional diversity; products and services diversity; collective and In line with the International Treaty on Plant Genetic individual knowledge systems; resilience and Resources and the Global Plan of Action for the adaptive capacity to changes. Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, GCDT Criteria and need for identification and value goal is to advance an efficient and sustainable global assessment of agro-biodiversity heritage sites in the system of ex situ conservation by promoting the context of recent Acts in India has been suggested by rescue, understanding, use and long-term Anurudh Singh and Varaprasad (2008) to facilitate conservation of valuable plant genetic resources. their conservation and evolution of sustainable

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Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 1(4): 1276-1293 (July 2010) agriculture. They suggest six indices reflecting exclusively for the repository can be stored in the agriculture providing livelihood support; repository by following storage methodologies: custodianship of irreplaceable natural resources; continued co-evolution and development of new • 1–2 years at 4 °C; 4–7 years at -20 °C and agro-biodiversity responding to changing scenario; greater than 5 years when stored at -70 °C intangible religious, artistic and cultural association; • ESTs, full-length cDNAs, BACs, PACs and locals’ ingenuity responding to changing scenario YACs, are maintained in 96-well or 384- and ability to adapt external inputs are proposed for well micro plates at -80°C identification of National Agro-biodiversity • cDNA clones as plasmid DNA at -20°C Heritage/Hotspot Sites (NAHS). Value assessment • Lyophilized DNA for long-term storage for conservation and use is being suggested by them, • Ambient temperature storage based on biophysical and landscape, social and cultural, and economic values. An action plan need to It is hoped that the establishment of the genomic be developed for use of products, practices and resources repository in the country would strengthen knowledge from NAHS, ensuring empowerment and the conservation and gene resource management of benefit sharing to locals within the frame work of plant genetic resources. national legislations, such as the Biological Diversity Act and the Protection of Plant Varieties and The Indian sub-continent is immensely rich in plant Farmers’ Rights Act. genetic resources of both crop species and their wild relatives. PGR is fundamental to crop improvement PGR conservation in India programme and the key to establishing future food National Genomic Resources Repository and nutritional security. The importance of plant A recent initiative of the Indian Council of genetic resources has increased significantly in the Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the establishment of recent years with the changing global scenario in National Genomic Resources Repository in the material ownership and the legal regimes with respect premises of NBPGR as an institutional framework for to access to PGR under the International Agreements. methodical and centralized efforts to collect, The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources is generates, conserve and distribute genomic resources the nodal organization in the country for acquisition for agricultural research. Current research (including and management of indigenous and exotic plant underutilized legumes) (both routine cloning genetic resources (PGR) for food and agriculture and experiments and genome sequencing projects) to carry out related research and human resource generates a lot of genomic resources. These genomic development for sustainable growth of agriculture. resources are indispensable tools for post-genomic research, be it physiological and morphological India has a rich and varied heritage of biodiversity, characterization of a species or functional analysis of encompassing a wide spectrum of habitats from genes or comparative genomics or plant breeding. tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and from Therefore, it is necessary to maintain an efficient temperate forests to coastal wetlands. It is one of the system for conservation and management of spin-off eight centres of origin and is one of the 12 mega gene DNA materials. Due to the availability of techniques centres of the world, possesses 11.9% of world flora. that help characterize and utilize DNA sequences About 33% of the recorded flora of the country are (without the requirement of whole organism), value endemic and distributed mainly in the North-East, added products of genebanks can attract new clients Western Ghats, North-West Himalayas, Eastern involved in allele-mining and cisgenesis , such as Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Of the molecular biologists and geneticists alongside the 49,219 higher plant species, 5,725 are endemic and traditional plant breeders. belonging to 141 genera under 47 families (Nayar, 1980). India is also having two biodiversity hotspots Genomic resources such as cloning vectors, out of 25 listed by Myers et al., (2000) {The Western expression vectors, binary vectors, RFLP probes, Ghats/Sri Lanka and the Indo-Burma (covering the Cloned genes, promoters fused to reporter genes, Eastern Himalayas)} and they are included amongst Sub-genomic, cDNA , EST, repeat enriched libraries, the top eight most important hotspots. In addition, BAC, YAC, PAC clone set from sequencing projects, India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are Genomic, mitochondrial or chloroplast DNA, Cloned home to nearly one third of all the flowering plants DNA from wild and weedy species produced described to date (Gautam, 2004). India is a

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Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 1(4): 1276-1293 (July 2010) homeland of 167 cultivated species and 329 wild Climate change and conservation relatives of crop plants (Arora, 1991). It has about Information in IPCC AR4 suggests that 30,000 – 50,000 landraces of rice, pigeonpea, mango, approximately 10% of species assessed so far are at turmeric ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries etc. and an increasingly high risk of extinction for every 1°C ranks seventh in terms of contributions to world rise in global mean temperature, within the range of agriculture. More than 1,000 wild edible plant future scenario modeled in impacts assessments species are exploited by native tribal communities. (typically <50C global temperature rise). Given the These include 145 species of roots and tubers, 521 of observed temperature rise, this now could place leafy vegetables/greens, 101 of buds and flowers, 647 approximately 6-8% of the species studied at an of fruits and 118 of seeds and nuts (Arora and increasingly high risk of extinction. Climate change Pandey, 1996). In addition, nearly 9,500 plant increases the risk of extinction for many species, and species of ethno-botanical uses are reported, of which there may be loss of genetic variability even if the around 7,500 are of ethno-medicinal importance and species survives (e.g., loss of populations, loss of 3,900 are multiple purpose edible species (Arora and subspecies). Therefore, it may be desirable to store Pandey, 1996). The endemic plant wealth of the species or genotypes so that they can be used in country has also been supplemented with the reintroductions or assisted migration as appropriate. species/forms that had been introduced from abroad. While there are many reasons for the loss of genetic These species got naturalized over time and have resources and the need to store species and undergone the process of domestication on being genotypes, this technique is widely regarded as a isolated climatically and spatially. Important among final effort. Furthermore, storing species (other than these are apple, pear, peach, apricot, grape, almond, seeds) or simple ecosystem components on the scale datepalm, maize, potato, sweet potato, tomato, bean, that would seem necessary in view of the high onion, garlic, chilli, lentil, clove, coriander cumin, proportion of species likely to be affected is likely to fennel, coffee, cocoa, cashewnut, litchi, strawberry, be infeasible and extremely expensive. In addition, blueberry, tea, rubber and pine apple. the storage of species, in seed banks or captive facilities inevitably leads to the loss of the vast The National Herbarium of cultivated plants (NHCP) majority of ecosystem services supported by those holds a total of 18,969 herbarium specimens, 2,503 species. The implications of climate change for Plant seed samples and 501 economic products, which genetic resources conservation have potentially represents 260 families, 1,401 genera and 3,618 strong implications for human well-being. Crop wild species. The collection and assemblage of accessions relatives are an important source of genetic diversity from various sources have resulted in conservation of for crop improvement. As per the recent study by, it 3, 75,371 seed samples representing 1,256 species in is estimated that the survival of over 20 per cent of the long-term storage (LTS) of the National Gene the wild relatives of groundnut, potato and cowpea Bank (Table 2). This includes more than 50,000 may be threatened with extinction under climate accessions restored from International Agricultural change, most will lose over 50% of their range size Research Centres like ICRISAT, IRRI and CIAT. A and the distributions of many will become highly total of 3,048 proposed/released varieties, hybrids, fragmented. The following are the traits of interest parental lines of different field and horticultural crops that need to be focused to identify suitable genotypes have been assembled and conserved in the Genebank. during evaluation. In addition, 238 DUS tested varieties of paddy, • Temperature tolerance (length of growing sorghum and rapeseed-mustard have also been season, flowering, sterility) conserved. A total of 1,920 accessions of 151 • Drought and flood tolerance, as well as the different species, in the form of 35,570 cultures have timing and quantity of rainfall in general) been conserved for over 6-18 years using in-vitro • Tolerance/ resistance to emerging pests and methods. Further, a total of 8,046 accessions (4,560 - pathogens non-orthodox species; 3,010-orthodox species) belonging to 709 species have been cryopreserved Recently, efforts have been increased to collect and using embryos/embryonic axes and seeds. In addition store agricultural and wild plant seeds or develop the crop based National Active Germplasm Sites gene banks in order to protect against loss of genetic (NAGS – 59 centres) linked-up with the bureau also variety or against large-scale crises (e.g. Svalbard holds thousands of accessions of germplasm in the Global Seed Vault and the Millennium Seed Bank country. Project (MSBP) of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew).

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It is anticipated that seeds will have been banked SINGER Database ( http://www.singer.cgiar.org ) from approximately 10 per cent of the world’s wild Sustainable agriculture is crucial to achieving food plant species by the end of the decade, which could security and reducing poverty, especially in allow the reintroduction of those species. developing countries. Plant diversity is the key to sustainable agriculture - it can not only feed the In order to promote agricultural adaptation in the hungry, but also improve livelihoods and protect the face of such dramatic changes in climate, substantial environment. To be able to use this diversity to breeding efforts will be required, which will depend improve lives and livelihoods, people need access to on the collection, conservation and distribution of information about the genetic resources conserved in appropriate crop genetic material among plant collections around the world. The largest collections breeders and other researchers Results from a set of of the crops that are most important for improving crop models from India for rice and wheat reflected nutrition and incomes are held by the CGIAR the interactive effects of projected changes in Centers, a network of 15 agricultural research temperature, precipitation, elevated carbon, and other institutions located throughout the world. They hold variables influenced by increased greenhouse gas in public trust the world's largest seed collections, concentrations which show a narrowing of the yield and foster research and policies to bring the benefits gap in recent decades as farmers’ yields rose toward of agricultural diversity to poor farmers. In 1994, the the biophysical potential yields. It also shows that a international agricultural community recognized the projected decline in the biophysical potential of need to protect the important crop diversity crops resulting from climate change may lead to a collections held by the CGIAR. In response, the wider yield gap in the future despite genetic gains. A CGIAR Centers placed their collections under the recent study conducted on the adaptability for inter-governmental authority of the Food and elevated CO 2 on Jatropha curcas by Sunil et al., Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2009) resulted in the identification of three (FAO). That arrangement has been succeeded by the genotypes viz., IC 565038, IC 565039 and IC International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for 544685 that responded better on exposure to elevated Food and Agriculture, which entered into force in CO 2 levels. June 2004. In addition to promoting the collection and conservation of plant genetic resources, the Documentation and Information management Treaty supports the exchange of associated Documentation on genetic resources of plants is information to ensure that it is freely available to imperative for planning and implementing activities, those who need it. Guaranteeing access to this sustainable use and sharing of benefits accrued from information without restriction is imperative for the use. The need for countries to develop, maintain effective implementation of the Treaty. and exchange such information is recognised in the Covention on Biological Diversity and the Global The System-wide Information Network for Genetic Plan of Action. To respond the evergrowing demand Resources (SINGER) is the germplasm information of food and promote use of biodiversity in exchange network of the Consultative Group on agriculture, it is required that national institutes International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and its dealing with genetic resources should develop partners. national information system on genetic resources. SINGER makes information about the diversity of Such system should be linked with the databases of plants available to all. It provides a gateway to the all other stakeholders to integrate the information at knowledge that makes collections of crop diversity national level. It should help future planning; more useful to farmers, plant breeders and provide an early warning regarding genetic erosion researchers. and desired information to end users and other Together, the members of SINGER hold more than researchers of use. The documentation of the half a million samples of crop, forage and tree traditional knowledge is valuable for empowerment diversity in their germplasm collections. This of indigenous people and to enable them to manage diversity is vital for food security and agricultural and exploit their local agro-ecosystems and genetic development; SINGER provides easy access to resources through sustainable low-input agriculture. information about this diversity. SINGER is an Various international and national databases related initiative of the CGIAR System-wide Genetic to PGR conservation and utilization is described: Resources Programme (SGRP).

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This website allows to: (a) Search for information GRIN taxonomic data have been searchable on the about the samples of crop, forage, and tree World-Wide-Web. germplasm held in trust for the world (b) Learn more GRIN taxonomic data provide the structure and about using SINGER to access plant genetic diversity nomenclature for accessions of the National Plant quickly and easily; and (c) Find out about SINGER’s Germplasm System (NPGS), part of the National background, vision and impacts. Genetic Resources Program (NGRP) of the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) WISH-GPA, the world information sharing Agricultural Research Service (ARS). In GRIN mechanism on the implementation of the Global Taxonomy for Plants all families and genera of Plan of Action (GPA) for plant genetic resources for vascular plants and over 46,000 species from food and agriculture (PGRFA) throughout the world are represented, especially (http://www.pgrfa.org/gpa/wishgpa.htm ) economic plants and their relatives. Information on scientific and common names, classification, WISH -GPA provides access to National distribution, references, and economic impacts are Mechanisms' portals and databases on conservation provided. In addition there are more than 55 other and sustainable use of PGRFA, established by 64 databases on PGR are available. countries worldwide with the participation and contribution of more than 1,000 public institutions, National databases non-governmental and private organizations, The recent advancements in information technology including farmers' associations, from the PGRFA have led to an explosion in the compilation and world community that, day by day, conserve, collation of information in all fields, including Plant monitor, multiply, improve, exchange and make Genetic Resources (PGR). Software for Genebank available these resources essential to our and our Information Management System (GBIMS), Plant planet's life. Genetic Resources Passport Information Management System (PGRPIMS), electronic Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) ( catalogues for the recording of the evaluation/ http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/index.pl ) characterization data, database for the inventory of The National Plant Germplasm System of the the import and export of the accessions have been Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of developed at NBPGR. Complete information related Agriculture maintains a computer database, the to PGR is being documented using the Relational Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), Database Management System (RDBSM) tools and is for the management of and as a source of information being used by the concerned PGR researchers for the on its 536,387 germplasm accessions. The taxonomic management of the genetic resources. NBPGR has portion of GRIN provides the classification and also developed 4 online databases viz ., “NORV” nomenclature for these genetic resources and many (notified and released varieties of India - “IINDUS” other economic plants on a worldwide basis. Included (Indian Information System as per DUS guidelines- in GRIN TAXONOMY are scientific names for http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/nbpgr/index.aspx ), NISM” 26,606 genera (14,102 accepted) and 1,265 (National Information Sharing Mechanism for the infragenera (1,229 accepted) and 93,102 species or PGR and “GPVR” (Germplasm and Plant Varieties infraspecies (55,615 accepted) with common names, Registration- geographical distributions, literature references, and http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/grpvr/login.aspx. These economic impacts. Generally recognized standards online systems are being used by for the effective for abbreviating author's names and botanical breeding programmes. In addition “germplasm literature have been adopted in GRIN. The scientific exchange and quarantine information system names are verified, in accordance with the (GEXQIS) developed by NBPGR has been designed international rules of botanical nomenclature, by for the maintenance of complete information on taxonomists of the National Germplasm Resources Quarantine and Exchange. Laboratory using available taxonomic literature and consultations with taxonomic specialists. Included in Utilisation GRIN TAXONOMY are federal- and state-regulated Plant breeding and the production of new cultivars is noxious weeds and federally and internationally widely regarded as underpinning agriculture and the listed threatened and endangered plants. Since 1994 development of society. Yet crop failures and risks associated with genetic uniformity, yield stagnation

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(below potentially attainable levels), and persistent application of molecular genetics approaches opens failures to achieve sustainable production increases in many entry points for an improved utilization of important local cropping systems are widespread PGR. Availability of a comprehensive set of SNP problems. The continuing success requires a long- markers for major crop species such as barley allows term and sustainable commitment to the effective for high density fingerprinting of large number of utilization of plant genetic resources by enhancing individuals and the genetic analysis of quantitative and expanding the genetic base from which future traits by performing genome wide association scans. cultivars will be generated. The present paper The ever-increasing amount of genomic sequence highlights the value and importance of crop landraces data will facilitate the systematic exploitation of as a genepool for breeding programmes. Selections intergenomic information and accelerate the isolation from diverse landrace populations can reveal high- of traitsby map based cloning, even in complex yielding genotypes, which can be used directly or in genomes. Knowledge of the genes that underlie breeding programmes. agronomic traits will help unveiling their allelic diversity by systematically mining genebank The genetic diversity and collection by commodity collections for novel alleles. Despite the improved for major crops is presented in Tables 3. The world's access to genes and alleles, their deployment in naturally occurring plant genetic resources are breeding programs is frequently hampered by low threatened by loss of habitat, climate change, or levels of meiotic recombination. Here the application disasters caused by nature or the activities of of GMO approaches may facilitate the rapid and mankind such as development and overgrazing. targeted transfer of genes especially from wild Conservation of plant genetic resources, coupled with relatives into adapted breeding lines. collection of information that helps us understand their nature, helps assure their availability to benefit A total of 1, 87,439 germplasm accessions of various society in the future. crops were characterized and preliminarily evaluated at NBPGR and its regional stations. These have been Plant genetic resource conservation utilization has documented and published as several crop catalogues been the source of dramatic scientific changes over for the utilization by breeders in various crop the course of the last few decades. Indirectly, it has improvement programmes in the country. been the source of value differentiation within the agricultural sector. Such value differentiations characterize complementarities across activities that Promoting genetic resources utilization aid breeders/seed companies in identifying desired Precise evaluation and documentation of plant products and delivering those products to consumers genetic resources is pre-requisite for their utilization. at the lowest possible cost. The changes in genetic The following areas of research need to be paid more resources and their uses have motivated new research attention for promoting effective utilization of PGR inquiries in attribute detection, preference gene resources: determination, attribute production and coordination. • Development of core collections New discoveries in the development of transgenic • Focused Identification of Germplasm seeds as well as their conservation and utilization will Strategy (FIGS) continue to depend on both public as well as private • Pre-breeding research and development. • Gene prospecting and allele mining for a trait of interest from genetic resources Future challenges regarding the utilization of PGR will emerge in two areas: (i) improvement in The development of core set of collection phenotypic analysis and (ii) the generation and particularly in the crops having large germplasm deployment of genetic information. As to phenotypic collection can be a powerful tool for promoting analysis, systematic screens of genebank collections utilization of germplasm. This cost effective so far remained restricted to few traits only, such as approach needs to be implemented for major plant major resistance genes that show high heritabilities genetic resources. An alternative approach to core and can easily be scored. The availability of new collection is the Focused Identification of Germplasm sensing and imaging technologies is expected to give Strategy (FIGS). The underlying concept of FIGS is access to large-scale analysis of quantitative traits or the “distribution of genetic variation as a function of components thereof. Regarding the second field, the the relationship between genotype, environment and

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Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 1(4): 1276-1293 (July 2010) conscious or un-conscious selection - evolutionary Central and South America and Phalaris minor from processes”. Pre-breeding of plant genetic resources Mexico in mid 20 th century into India, have become a aims “to introduce new desirable traits/genes into an threat to our crop production and environment. Plant adapted genetic background. It will broaden the quarantine through a set of legislative measures is genetic base in a breeding material in pace with undertaken to prevent the introduction of pests. As environmental changes”. It is a vital contribution is per Plant Quarantine Order 2003, the NBPGR is increasing the total genetic diversity in crops and working as the nodal agency for quarantine finding specific genes and traits and a link between processing of planting material imported for research conservation of PGR in gene bank collections and purposes. To undertake it, elaborate laboratory and utilisation of these resources in agriculture and greenhouses have been developed at New Delhi and horticulture. The most efficient way to capture Hyderabad. There is a need to carry out extensive specific traits – often rare alleles to enhance surveys to collect endemic pest data and utilization of existing genetic variation through comprehensive epidemiological data on pests of biotechnological interventions is gene prospecting national and international importance in order to fix and allele mining. These procedures are some of the tolerance limits, conduct pest risk analysis and promising ways to promote effective utilization of develop diagnostic protocols using molecular plant genetic resources in the coming years. techniques for detection of exotic pests. A total of 27, 96,117 samples of various crops comprising The germplasm available with NBPGR and other seeds, vegetative propagules, in vitro and transgenic centres in the country needs to be evaluated to material were processed for quarantine clearance of identify potential genetic stocks for utilization in which 21,37,579 samples were imported and breeding programmes aiming at an overall 6,58,538 were meant for export. Detailed quarantine improvement or improvement of specific traits. This examination revealed shall require multi-location evaluation of germplasm infestation/infection/contamination in 1,48,959 particularly for stability and resistance/tolerance to samples [insects and mites-98,645; pathogens- biotic/abiotic stresses in the hot spots. Under 30,256; nematodes-16,719 and weeds-3,339] of multilocation evaluation programme by NBPGR, which 1,48,872 were salvaged and released to the germplasm of rice (2,222accessions), wheat (2,541 indentors by NBPGR. accessions), chickpea (1,957 accessions) and pigeonpea (1,203 accessions) have been The emergence of transgenic crops has raised characterized and evaluated for agronomic traits, concerns among the public at large regarding their biotic and abiotic stresses. Germplasm enhancement effects on safety, health and environment and these has not received much attention so far because it is a issues have been discussed at various national and difficult and long-term task. But it needs major international fora. The regulations for release of emphasis so as to bring more diverse genes together transgenics are well established in most of the in improved varieties. Specific programmes are developed countries. In our country, Ministry of warranted for evaluation and enhancement of wild Environment & Forests, Department of and weedy relatives, so as to enhance their Biotechnology and Ministry of Science and utilization. Technology have developed regulatory mechanisms. As per these mechanisms, NBPGR issues the import Safe trans-boundary movement permit for introducing transgenic materials for Unregulated germplasm exchange activity may result research purpose and undertake quarantine in inadvertent introduction of insect-pests, diseases processing of the introduced transgenic materials. A and weeds into the country (Varaprasad et al ., 1997). National Containment Facility has been established at There are examples of enormous crop losses caused NBPGR under a collaborative project of ICAR and by the introduced pests including weeds in our DBT. It has the objectives of quarantine processing country. Large economic losses occurred in grain of imported transgenic, developing molecular probes yield of Cicer arieatium in states of Haryana, M.P., for the detection of transgenes (promoter or Punjab and adjoining areas due to infection by a terminator sequences) and developing human virulent biotype of Aschochyta introduced from the resources in the field of biosafety. Middle East. The introduction of exotic weeds such as Lantana camara in the early 19 th century from The introduction of valuable exotic germplasm has Central America, Parthenium hysterophorus from enriched the Indian agriculture in the past. Short

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Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 1(4): 1276-1293 (July 2010) statured, lodging resistant, input responsive, high International scenario yielding introductions of wheat and rice ushered the Partnerships are particularly relevant in PGR Green Revolution in the country. Introduction of activities including agbiotech R&D, where the cytoplasmic-nuclear male sterility and fertility technical requirements include access to cutting-edge restoration genes brought an era of hybrid breeding in research tools, intellectual property, advanced crops like sorghum, pearl millet and rice. Further, scientific expertise, expensive and sophisticated soybean and sunflower became the major field crops. equipment and solid infrastructure (Byerlee and Over 21 lakh samples of promising genetic stocks, Fischer, 2002). Public Private Partnerships have varieties, transgenic materials and wild species of become order of the day in several CGIAR centres to different agricultural and horticultural crops were address specific areas such as apomixis in maize imported from 113 countries and eight IARCs. (CIMMYT-PHI, Syngenta, Limagrain), Bt genes for rice transformation (IRRI-Novartis, Plantech), golden Public Private Partnerships rice (IRRI- Syngenta), potato/ sweet potato Public-Private Partnership is broadly described as transformation (CIP- Plant Genetic Systems, Axis any joint effort between public and private entities in Genetics, Monsanto) and cassava transformation which each contributes to planning, commits (CIAT- Novartis). Interesting collaborations are also resources, shares risks and benefits and conduct plant being successfully implemented such as harvest plus genetic resources activities to accomplish a mutual (CIAT and IFPRI- Syngenta) and unlocking crop objective of increased food and ecological security. genetic diversity for poor people (CIMMYT, BI, Partnerships between public research organizations IRRI- MAHYCO, Bayer Crop Science, PHI). A and private firms offer a means of tapping the recent study on agbiotech research partnerships found strengths of diverse actors and channeling knowledge that critical assets and competencies from the private and resources into areas where they can address sector are not being adequately brought to bear on the complex development problems that are relevant to research challenge in collaboration with public the needs of resource-poor farmers and food-insecure research (Spielman and von Grebmer 2006). IRRI consumers. By exploiting the potential for research supported Hybrid Rice Development Consortium and synergies, complementariness, scale economies and SOL genomics network are excellent models for knowledge-sharing among stakeholders, there are sharing information, avoiding duplication, greater chances of success at lower costs that public prioritising and distributing work with low focus on or private stakeholders might otherwise expect when common external funding. Millennium Seed Bank acting alone. Most importantly, PPP are valuable and Kew Botanical gardens have active support and because they bring private sector resources and collaboration with private sector even though the expertise to bear on public research priorities in trustees are nominated by government of UK. China developing nations like India also has operational models for agricultural research having joint ventures at provincial level with first The emergence of plant breeding programmes in the refusal privilege to the participating private partners 20 th century created a demand for germplasm followed by non-exclusive sale of technology/ exchange among breeders. This initiated collecting products developed in such ventures. Similarly missions and explorations to satisfy the growing need several industrialised nations took lead in for such crop plant characters as pest/ disease implementing collaborative research projects with resistance, earliness, stiff stalks and grain quality. private sector. All over the globe, the balance between public and private industry roles in varietal research and National scenario development has shifted in the past 3 decades. The Some of the successful models of PPP in India are private sector expanded considerably and is focused described below: on commodities with major markets enhancing their • Hybrid Rice (IARI): The Indian Agricultural share for development of agriculture. Public Research Institute (IARI), a flagship research institutions are involved in the various germplasm institute of the Indian Council of Agricultural related activities viz ., collection, characterization, Research (ICAR), has developed a very effective conservation and pro-poor crop improvement still public-private-partnership model for promotion playing major role in development of agricultural of hybrid rice in India. IARI, Indian Foundation research. Seeds and Services association (IFSSA), and Barwale Foundation had earlier signed a

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memorandum of agreement (MoA) for seed export of germplasm and commercial consignments multiplication of parental lines of Pusa RH 10, in a limited way. ICAR provided mechanisms for the first super fine grain aromatic rice hybrid patenting, sharing and commercialising technologies developed by IARI. In addition to IFSSA, IARI and products (ICAR, 2006). Leading institutes such also signed a memorandum of understanding as IARI and IIHR took initiatives for taking public with 18 other seed companies to produce hybrid research technologies and products to the needy seed of Pusa RH 10. The partnership with IFSSA farming communities through commercialisation on helped the area under Pusa RH 10 to reach nearly nonexclusive basis with private sector. NBPGR 0.5 million ha during Kharif (crop) season. standardised several procedures and coped with the changed scenario in facilitating mechanisms for • Collaboration on Insect Management for import/ export of germplasm exchange. Brassicas in Asia and Africa (CIMBAA): The Unfortunately there is hardly any example to quote a project show causes the joint investment and joint venture/ research project between public and collaborative research involving ICAR, India, private sector in agricultural research in India AVRDC, Taiwan, University of Melbourne, comparable to the projects in CG Centres, Australia, Natural Resources Institute, University industrialised countries or provincial level joint of Greenwich, UK, University of Cornell, USA ventures as in China. However, there are ample and Nun hems, India. It relied on the public opportunities for joint projects and ventures in PGR sector for socio-economic and ethical evaluation activities of the project, facilitating regulatory approval within the established norms and infrastructure The Public Private Partnership networks for plant facilities, and management of stewardship genetic resources activities need to expand among the training in taking the product to the public. entire National Agricultural Research System (NARS), comprising ICAR institutes, agricultural • Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project universities, and other public sector institutions. It is Model (ABSP II Model): ABSP II model in a challenge that the PPP model should take into their which Mahyco; IIVR; Varanasi, UAS; Dharwad ambit the whole chain from innovation, product and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, development to marketing. Varied operating systems Coimbatore are involved in development of which are prevailing within public and private firms transgenic brinjal varieties resistant to fruit and need to be recognised and harmonious working shoot borer. In this project, ABSP provided the relationships are to be established between funding, DBT the regulatory support, Mahyco stakeholders. Germplasm management is a highly provided the cry gene and IIVR has the complex enterprise with respect to developing responsibility to develop the resistant varieties. workable partnerships. PPP models in PGR activities have to have to be need-based, case-based, region- • Consortium Model (ICRISAT): The based and should achieve through teamwork goals of international Crops Research Institute for Semi- equal partners (APAARI, 2007). Some of the key Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India formed a issues promote PPP mode in PGR activities, which consortium with private seed companies and are relevant to Indian context, are listed below: others for collaborative research (local/regional programmes) for sorghum and millet research. • Cataloguing landraces with fingerprints, Also, ICRISAT has established Biotech enlisting all valuable national germplasm incubator involving private sector biotechnology collections with identity, facilitating companies. designation of proprietary lines developed by the private sector Consortium approach even within the private sector • Developing mechanisms across the sectors for Bt cotton is a success story. Current level of for exchange of scientists for short term (one interactions between private and public sectors in year) and long term (three years) Indian agricultural research is limited to few • Joint evaluation in identified areas and crops consultancies, outsourcing for mandatory tests and (for example, exploring diverse male sterile sale of public technologies/ parental lines on non- systems for hybrids in jowar, bajra, cotton, exclusive basis in addition to public sector facilitating and rice) protection of plant varieties, germplasm and import/

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• Collaborations for hybrid development using
Development of Genomic Resources from diverse public domain germplasm in minor Genetic resources and their conservation millets and pulses with market support
Discovery of novel traits such as genes for • Sharing mechanisms including sale of biotic and abiotic stresses including climate germplasm, elite lines, inbred lines, change and quality attributes discarded lines prior to release of varieties.
Augmentation of introductions : Import of • Long-term collaborative projects for allele germplasm for the crops which have narrow mining, functional genomics, climate change genetic base (arid, temperate and tropical (heat, drought, flood and salinity), chronic fruits, oilseeds, pulses and ornamentals) unsolved problems of biotic stresses, search
Introduce new crops species, promoting for alternative to Bt etc. under utilized crops species and novel • Developing mechanisms for dual lock germplasm to enhance the food and system in conservation at the developer’s nutritional security of the country in the location with provisions for use in national wake of global change in climate. emergencies
Development/use of advanced biotechnological tools for detection of pests in transboundary movement
Preparedness for Risk Analysis of Pests Major issues & Future thrusts under WTO regime Approaches to better management of plant genetic
Pre-breeding/germplasm enhancement resources need to focus the following major elements
Low-energy based conservation (i) looking for more species and genes to provide bio-
Documentation of trait/gene specific alternatives and (ii) using both traditional breeding germplasm approaches and modern technologies. It has to be
DNA banking of clonally propagated/non- addressed in order to match the increasing human and orthodox seeded/threatened species animal feed in the country. Following are the major
Developing repository for genomic issues and future thrusts for the effective resources in agriculture and bioinformatics management of PGR on sustainable terms:
Enhance public, private and civil society partnership investment in research on
Harnessing the eco-regional potentials, more genetic resource handling and use and particularly in rain-fed, coastal and hill eco- confidence building to increase share of regions and hot spots to meet the climate private sector in research and development, change. exchange and collaborative use of genetic
Acquiring diverse germplasm at the extreme resources for food and agriculture (Civil ends of the genetic diversity to bolster Society organisations+ National Bureaux+ resistance to increasing biotic and abiotic Public+Private). stresses
Capacity building with appropriate
Need to develop methodologies and tools to institutional arrangements and policy make the dynamic conservation of the framework for handling intellectual property genetic diversity of multiple agricultural rights related issues. species compatible with poverty alleviation and increased well being for its keepers References
National policy or long-term action plan for Anurudh K Singh and Varaprasad, K.S. 2008. promoting on-farm conservation Criteria for identification and assessment of
Developing core collections and validation agro-biodiversity heritage sites: Evolving
Focused Identification of Germplasm sustainable agriculture. Curr. Sci. 94(9): Strategy (FIGS) 1131-1138.
Indicators and criteria to identify crops in need of genetic base broadening APAARI, 2007. http://www.apaari.org/wp-
Stronger linkages between PGR content/uploads/2009/05/2007-apcoab- conservation institutions, genetic models-of-ppp-2007.pdf enhancement and plant breeding Arora, R. K. 1991. Plant Diversity in Indian Gene programmes Centre. In: Paroda RS and RK Arora (eds)

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Plant Genetic Resources – Conservation Li, J.Z., He, P., Li, S.G., Lu, R.L. and Zhu, L.H. and Management . IPGRI, Regional Office 2000. Application of microsatellite markers for South Asia, New Delhi, India pp 25- 54. for the seed purity examination of hybrid rice, Gangyou-22. Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Arora RK and A. Pandey, 1996. Wild Edible Plants Xue Bao ., 16(2), 211-4. of India: Diversity, Conservation and use . National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Liu L., Zhu X., Gong Y., Song X., Wang Y., Zhao L New Delhi, India. and Wang L. 2007. Genetic diversity analysis of Radish germplasm with RRAPD, Brondani. R.P., Zucchi, M.I., Brondani, C., Rangel, AFLP and SRAP markers. Acta Hort . P.H., Oliveira Borda, T.C., Rangel, P.N., (ISHS), 760, 125-130 . Magalhaes, M.R. and Vencovsky, R. 2005. Genetic structure of wild rice oryza Myers N. RA Mittermeier, CG Mittermeier, GAB da glumaepatula populations in three Brazilian Fonseca and J Kent (2000) Biodiversity biomes using microsatellite markers. hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature Genetica , 125 (2-3), 115-123 . 403 :853-858.

Byerlee, D. and Fischer, K., 2002. Accessing Modern Nandakumar, N., Singh, A.K., Sharma, R.K., Science: Policy and Institutional Options for Mohapatra, T., Prabhu, K.V. and Zaman, Agricultural Biotechnology in Developing F.U. 2004. Molecular fingerprinting of Countries. World Development 30(6), 931– hybrids and assessment of genetic purity of 948. hybrid seeds in rice using microsatellite markers, Euphytica 136 (3), 257-264 . Evenson, R.E., Gollin, P. and Santaniello, V.(eds) 1998. Agricultural values of plant genetic Nirmala, R., Ramkumar, G., Sukhpal Singh and resources . CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Kadirvel, P. 2007. Development of DNA UK. marker for distinguishing CMS lines from their fertile lines in rice ( Oryza sativa L.)” FAO, 1998. The state of the world’s plant genetic Euphytica 156, 129-139 . resources for food and agriculture . FAO, Rome, Italy Nayar, M. P. 1980. Endemism and pattern of distribution of endemic genera (angiosperm) Gautam, P.L. 2004. Trends in Plant Genetic Resource in India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot . 1:99-110 Management. In:Dhillon BS, RK Tyagi, Arjun Lal and S.Saxena. Plant Genetic Powell, W., Morgante, M., Andre, C., Hanafey, M., Resource Management . Narosa Publishing Vogel, M.J., Tingey, S.V. and Rafalski, J.A. House, New Delhi, India pp18-30. 1996. The comparison of RFLP, RAPD, AFLP and SSR (microsatellites) markers for http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/grpvr/login.aspx germplasm analysis. Mol. Breed., 2, 225- 235 . ICAR, 2006. Guidelines for Intellectual Property Management and Technology Transfer/ Rouppe, V.J., Wolters, P., Folkertsma R., Hutter R., Commercialization. Indian Council of Van, Z.P., Vinke, H., Kenyuka, K., Agricultural Research, New Delhi 122pp Bendehmane, A., Jacobsen, E., Janssen, R. and Bakker, J. 1997. Mapping of the cyst Jena, K.K., Jeung, J.U., Lee, J.H., Choi, H.C. and nematode resistance locus Gpa 2 in potato Brar, D.S, 2005. High-resolution mapping using a strategy based on co migrating of a new brown planthopper resistance gene, AFLP markers. Theor. Appl. Genet ., 95, Bph18(t), and marker-assisted selection for 874-880 . BPH resistance in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Theor. Appl. Genet ., 21:1-10 . Spielman David J and Klaus von Grebmer, 2006. Public–Private Partnerships in International Agricultural Research: An Analysis of

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Constraints. Journal of Technology Wong, H.L., Yeoh, H.H., Lim, S.H.1999. Transfer, 31, 291–300 Customisation of AFLP analysis for cassava varietal identification. Phytochemistry Sun, L., Su, C., Wang, C., Zhai, H. and Wan, J. 2005. 50(6), 919-24 . Mapping of a major resistance gene to the brown planthopper in the rice cultivar rathu Xing, Q.H., Ru, Z.G., Zhou, C.J., Xue, X., Liang, heenati. Breed. Sci ., 55(4), 391-396 . C.Y., Yang, D.E., Jin, D.M. and Wang, B. 2003. Genetic analysis, molecular tagging Sunil., N, Vanaja, M., Vinod Kumar, Jainender,., and mapping of the thermo-sensitive genic Ashok Kumar, J. and Varaprasad, K.S. male-sterile gene ( wtms1 ) in wheat. Theor. 2009. Adaptive response to Jatropha Appl. Genet ., 107 (8), 1500-1504. (Jatropha curcas ) L. genotypes to elevated CO 2 conditions. National Symposium on Yashitola, J., Sundaram, RM., Biradar SK., “Recent global developments in the Thirumurugan, T., Vishnupriya, M.R., management of plant genetic resources”. Rajeshwari, R., Viraktamath BC., Sarma NP National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, and Sonti RV. 2004. A sequence specific New Delhi. P.192-193. PCR marker for distinguishing rice lines on Varaprasad, K.S., K.P.S.Chandel, A.M.Ghanekar and the basis of Wild Abortive Cytoplasm from Y.L.Nene 1997. Safe germplasm exports of their cognate maintainer lines, Crop Sci., 44. ICRISAT mandate crops (1986-96). 920-924. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources and ICRISAT, 36 pp.

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Table 1. PGR holdings at IARCs (Source: SINGER)

Name of IARC Number of Accs. AVRDC 52,845 Bioversity International 1,208 CIAT 72,246 CIMMYT 120,527 CIP 15,092 ICARDA 140,189 ICRAF 1,785 ICRISAT 114,865 IITA 27,596 ILRI 20,177 IRRI 108,272 WARDA 21,752

Table 2. PGR holdings in the National Gene Bank, India

Crop Group No. of Accessions Cereals 1,45,765 Minor millets 53,466 Pseudo Cereals 6,619 Grain Legumes 56,870 Oilseeds 54,994 Fibre Crops 11,483 Vegetables 24,112 Fruits 382 Medicinal & Aromatic 6,304 Spices & Condiments 2,708 Agro-forestry 2,433 Safety Duplicates 10,235 Total 3,75,371

Table 3. Genetic diversity collection and utilization@ Commodity Landraces % in Wild In-situ Ex-situ collections Utilization collections species collections (Acc.) distribution Rice 140000 90 20 Few 420000 High Maize 65000 90 - Few 277000 High Sorghum 45000 80 20 Few 169000 Low Millets 30000 80 - None 90000 Low Soybean 30000 60 - None 174000 Low-medium Chickpea 22230* 90 19 None 33,782* High Pigeonpea 8220* 80 57 Few 13628* Medium-High Groundnut 6374* 90 45 None 15419 Medium-High Potato 30000 95 65 Few 31000 High @Modified after Evenson et al ., 1998; *ICRISAT & ICARDA holdings

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